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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_(weaving)	Temple (weaving)	["1 Function","2 Use of temples","3 References","4 External links"]	A wooden temple on a loom A metal temple Helical temple on a Jacquard loom A temple is an adjustable stretcher used on a loom to maintain the width and improve the edges of the woven fabric. Function During the process of weaving, fabrics can decrease in width (draw in) due to the interlacement of the weft material. Temples prevent this decrease by keeping fabrics at a fixed width, thus requiring more weft to enter the weave with each pass of the shuttle. Fabric produced without draw-in has a smoother selvage, weft can be packed in more evenly, and warp threads are less likely to break from excessive friction in the reed. Use of temples There are two main types of temples: metal and wood. Both types have a shaft, whose length can be adjusted, and sharp prongs at each end to attach to the fabric. Wooden temples tend to be lighter and have straight, fine teeth. The teeth on metal temples are angled and are wider at the base than the teeth on wooden temples. Metal temples are often recommended for rugs because the size and angle of the teeth are better for gripping the thick edges. To use a temple, the length is first adjusted so that it matches the total width (or spread) of warp threads in the reed. The prongs are then inserted into the fabric, on each side, at the very edges of the cloth. The temple must be moved frequently to keep it close to the fell of the fabric, where the weaving is taking place. References ^ Allen, Heather L. (1998). Weaving Contemporary Rag Rugs (1st ed.). New York: Lark Books. p. 26. ISBN 978-1887374392. ^ a b Graver, Patty (2015). Next Steps In Weaving: What You Never Knew You Needed to Know (Kindle ed.). Interweave Press. ^ Butler, Su (2001). "Rug Weaving Tips". Handwoven (107): 28–29. ^ Van der Hoogt, Madelyn (2011). "Best block-weaving practices". Handwoven (157): 27. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Temple (weaving). vteWeavingWeaves Basketweave Charvet Coverlet Dobby Double weave Even-weave Gabardine Lampas Leno weave Oxford Pile weave Piqué Plain weave Satin Shot Swivel Twill Components Textiles Warp and weft Yarn Tools and techniques Barber-Colman knotter Beamer Chilkat weaving Fingerweaving Flying shuttle Heddle Ikat Inkle weaving Kasuri Loom Navajo weaving Pibiones Reed Salish weaving Shed Shuttle Sizing Sizing machine Tablet weaving Talim Tāniko Tapestry Temple Types of looms Air-jet loom Dandy loom Dobby loom Hattersley loom Horrocks loom Jacquard loom Lancashire loom Northrop loom Power loom Rapier loom Roberts loom Warp-weighted loom Weavers Acesas Anni Albers Otti Berger Micheline Beauchemin Johanna Brunsson Ada Dietz Thomas Ferguson & Co Ltd Elisabeth Forsell Dorothy Liebes Ethel Mairet Maria Elisabet Öberg Lilly Reich Margaretha Reichardt John Rylands Brigitta Scherzenfeldt Clara Sherman Gunta Stölzl Judocus de Vos Margaretha Zetterberg Employment practices More looms Kissing the shuttle Piece-rate list Mills Bancroft Shed Queen Street Mill This textile arts article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:QSMM_Butterworth_%26_Dickinson_Loom_2681.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Detail_an_einem_mechanischen_Webstuhl_in_der_Leinenfabrik_Steinhude.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jacquard loom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacquard_loom"},{"link_name":"loom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loom"},{"link_name":"fabric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile"}],"text":"A metal templeHelical temple on a Jacquard loomA temple is an adjustable stretcher used on a loom to maintain the width and improve the edges of the woven fabric.","title":"Temple (weaving)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"weaving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving"},{"link_name":"weft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warp_and_weft#Weft"},{"link_name":"shuttle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle_(weaving)"},{"link_name":"selvage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selvage"},{"link_name":"warp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warp_and_weft#Warp"},{"link_name":"reed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed_(weaving)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-graver2015-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"During the process of weaving, fabrics can decrease in width (draw in) due to the interlacement of the weft material. Temples prevent this decrease by keeping fabrics at a fixed width, thus requiring more weft to enter the weave with each pass of the shuttle. Fabric produced without draw-in has a smoother selvage, weft can be packed in more evenly, and warp threads are less likely to break from excessive friction in the reed.[1][2][3]","title":"Function"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-graver2015-2"}],"text":"There are two main types of temples: metal and wood. Both types have a shaft, whose length can be adjusted, and sharp prongs at each end to attach to the fabric. Wooden temples tend to be lighter and have straight, fine teeth. The teeth on metal temples are angled and are wider at the base than the teeth on wooden temples. Metal temples are often recommended for rugs because the size and angle of the teeth are better for gripping the thick edges.[4]To use a temple, the length is first adjusted so that it matches the total width (or spread) of warp threads in the reed. The prongs are then inserted into the fabric, on each side, at the very edges of the cloth. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivet_nut	Rivet nut	["1 History","2 Usage","3 See also","4 References","4.1 Notes","4.2 Bibliography"]	Kind of threaded insert Typical rivet nut Sectional view Sectional view, with bolt inserted A rivet nut, also known as a blind rivet nut, or rivnut, is a one-piece internally threaded and counterbored tubular rivet that can be anchored entirely from one side. It is a kind of threaded insert. There are two types: one is designed to form a bulge on the back side of the panel as a screw is tightened in its threads. The other is similarly drawn in using a screw, but is drawn into the sleeve instead of creating a bulge. History The first rivet nut was created by BF Goodrich in the 1930s, and sold under the trademark RIVNUT®. It was first used to mount rubber de-icing boots to aircraft wings. Usage In the field of aviation, rivet nuts are often used to attach various items, such as static dischargers and inspection access covers, to the surface of an aircraft. Rivet nuts are an ideal replacement for weld nuts because they will not distort base materials, eliminate weld splatter, toxic fumes, and other by-products of the welding process, and can be installed in many different kinds of material including steel, plastic, composites, and fiberglass. See also Swage nut Friction drilling References Notes ^ Smith, p. 112. ^ McMaster-Carr, p. 3213. ^ McMaster-Carr, p. 3215. ^ Smith, pp. 111–112. ^ "Blind Rivet Nuts". Sherex. Retrieved 2 July 2018. Bibliography RIVNUT® The Original Blind Rivet Nut (PDF), Böllhoff Inc., 2010, retrieved 2018-09-25 McMaster-Carr catalog (114th ed.), McMaster-Carr. Smith, Carroll (1990), Carroll Smith's Nuts, Bolts, Fasteners, and Plumbing Handbook, MotorBooks/MBI Publishing Company, ISBN 0-87938-406-9. vteNuts (hardware) acorn axial barrel barrel cage captive castellated clip-on coupling distorted thread locknut flange frangible insert interfering thread internal wrenching jam jet Keps knurled locknut lug nyloc plate rivet serrated face speed split split beam square swage T-nut T-slot weld well wingnut	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blindnietmutter.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blindklinkmoer_opengewerkt.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blindklinkmoer_opengewerkt_met_bout.jpg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"threaded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screw_thread"},{"link_name":"counterbored","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterbore"},{"link_name":"rivet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivet"},{"link_name":"threaded insert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threaded_insert"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Typical rivet nutSectional viewSectional view, with bolt insertedA rivet nut, also known as a blind rivet nut, or rivnut,[1] is a one-piece internally threaded and counterbored tubular rivet that can be anchored entirely from one side. 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[5]","title":"Usage"}]	[{"image_text":"Typical rivet nut","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Blindnietmutter.jpg/220px-Blindnietmutter.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sectional view","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Blindklinkmoer_opengewerkt.jpg/220px-Blindklinkmoer_opengewerkt.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sectional view, with bolt inserted","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Blindklinkmoer_opengewerkt_met_bout.jpg/220px-Blindklinkmoer_opengewerkt_met_bout.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Swage nut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swage_nut"},{"title":"Friction drilling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction_drilling"}]	[{"reference":"\"Blind Rivet Nuts\". Sherex. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Hellerstein	Joseph M. Hellerstein	["1 Education","2 Research","3 Awards and recognition","4 References"]	American computer scientist This article may rely excessively on sources too closely associated with the subject, potentially preventing the article from being verifiable and neutral. Please help improve it by replacing them with more appropriate citations to reliable, independent, third-party sources. (September 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Joseph M. HellersteinBorn (1968-06-07) 7 June 1968 (age 56)Alma materHarvard UniversityUniversity of California, BerkeleyUniversity of Wisconsin–MadisonScientific careerFieldsComputer ScienceInstitutionsUniversity of California, BerkeleyDoctoral advisorJeffrey Naughton, Michael StonebrakerDoctoral studentsSam Madden, Boon Thau Loo Websitedb.cs.berkeley.edu/jmh Joseph M. Hellerstein (born (1968-06-07)7 June 1968) is an American professor of computer science at the University of California, Berkeley, where he works on database systems and computer networks. He co-founded Trifacta with Jeffrey Heer and Sean Kandel in 2012, which stemmed from their research project, Wrangler. Education Hellerstein attended Harvard University from 1986 to 1990 (AB computer science) and pursued his master's degree in computer science at University of California, Berkeley from 1991 to 1992. He received his Ph.D., also in computer science, from the University of Wisconsin, Madison in 1995, for a thesis on query optimization supervised by Jeffrey Naughton and Michael Stonebraker. Research Hellerstein has made contributions to many areas of database systems, such as ad-hoc sensor networks, adaptive query processing, approximate query processing and online aggregation, declarative networking, and data stream processing. Awards and recognition Hellerstein's work has been recognized with an Alfred P. Sloan Fellowship, MIT Technology Review's inaugural TR100 list and TR10 list, Fortune 50 smartest in Tech, and three ACM-SIGMOD "Test of Time" awards. He is a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (2009). References ^ a b Library of Congress (1998-07-06). "Hellerstein, Joseph M., 1968-". Library of Congress Name Authority File. Retrieved on 2011-12-15 from http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n98044191.html. ^ "Data Wrangler". vis.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2016-01-20. ^ "Joseph M. Hellerstein". EECS. Retrieved 7 March 2021. ^ Madden, S.; Franklin, M. J.; Hellerstein, J. M.; Hong, W. (2002). "TAG". ACM SIGOPS Operating Systems Review. 36: 131–146. doi:10.1145/844128.844142. S2CID 2003075. ^ Madden, S.; Franklin, M. J.; Hellerstein, J. M.; Hong, W. (2003). "The design of an acquisitional query processor for sensor networks". Proceedings of the 2003 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data - SIGMOD '03. p. 491. doi:10.1145/872757.872817. ISBN 158113634X. S2CID 1006062. ^ Avnur, R.; Hellerstein, J. M. (2000). "Eddies". ACM SIGMOD Record. 29 (2): 261. doi:10.1145/335191.335420. ^ Hellerstein, J. M.; Haas, P. J.; Wang, H. J. (1997). "Online aggregation". ACM SIGMOD Record. 26 (2): 171. doi:10.1145/253262.253291. ^ Chandrasekaran, S.; Shah, M. A.; Cooper, O.; Deshpande, A.; Franklin, M. J.; Hellerstein, J. M.; Hong, W.; Krishnamurthy, S.; Madden, S. R.; Reiss, F. (2003). "TelegraphCQ". Proceedings of the 2003 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data - SIGMOD '03. p. 668. doi:10.1145/872757.872857. ISBN 158113634X. S2CID 14965874. ^ Naone, Erica. "TR10: Cloud Programming - MIT Technology Review". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 2016-02-01. ^ "The 50 smartest people in tech". Fortune. Retrieved 2016-02-01. ^ 2013 The Design of an Acquisitional Query Processor for Sensor Networks. Samuel Madden, Michael J. Franklin, Joseph M. Hellerstein, Wei Hong ^ "ACM Fellows: Joseph M Hellerstein". fellows.acm.org. Archived from the original on 8 September 2010. Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany Israel United States Czech Republic Netherlands Academics Association for Computing Machinery DBLP Google Scholar MathSciNet Mathematics Genealogy Project zbMATH Other IdRef P ≟ NP This biographical article relating to a computer scientist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-locnaf-1"},{"link_name":"University of California, Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"database systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_system"},{"link_name":"computer networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network"},{"link_name":"Trifacta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifacta"},{"link_name":"Jeffrey Heer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Heer"},{"link_name":"Sean Kandel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Kandel"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Joseph M. Hellerstein (born (1968-06-07)7 June 1968[1]) is an American professor of computer science at the University of California, Berkeley, where he works on database systems and computer networks. He co-founded Trifacta with Jeffrey Heer and Sean Kandel in 2012, which stemmed from their research project, Wrangler.[2]","title":"Joseph M. Hellerstein"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"University of California, Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"University of Wisconsin, Madison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin,_Madison"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"query optimization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Query_optimization"},{"link_name":"Jeffrey Naughton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Naughton"},{"link_name":"Michael Stonebraker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Stonebraker"}],"text":"Hellerstein attended Harvard University from 1986 to 1990 (AB computer science) and pursued his master's degree in computer science at University of California, Berkeley from 1991 to 1992. He received his Ph.D., also in computer science, from the University of Wisconsin, Madison in 1995,[3] for a thesis on query optimization supervised by Jeffrey Naughton and Michael Stonebraker.","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"database systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_system"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"online aggregation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_aggregation"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Hellerstein has made contributions to many areas of database systems, such as ad-hoc sensor networks,[4][5] adaptive query processing,[6] approximate query processing and online aggregation,[7] declarative networking, and data stream processing.[8]","title":"Research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sloan Fellowship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloan_Fellowship"},{"link_name":"Technology Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_Review"},{"link_name":"TR100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TR35"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"SIGMOD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIGMOD"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Hellerstein's work has been recognized with an Alfred P. Sloan Fellowship, MIT Technology Review's inaugural TR100 list and TR10 list,[9] Fortune 50 smartest in Tech,[10] and three ACM-SIGMOD \"Test of Time\" awards.[11] He is a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (2009).[12]","title":"Awards and recognition"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"Data Wrangler\". vis.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2016-01-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://vis.stanford.edu/wrangler/","url_text":"\"Data Wrangler\""}]},{"reference":"\"Joseph M. Hellerstein\". EECS. Retrieved 7 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www2.eecs.berkeley.edu/Faculty/Homepages/hellerstein.html","url_text":"\"Joseph M. Hellerstein\""}]},{"reference":"Madden, S.; Franklin, M. J.; Hellerstein, J. M.; Hong, W. (2002). \"TAG\". ACM SIGOPS Operating Systems Review. 36: 131–146. doi:10.1145/844128.844142. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logo_programming_language	Logo (programming language)	["1 History","2 Turtle and graphics","3 Implementations","4 Influence","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]	Computer programming language LogoL-system (Koch curve) turtle graphicParadigmsMulti-paradigm: functional, educational, procedural, reflectiveFamilyLispDesigned byWally Feurzeig, Seymour Papert, Cynthia SolomonDeveloperBolt, Beranek and NewmanFirst appeared1967; 57 years ago (1967)Typing disciplinedynamicMajor implementationsUCBLogo, many othersDialectsStarLogo, NetLogo and AppleLogoInfluenced byLispInfluencedAgentSheets, NetLogo, Smalltalk, Etoys, Scratch, Microsoft Small Basic, KTurtle, REBOL, Boxer Symmetry around a point can be obtained using only a few instructions, allowing users to draw hypotrochoids like the one shown here. Logo is an educational programming language, designed in 1967 by Wally Feurzeig, Seymour Papert, and Cynthia Solomon. Logo is not an acronym: the name was coined by Feurzeig while he was at Bolt, Beranek and Newman, and derives from the Greek logos, meaning word or thought. A general-purpose language, Logo is widely known for its use of turtle graphics, in which commands for movement and drawing produced line or vector graphics, either on screen or with a small robot termed a turtle. The language was conceived to teach concepts of programming related to Lisp and only later to enable what Papert called "body-syntonic reasoning", where students could understand, predict, and reason about the turtle's motion by imagining what they would do if they were the turtle. There are substantial differences among the many dialects of Logo, and the situation is confused by the regular appearance of turtle graphics programs that are named Logo. Logo is a multi-paradigm adaptation and dialect of Lisp, a functional programming language. There is no standard Logo, but UCBLogo has the best facilities for handling lists, files, I/O, and recursion in scripts, and can be used to teach all computer science concepts, as UC Berkeley lecturer Brian Harvey did in his Computer Science Logo Style trilogy. Logo is usually an interpreted language, although compiled Logo dialects (such as Lhogho and Liogo) have been developed. Logo is not case-sensitive but retains the case used for formatting purposes. History Logo was created in 1967 at Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN), a Cambridge, Massachusetts research firm, by Wally Feurzeig, Cynthia Solomon, and Seymour Papert. Its intellectual roots are in artificial intelligence, mathematical logic and developmental psychology. For the first four years of Logo research, development and teaching work was done at BBN. The first implementation of Logo, called Ghost, was written in LISP on a PDP-1. The goal was to create a mathematical land where children could play with words and sentences. Modeled on LISP, the design goals of Logo included accessible power and informative error messages. The use of virtual Turtles allowed for immediate visual feedback and debugging of graphic programming. The first working Logo turtle robot was created in 1969. A display turtle preceded the physical floor turtle. Modern Logo has not changed very much from the basic concepts predating the first turtle. The first turtle was a tethered floor roamer, not radio-controlled or wireless. At BBN Paul Wexelblat developed a turtle named Irving that had touch sensors and could move forwards, backwards, rotate, and ding its bell. The earliest year-long school users of Logo were in 1968–69 at Muzzey Jr. High in Lexington, Massachusetts. The virtual and physical turtles were first used by fifth-graders at the Bridge School in the same city in 1970–71. Turtle and graphics See also: Turtle graphics Animated gif with turtle in MSWLogo (Cardioid) Logo's most-known feature is the turtle (derived originally from a robot of the same name), an on-screen "cursor" that shows output from commands for movement and small retractable pen, together producing line graphics. It has traditionally been displayed either as a triangle or a turtle icon (though it can be represented by any icon). Turtle graphics were added to the Logo language by Seymour Papert in the late 1960s to support Papert's version of the turtle robot, a simple robot controlled from the user's workstation that is designed to carry out the drawing functions assigned to it using a small retractable pen set into or attached to the robot's body. As a practical matter, the use of turtle geometry instead of a more traditional model mimics the actual movement logic of the turtle robot. The turtle moves with commands that are relative to its own position, LEFT 90 means spin left by 90 degrees. Some Logo implementations, particularly those that allow the use of concurrency and multiple turtles, support collision detection and allow the user to redefine the appearance of the turtle cursor, essentially allowing the Logo turtles to function as sprites. Turtle geometry is also sometimes used in environments other than Logo as an alternative to a strictly coordinate-addressed graphics system. For instance, the idea of turtle graphics is also useful in Lindenmayer system for generating fractals. Implementations "Apple Logo" redirects here. For the logo of Apple Inc., see Apple logo. IBM LCSI Logo welcome screen Source code and output in IBM LCSI Logo Some modern derivatives of Logo allow thousands of independently moving turtles. There are two popular implementations: Massachusetts Institute of Technology's StarLogo and Northwestern University Center for Connected Learning's (CCL) NetLogo. They allow exploring emergent phenomena and come with many experiments in social studies, biology, physics, and other areas. NetLogo is widely used in agent-based simulation in the biological and social sciences. Although there is no agreed-upon standard, there is a broad consensus on core aspects of the language. In March 2020, there were counted 308 implementations and dialects of Logo, each with its own strengths. Most of those 308 are no longer in wide use, but many are still under development. Commercial implementations widely used in schools include MicroWorlds Logo and Imagine Logo. Legacy and current implementations include: First released in 1980s Apple Logo for the Apple II Plus and Apple Logo Writer for the Apple IIe, developed by Logo Computer Systems, Inc. (LCSI), were the most broadly used and prevalent early implementations of Logo that peaked in the early to mid-1980s. Aquarius LOGO was released in 1982 on cartridge by Mattel for the Aquarius home computer. Atari Logo was released on cartridge by Atari, Inc. for the Atari 8-bit computers. Color Logo was released in 1983 on cartridge (26-2722) and disk (26-2721) by Tandy for the TRS-80 Color Computer. Commodore Logo was released, with the subtitle "A Language for Learning", by Commodore International. It was based on MIT Logo and enhanced by Terrapin, Inc. The Commodore 64 version (C64105) was released on diskette in 1983; the Plus/4 version (T263001) was released on cartridge in 1984. ExperLogo was released in 1985 on floppy by Expertelligence Inc. for the Macintosh 128K. Hot-Logo was released in the mid-1980s by EPCOM for the MSX 8-bit computers with its own set of commands in Brazilian Portuguese. TI Logo (for the TI-99/4A computer) was used in primary schools, emphasizing Logo's usefulness in teaching computing fundamentals to novice programmers. Sprite Logo, also developed by Logo Computer Systems Inc., had ten turtles that could run as independent processes. It ran on Apple II computers, with the aid of a Sprite Card inserted in one of the computer's slots. IBM marketed their own version of Logo (P/N 6024076), developed jointly by Logo Computer Systems, Inc. (LCSI), for their then-new IBM PC. ObjectLOGO is a variant of Logo with object-oriented programming extensions and lexical scoping. Version 2.7 was sold by Digitool, Inc. It is no longer being developed or supported, and does not run on versions of the Mac operating system later than version 7.5. Dr. Logo was developed by Digital Research and distributed in computers including the IBM PCjr, Atari ST and the Amstrad CPC. Acornsoft Logo was released in 1985. It is a commercial implementation of Logo for the 8-bit BBC Micro and Acorn Electron computers. It was developed for Acorn Computers as a full implementation of Logo. It features multiple screen turtles and four-channel sound. It was provided on two 16kB ROMs, with utilities and drivers as accompanying software. First released in 1990s In February 1990, Electron User published Timothy Grantham's simple implementation of Logo for the Acorn Electron under the article "Talking Turtle". Comenius Logo is an implementation of Logo developed by Comenius University Faculty of Mathematics and Physics. It started development in December 1991, and is also known in other countries as SuperLogo, MultiLogo and MegaLogo. Lego Logo is a version of Logo that can manipulate robotic Lego bricks attached to a computer. It was implemented on the Apple II and used in American and other grade schools in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Lego Logo is a precursor to Scratch. UCBLogo, also known as Berkeley Logo, is a free, cross-platform implementation of standard Logo last released in 2009. George Mills at MIT used UCBLogo as the basis for MSWLogo which is more refined and also free. Jim Muller wrote a book, The Great Logo Adventure, which was a complete Logo manual and which used MSWLogo as the demonstration language. MSWLogo has evolved into FMSLogo. First released from 2000 onwards aUCBLogo is a rewrite and enhancement of UCBLogo. Imagine Logo is a successor of Comenius Logo, implemented in 2000. The English version was released by Logotron Ltd. in 2001. LibreLogo is an extension to some versions of LibreOffice. Released in 2012, it is written in Python. It allows vector graphics to be written in Writer. Logo3D is a tridimensional version of Logo. POOL is a dialect of Logo with object-oriented extensions, implemented in 2014. POOL programs are compiled and run in the graphical IDE on Microsoft Windows. A simplified, cross-platform environment is available for systems supporting .NET Framework. QLogo is an open-source and cross-platform rewrite of UCBLogo with nearly full UCB compatibility that uses hardware-accelerated graphics. Lynx is an online version of Logo developed by Logo Computer Systems Inc. It can run a large number of turtles, supports animation, parallel processes, colour and collision detection. LogoMor is an open-source online 3D Logo interpreter based on JavaScript and p5.js. It supports 3D drawings, animations, multimedia, 3D models and various tools. It also includes a fully-featured code editor based on CodeMirror LbyM is an open-source online Logo interpreter based on JavaScript, created and actively developed (as of 2021) for Sonoma State University's Learning by Making program. It features traditional Logo programming, connectivity with a customized microcontroller and integration with a modern code editor. Influence Logo was a primary influence on the Smalltalk programming language. It is also the main influence on the Etoys educational programming environment and language, which is essentially a Logo variant written in Squeak (itself a variant of Smalltalk). Logo influenced the procedure/method model in AgentSheets and AgentCubes to program agents similar to the notion of a turtle in Logo. Logo provided the underlying language for Boxer. Boxer was developed at University of California, Berkeley and MIT and is based on a literacy model, making it easier to use for nontechnical people. KTurtle is a variation of Logo implemented at Qt for the KDE environment loosely based on Logo. Two more results of Logo's influence are Kojo, a variant of Scala, and Scratch, a visual, drag-and-drop language which runs in a web browser. References ^ Abelson, Hal; Goodman, Nat; Rudolph, Lee (December 1974). "Logo Manual". Artificial Intelligence Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. hdl:1721.1/6226. Archived from the original on September 11, 2016. Retrieved August 28, 2016. ^ Goldenberg, E. Paul (August 1982). "Logo – A Cultural Glossary". Byte. p. 218. Retrieved 19 October 2013. ^ CSLS Vol 1, Preface .pxvi, Harvey 1997 ^ Computer Science Logo Style, Brian Harvey, MIT Press (3 volumes) ISBN 0-262-58148-5, ISBN 0-262-58149-3, ISBN 0-262-58150-7. Available online Archived 2013-07-04 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b "Logo Foundation". el.media.mit.edu. Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2011-04-07. ^ "logothings". logothings.wikispaces.com. Archived from the original on 2011-12-07. ^ Pietrocola, Giorgio (2005). "Tartapelago". Maecla. ^ "The Logo Tree Project" (PDF). elica.net. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2020-03-25. ^ Brain, Jim; Zimmerman, Bo (2017-10-30). "Canonical List of Commodore Products". Archived from the original on 2017-12-20. Retrieved 2017-12-03. ^ "Logo – Software Details". Plus/4 World. Archived from the original on 2017-12-04. Retrieved 2017-12-03. ^ Object Logo Archived 2008-04-30 at the Wayback Machine page on the Digitool website (accessed 4 March 2008) ^ Object Logo ordering page on the Digitool website (accessed 4 March 2008) ^ "DRI ships 128K version of Dr. Logo" (PDF). Micro Notes - Technical information on Digital Research products. Vol. 2, no. 2. Pacific Grove, CA, USA: Digital Research, Inc. May 1984. p. 4. NWS-106-002. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-02-11. Retrieved 2020-02-11. Dr. Logo first appeared on the retail market in fall of 1983 for the IBM PC and climbed to the top of the Softsel Hot List. The retail release included SpeedStart CP/M, an abridged version of CP/M that boots automatically when the system is turned on. ^ "Catalog Search \| Computer History Museum". www.computerhistory.org. ^ "Amstrad CPC 6128 - Computer - Computing History". www.computinghistory.org.uk. ^ "es:manual_del_amstrad_pcw_8256_8512_ingles ". www.habisoft.com. ^ Field, Graham (1985). LOGO on the BBC computer and Acorn Electron. Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-39566-2. ^ Radburn, Derek. "Four Logos for the BBC Micro". The Micro User Education Special. The Micro User. Retrieved February 20, 2012. ^ "Talking Turtle". February 1990. pp. 20–21. Archived from the original on 28 March 2017. ^ "History of Comenius Logo". 2002-12-09. Archived from the original on 2002-12-09. Retrieved 2022-10-12. ^ Resnick, Mitchel (July 1993). "Behavior Construction Kits". Communications of the ACM. 36 (7): 64–71. doi:10.1145/159544.159593. S2CID 9263998. Retrieved 5 January 2022. ^ "The Laboratory Schools LEGO-LOGO Project". University of Chicago Laboratory Schools. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. ^ Bull, G.; Garofalo, J.; Hguyen, N. (2020), "Thinking about computational thinking: Origins of computational thinking in educational computing", Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 36 (1): 6–18, doi:10.1080/21532974.2019.1694381, S2CID 214563715 ^ Muller, Jim (November 2001). "MSWLogo, An Educational programming language". Retrieved 5 January 2022. ^ Andrej, Kalas; Blaho, Ivan (2000). Imagine... a new generation of Logo : programmable pictures. OCLC 854959806. ^ "Imagine \| Press Release". 2001-04-17. Archived from the original on 2001-04-17. Retrieved 2022-10-12. ^ "Learning by Making ¦ Make@SSU". 14 August 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2022. ^ "Boxer - EduTech Wiki". edutechwiki.unige.ch. Retrieved 2024-04-10. ^ "The KDE Education Project – KTurtle". edu.kde.org. Archived from the original on 2006-08-27. Further reading To Artificial Intelligence (1976) Early AI textbook where Logo is used extensively. (Using the Edinburgh University dialect, AI2LOGO) Turtle Geometry Abelson and diSessa Children Designers, Idit Harel Caperton, Ablex Publishing Corporation ISBN 0893917885. Available online Learning With Logo, Daniel Watt, McGraw Hill, ISBN 0-07-068570-3. Available Through Amazon Teaching With Logo: Building Blocks For Learning, Molly Watt and Daniel Watt, Addison Wesley (now Pearson) 1986, ISBN 0-201-08112-1 Available through Amazon "Logo" (PDF). Byte. Vol. 7, no. 8. McGraw-Hill. 1982. (Byte magazine special 1982 issue featuring multiple Logo articles). External links Media related to Logo (programming language) at Wikimedia Commons Logo Programming at Wikibooks vteLogo programming languageClassic Acornsoft Logo Atari Logo MSWLogo FMSLogo UCBLogo MicroWorlds MicroWorlds JR Extensions Lego Logo StarLogo NetLogo With object extensions ObjectLOGO ExperLogo Other variants, extensions ARLOGO LibreLogo People Hal Abelson Denison Bollay Wally Feurzeig Brian Harvey Seymour Papert Mitchel Resnick Cynthia Solomon Category vteLisp programming languageFeatures Automatic storage management Conditionals Dynamic typing Higher-order functions Linked lists Macros M-expressions (deprecated) Read–eval–print loop Recursion S-expressions Self-hosting compiler Tree data structures Object systems Common Lisp Object System (CLOS) CommonLoops Flavors ImplementationsStandardizedCommonLisp Allegro Common Lisp Armed Bear Common Lisp (ABCL) CLISP Clozure CL CMU Common Lisp (CMUCL) Corman Common Lisp Embeddable Common Lisp (ECL) GNU Common Lisp (GCL) LispWorks Macintosh Common Lisp Mocl Movitz Poplog Steel Bank Common Lisp (SBCL) Symbolics Common Lisp Scheme History Bigloo Chez Scheme Chicken Gambit Game Oriented Assembly Lisp (GOAL) GNU Guile Ikarus JScheme Kawa MIT/GNU Scheme MultiLisp Pico Pocket Scheme Racket (features) Scheme 48 SCM SIOD T TinyScheme ISLISP OpenLisp UnstandardizedLogo MSWLogo NetLogo StarLogo UCBLogo POP COWSEL (POP-1) POP-2 POP-11 Arc AutoLISP BBN LISP Clojure Dylan (Apple, history) Emacs Lisp EuLisp Franz Lisp, PC-LISP Hy Interlisp Knowledge Engineering Environment *Lisp LeLisp LFE Lisp Machine Lisp Maclisp MDL MLisp newLISP NIL PC-LISP Picolisp Portable Standard Lisp RPL S-1 Lisp SKILL Spice Lisp ZetalispOperating system List Common Lisp Interface Manager, McCLIM Genera Scsh Hardware Lisp machine TI Explorer Space-cadet keyboard Communityof practiceTechnical standards Scheme Requests for Implementation Common Lisp HyperSpec X3J13 EducationBooks Common Lisp the Language How to Design Programs (HTDP) On Lisp Practical Common Lisp Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs (SICP) Curriculum ProgramByDesign OrganizationsBusiness Apple Computer Bolt, Beranek and Newman Harlequin Lucid Inc. Symbolics Xanalys Education Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory University of California, Berkeley People Edmund Berkeley Daniel G. Bobrow William Clinger R. Kent Dybvig Matthias Felleisen Robert Bruce Findler Matthew Flatt Phyllis Fox Paul Graham Richard Greenblatt Timothy P. Hart Louis Hodes Mike Levin David Luckham John McCarthy Robert Tappan Morris Joel Moses David Park Steve Russell Richard Stallman Common Lisp Scott Fahlman Richard P. Gabriel Philip Greenspun (10th rule) David A. Moon Kent Pitman Guy L. Steele Jr. Daniel Weinreb Scheme Matthias Felleisen Shriram Krishnamurthi Guy L. Steele Jr. Gerald Jay Sussman Julie Sussman Logo Hal Abelson Denison Bollay Wally Feurzeig Brian Harvey Seymour Papert Mitchel Resnick Cynthia Solomon POP Rod Burstall Robin Popplestone List Books Commons Category Category Authority control databases: National Germany Israel United States	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Remi_turtlegrafik.png"},{"link_name":"hypotrochoids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypotrochoid"},{"link_name":"educational programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_programming_language"},{"link_name":"Wally Feurzeig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wally_Feurzeig"},{"link_name":"Seymour Papert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seymour_Papert"},{"link_name":"Cynthia Solomon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynthia_Solomon"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Bolt, Beranek and Newman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolt,_Beranek_and_Newman"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-goldenberg198208-2"},{"link_name":"turtle graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_graphics"},{"link_name":"vector graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_graphics"},{"link_name":"turtle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_(robot)"},{"link_name":"Lisp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"body-syntonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesthetic"},{"link_name":"multi-paradigm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-paradigm_programming_language"},{"link_name":"functional programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cslsPreface-3"},{"link_name":"UCBLogo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCBLogo"},{"link_name":"according to whom?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"recursion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recursion_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"UC Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UC_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"Brian Harvey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Harvey_(lecturer)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-csls-4"},{"link_name":"interpreted language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpreted_language"}],"text":"Symmetry around a point can be obtained using only a few instructions, allowing users to draw hypotrochoids like the one shown here.Logo is an educational programming language, designed in 1967 by Wally Feurzeig, Seymour Papert, and Cynthia Solomon.[1] Logo is not an acronym: the name was coined by Feurzeig while he was at Bolt, Beranek and Newman,[2] and derives from the Greek logos, meaning word or thought.A general-purpose language, Logo is widely known for its use of turtle graphics, in which commands for movement and drawing produced line or vector graphics, either on screen or with a small robot termed a turtle. The language was conceived to teach concepts of programming related to Lisp and only later to enable what Papert called \"body-syntonic reasoning\", where students could understand, predict, and reason about the turtle's motion by imagining what they would do if they were the turtle. There are substantial differences among the many dialects of Logo, and the situation is confused by the regular appearance of turtle graphics programs that are named Logo.Logo is a multi-paradigm adaptation and dialect of Lisp, a functional programming language.[3] There is no standard Logo, but UCBLogo has the best facilities[according to whom?] for handling lists, files, I/O, and recursion in scripts, and can be used to teach all computer science concepts, as UC Berkeley lecturer Brian Harvey did in his Computer Science Logo Style trilogy.[4]Logo is usually an interpreted language, although compiled Logo dialects (such as Lhogho and Liogo) have been developed. Logo is not case-sensitive but retains the case used for formatting purposes.","title":"Logo (programming language)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bolt, Beranek and Newman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolt,_Beranek_and_Newman"},{"link_name":"Cambridge, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Wally Feurzeig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wally_Feurzeig"},{"link_name":"Cynthia Solomon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynthia_Solomon"},{"link_name":"Seymour Papert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seymour_Papert"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mit.edu-5"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"mathematical logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logic"},{"link_name":"developmental psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology"},{"link_name":"LISP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LISP"},{"link_name":"PDP-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"Turtles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_(robot)"},{"link_name":"radio-controlled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-control"},{"link_name":"wireless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless"},{"link_name":"Lexington, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexington,_Massachusetts"}],"text":"Logo was created in 1967 at Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN), a Cambridge, Massachusetts research firm, by Wally Feurzeig, Cynthia Solomon, and Seymour Papert.[5] Its intellectual roots are in artificial intelligence, mathematical logic and developmental psychology. For the first four years of Logo research, development and teaching work was done at BBN. The first implementation of Logo, called Ghost, was written in LISP on a PDP-1. The goal was to create a mathematical land where children could play with words and sentences.[6] Modeled on LISP, the design goals of Logo included accessible power[clarification needed] and informative error messages. The use of virtual Turtles allowed for immediate visual feedback and debugging of graphic programming.The first working Logo turtle robot was created in 1969. A display turtle preceded the physical floor turtle. Modern Logo has not changed very much from the basic concepts predating the first turtle. The first turtle was a tethered floor roamer, not radio-controlled or wireless. At BBN Paul Wexelblat developed a turtle named Irving that had touch sensors and could move forwards, backwards, rotate, and ding its bell. The earliest year-long school users of Logo were in 1968–69 at Muzzey Jr. High in Lexington, Massachusetts. The virtual and physical turtles were first used by fifth-graders at the Bridge School in the same city in 1970–71.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Turtle graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_graphics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tartapelago_Bicicardio_01.gif"},{"link_name":"MSWLogo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSWLogo"},{"link_name":"Cardioid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardioid"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"a robot of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_(robot)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mit.edu-5"},{"link_name":"cursor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointer_(graphical_user_interfaces)"},{"link_name":"collision detection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collision_detection"},{"link_name":"sprites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"Lindenmayer system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindenmayer_system"},{"link_name":"fractals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractal"}],"text":"See also: Turtle graphicsAnimated gif with turtle in MSWLogo (Cardioid)[7]Logo's most-known feature is the turtle (derived originally from a robot of the same name),[5] an on-screen \"cursor\" that shows output from commands for movement and small retractable pen, together producing line graphics. It has traditionally been displayed either as a triangle or a turtle icon (though it can be represented by any icon). Turtle graphics were added to the Logo language by Seymour Papert in the late 1960s to support Papert's version of the turtle robot, a simple robot controlled from the user's workstation that is designed to carry out the drawing functions assigned to it using a small retractable pen set into or attached to the robot's body.As a practical matter, the use of turtle geometry instead of a more traditional model mimics the actual movement logic of the turtle robot. The turtle moves with commands that are relative to its own position, LEFT 90 means spin left by 90 degrees. Some Logo implementations, particularly those that allow the use of concurrency and multiple turtles, support collision detection and allow the user to redefine the appearance of the turtle cursor, essentially allowing the Logo turtles to function as sprites.Turtle geometry is also sometimes used in environments other than Logo as an alternative to a strictly coordinate-addressed graphics system. For instance, the idea of turtle graphics is also useful in Lindenmayer system for generating fractals.","title":"Turtle and graphics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Apple logo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_logo"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM_LCSI_Logo_Welcome_Screen.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM_LCSI_Logo_Circles.png"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"StarLogo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StarLogo"},{"link_name":"Northwestern University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_University"},{"link_name":"NetLogo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetLogo"},{"link_name":"emergent phenomena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergence"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"MicroWorlds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MicroWorlds"},{"link_name":"Apple II Plus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_II_Plus"},{"link_name":"Apple IIe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_IIe"},{"link_name":"Aquarius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mattel_Aquarius"},{"link_name":"Atari Logo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_Logo"},{"link_name":"Atari 8-bit computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_8-bit_computers"},{"link_name":"TRS-80 Color Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRS-80_Color_Computer"},{"link_name":"Commodore International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_International"},{"link_name":"Commodore 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_64"},{"link_name":"Plus/4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_Plus/4"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Macintosh 128K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macintosh_128K"},{"link_name":"MSX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSX"},{"link_name":"TI-99/4A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TI-99/4A"},{"link_name":"ObjectLOGO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ObjectLOGO"},{"link_name":"object-oriented programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Digital Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Research"},{"link_name":"IBM PCjr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PCjr"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DRI_1984_MicroNotes2-13"},{"link_name":"Amstrad CPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amstrad_CPC"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Acornsoft Logo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acornsoft_Logo"},{"link_name":"BBC Micro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Micro"},{"link_name":"Acorn Electron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acorn_Electron"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-field-17"},{"link_name":"Acorn Computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acorn_Computers"},{"link_name":"turtles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_(robot)"},{"link_name":"ROMs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory"},{"link_name":"drivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_driver"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tmu_four_logos-18"},{"link_name":"Acorn Electron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acorn_Electron"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Comenius University Faculty of Mathematics and Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comenius_University_Faculty_of_Mathematics,_Physics_and_Informatics"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Lego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lego"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Apple II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_II"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Scratch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scratch_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"UCBLogo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCBLogo"},{"link_name":"MSWLogo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSWLogo"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"FMSLogo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FMSLogo"},{"link_name":"UCBLogo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCBLogo"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"LibreLogo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LibreLogo"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":".NET Framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_Framework"},{"link_name":"UCBLogo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCBLogo"},{"link_name":"CodeMirror","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CodeMirror"},{"link_name":"Sonoma State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonoma_State_University"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"text":"\"Apple Logo\" redirects here. For the logo of Apple Inc., see Apple logo.IBM LCSI Logo welcome screenSource code and output in IBM LCSI LogoSome modern derivatives of Logo allow thousands of independently moving turtles. There are two popular implementations: Massachusetts Institute of Technology's StarLogo and Northwestern University Center for Connected Learning's (CCL) NetLogo. They allow exploring emergent phenomena and come with many experiments in social studies, biology, physics, and other areas. NetLogo is widely used in agent-based simulation in the biological and social sciences.Although there is no agreed-upon standard, there is a broad consensus on core aspects of the language. In March 2020, there were counted 308 implementations and dialects of Logo, each with its own strengths.[8] Most of those 308 are no longer in wide use, but many are still under development. Commercial implementations widely used in schools include MicroWorlds Logo and Imagine Logo.Legacy and current implementations include:First released in 1980sApple Logo for the Apple II Plus and Apple Logo Writer for the Apple IIe, developed by Logo Computer Systems, Inc. (LCSI), were the most broadly used and prevalent early implementations of Logo that peaked in the early to mid-1980s.\nAquarius LOGO was released in 1982 on cartridge by Mattel for the Aquarius home computer.\nAtari Logo was released on cartridge by Atari, Inc. for the Atari 8-bit computers.\nColor Logo was released in 1983 on cartridge (26-2722) and disk (26-2721) by Tandy for the TRS-80 Color Computer.\nCommodore Logo was released, with the subtitle \"A Language for Learning\", by Commodore International. It was based on MIT Logo and enhanced by Terrapin, Inc. The Commodore 64 version (C64105) was released on diskette in 1983; the Plus/4 version (T263001) was released on cartridge in 1984.[9][10]\nExperLogo was released in 1985 on floppy by Expertelligence Inc. for the Macintosh 128K.\nHot-Logo was released in the mid-1980s by EPCOM for the MSX 8-bit computers with its own set of commands in Brazilian Portuguese.\nTI Logo (for the TI-99/4A computer) was used in primary schools, emphasizing Logo's usefulness in teaching computing fundamentals to novice programmers.\nSprite Logo, also developed by Logo Computer Systems Inc., had ten turtles that could run as independent processes. It ran on Apple II computers, with the aid of a Sprite Card inserted in one of the computer's slots.\nIBM marketed their own version of Logo (P/N 6024076), developed jointly by Logo Computer Systems, Inc. (LCSI), for their then-new IBM PC.\nObjectLOGO is a variant of Logo with object-oriented programming extensions and lexical scoping. Version 2.7 was sold by Digitool, Inc.[11] It is no longer being developed or supported, and does not run on versions of the Mac operating system later than version 7.5.[12]\nDr. Logo was developed by Digital Research and distributed in computers including the IBM PCjr,[13] Atari ST and the Amstrad CPC.[14][15][16]\nAcornsoft Logo was released in 1985. It is a commercial implementation of Logo for the 8-bit BBC Micro and Acorn Electron computers.[17] It was developed for Acorn Computers as a full implementation of Logo. It features multiple screen turtles and four-channel sound. It was provided on two 16kB ROMs, with utilities and drivers as accompanying software.[18]First released in 1990sIn February 1990, Electron User published Timothy Grantham's simple implementation of Logo for the Acorn Electron under the article \"Talking Turtle\".[19]\nComenius Logo is an implementation of Logo developed by Comenius University Faculty of Mathematics and Physics. It started development in December 1991, and is also known in other countries as SuperLogo, MultiLogo and MegaLogo.[20]\nLego Logo is a version of Logo that can manipulate robotic Lego bricks attached to a computer.[21] It was implemented on the Apple II and used in American and other grade schools in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[22] Lego Logo is a precursor to Scratch.[23]\nUCBLogo, also known as Berkeley Logo, is a free, cross-platform implementation of standard Logo last released in 2009. George Mills at MIT used UCBLogo as the basis for MSWLogo which is more refined and also free. Jim Muller wrote a book, The Great Logo Adventure, which was a complete Logo manual and which used MSWLogo as the demonstration language.[24] MSWLogo has evolved into FMSLogo.First released from 2000 onwardsaUCBLogo is a rewrite and enhancement of UCBLogo.\nImagine Logo is a successor of Comenius Logo, implemented in 2000.[25] The English version was released by Logotron Ltd. in 2001.[26]\nLibreLogo is an extension to some versions of LibreOffice. Released in 2012, it is written in Python. It allows vector graphics to be written in Writer.\nLogo3D is a tridimensional version of Logo.\nPOOL is a dialect of Logo with object-oriented extensions, implemented in 2014. POOL programs are compiled and run in the graphical IDE on Microsoft Windows. A simplified, cross-platform environment is available for systems supporting .NET Framework.\nQLogo is an open-source and cross-platform rewrite of UCBLogo with nearly full UCB compatibility that uses hardware-accelerated graphics.\nLynx is an online version of Logo developed by Logo Computer Systems Inc. It can run a large number of turtles, supports animation, parallel processes, colour and collision detection.\nLogoMor is an open-source online 3D Logo interpreter based on JavaScript and p5.js. It supports 3D drawings, animations, multimedia, 3D models and various tools. It also includes a fully-featured code editor based on CodeMirror\nLbyM is an open-source online Logo interpreter based on JavaScript, created and actively developed (as of 2021) for Sonoma State University's Learning by Making program.[27] It features traditional Logo programming, connectivity with a customized microcontroller and integration with a modern code editor.","title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Smalltalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smalltalk"},{"link_name":"Etoys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etoys_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Squeak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squeak"},{"link_name":"AgentSheets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgentSheets"},{"link_name":"AgentCubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgentCubes"},{"link_name":"University of California, Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Qt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qt_(software)"},{"link_name":"KDE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDE"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Kojo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kojo_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Scratch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scratch_(programming_language)"}],"text":"Logo was a primary influence on the Smalltalk programming language. It is also the main influence on the Etoys educational programming environment and language, which is essentially a Logo variant written in Squeak (itself a variant of Smalltalk). Logo influenced the procedure/method model in AgentSheets and AgentCubes to program agents similar to the notion of a turtle in Logo. Logo provided the underlying language for Boxer. Boxer was developed at University of California, Berkeley and MIT and is based on a literacy model, making it easier to use for nontechnical people.[28]KTurtle is a variation of Logo implemented at Qt for the KDE environment loosely based on Logo.[29]Two more results of Logo's influence are Kojo, a variant of Scala, and Scratch, a visual, drag-and-drop language which runs in a web browser.","title":"Influence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"To Artificial Intelligence (1976)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/docs/ArtificialIntelligence/art0084.html"},{"link_name":"Edinburgh University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh_University"},{"link_name":"Turtle Geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.amazon.com/gp/product/0262510375"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0893917885","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0893917885"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.amazon.com/Children-Designers-Interdisciplinary-Constructions-Computer-Rich/dp/0893917885/"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-07-068570-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-068570-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-201-08112-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-08112-1"},{"link_name":"\"Logo\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ia600605.us.archive.org/14/items/byte-magazine-1982-08/1982_08_BYTE_07-08_Logo.pdf"}],"text":"To Artificial Intelligence (1976) Early AI textbook where Logo is used extensively. (Using the Edinburgh University dialect, AI2LOGO)\nTurtle Geometry Abelson and diSessa\nChildren Designers, Idit Harel Caperton, Ablex Publishing Corporation ISBN 0893917885. Available online\nLearning With Logo, Daniel Watt, McGraw Hill, ISBN 0-07-068570-3. Available Through Amazon\nTeaching With Logo: Building Blocks For Learning, Molly Watt and Daniel Watt, Addison Wesley (now Pearson) 1986, ISBN 0-201-08112-1 Available through Amazon\n\"Logo\" (PDF). Byte. Vol. 7, no. 8. McGraw-Hill. 1982. (Byte magazine special 1982 issue featuring multiple Logo articles).","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"Symmetry around a point can be obtained using only a few instructions, allowing users to draw hypotrochoids like the one shown here.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Remi_turtlegrafik.png/220px-Remi_turtlegrafik.png"},{"image_text":"Animated gif with turtle in MSWLogo (Cardioid)[7]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Tartapelago_Bicicardio_01.gif/220px-Tartapelago_Bicicardio_01.gif"},{"image_text":"IBM LCSI Logo welcome screen","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/IBM_LCSI_Logo_Welcome_Screen.png/220px-IBM_LCSI_Logo_Welcome_Screen.png"},{"image_text":"Source code and output in IBM LCSI Logo","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/IBM_LCSI_Logo_Circles.png/220px-IBM_LCSI_Logo_Circles.png"}]	null	[{"reference":"Abelson, Hal; Goodman, Nat; Rudolph, Lee (December 1974). \"Logo Manual\". Artificial Intelligence Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. hdl:1721.1/6226. Archived from the original on September 11, 2016. Retrieved August 28, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/6226","url_text":"\"Logo Manual\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F6226","url_text":"1721.1/6226"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160911020834/https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/6226","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Goldenberg, E. Paul (August 1982). \"Logo – A Cultural Glossary\". Byte. p. 218. Retrieved 19 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1982-08/1982_08_BYTE_07-08_Logo#page/n209/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Logo – A Cultural Glossary\""}]},{"reference":"\"Logo Foundation\". el.media.mit.edu. Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2011-04-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110721122057/http://el.media.mit.edu/logo-foundation/index.html","url_text":"\"Logo Foundation\""},{"url":"http://el.media.mit.edu/logo-foundation/index.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"logothings\". logothings.wikispaces.com. Archived from the original on 2011-12-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://logothings.wikispaces.com/","url_text":"\"logothings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111207111525/http://logothings.wikispaces.com/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Pietrocola, Giorgio (2005). \"Tartapelago\". Maecla.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.maecla.it/tartapelago.htm","url_text":"\"Tartapelago\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Logo Tree Project\" (PDF). elica.net. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-06. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Step-index_profile	Step-index profile	["1 See also","2 References"]	Refractive index profile in optical fibre Refractive HRS index distribution in core and cladding with a step-index profile For an optical fiber, a step-index profile is a refractive index profile characterized by a uniform refractive index within the core and a sharp decrease in refractive index at the core-cladding interface so that the cladding is of a lower refractive index. The step-index profile corresponds to a power-law index profile with the profile parameter approaching infinity. The step-index profile is used in most single-mode fibers and some multimode fibers. A step-index fiber is characterized by the core and cladding refractive indices n1 and n2 and the core and cladding radii a and b. Examples of standard core and cladding diameters 2a/2b are 8/125, 50/125, 62.5/125, 85/125, or 100/140 (units of μm). The fractional refractive-index change △ = n 1 − n 2 n 1 ≪ 1 {\displaystyle \triangle \,={\frac {n_{1}-n_{2}}{n_{1}}}\ll \ 1} . The value of n1 is typically between 1.44 and 1.46, and △ {\displaystyle \triangle } is typically between 0.001 and 0.02. Step-index optical fiber is generally made by doping high-purity fused silica glass (SiO2) with different concentrations of materials like titanium, germanium, or boron. Modal dispersion in a step index optical fiber is given by pulse dispersion = △ n 1 ℓ c {\displaystyle {\text{pulse dispersion}}={\frac {\triangle \ n_{1}\ \ell }{c}}\,\!} where △ {\displaystyle \triangle \,\!} is the fractional index of refraction n 1 {\displaystyle n_{1}\,\!} is the refractive index of core ℓ {\displaystyle \ell \,\!} is the length of the optical fiber under observation c {\displaystyle c} is the speed of light. See also Graded-index fiber Critical angle Numerical aperture References ^ "SINGLE MODE STEP-INDEX FIBERS". Retrieved 2012-11-23. ^ "Fiber Optics Overview". Archived from the original on 2013-01-17. Retrieved 2012-11-23.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) This article incorporates public domain material from Federal Standard 1037C. General Services Administration. Archived from the original on 2022-01-22. (in support of MIL-STD-188). This optics-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Step-index-profile.svg"},{"link_name":"optical fiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber"},{"link_name":"refractive index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_index"},{"link_name":"core","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber_optics#Principle_of_operation"},{"link_name":"cladding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladding_(fiber_optics)"},{"link_name":"interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/interface"},{"link_name":"power-law index profile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power-law_index_profile"},{"link_name":"single-mode fibers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-mode_fiber"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"multimode fibers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimode_fiber"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"doping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)"},{"link_name":"silica glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fused_quartz"},{"link_name":"Modal dispersion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modal_dispersion"}],"text":"Refractive HRS index distribution in core and cladding with a step-index profileFor an optical fiber, a step-index profile is a refractive index profile characterized by a uniform refractive index within the core and a sharp decrease in refractive index at the core-cladding interface so that the cladding is of a lower refractive index. The step-index profile corresponds to a power-law index profile with the profile parameter approaching infinity. The step-index profile is used in most single-mode fibers[1] and some multimode fibers.[2]A step-index fiber is characterized by the core and cladding refractive indices n1 and n2 and the core and cladding radii a and b. Examples of standard core and cladding diameters 2a/2b are 8/125, 50/125, 62.5/125, 85/125, or 100/140 (units of μm). The fractional refractive-index change \n \n \n \n △\n \n =\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n ≪\n \n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\triangle \\,={\\frac {n_{1}-n_{2}}{n_{1}}}\\ll \\ 1}\n \n. The value of n1 is typically between 1.44 and 1.46, and \n \n \n \n △\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\triangle }\n \n is typically between 0.001 and 0.02.Step-index optical fiber is generally made by doping high-purity fused silica glass (SiO2) with different concentrations of materials like titanium, germanium, or boron.Modal dispersion in a step index optical fiber is given bypulse dispersion\n \n =\n \n \n \n △\n \n \n n\n \n 1\n \n \n \n ℓ\n \n c\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{pulse dispersion}}={\\frac {\\triangle \\ n_{1}\\ \\ell }{c}}\\,\\!}where△\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\triangle \\,\\!}\n \n is the fractional index of refraction\n\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{1}\\,\\!}\n \n is the refractive index of core\n\n \n \n \n ℓ\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ell \\,\\!}\n \n is the length of the optical fiber under observation\n\n \n \n \n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c}\n \n is the speed of light.","title":"Step-index profile"}]	[{"image_text":"Refractive HRS index distribution in core and cladding with a step-index profile","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Step-index-profile.svg/220px-Step-index-profile.svg.png"}]	[{"title":"Graded-index fiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graded-index_fiber"},{"title":"Critical angle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_internal_reflection#Critical_angle"},{"title":"Numerical aperture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_aperture"}]	[{"reference":"\"SINGLE MODE STEP-INDEX FIBERS\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_safety	Process safety	["1 Definition and scope","2 History","3 Topics in process safety","4 Management","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]	Study, prevention, and management of major hazardous material accidents in process plants Process safety is an interdisciplinary engineering domain focusing on the study, prevention, and management of large-scale fires, explosions and chemical accidents (such as toxic gas clouds) in process plants or other facilities dealing with hazardous materials, such as refineries and oil and gas (onshore and offshore) production installations. Thus, process safety is generally concerned with the prevention of, control of, mitigation of and recovery from unintentional hazardous materials releases that can have a serious effect to people (onsite and offsite), plant and/or the environment. Definition and scope The American Petroleum Institute defines process safety as follows: A disciplined framework for managing the integrity of hazardous operating systems and processes by applying good design principles, engineering, and operating and maintenance practices. It deals with the prevention and control of events that have the potential to release hazardous materials or energy. Such events can cause toxic effects, fire or explosion and could ultimately result in serious injuries, property damage, lost production, and environmental impact. The same definition is given by the International Association of Oil & Gas Producers (IOGP). The Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS) of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) gives the following:A discipline that focuses on the prevention of fires, explosions, and accidental chemical releases at chemical process facilities.Process safety scope is usually contrasted with occupational safety and health (OSH). While both domains deal with dangerous conditions and hazardous events occurring at work sites and/or while carrying out one's job duties, they differ at several levels. Process safety is primarily concerned with events which involve hazardous materials and are or have the potential to escalate to major accidents. A major accident is usually defined as an event causing multiple fatalities, extensive environmental impact, and/or significant financial consequences. The consequences of major accidents, while typically limited to the work site, can overcome the plant or installation boundaries, thus causing significant offsite impact. In contrast to this, occupational safety and health focuses on events that cause harm to a limited number of workers (usually one or two per event), have consequences limited to well within the work site boundaries, and do not necessarily involve unintended contact with a hazardous material. Thus, for example, a gasoline storage tank loss of containment resulting in a fire is a process safety event, while a fall from height occurring while inspecting the tank is an OSH event. Although they may result in far higher impact to people, assets and the environment, process safety accidents are significantly less frequent than OSH events, with the latter account for the majority of workplace fatalities. However, the impact of a single major process safety event on such aspects as regional environmental resources, company reputation, or the societal perception of the chemical and process industries, can be very considerable and is usually given prominent visibility in the media. The pivotal step in a process safety accident, around which a chain of accident causation and escalation can be built (including preventative and control/mitigative safety barriers), is generally the loss of containment of a hazardous material. It is this occurrence that frees the chemical energy available for the harmful consequences to materialize. Inadequate isolation, overflow, runaway or unplanned chemical reaction, defective equipment, human error, procedural violation, inadequate procedures, blockage, corrosion, degradation of material properties, excessive mechanical stress, fatigue, vibration, overpressure, and incorrect installation are the usual proximate causes for such loss of containment. If the material is flammable and encounters a source of ignition, a fire will take place. Under particular conditions, such as local congestion (e.g., arising from structures and piping in the area where the release occurred or the flammable gas cloud migrated), the flame front of a flammable gas cloud can accelerate and transition to an explosion, which can cause overpressure damage to nearby equipment and structures and harm to people. If the released chemical is a toxic gas or a liquid whose vapors are toxic, then a toxic gas cloud occurs, which may harm or kill people locally at the release source or remotely, if its size and the atmospheric conditions do not immediately result in its dilution to below hazardous concentration thresholds. Fires, explosions, and toxic clouds are the main types of accidents with which process safety is concerned. In the domain of offshore oil and gas extraction, production, and subsea pipelines, the discipline of process safety is sometimes understood to extend to major accidents not directly associated with hazardous materials processing, storage, or transport. In this context, the potential for accidents such as ship collisions against oil platforms, loss of FPSO hull stability, or crew transportation accidents (such as from helicopter or boating events), is analyzed and managed with tools typical of process safety. Process safety is usually associated with fixed onshore process and storage facilities, as well as fixed and floating offshore production and/or storage installations. However, process safety tools can and often are used (although to varying degrees) to analyze and manage bulk transportation of hazardous materials, such as by road tankers, rail tank cars, sea-going tankers, and onshore and offshore pipelines. Industrial domains that share similarities with the chemical process industries, and to which process safety concepts often apply, are nuclear power, fossil fuel power production, mining, steelmaking, foundries, etc. Some of these industries, notably nuclear power, follow an approach very similar to process safety's, which is usually referred to as system safety. History In the early chemical industry, processes were relatively simple and societal expectations regarding safety were low by today’s standards. As chemical technology evolved and increased in complexity, and, simultaneously, societal expectations for safety in industrial activities increased, it became clear that there was a need for increasingly specialized expertise and knowledge in safety and loss prevention for the chemical industry. Organizations in the process industries originally had safety reviews for processes that relied on the experience and expertise of the people in the review. In the mid 20th century, more formal review techniques began to appear. These included the hazard and operability (HAZOP) review, developed by ICI in the 1960s, failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA), checklists and what-if reviews. These were mostly qualitative techniques for identifying the hazards of a process. Quantitative analysis techniques, such as fault tree analysis (FTA, which had been in use by the nuclear industry), quantified risk assessment (QRA, also referred to as Quantitative Risk Analysis), and layer-of-protection analysis (LOPA) also began to be used in the process industries in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. Modeling techniques were developed for analyzing the consequences of spills and releases, explosions, and toxic exposure. The expression "process safety" began to be used increasingly to define this engineering field of study. It was generally understood to be a branch of chemical engineering, as it primarily relied on the understanding of industrial chemical processes, as exemplified in the HAZOP technique. In time, it absorbed a range of elements from other disciplines (such as chemistry and physics for mathematical modelling of releases, fires and explosions, instrumentation engineering, asset management, human factors and ergonomics, reliability engineering, etc.), thus becoming a relatively interdisciplinary engineering domain, although at its core it remains strongly connected with the understanding of industrial process chemical technology. "Process safety" gradually prevailed over alternative terms; for example, Frank P. Lees in his monumental work Loss Prevention in the Process Industries either used the titular expression or "safety and loss prevention", and so did Trevor Kletz, a central figure in the development of this discipline. One of the first publications to use the term in its current sense is the Process Safety Guide by the Dow Chemical Company. By the mid to late 1970s, process safety was a recognized technical specialty. The American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) formed its Safety and Health Division in 1979. In 1985, AIChE established the Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), partly in response to the Bhopal tragedy occurred the previous year. Lessons learnt from past events have been key in determining advances in process safety. Some of the major accidents that shaped it as an engineering discipline are: The Flixborough disaster (1974) The Seveso toxic gas cloud (1976) The Bhopal toxic gas cloud (1984), the worst industrial accident ever occurred in terms of the number of fatalities The Piper Alpha oil platform disaster (1988) The Texas City refinery explosion (2005) The Buncefield tank farm fire (2005) The Deepwater Horizon explosion and oil spill (2010). Topics in process safety The following is a list of topics covered in process safety. There are some overlaps with equivalent domains from other disciplines, especially occupational safety and health (OSH), although the focus in process safety will always be specifically on the loss of control in the handling of hazardous materials at industrial scale. Process safety regulation, which has been established in several countries in the past decades. Compiling trends and statistics of past process safety events. The study of past process accident history cases. Process accident investigation. Inherently safer design. Process safety culture. Process safety management (PSM). PSM covers business and operations management aspects that are known to be critical in the prevention, management, or mitigation of process accidents. These include, but are not limited to, compliance with standards, operators' competency, workforce involvement, operating procedures and safe work practices, management of asset integrity (for ensuring the performance of systems critical to plant safety), contractor management, management of change, operational readiness, selection and maintenance of process safety metrics, safety auditing, etc. Hazard identification, using methods such as audits, checklists, review of MSDS, historical analysis, hazard identification (HAZID) reviews, structured what-if technique (SWIFT), hazard and operability (HAZOP) studies, failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA), etc. Aspects of human factors and ergonomics, especially as pertains to criticality and operability of valves, alarm management, prevention and mitigation of control room operators errors, etc. Avoidance and mitigation of Natech (natural hazards triggering technological accidents), i.e. external environmental factors, such as earthquakes and extreme weather, that can escalate to a major process accident if process facilities are affected. An example of a Natech event is the 2017 Arkema explosion in Crosby, Texas, which was triggered by Hurricane Harvey. The physico-chemical study and modeling of: Fluid emission rates resulting from accidental loss of containment. Gas dispersion, for the assessment of the reach of toxic and flammable concentration contours. Fire (typically in the form of pool fires, jet fire, flash fires, or fireballs), in terms of ignition sources, spread, radiative power transfer, and smoke dispersion. Explosions (vapor cloud explosions, BLEVEs, dust explosions) and closed vessel bursts, such as caused by runaway reactions. The understanding and modeling of the vulnerability of people to the effect of fires (thermal radiation, smoke inhalation), explosion (blast overpressure, missiles, etc.), and toxic gas inhalation. This domain incorporates elements of human physiology, toxicology, and statistics. The modeling of the effects of fire and explosion on structures and process equipment, for evaluating the possibility that an accident escalates to additional inventories of hazardous materials or damages facilities critical to emergency management (such as depressurization and flare systems, firefighting facilities, refuge buildings, control rooms, lifeboats on offshore installations, etc.). Process risk assessment, which combines the evaluation of the accidental consequences of the hazard scenarios identified, with their effects on people and critical assets and with thewhat-if probability and/or the frequency with which the accidental scenarios are expected to occur. Risk assessment techniques include hazard indices, preliminary hazard analysis (PreHA, usually accomplished by the use of a risk matrix), fault tree analysis (FTA), event tree analysis (ETA), layer-of-protection analysis (LOPA, which is often used to determine the safety integrity level of safety instrumented functions), quantified risk assessment (QRA), dynamic risk assessment etc. Support to risk-based decision making. It is usually accepted that risk cannot be eliminated, and that a certain amount of residual risk will be accepted if the societal, financial, or other benefits of the hazardous process make it desirable. Examples of decision-making tools are land-use planning criteria, and the ALARP principle (which may require a cost-benefit analysis entailing sometimes controversial assumptions on the value of a human life). Onsite and offsite emergency management for process accidents. Strictly related to process safety, although for historical reasons usually not considered to belong to its domain, is the design of the following systems (note however that their selection is often the responsibility of a specialized process safety engineer): The definition of process equipment and piping mechanical and thermal specifications (by process and mechanical engineers). The design of pressure relief devices, such as rupture discs and relief valves (by mechanical engineers, supported by process engineers). The design of depressurization and flare systems (by process engineers). The design of emergency liquid drainage facilities (by process engineers). The design of ignition prevention systems, such as pressure vessel inerting (typically within the domain of process engineering), flame arrestors (mechanical engineering), and equipment for use in explosive atmospheres (largely left to electrical engineers). The design of passive fire protection and active firefighting facilities (such as firewater pumps, distribution, etc.), usually under the purview of fire protection specialists. Management Companies whose business heavily relies on the extraction, processing, storage, and/or transport of hazardous materials, usually integrate elements of process safety management (PSM) within their health and safety management system. PSM was notably regulated by the United States' OSHA in 1992. The OSHA model for PSM is still widely used, not only in the US but also internationally. Other equivalent models and regulations have become available since, notably by the EPA, the Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), and the UK's Energy Institute. PSM schemes are organized in 'elements'. Different schemes are based on different lists of elements. This is the CCPS scheme for risk-based process safety, which can be reconciled with most other established PSM schemes: Commit to process safety Process safety culture Compliance with standards Process safety competency Workforce involvement Stakeholder outreach Understand hazards and risks Process knowledge and documentation management Hazard identification and risk analysis Manage risk Operating procedures Safe work practices (e.g. a permit-to-work system) Asset integrity management Contractor management Training and performance assurance Management of change Operational readiness Conduct of operations Emergency management Learn from experience Incident investigation Process safety metrics and performance measurement Auditing Management review and continuous improvement While originally designed eminently for plants in their operations phase, elements of PSM can and should be implemented through the entire lifecycle of a project, wherever applicable. This includes design (from front-end loading to detailed design), procurement of equipment, commissioning, operations, material and organizational changes, and decommissioning. A common model used to represent and explain the various different but connected systems related to achieving process safety is described by James T. Reason's Swiss cheese model. In this model, barriers that prevent, detect, control and mitigate a major accident are depicted as slices, each having a number of holes. The holes represent imperfections in the barrier, which can be defined as specific performance standards. The better managed the barrier, the smaller these holes will be. When a major accident happens, this is invariably because all the imperfections in the barriers (the holes) have lined up. It is the multiplicity of barriers that provide the protection. See also Chemical safety Functional safety Process safety management References ^ CCPS. "Process Safety FAQs". AIChE. Retrieved 2023-06-20. ^ a b IOGP. "Process safety". IOGP. Retrieved 2023-06-20. ^ Stand Together for Safety (2016). Process Safety - A Good Practice Guide (PDF). Stand Together for Safety. p. 37. ^ API (2016). API Recommended Practice 754 - Process Safety Performance Indicators for the Refining and Petrochemical Industries (2nd ed.). American Petroleum Institute. p. 8. ^ CCPS (2012). Guidelines for Engineering Design for Process Safety (2nd ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. p. xxviii. ISBN 978-0-470-76772-6. ^ Hume, Alastair (2021-09-27). "The Definition of Process Safety". blog.safetysolutions.co.nz. Retrieved 2023-06-20. ^ Hopkins, Andrew (2007). Thinking About Process Safety Indicators. Canberra: Australian National University. p. 3. ^ a b CCPS; Energy Institute (2018). Bow Ties in Risk Management: A Concept Book for Process Safety. New York, N.Y. and Hoboken, N.J.: AIChE and John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781119490395. ^ Collins, Alison; Keeley, Deborah (2003). Loss of Containment Incident Analysis (PDF). HSL/2003/07. Sheffield: Health and Safety Laboratory. ^ a b c Mannan, Sam (2012). Lees' Loss Prevention in the Process Industries (4th ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-12-397189-0. ^ Khan, Faisal, ed. (2018). Methods in Chemical Process Safety. Vol. 2 - Offshore Process Safety. Cambridge, Mass.: Academic Press. ^ Hendershot, Dennis C. (2009). "A History of Process Safety and Loss Prevention in the American Institute of Chemical Engineers". Process Safety Progress. 28 (2): 105–113. doi:10.1002/prs.10318. ^ a b c CCPS (2016). Introduction to Process Safety for Undergraduates and Engineers. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-94950-4. ^ Lees, Frank P. (1980). Loss Prevention in the Process Industries (1st ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 9780750615228. ^ Kletz, Trevor A. (1999). "The Origins and History of Loss Prevention". Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 77 (3): 109–116. doi:10.1205/095758299529938. ISSN 0957-5820. ^ Dow Chemical Company (1964). Dow’s Process Safety Guide (1st ed.). ^ CCPS (2012-04-12). "History". AIChE. Retrieved 2023-06-21. ^ OECD (2022). The Impact of Natural Hazards on Hazardous Installations (PDF). Paris: OECD. Retrieved 2023-06-26. ^ "Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29, Subtitle B, Chapter XVII, Part 1910, Subpart H § 1910.119". eCFR. 2023-06-15. Retrieved 2023-06-20. ^ EPA (2013-10-29). "Risk Management Program (RMP) Rule Overview". EPA. Archived from the original on 2023-06-18. Retrieved 2023-06-22. ^ a b CCPS (2007). Guidelines for Risk Based Process Safety. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-16569-0. ^ Energy Institute (2010). High Level Framework for Process Safety Management (1st ed.). London: Energy Institute. ISBN 978 0 85293 584 2. ^ Reason, James (1990). Human Error. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 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Commons	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"interdisciplinary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinarity"},{"link_name":"engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering"},{"link_name":"fires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire"},{"link_name":"explosions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosion"},{"link_name":"chemical accidents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_accident"},{"link_name":"process plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_manufacturing"},{"link_name":"hazardous materials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_material"},{"link_name":"refineries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_refinery"},{"link_name":"onshore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onshore_(hydrocarbons)"},{"link_name":"offshore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offshore_(hydrocarbons)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IOGP_Process_safety-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Process safety is an interdisciplinary engineering domain focusing on the study, prevention, and management of large-scale fires, explosions and chemical accidents (such as toxic gas clouds) in process plants or other facilities dealing with hazardous materials, such as refineries and oil and gas (onshore and offshore) production installations. Thus, process safety is generally concerned with the prevention of, control of, mitigation of and recovery from unintentional hazardous materials releases that can have a serious effect to people (onsite and offsite), plant and/or the environment.[1][2][3]","title":"Process safety"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Petroleum Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Petroleum_Institute"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"International Association of Oil & Gas Producers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Association_of_Oil_%26_Gas_Producers"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IOGP_Process_safety-2"},{"link_name":"Center for Chemical Process Safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Center_for_Chemical_Process_Safety&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"American Institute of Chemical Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Institute_of_Chemical_Engineers"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"occupational safety and health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bow_Ties_2018-8"},{"link_name":"runaway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_runaway"},{"link_name":"chemical reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_reaction"},{"link_name":"human error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_error"},{"link_name":"corrosion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion"},{"link_name":"fatigue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_(material)"},{"link_name":"vibration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibration_fatigue"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire"},{"link_name":"explosion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosion"},{"link_name":"toxic gas cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Toxic_gas_cloud&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mannan_2012-10"},{"link_name":"FPSO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_production_storage_and_offloading"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"road tankers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank_truck"},{"link_name":"rail tank cars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank_car"},{"link_name":"tankers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanker_(ship)"},{"link_name":"pipelines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline"},{"link_name":"nuclear power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power"},{"link_name":"fossil fuel power production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_station"},{"link_name":"mining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining"},{"link_name":"steelmaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelmaking"},{"link_name":"foundries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundry"},{"link_name":"system safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_safety"}],"text":"The American Petroleum Institute defines process safety as follows:A disciplined framework for managing the integrity of hazardous operating systems and processes by applying good design principles, engineering, and operating and maintenance practices. It deals with the prevention and control of events that have the potential to release hazardous materials or energy. Such events can cause toxic effects, fire or explosion and could ultimately result in serious injuries, property damage, lost production, and environmental impact.[4]The same definition is given by the International Association of Oil & Gas Producers (IOGP).[2] The Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS) of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) gives the following:A discipline that focuses on the prevention of fires, explosions, and accidental chemical releases at chemical process facilities.[5]Process safety scope is usually contrasted with occupational safety and health (OSH). While both domains deal with dangerous conditions and hazardous events occurring at work sites and/or while carrying out one's job duties, they differ at several levels. Process safety is primarily concerned with events which involve hazardous materials and are or have the potential to escalate to major accidents. A major accident is usually defined as an event causing multiple fatalities, extensive environmental impact, and/or significant financial consequences. The consequences of major accidents, while typically limited to the work site, can overcome the plant or installation boundaries, thus causing significant offsite impact. In contrast to this, occupational safety and health focuses on events that cause harm to a limited number of workers (usually one or two per event), have consequences limited to well within the work site boundaries, and do not necessarily involve unintended contact with a hazardous material.[6] Thus, for example, a gasoline storage tank loss of containment resulting in a fire is a process safety event, while a fall from height occurring while inspecting the tank is an OSH event. Although they may result in far higher impact to people, assets and the environment, process safety accidents are significantly less frequent than OSH events, with the latter account for the majority of workplace fatalities.[7] However, the impact of a single major process safety event on such aspects as regional environmental resources, company reputation, or the societal perception of the chemical and process industries, can be very considerable and is usually given prominent visibility in the media.The pivotal step in a process safety accident, around which a chain of accident causation and escalation can be built (including preventative and control/mitigative safety barriers), is generally the loss of containment of a hazardous material.[8] It is this occurrence that frees the chemical energy available for the harmful consequences to materialize. Inadequate isolation, overflow, runaway or unplanned chemical reaction, defective equipment, human error, procedural violation, inadequate procedures, blockage, corrosion, degradation of material properties, excessive mechanical stress, fatigue, vibration, overpressure, and incorrect installation are the usual proximate causes for such loss of containment.[9] If the material is flammable and encounters a source of ignition, a fire will take place. Under particular conditions, such as local congestion (e.g., arising from structures and piping in the area where the release occurred or the flammable gas cloud migrated), the flame front of a flammable gas cloud can accelerate and transition to an explosion, which can cause overpressure damage to nearby equipment and structures and harm to people. If the released chemical is a toxic gas or a liquid whose vapors are toxic, then a toxic gas cloud occurs, which may harm or kill people locally at the release source or remotely, if its size and the atmospheric conditions do not immediately result in its dilution to below hazardous concentration thresholds. Fires, explosions, and toxic clouds are the main types of accidents with which process safety is concerned.[10]In the domain of offshore oil and gas extraction, production, and subsea pipelines, the discipline of process safety is sometimes understood to extend to major accidents not directly associated with hazardous materials processing, storage, or transport. In this context, the potential for accidents such as ship collisions against oil platforms, loss of FPSO hull stability, or crew transportation accidents (such as from helicopter or boating events), is analyzed and managed with tools typical of process safety.[11]Process safety is usually associated with fixed onshore process and storage facilities, as well as fixed and floating offshore production and/or storage installations. However, process safety tools can and often are used (although to varying degrees) to analyze and manage bulk transportation of hazardous materials, such as by road tankers, rail tank cars, sea-going tankers, and onshore and offshore pipelines. Industrial domains that share similarities with the chemical process industries, and to which process safety concepts often apply, are nuclear power, fossil fuel power production, mining, steelmaking, foundries, etc. Some of these industries, notably nuclear power, follow an approach very similar to process safety's, which is usually referred to as system safety.","title":"Definition and scope"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"process industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_industries"},{"link_name":"hazard and operability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazard_and_operability_study"},{"link_name":"ICI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Chemical_Industries"},{"link_name":"failure mode and effects analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure_mode_and_effects_analysis"},{"link_name":"checklists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checklist"},{"link_name":"what-if reviews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_what-if_technique"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CCPS_2016-13"},{"link_name":"fault tree analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_tree_analysis"},{"link_name":"nuclear industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_industry"},{"link_name":"quantified risk assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quantified_Risk_Assessment&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"layer-of-protection analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layers_of_protection_analysis"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CCPS_2016-13"},{"link_name":"chemical engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering"},{"link_name":"instrumentation engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation_Engineering"},{"link_name":"asset management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asset_management"},{"link_name":"human factors and ergonomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics"},{"link_name":"reliability engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_engineering"},{"link_name":"Frank P. Lees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Lees"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Trevor Kletz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor_Kletz"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Dow Chemical Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dow_Chemical_Company"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"American Institute of Chemical Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Institute_of_Chemical_Engineers"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CCPS_2016-13"},{"link_name":"Center for Chemical Process Safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Center_for_Chemical_Process_Safety&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Bhopal tragedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal_disaster"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mannan_2012-10"},{"link_name":"Flixborough disaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flixborough_disaster"},{"link_name":"Seveso toxic gas cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seveso_disaster"},{"link_name":"Bhopal toxic gas cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal_disaster"},{"link_name":"Piper Alpha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_Alpha"},{"link_name":"Texas City refinery explosion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_City_Refinery_explosion"},{"link_name":"Buncefield tank farm fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buncefield_fire"},{"link_name":"explosion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deepwater_Horizon_explosion"},{"link_name":"oil spill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill"}],"text":"In the early chemical industry, processes were relatively simple and societal expectations regarding safety were low by today’s standards. As chemical technology evolved and increased in complexity, and, simultaneously, societal expectations for safety in industrial activities increased, it became clear that there was a need for increasingly specialized expertise and knowledge in safety and loss prevention for the chemical industry.[12] Organizations in the process industries originally had safety reviews for processes that relied on the experience and expertise of the people in the review. In the mid 20th century, more formal review techniques began to appear. These included the hazard and operability (HAZOP) review, developed by ICI in the 1960s, failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA), checklists and what-if reviews. These were mostly qualitative techniques for identifying the hazards of a process.[13]Quantitative analysis techniques, such as fault tree analysis (FTA, which had been in use by the nuclear industry), quantified risk assessment (QRA, also referred to as Quantitative Risk Analysis), and layer-of-protection analysis (LOPA) also began to be used in the process industries in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. Modeling techniques were developed for analyzing the consequences of spills and releases, explosions, and toxic exposure.[13]The expression \"process safety\" began to be used increasingly to define this engineering field of study. It was generally understood to be a branch of chemical engineering, as it primarily relied on the understanding of industrial chemical processes, as exemplified in the HAZOP technique. In time, it absorbed a range of elements from other disciplines (such as chemistry and physics for mathematical modelling of releases, fires and explosions, instrumentation engineering, asset management, human factors and ergonomics, reliability engineering, etc.), thus becoming a relatively interdisciplinary engineering domain, although at its core it remains strongly connected with the understanding of industrial process chemical technology. \"Process safety\" gradually prevailed over alternative terms; for example, Frank P. Lees in his monumental work Loss Prevention in the Process Industries[14] either used the titular expression or \"safety and loss prevention\", and so did Trevor Kletz,[15] a central figure in the development of this discipline. One of the first publications to use the term in its current sense is the Process Safety Guide by the Dow Chemical Company.[16]By the mid to late 1970s, process safety was a recognized technical specialty. The American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) formed its Safety and Health Division in 1979.[13] In 1985, AIChE established the Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), partly in response to the Bhopal tragedy occurred the previous year.[17]Lessons learnt from past events have been key in determining advances in process safety. Some of the major accidents that shaped it as an engineering discipline are:[10]The Flixborough disaster (1974)\nThe Seveso toxic gas cloud (1976)\nThe Bhopal toxic gas cloud (1984), the worst industrial accident ever occurred in terms of the number of fatalities\nThe Piper Alpha oil platform disaster (1988)\nThe Texas City refinery explosion (2005)\nThe Buncefield tank farm fire (2005)\nThe Deepwater Horizon explosion and oil spill (2010).","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mannan_2012-10"},{"link_name":"occupational safety and health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health"},{"link_name":"accident investigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accident_analysis"},{"link_name":"Inherently safer design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inherent_safety"},{"link_name":"safety culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_culture"},{"link_name":"Process safety management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_safety_management"},{"link_name":"standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_standard"},{"link_name":"asset integrity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asset_integrity_management_systems"},{"link_name":"contractor management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contractor_management"},{"link_name":"management of change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change_management"},{"link_name":"auditing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audit"},{"link_name":"audits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audit"},{"link_name":"checklists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checklist"},{"link_name":"MSDS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_data_sheet"},{"link_name":"hazard identification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hazard_Identification_(HAZID)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"structured what-if technique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_what-if_technique"},{"link_name":"hazard and operability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazard_and_operability_study"},{"link_name":"failure mode and effects analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure_mode_and_effects_analysis"},{"link_name":"human factors and ergonomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics"},{"link_name":"valves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valve"},{"link_name":"alarm management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alarm_management"},{"link_name":"control room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_room"},{"link_name":"natural hazards triggering technological accidents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_Hazards_Triggering_Technological_Accidents&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"2017 Arkema explosion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Arkema_plant_explosion"},{"link_name":"Crosby, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosby,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Hurricane Harvey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Harvey"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"pool fires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pool_fire"},{"link_name":"jet fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_fire_(type_of_fire)"},{"link_name":"flash fires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_fire"},{"link_name":"smoke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke"},{"link_name":"vapor cloud explosions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_explosion"},{"link_name":"BLEVEs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_liquid_expanding_vapor_explosion"},{"link_name":"dust explosions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_explosion"},{"link_name":"runaway reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_runaway"},{"link_name":"physiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology"},{"link_name":"toxicology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicology"},{"link_name":"statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics"},{"link_name":"depressurization and flare systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_flare"},{"link_name":"firefighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefighting"},{"link_name":"control rooms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_room"},{"link_name":"lifeboats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifeboat_(rescue)"},{"link_name":"risk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk"},{"link_name":"hazard indices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hazard_indices&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"preliminary hazard analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazard_analysis"},{"link_name":"risk matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_matrix"},{"link_name":"fault tree analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_tree_analysis"},{"link_name":"event tree analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_tree_analysis"},{"link_name":"layer-of-protection analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layers_of_protection_analysis"},{"link_name":"safety integrity level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_integrity_level"},{"link_name":"safety instrumented functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_instrumented_function"},{"link_name":"quantified risk assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_(sometimes:_Quantified)_Risk_Assessment&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"dynamic risk assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dynamic_Risk_Assessment&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"decision making","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision-making"},{"link_name":"land-use planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-use_planning"},{"link_name":"ALARP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALARP"},{"link_name":"cost-benefit analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis"},{"link_name":"value of a human life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_of_life"},{"link_name":"emergency management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_management"},{"link_name":"process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_engineering"},{"link_name":"mechanical engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_engineering"},{"link_name":"rupture discs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupture_disc"},{"link_name":"relief valves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relief_valve"},{"link_name":"depressurization and flare systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_flare"},{"link_name":"drainage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drainage"},{"link_name":"inerting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inerting_system"},{"link_name":"flame arrestors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flame_arrester"},{"link_name":"electrical engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering"},{"link_name":"passive fire protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_fire_protection"},{"link_name":"firefighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefighting"},{"link_name":"firewater pumps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_pump"},{"link_name":"fire protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_protection"}],"text":"The following is a list of topics covered in process safety.[10] There are some overlaps with equivalent domains from other disciplines, especially occupational safety and health (OSH), although the focus in process safety will always be specifically on the loss of control in the handling of hazardous materials at industrial scale.Process safety regulation, which has been established in several countries in the past decades.\nCompiling trends and statistics of past process safety events.\nThe study of past process accident history cases.\nProcess accident investigation.\nInherently safer design.\nProcess safety culture.\nProcess safety management (PSM). PSM covers business and operations management aspects that are known to be critical in the prevention, management, or mitigation of process accidents. These include, but are not limited to, compliance with standards, operators' competency, workforce involvement, operating procedures and safe work practices, management of asset integrity (for ensuring the performance of systems critical to plant safety), contractor management, management of change, operational readiness, selection and maintenance of process safety metrics, safety auditing, etc.\nHazard identification, using methods such as audits, checklists, review of MSDS, historical analysis, hazard identification (HAZID) reviews, structured what-if technique (SWIFT), hazard and operability (HAZOP) studies, failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA), etc.\nAspects of human factors and ergonomics, especially as pertains to criticality and operability of valves, alarm management, prevention and mitigation of control room operators errors, etc.\nAvoidance and mitigation of Natech (natural hazards triggering technological accidents), i.e. external environmental factors, such as earthquakes and extreme weather, that can escalate to a major process accident if process facilities are affected. An example of a Natech event is the 2017 Arkema explosion in Crosby, Texas, which was triggered by Hurricane Harvey.[18]\nThe physico-chemical study and modeling of:\nFluid emission rates resulting from accidental loss of containment.\nGas dispersion, for the assessment of the reach of toxic and flammable concentration contours.\nFire (typically in the form of pool fires, jet fire, flash fires, or fireballs), in terms of ignition sources, spread, radiative power transfer, and smoke dispersion.\nExplosions (vapor cloud explosions, BLEVEs, dust explosions) and closed vessel bursts, such as caused by runaway reactions.\nThe understanding and modeling of the vulnerability of people to the effect of fires (thermal radiation, smoke inhalation), explosion (blast overpressure, missiles, etc.), and toxic gas inhalation. This domain incorporates elements of human physiology, toxicology, and statistics.\nThe modeling of the effects of fire and explosion on structures and process equipment, for evaluating the possibility that an accident escalates to additional inventories of hazardous materials or damages facilities critical to emergency management (such as depressurization and flare systems, firefighting facilities, refuge buildings, control rooms, lifeboats on offshore installations, etc.).\nProcess risk assessment, which combines the evaluation of the accidental consequences of the hazard scenarios identified, with their effects on people and critical assets and with thewhat-if probability and/or the frequency with which the accidental scenarios are expected to occur. Risk assessment techniques include hazard indices, preliminary hazard analysis (PreHA, usually accomplished by the use of a risk matrix), fault tree analysis (FTA), event tree analysis (ETA), layer-of-protection analysis (LOPA, which is often used to determine the safety integrity level [SIL] of safety instrumented functions), quantified risk assessment (QRA), dynamic risk assessment etc.\nSupport to risk-based decision making. It is usually accepted that risk cannot be eliminated, and that a certain amount of residual risk will be accepted if the societal, financial, or other benefits of the hazardous process make it desirable. Examples of decision-making tools are land-use planning criteria, and the ALARP principle (which may require a cost-benefit analysis entailing sometimes controversial assumptions on the value of a human life).\nOnsite and offsite emergency management for process accidents.Strictly related to process safety, although for historical reasons usually not considered to belong to its domain, is the design of the following systems (note however that their selection is often the responsibility of a specialized process safety engineer):The definition of process equipment and piping mechanical and thermal specifications (by process and mechanical engineers).\nThe design of pressure relief devices, such as rupture discs and relief valves (by mechanical engineers, supported by process engineers).\nThe design of depressurization and flare systems (by process engineers).\nThe design of emergency liquid drainage facilities (by process engineers).\nThe design of ignition prevention systems, such as pressure vessel inerting (typically within the domain of process engineering), flame arrestors (mechanical engineering), and equipment for use in explosive atmospheres (largely left to electrical engineers).\nThe design of passive fire protection and active firefighting facilities (such as firewater pumps, distribution, etc.), usually under the purview of fire protection specialists.","title":"Topics in process safety"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"process safety management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_Safety_Management"},{"link_name":"regulated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_Safety_Management_(OSHA_regulation)"},{"link_name":"OSHA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"EPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Center for Chemical Process Safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Center_for_Chemical_Process_Safety&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-21"},{"link_name":"Energy Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Institute"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-21"},{"link_name":"safety culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_culture"},{"link_name":"standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_standard"},{"link_name":"permit-to-work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permit-to-work"},{"link_name":"Asset integrity management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asset_integrity_management_systems"},{"link_name":"Contractor management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contractor_management"},{"link_name":"Incident investigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accident_analysis"},{"link_name":"Auditing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audit"},{"link_name":"continuous improvement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continual_improvement_process"},{"link_name":"design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_design_process"},{"link_name":"front-end loading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front-end_loading"},{"link_name":"procurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procurement"},{"link_name":"commissioning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_commissioning"},{"link_name":"material and organizational changes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change_management"},{"link_name":"James T. Reason","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Reason"},{"link_name":"Swiss cheese model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_cheese_model"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bow_Ties_2018-8"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"Companies whose business heavily relies on the extraction, processing, storage, and/or transport of hazardous materials, usually integrate elements of process safety management (PSM) within their health and safety management system. PSM was notably regulated by the United States' OSHA in 1992.[19] The OSHA model for PSM is still widely used, not only in the US but also internationally. Other equivalent models and regulations have become available since, notably by the EPA,[20] the Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS),[21] and the UK's Energy Institute.[22]PSM schemes are organized in 'elements'. Different schemes are based on different lists of elements. This is the CCPS scheme for risk-based process safety, which can be reconciled with most other established PSM schemes:[21]Commit to process safety\nProcess safety culture\nCompliance with standards\nProcess safety competency\nWorkforce involvement\nStakeholder outreach\nUnderstand hazards and risks\nProcess knowledge and documentation management\nHazard identification and risk analysis\nManage risk\nOperating procedures\nSafe work practices (e.g. a permit-to-work system)\nAsset integrity management\nContractor management\nTraining and performance assurance\nManagement of change\nOperational readiness\nConduct of operations\nEmergency management\nLearn from experience\nIncident investigation\nProcess safety metrics and performance measurement\nAuditing\nManagement review and continuous improvementWhile originally designed eminently for plants in their operations phase, elements of PSM can and should be implemented through the entire lifecycle of a project, wherever applicable. This includes design (from front-end loading to detailed design), procurement of equipment, commissioning, operations, material and organizational changes, and decommissioning.A common model used to represent and explain the various different but connected systems related to achieving process safety is described by James T. Reason's Swiss cheese model.[8][23] In this model, barriers that prevent, detect, control and mitigate a major accident are depicted as slices, each having a number of holes. The holes represent imperfections in the barrier, which can be defined as specific performance standards. The better managed the barrier, the smaller these holes will be. When a major accident happens, this is invariably because all the imperfections in the barriers (the holes) have lined up. It is the multiplicity of barriers that provide the protection.","title":"Management"}]	[]	[{"title":"Chemical safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_safety"},{"title":"Functional safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_safety"},{"title":"Process safety management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_safety_management"}]	[{"reference":"CCPS. \"Process Safety FAQs\". AIChE. Retrieved 2023-06-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.aiche.org/ccps/process-safety-faqs","url_text":"\"Process Safety FAQs\""}]},{"reference":"IOGP. \"Process safety\". IOGP. Retrieved 2023-06-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOGP","url_text":"IOGP"},{"url":"https://www.iogp.org/workstreams/safety/safety/process-safety/","url_text":"\"Process safety\""}]},{"reference":"Stand Together for Safety (2016). Process Safety - A Good Practice Guide (PDF). Stand Together for Safety. p. 37.","urls":[{"url":"https://appea.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Process-Safety-Guide-April-2016.pdf","url_text":"Process Safety - A Good Practice Guide"}]},{"reference":"API (2016). API Recommended Practice 754 - Process Safety Performance Indicators for the Refining and Petrochemical Industries (2nd ed.). American Petroleum Institute. p. 8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Petroleum_Institute","url_text":"API"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Petroleum_Institute","url_text":"American Petroleum Institute"}]},{"reference":"CCPS (2012). Guidelines for Engineering Design for Process Safety (2nd ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. p. xxviii. ISBN 978-0-470-76772-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons","url_text":"John Wiley & Sons"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-76772-6","url_text":"978-0-470-76772-6"}]},{"reference":"Hume, Alastair (2021-09-27). \"The Definition of Process Safety\". blog.safetysolutions.co.nz. Retrieved 2023-06-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://blog.safetysolutions.co.nz/the-definition-of-process-safety","url_text":"\"The Definition of Process Safety\""}]},{"reference":"Hopkins, Andrew (2007). Thinking About Process Safety Indicators. Canberra: Australian National University. p. 3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_National_University","url_text":"Australian National University"}]},{"reference":"CCPS; Energy Institute (2018). Bow Ties in Risk Management: A Concept Book for Process Safety. New York, N.Y. and Hoboken, N.J.: AIChE and John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781119490395.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Institute","url_text":"Energy Institute"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIChE","url_text":"AIChE"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons","url_text":"John Wiley & Sons"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781119490395","url_text":"9781119490395"}]},{"reference":"Collins, Alison; Keeley, Deborah (2003). Loss of Containment Incident Analysis (PDF). HSL/2003/07. Sheffield: Health and Safety Laboratory.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hse.gov.uk/research/hsl_pdf/2003/hsl03-07.pdf","url_text":"Loss of Containment Incident Analysis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_and_Safety_Laboratory","url_text":"Health and Safety Laboratory"}]},{"reference":"Mannan, Sam (2012). Lees' Loss Prevention in the Process Industries (4th ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-12-397189-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._Sam_Mannan","url_text":"Mannan, Sam"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterworth-Heinemann","url_text":"Butterworth-Heinemann"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-397189-0","url_text":"978-0-12-397189-0"}]},{"reference":"Khan, Faisal, ed. (2018). Methods in Chemical Process Safety. Vol. 2 - Offshore Process Safety. Cambridge, Mass.: Academic Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Press","url_text":"Academic Press"}]},{"reference":"Hendershot, Dennis C. (2009). \"A History of Process Safety and Loss Prevention in the American Institute of Chemical Engineers\". Process Safety Progress. 28 (2): 105–113. doi:10.1002/prs.10318.","urls":[{"url":"https://aiche.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/prs.10318","url_text":"\"A History of Process Safety and Loss Prevention in the American Institute of Chemical Engineers\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Process_Safety_Progress&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Process Safety Progress"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fprs.10318","url_text":"10.1002/prs.10318"}]},{"reference":"CCPS (2016). Introduction to Process Safety for Undergraduates and Engineers. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-94950-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons","url_text":"John Wiley & Sons"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-94950-4","url_text":"978-1-118-94950-4"}]},{"reference":"Lees, Frank P. (1980). Loss Prevention in the Process Industries (1st ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 9780750615228.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Lees","url_text":"Lees, Frank P."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterworth-Heinemann","url_text":"Butterworth-Heinemann"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780750615228","url_text":"9780750615228"}]},{"reference":"Kletz, Trevor A. (1999). \"The Origins and History of Loss Prevention\". Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 77 (3): 109–116. doi:10.1205/095758299529938. ISSN 0957-5820.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor_Kletz","url_text":"Kletz, Trevor A."},{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1205/095758299529938","url_text":"\"The Origins and History of Loss Prevention\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1205%2F095758299529938","url_text":"10.1205/095758299529938"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0957-5820","url_text":"0957-5820"}]},{"reference":"Dow Chemical Company (1964). Dow’s Process Safety Guide (1st ed.).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dow_Chemical_Company","url_text":"Dow Chemical Company"}]},{"reference":"CCPS (2012-04-12). \"History\". AIChE. Retrieved 2023-06-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.aiche.org/ccps/history","url_text":"\"History\""}]},{"reference":"OECD (2022). The Impact of Natural Hazards on Hazardous Installations (PDF). Paris: OECD. Retrieved 2023-06-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OECD","url_text":"OECD"},{"url":"https://www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/chemical-accidents/impact-of-natural-hazards-on-hazardous-installations.pdf","url_text":"The Impact of Natural Hazards on Hazardous Installations"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OECD","url_text":"OECD"}]},{"reference":"\"Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29, Subtitle B, Chapter XVII, Part 1910, Subpart H § 1910.119\". eCFR. 2023-06-15. Retrieved 2023-06-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-29/subtitle-B/chapter-XVII/part-1910/subpart-H/section-1910.119","url_text":"\"Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29, Subtitle B, Chapter XVII, Part 1910, Subpart H § 1910.119\""}]},{"reference":"EPA (2013-10-29). \"Risk Management Program (RMP) Rule Overview\". EPA. Archived from the original on 2023-06-18. Retrieved 2023-06-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency","url_text":"EPA"},{"url":"https://www.epa.gov/rmp/risk-management-program-rmp-rule-overview","url_text":"\"Risk Management Program (RMP) Rule Overview\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230618013713/https://www.epa.gov/rmp/risk-management-program-rmp-rule-overview","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"CCPS (2007). Guidelines for Risk Based Process Safety. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-16569-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons","url_text":"John Wiley & Sons"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-16569-0","url_text":"978-0-470-16569-0"}]},{"reference":"Energy Institute (2010). High Level Framework for Process Safety Management (1st ed.). London: Energy Institute. ISBN 978 0 85293 584 2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Institute","url_text":"Energy Institute"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Institute","url_text":"Energy Institute"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978_0_85293_584_2","url_text":"978 0 85293 584 2"}]},{"reference":"Reason, James (1990). Human Error. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Reason","url_text":"Reason, James"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.aiche.org/ccps/process-safety-faqs","external_links_name":"\"Process Safety FAQs\""},{"Link":"https://www.iogp.org/workstreams/safety/safety/process-safety/","external_links_name":"\"Process safety\""},{"Link":"https://appea.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Process-Safety-Guide-April-2016.pdf","external_links_name":"Process Safety - A Good Practice Guide"},{"Link":"https://blog.safetysolutions.co.nz/the-definition-of-process-safety","external_links_name":"\"The Definition of Process Safety\""},{"Link":"https://www.hse.gov.uk/research/hsl_pdf/2003/hsl03-07.pdf","external_links_name":"Loss of Containment Incident Analysis"},{"Link":"https://aiche.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/prs.10318","external_links_name":"\"A History of Process Safety and Loss Prevention in the American Institute of Chemical Engineers\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fprs.10318","external_links_name":"10.1002/prs.10318"},{"Link":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1205/095758299529938","external_links_name":"\"The Origins and History of Loss Prevention\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1205%2F095758299529938","external_links_name":"10.1205/095758299529938"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0957-5820","external_links_name":"0957-5820"},{"Link":"https://www.aiche.org/ccps/history","external_links_name":"\"History\""},{"Link":"https://www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/chemical-accidents/impact-of-natural-hazards-on-hazardous-installations.pdf","external_links_name":"The Impact of Natural Hazards on Hazardous Installations"},{"Link":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-29/subtitle-B/chapter-XVII/part-1910/subpart-H/section-1910.119","external_links_name":"\"Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29, Subtitle B, Chapter XVII, Part 1910, Subpart H § 1910.119\""},{"Link":"https://www.epa.gov/rmp/risk-management-program-rmp-rule-overview","external_links_name":"\"Risk Management Program (RMP) Rule Overview\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230618013713/https://www.epa.gov/rmp/risk-management-program-rmp-rule-overview","external_links_name":"Archived"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VisiCorp	VisiCorp	["1 References"]	This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message) VisiCorpFounded1977 MassachusettsFoundersDan Fylstra, Peter R Jennings VisiCorp was an early personal computer software publisher. Its most famous products were Microchess, Visi On and VisiCalc. It was founded in 1977 by Dan Fylstra as the software publisher Personal Software. In 1978, it merged with Peter R. Jennings's Toronto-based software publisher Micro-Ware, with the two taking a 50% ownership each in the resulting company and Personal Software becoming the name of the combined company. It continued to publish the software from its original constituents, including Jennings' Microchess program for the MOS Technology KIM-1 computer, and later Commodore PET, Apple II, TRS-80, and Atari 8-bit computers. In 1979 it released VisiCalc, which would be so successful that in 1982 the company was renamed VisiCorp Personal Software, Inc.. VisiCalc was the first electronic spreadsheet for personal computers, developed by Software Arts and published by VisiCorp. Visi On was the first GUI for the IBM PC. Bill Gates came to see Visi On at a trade show, and this seems what inspired him to create a windowed GUI for Microsoft. VisiCorp was larger than Microsoft at the time, and the two companies entered negotiations to merge, but could not agree on who would sit on the board of directors. Microsoft Windows when it was released included a wide range of drivers, so it could run on many different PCs, while Visi On cost more, and had stricter system requirements. Lotus released Lotus 1-2-3 in 1983. Microsoft eventually released its own spreadsheet Microsoft Excel. Early alumni of this company included Ed Esber who would later run Ashton-Tate, Bill Coleman who would found BEA Systems, Mitch Kapor founder of Lotus Software and the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Rich Melmon who would co-found Electronic Arts, Bruce Wallace author of Asteroids in Space, and Brad Templeton who would found early dot-com company ClariNet and was the director of the Electronic Frontier Foundation from 2000 to 2010. VisiCorp agreed in 1979 to pay 36-50% of VisiCalc revenue to Software Arts, compared to typical software royalties of 8-12%. It composed 70% of VisiCorp revenue in 1982 and 58% in 1983. By 1984 InfoWorld stated that although VisiCorp's $43 million in 1983 sales made it the world's fifth-largest microcomputer-software company, it was "a company under siege" with "rapidly declining" VisiCalc sales and mediocre Visi On sales. The magazine wrote that "VisiCorp's auspicious climb and subsequent backslide will no doubt become a How Not To primer for software companies of the future, much like Osborne Computer's story has become the How Not To for the hardware industry." VisiCorp was sold to Paladin Software after a legal feud between Software Arts and VisiCorp. References ^ a b Andrew Pollack (February 26, 1984). "How a software winner went sour". The New York Times. ^ "Oral History of Peter Jennings \| Mastering the Game \| Computer History Museum". ^ Lemmons, Phil (June 1983). "A Guided Tour of Visi On". BYTE. Vol. 8, no. 6. pp. 256–278. Retrieved 20 October 2013. ^ Woodmansee, George (July 1983). "Visi On's Interface Design". BYTE. Vol. 8, no. 7. pp. 166–182. Retrieved 20 October 2013. ^ "A sidebar to the article "Ten Years of Rows and Columns" published in Byte, issue 13/1989, pp. 326-328". Yeah, we called it all sorts of things – electronic ledger, electronic blackboard, visible calculator – that's what we finally based the name, VisiCalc, on. ^ Nooney, Laine (2023). The Apple II Age: How the Computer Became Personal. University of Chicago Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-226-81652-4. ^ a b "Oral History of Peter Jennings". Computer History Museum. 1 February 2005. ^ Miller, Michael J. (July 7, 1986). "First Look: Supercalc 4 challenging 1-2-3 with new tactic". InfoWorld. Vol. 8, no. 27. Infoworld Media Group, Inc. p. 30. ^ Caruso, Denise (1984-04-02). "Company Strategies Boomerang". InfoWorld. Vol. 6, no. 14. pp. 80–83. Retrieved 10 February 2015. This article about an IT-related or software-related company or corporation is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TKsour.NYT-1"},{"link_name":"personal computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"Microchess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microchess"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Visi On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visi_On"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lemmons198306-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-woodmansee198307-4"},{"link_name":"VisiCalc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VisiCalc"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Dan Fylstra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Fylstra"},{"link_name":"Peter R. Jennings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_R._Jennings"},{"link_name":"Microchess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microchess"},{"link_name":"MOS Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology"},{"link_name":"KIM-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIM-1"},{"link_name":"Commodore PET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_PET"},{"link_name":"Apple II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_II_series"},{"link_name":"TRS-80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRS-80"},{"link_name":"Atari 8-bit computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_8-bit_computers"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHMinterview-7"},{"link_name":"VisiCalc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VisiCalc"},{"link_name":"spreadsheet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadsheet"},{"link_name":"Software Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_Arts"},{"link_name":"Visi On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visi_On"},{"link_name":"GUI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface"},{"link_name":"IBM PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer"},{"link_name":"Bill Gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Gates"},{"link_name":"Visi On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visi_On"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"Visi On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visi_On"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHMinterview-7"},{"link_name":"Lotus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Software"},{"link_name":"Lotus 1-2-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Excel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Excel"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Ed Esber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Esber"},{"link_name":"Ashton-Tate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashton-Tate"},{"link_name":"BEA Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BEA_Systems"},{"link_name":"Mitch Kapor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitch_Kapor"},{"link_name":"Lotus Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Software"},{"link_name":"Electronic Frontier Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Electronic Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Arts"},{"link_name":"Asteroids in Space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroids_(video_game)#Games_featuring_Asteroids"},{"link_name":"Brad Templeton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_Templeton"},{"link_name":"dot-com company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot-com_company"},{"link_name":"ClariNet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ClariNet"},{"link_name":"Electronic Frontier Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Software Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_Arts"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TKsour.NYT-1"},{"link_name":"Osborne Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osborne_Computer_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-caruso19840402-9"}],"text":"VisiCorp[1] was an early personal computer software publisher. Its most famous products were Microchess,[2] Visi On[3][4] and VisiCalc.[5]It was founded in 1977[6] by Dan Fylstra as the software publisher Personal Software. In 1978, it merged with Peter R. Jennings's Toronto-based software publisher Micro-Ware, with the two taking a 50% ownership each in the resulting company and Personal Software becoming the name of the combined company. It continued to publish the software from its original constituents, including Jennings' Microchess program for the MOS Technology KIM-1 computer, and later Commodore PET, Apple II, TRS-80, and Atari 8-bit computers.[7] In 1979 it released VisiCalc, which would be so successful that in 1982 the company was renamed VisiCorp Personal Software, Inc..VisiCalc was the first electronic spreadsheet for personal computers, developed by Software Arts and published by VisiCorp.\nVisi On was the first GUI for the IBM PC.Bill Gates came to see Visi On at a trade show, and this seems what inspired him to create a windowed GUI for Microsoft. VisiCorp was larger than Microsoft at the time, and the two companies entered negotiations to merge, but could not agree on who would sit on the board of directors. Microsoft Windows when it was released included a wide range of drivers, so it could run on many different PCs, while Visi On cost more, and had stricter system requirements.[7] Lotus released Lotus 1-2-3 in 1983. Microsoft eventually released its own spreadsheet Microsoft Excel.[8]Early alumni of this company included Ed Esber who would later run Ashton-Tate, Bill Coleman who would found BEA Systems, Mitch Kapor founder of Lotus Software and the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Rich Melmon who would co-found Electronic Arts, Bruce Wallace author of Asteroids in Space, and Brad Templeton who would found early dot-com company ClariNet and was the director of the Electronic Frontier Foundation from 2000 to 2010.VisiCorp agreed in 1979 to pay 36-50% of VisiCalc revenue to Software Arts,[1] compared to typical software royalties of 8-12%. It composed 70% of VisiCorp revenue in 1982 and 58% in 1983. By 1984 InfoWorld stated that although VisiCorp's $43 million in 1983 sales made it the world's fifth-largest microcomputer-software company, it was \"a company under siege\" with \"rapidly declining\" VisiCalc sales and mediocre Visi On sales. The magazine wrote that \"VisiCorp's auspicious climb and subsequent backslide will no doubt become a How Not To primer for software companies of the future, much like Osborne Computer's story has become the How Not To for the hardware industry.\"\n[9] VisiCorp was sold to Paladin Software after a legal feud between Software Arts and VisiCorp.","title":"VisiCorp"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Andrew Pollack (February 26, 1984). \"How a software winner went sour\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1984/02/26/business/how-a-software-winner-went-sour.html","url_text":"\"How a software winner went sour\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Oral History of Peter Jennings \| Mastering the Game \| Computer History Museum\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerhistory.org/chess/orl-4334404555680/","url_text":"\"Oral History of Peter Jennings \| Mastering the Game \| Computer History Museum\""}]},{"reference":"Lemmons, Phil (June 1983). \"A Guided Tour of Visi On\". BYTE. Vol. 8, no. 6. pp. 256–278. Retrieved 20 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1983-06/1983_06_BYTE_08-06_16-Bit_Designs#page/n255/mode/2up","url_text":"\"A Guided Tour of Visi On\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte_(magazine)","url_text":"BYTE"}]},{"reference":"Woodmansee, George (July 1983). \"Visi On's Interface Design\". BYTE. Vol. 8, no. 7. pp. 166–182. Retrieved 20 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1983-07/1983_07_BYTE_08-07_Videotex#page/n165/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Visi On's Interface Design\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte_(magazine)","url_text":"BYTE"}]},{"reference":"\"A sidebar to the article \"Ten Years of Rows and Columns\" published in Byte, issue 13/1989, pp. 326-328\". Yeah, we called it all sorts of things – electronic ledger, electronic blackboard, visible calculator – that's what we finally based the name, VisiCalc, on.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aresluna.org/attached/computerhistory/articles/spreadsheets/tenyearsofrowsandcolumns/birthingthevisiblecalculator","url_text":"\"A sidebar to the article \"Ten Years of Rows and Columns\" published in Byte, issue 13/1989, pp. 326-328\""}]},{"reference":"Nooney, Laine (2023). The Apple II Age: How the Computer Became Personal. University of Chicago Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-226-81652-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press","url_text":"University of Chicago Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-81652-4","url_text":"978-0-226-81652-4"}]},{"reference":"\"Oral History of Peter Jennings\". Computer History Museum. 1 February 2005.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerhistory.org/chess/orl-4334404555680/","url_text":"\"Oral History of Peter Jennings\""}]},{"reference":"Miller, Michael J. (July 7, 1986). \"First Look: Supercalc 4 challenging 1-2-3 with new tactic\". InfoWorld. Vol. 8, no. 27. Infoworld Media Group, Inc. p. 30.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Vi8EAAAAMBAJ&q=macintosh%20spreadsheet%20arrow%20keys%20multiplan&pg=PA30","url_text":"\"First Look: Supercalc 4 challenging 1-2-3 with new tactic\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoWorld","url_text":"InfoWorld"}]},{"reference":"Caruso, Denise (1984-04-02). \"Company Strategies Boomerang\". InfoWorld. Vol. 6, no. 14. pp. 80–83. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solutrean	Solutrean	["1 Details","2 Solutrean hypothesis in North American archaeology","3 Physical characteristics","4 Gallery","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]	Archaeological industry of the European Upper Paleolithic It is unclear whether radiocarbon dates in this article are calibrated or not. Please help improve this article by clarifying whether the given dates are calibrated (BC/BCE or cal BP) or uncalibrated (uncal BP or bp). (August 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) SolutreanGeographical rangeWestern EuropePeriodUpper PaleolithicDatesc. 22,000 – c. 17,000 BPType siteParc archéologique et botanique de SolutréPreceded byGravettianFollowed byMagdalenian in France, and Iberia; in the latter after a transition through the Badegoulien SersSolutréclass=notpageimage\| Map of Europe showing important sites of the Solutrean (clickable map). The Paleolithic ↑ Pliocene (before Homo) Lower Paleolithic (c. 3.3 Ma – 300 ka) Lomekwi (3.3 Ma) Oldowan (2.6–1.7 Ma) Acheulean (1.76–0.13 Ma) Madrasian (1.5 Ma) Soanian (500–130 ka) Clactonian (424–400 ka) Mugharan (400–220 ka) Middle Paleolithic (c. 300–50 ka) Mousterian (160–40 ka) Aterian (145–20 ka) Micoquien (130–70 ka) Sangoan (130–10 ka) Upper Paleolithic (c. 50–12 ka) Initial Upper Paleolithic Fertile Crescent: Emiran (50–40 ka) Ahmarian (46–42 ka) Baradostian (36–18 ka) Aurignacian (35–29 ka) Zarzian (20–10 ka) Kebaran (18–12.5 ka) Trialetian (16–8 ka) Natufian (14.5–11.5 ka) Khiamian (12.2–10.8 ka) Europe: Bohunician (48–40 ka) Châtelperronian (44.5–36 ka) Lincombian-Ranisian-Jerzmanowician (43–32 ka) Aurignacian (43–26 ka) Szeletian (41,000-37,000) Périgordian (35–20 ka) Gravettian (33–24 ka) Pavlovian (29–25 ka) Solutrean (22–17 ka) Epigravettian (20–10 ka) Magdalenian (17–12 ka) Hamburg (15.5–13.1 ka) Federmesser (14–12.8 ka) Azilian (14–10 ka) Ahrensburg (13–12 ka) Swiderian (11–8 ka) Africa: Khormusan (42–18 ka) Iberomaurusian (25–11 ka) Mushabian Halfan (22–14 ka) Qadan (15—11 ka) Sebilian (15–11 ka) Eburran (15–5 ka) Magosian (10–8 ka) Siberia: Mal'ta–Buret' (24–15 ka) Afontova Gora (21–12 ka} ↓ Mesolithicvte The Solutrean /səˈljuːtriən/ industry is a relatively advanced flint tool-making style of the Upper Paleolithic of the Final Gravettian, from around 22,000 to 17,000 BP. Solutrean sites have been found in modern-day France, Spain and Portugal. Details The term Solutrean comes from the type-site of "Cros du Charnier", dating to around 21,000 years ago and located at Solutré, in east-central France near Mâcon. The Rock of Solutré site was discovered in 1866 by the French geologist and paleontologist Henry Testot-Ferry. It is now preserved as the Parc archéologique et botanique de Solutré. The industry was named by Gabriel de Mortillet to describe the second stage of his system of cave chronology, following the Mousterian, and he considered it synchronous with the third division of the Quaternary period. The era's finds include tools, ornamental beads, and bone pins as well as prehistoric art. Solutrean tool-making employed techniques not seen before and not rediscovered for millennia. The Solutrean has relatively finely worked, bifacial points made with lithic reduction percussion and pressure flaking rather than flintknapping. Knapping was done using antler batons, hardwood batons and soft stone hammers. This method permitted the working of delicate slivers of flint to make light projectiles and even elaborate barbed and tanged arrowheads. Large thin spearheads; scrapers with edge not on the side but on the end; flint knives and saws, but all still chipped, not ground or polished; long spear-points, with tang and shoulder on one side only, are also characteristic implements of this industry. Bone and antler were used as well. The Solutrean may be seen as a transitional stage between the flint implements of the Mousterian and the bone implements of the Magdalenian epochs. Faunal finds include horses, reindeer, ibex, mammoths, cave lions, rhinoceroses, bears and aurochs. Solutrean finds have also been made in the caves of Les Eyzies and Laugerie-Haute , and in the Lower Beds of Creswell Crags in Derbyshire, England (Proto-Solutrean). The industry first appeared in what is now Spain, and disappears from the archaeological record around 17,000 BP. Solutrean hypothesis in North American archaeology Main article: Solutrean hypothesis The Solutrean hypothesis argues that people from Europe may have been among the earliest settlers of the Americas. Its notable recent proponents include Dennis Stanford of the Smithsonian Institution and Bruce Bradley of the University of Exeter. This hypothesis contrasts with the mainstream archaeological consensus that the North American continent was first populated by people from Asia, either by the Bering land bridge (i.e. Beringia) at least 13,500 years ago, or by maritime travel along the Pacific coast, or by both. The idea of a Clovis-Solutrean link remains controversial and does not enjoy wide acceptance. The hypothesis is challenged by large gaps in time between the Clovis culture and Solutrean eras, a lack of evidence of Solutrean seafaring, lack of specific Solutrean features and tools in Clovis technology, the difficulties of the route, and other issues. In 2014, the autosomal DNA of a male infant (Anzick-1) from a 12,500-year-old deposit in Montana was sequenced. The skeleton was found in close association with several Clovis artifacts. Comparisons showed strong affinities with DNA from Siberian sites, and virtually ruled out any close affinity of Anzick-1 with European sources. The DNA of the Anzick-1 sample showed strong affinities with sampled Native American populations, which indicated that the samples derive from an ancient population that lived in or near Siberia, the Upper Paleolithic Mal'ta population. Physical characteristics Examination of physical remains from the Solutrean period has determined that they were of a slightly more gracile type than the preceding Gravettian culture. Males were rather tall, with some skeletons being up to 179 cm tall. Volume 4 of the Portuguese Magazine of Archaeology from 2001 examined a Solutrean female individual whose physical remains are described as "having postcranial elements that derive from a relatively small and gracile individual". The teeth of Solutrean individuals are described as being similar in appearance to those belonging to the people of the Gravettian. Gallery Solutrean tools, 22,000–17,000 BP, Crot du Charnier, Solutré-Pouilly, Saône-et-Loire, France Flint point from Volgu in the National Archeological Museum in France Solutrean caves in Aujac, Gard Solutrean cave art at Altamira See also Preceded byGravettian Solutrean 22,000–17,000 BP Succeeded byMagdalenian Franco-Cantabrian region Gravettian Last Glacial Maximum References ^ a b c One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Solutrian Epoch". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 377. ^ Yravedra, José; Julien, Marie-Anne; Alcaraz-Castaño, Manuel; Estaca-Gómez, Verónica; Alcolea-González, Javier; de Balbín-Behrmann, Rodrigo; Lécuyer, Christophe; Marcel, Claude Hillaire; Burke, Ariane (15 May 2016). "Not so deserted…paleoecology and human subsistence in Central Iberia (Guadalajara, Spain) around the Last Glacial Maximum". Quaternary Science Reviews. 140: 21–38. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.03.021. ISSN 0277-3791. Retrieved 3 March 2024 – via Elsevier Science Direct. ^ Bradley, Bruce; Stanford, Dennis (2004). "The North Atlantic ice-edge corridor: a possible Paleolithic route to the New World" (PDF). World Archaeology. 36 (4): 459–478. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.694.6801. doi:10.1080/0043824042000303656. S2CID 161534521. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 March 2013. Retrieved 1 March 2012. ^ Carey, Bjorn (19 February 2006). "First Americans may have been European". Live Science. Retrieved 1 March 2012. ^ Vastag, Brian (1 March 2012). "Theory jolts familiar view of first Americans". The Washington Post. pp. A1, A9. Retrieved 1 March 2012. ^ Mann, Charles C. (Nov 2013), "The Clovis Point and the Discovery of America's First Culture," Smithsonian Magazine, ^ Straus, L.G. (April 2000). "Solutrean settlement of North America? A review of reality". American Antiquity. 65 (2): 219–226. doi:10.2307/2694056. JSTOR 2694056. S2CID 162349551. ^ Westley, Kieran and Justin Dix (2008). "The Solutrean Atlantic Hypothesis: A View from the Ocean". Journal of the North Atlantic. 1: 85–98. doi:10.3721/J080527. S2CID 130294767. ^ Rasmussen M, Anzick SL, et al. (2014). "The genome of a Late Pleistocene human from a Clovis burial site in western Montana". Nature. 506 (7487): 225–229. Bibcode:2014Natur.506..225R. doi:10.1038/nature13025. PMC 4878442. PMID 24522598. ^ "Ancient American's genome mapped". BBC News. 14 February 2014. ^ White, Randall (January 2008). "The Archaeology of Solvieux: An Upper Palaeolithic Open Air Site in France". American Anthropologist. 103: 228–229. doi:10.1525/aa.2001.103.1.228 – via researchgate. ^ Peregrine, Peter N.; Ember, Melvin, eds. (2001). Encyclopedia of Prehistory: Volume 4: Europe. Springer US. ISBN 978-0-306-46258-0. ^ Straus, L.; Morales, M. R. (2009). "A preliminary description of Solutrean occupations in El Mirón cave (Ramales de la Victoria, Cantabria)". S2CID 210020037. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires \|journal= (help) ^ Trinkaus, Erik (July 2001). "Upper Paleolithic human remains from the Gruta do Caldeirão, Tomar, Portugal" (PDF). Portuguese Magazine of Archaeology. 4: 1 – via bristol.ac.uk. ^ Heinrich, Hartmut (1 March 1988). "Origin and consequences of cyclic ice rafting in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean during the past 130,000 years". Quaternary Research. 29 (2): 142–152. Bibcode:1988QuRes..29..142H. doi:10.1016/0033-5894(88)90057-9. ISSN 0033-5894. S2CID 129842509. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Solutrean. Clovis and Solutrean: Is There a Common Thread? by James M. Chandler Stone Age Columbus BBC TV programme summary "America's Stone Age Explorers" transcript of 2004 NOVA program on PBS Images of Solutrean artifacts Radical theory of first Americans places Stone Age Europeans in Delmarva 20,000 years ago Washington Post article from 28 February 2012 Picture gallery of the Paleolithic (reconstructional palaeoethnology), Libor Balák at the Czech Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Archaeology in Brno, The Center for Paleolithic and Paleoethnological Research vtePrehistoric technology Prehistory Timeline Outline Stone Age Subdivisions New Stone Age Technology history Glossary ToolsFarming Neolithic Revolution Founder crops New World crops Ard / plough Celt Digging stick Domestication Goad Irrigation Secondary products Sickle Terracing Food processing Fire Basket Cooking Earth oven Granaries Grinding slab Ground stone Hearth Aşıklı Höyük Qesem cave Manos Metate Mortar and pestle Pottery Quern-stone Storage pits Hunting Arrow Boomerang throwing stick Bow and arrow history Nets Spear spear-thrower baton harpoon Schöningen woomera Projectile points Arrowhead Transverse Bare Island Cascade Clovis Cresswell Cumberland Eden Folsom Lamoka Manis Mastodon Plano Systems Game drive system Buffalo jump Toolmaking Earliest toolmaking Oldowan Acheulean Mousterian Aurignacian Clovis culture Cupstone Fire hardening Gravettian culture Hafting Hand axe Grooves Langdale axe industry Levallois technique Lithic core Lithic reduction analysis debitage flake Lithic technology Magdalenian culture Metallurgy Microblade technology Mining Prepared-core technique Solutrean industry Striking platform Tool stone Uniface Yubetsu technique Other tools Adze Awl bone Axe Bannerstone Blade prismatic Bone tool Bow drill Burin Canoe Oar Pesse canoe Chopper tool Cleaver Denticulate tool Fire plough Fire-saw Hammerstone Knife Microlith Quern-stone Racloir Rope Scraper side Stone tool Tally stick Weapons Wheel illustration ArchitectureCeremonial Kiva Pyramid Standing stones megalith row Stonehenge Dwellings Neolithic architecture long house British megalith architecture Nordic megalith architecture Burdei Cave Cliff dwelling Dugout Hut Quiggly hole Jacal Longhouse Mudbrick Mehrgarh Pit-house Pueblitos Pueblo Rock shelter Blombos Cave Abri de la Madeleine Sibudu Cave Roundhouse Stilt house Alp pile dwellings Stone roof Wattle and daub Water management Check dam Cistern Flush toilet Reservoir Well Other architecture Archaeological features Broch Burnt mound fulacht fiadh Causewayed enclosure Tor enclosure Circular enclosure Goseck Cursus Henge Thornborough Megalithic architectural elements Midden Oldest extant buildings Timber circle Timber trackway Sweet Track Arts and cultureMaterial goods Baskets Beadwork Beds Chalcolithic Clothing/textiles timeline Cosmetics Glue Hides shoes Ötzi Jewelry amber use Mirrors Pottery Cardium Cord-marked Grooved ware Jōmon Linear Unstan ware Sewing needle Weaving Wine winery wine press Prehistoric art Art of the Upper Paleolithic Art of the Middle Paleolithic Blombos Cave List of Stone Age art Bird stone Cairn Carved stone balls Cave paintings Cup and ring mark Geoglyph Hill figure Golden hats Guardian stones Gwion Gwion rock paintings painting pigment Megalithic art Petroform Petroglyph Petrosomatoglyph Pictogram Rock art Rock cupule Stone carving Sculpture Statue menhir Stone circle list British Isles and Brittany Venus figurine Burial Burial mounds Bowl barrow Round barrow Mound Builders culture U.S. sites Chamber tomb Cotswold-Severn Cist Dartmoor kistvaens Clava cairn Court cairn Cremation Dolmen Great dolmen Funeral pyre Gallery grave transepted wedge-shaped Grave goods Jar burial Long barrow unchambered Grønsalen Megalithic tomb Mummy Passage grave Rectangular dolmen Ring cairn Simple dolmen Stone box grave Tor cairn Unchambered long cairn Other cultural Archaeoastronomy sites lunar calendar Behavioral modernity Evolutionary musicology music archaeology Evolutionary origin of religion Paleolithic religion Prehistoric religion Spiritual drug use Origin of language Prehistoric counting Prehistoric medicine trepanning Prehistoric music Alligator drum flutes Divje Babe flute gudi Prehistoric warfare Symbols symbolism	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_blank_laea_location_map.svg"},{"link_name":"Sers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sers,_Charente"},{"link_name":"Solutré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parc_arch%C3%A9ologique_et_botanique_de_Solutr%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"class=notpageimage\|","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_blank_laea_location_map.svg"},{"link_name":"/səˈljuːtriən/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_industry"},{"link_name":"flint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint"},{"link_name":"Upper Paleolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic"},{"link_name":"Gravettian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravettian"},{"link_name":"BP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before_Present"}],"text":"SersSolutréclass=notpageimage\| Map of Europe showing important sites of the Solutrean (clickable map).The Solutrean /səˈljuːtriən/ industry is a relatively advanced flint tool-making style of the Upper Paleolithic of the Final Gravettian, from around 22,000 to 17,000 BP. Solutrean sites have been found in modern-day France, Spain and Portugal.","title":"Solutrean"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"type-site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type-site"},{"link_name":"Cros du Charnier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_of_Solutr%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Solutré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solutr%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Mâcon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A2con"},{"link_name":"paleontologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologist"},{"link_name":"Henry Testot-Ferry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Testot-Ferry"},{"link_name":"Parc archéologique et botanique de Solutré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parc_arch%C3%A9ologique_et_botanique_de_Solutr%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Gabriel de Mortillet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Laurent_Gabriel_de_Mortillet"},{"link_name":"Mousterian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mousterian"},{"link_name":"Quaternary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-1"},{"link_name":"prehistoric art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_art"},{"link_name":"lithic reduction percussion and pressure flaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithic_reduction"},{"link_name":"flintknapping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flintknapper"},{"link_name":"batons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Club_(weapon)"},{"link_name":"flint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-1"},{"link_name":"Magdalenian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magdalenian"},{"link_name":"reindeer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reindeer"},{"link_name":"ibex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibex"},{"link_name":"mammoths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammoth"},{"link_name":"cave lions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panthera_leo_fossilis"},{"link_name":"rhinoceroses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinoceros"},{"link_name":"aurochs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurochs"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Les Eyzies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Eyzies"},{"link_name":"Laugerie-Haute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laugerie-Haute&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laugerie-Haute"},{"link_name":"Creswell Crags","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creswell_Crags"},{"link_name":"Derbyshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derbyshire,_England"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The term Solutrean comes from the type-site of \"Cros du Charnier\", dating to around 21,000 years ago and located at Solutré, in east-central France near Mâcon. The Rock of Solutré site was discovered in 1866 by the French geologist and paleontologist Henry Testot-Ferry. It is now preserved as the Parc archéologique et botanique de Solutré.The industry was named by Gabriel de Mortillet to describe the second stage of his system of cave chronology, following the Mousterian, and he considered it synchronous with the third division of the Quaternary period.[1] The era's finds include tools, ornamental beads, and bone pins as well as prehistoric art.Solutrean tool-making employed techniques not seen before and not rediscovered for millennia. The Solutrean has relatively finely worked, bifacial points made with lithic reduction percussion and pressure flaking rather than flintknapping. Knapping was done using antler batons, hardwood batons and soft stone hammers. This method permitted the working of delicate slivers of flint to make light projectiles and even elaborate barbed and tanged arrowheads. Large thin spearheads; scrapers with edge not on the side but on the end; flint knives and saws, but all still chipped, not ground or polished; long spear-points, with tang and shoulder on one side only, are also characteristic implements of this industry. Bone and antler were used as well.[1]The Solutrean may be seen as a transitional stage between the flint implements of the Mousterian and the bone implements of the Magdalenian epochs. Faunal finds include horses, reindeer, ibex, mammoths, cave lions, rhinoceroses, bears and aurochs.[2] Solutrean finds have also been made in the caves of Les Eyzies and Laugerie-Haute [fr], and in the Lower Beds of Creswell Crags in Derbyshire, England[1] (Proto-Solutrean). The industry first appeared in what is now Spain[citation needed], and disappears from the archaeological record around 17,000 BP.","title":"Details"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Dennis Stanford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Stanford"},{"link_name":"Smithsonian Institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution"},{"link_name":"University of Exeter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Exeter"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis"},{"link_name":"Bering land bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bering_land_bridge"},{"link_name":"Beringia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beringia"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Clovis culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clovis_culture"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"autosomal DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autosomal_DNA"},{"link_name":"Anzick-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anzick-1"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Mal'ta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal%27ta"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"The Solutrean hypothesis argues that people from Europe may have been among the earliest settlers of the Americas.[3][4] Its notable recent proponents include Dennis Stanford of the Smithsonian Institution and Bruce Bradley of the University of Exeter.[5] This hypothesis contrasts with the mainstream archaeological consensus that the North American continent was first populated by people from Asia, either by the Bering land bridge (i.e. Beringia) at least 13,500 years ago,[6] or by maritime travel along the Pacific coast, or by both. The idea of a Clovis-Solutrean link remains controversial and does not enjoy wide acceptance. The hypothesis is challenged by large gaps in time between the Clovis culture and Solutrean eras, a lack of evidence of Solutrean seafaring, lack of specific Solutrean features and tools in Clovis technology, the difficulties of the route, and other issues.[7][8]In 2014, the autosomal DNA of a male infant (Anzick-1) from a 12,500-year-old deposit in Montana was sequenced.[9] The skeleton was found in close association with several Clovis artifacts. Comparisons showed strong affinities with DNA from Siberian sites, and virtually ruled out any close affinity of Anzick-1 with European sources. The DNA of the Anzick-1 sample showed strong affinities with sampled Native American populations, which indicated that the samples derive from an ancient population that lived in or near Siberia, the Upper Paleolithic Mal'ta population.[10]","title":"Solutrean hypothesis in North American archaeology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gracile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gracile"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Examination of physical remains from the Solutrean period has determined that they were of a slightly more gracile type than the preceding Gravettian culture. Males were rather tall, with some skeletons being up to 179 cm tall.[11][12][13] Volume 4 of the Portuguese Magazine of Archaeology from 2001 examined a Solutrean female individual whose physical remains are described as \"having postcranial elements that derive from a relatively small and gracile individual\".[14] The teeth of Solutrean individuals are described as being similar in appearance to those belonging to the people of the Gravettian.[15]","title":"Physical characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Solutrean_tools_22000_17000_Crot_du_Charnier_Solutre_Pouilly_Saone_et_Loire_France.jpg"},{"link_name":"BP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before_Present"},{"link_name":"Crot du Charnier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_of_Solutr%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Solutré-Pouilly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solutr%C3%A9-Pouilly"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biface_feuille_de_laurier.JPG"},{"link_name":"National Archeological Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum,_France"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abris_sous_roches_du_Solutr%C3%A9en.JPG"},{"link_name":"Aujac, Gard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aujac,_Gard"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Altamira-8.jpg"},{"link_name":"Altamira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave_of_Altamira"}],"text":"Solutrean tools, 22,000–17,000 BP, Crot du Charnier, Solutré-Pouilly, Saône-et-Loire, France\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFlint point from Volgu in the National Archeological Museum in France\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSolutrean caves in Aujac, Gard\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSolutrean cave art at Altamira","title":"Gallery"}]	[]	[{"title":"Franco-Cantabrian region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Cantabrian_region"},{"title":"Gravettian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravettian"},{"title":"Last Glacial Maximum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_Glacial_Maximum"}]	[{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Solutrian Epoch\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 377.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Solutrian_Epoch","url_text":"Solutrian Epoch"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Yravedra, José; Julien, Marie-Anne; Alcaraz-Castaño, Manuel; Estaca-Gómez, Verónica; Alcolea-González, Javier; de Balbín-Behrmann, Rodrigo; Lécuyer, Christophe; Marcel, Claude Hillaire; Burke, Ariane (15 May 2016). \"Not so deserted…paleoecology and human subsistence in Central Iberia (Guadalajara, Spain) around the Last Glacial Maximum\". Quaternary Science Reviews. 140: 21–38. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.03.021. ISSN 0277-3791. Retrieved 3 March 2024 – via Elsevier Science Direct.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379116300907","url_text":"\"Not so deserted…paleoecology and human subsistence in Central Iberia (Guadalajara, Spain) around the Last Glacial Maximum\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_Science_Reviews","url_text":"Quaternary Science Reviews"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2016.03.021","url_text":"10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.03.021"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0277-3791","url_text":"0277-3791"}]},{"reference":"Bradley, Bruce; Stanford, Dennis (2004). \"The North Atlantic ice-edge corridor: a possible Paleolithic route to the New World\" (PDF). World Archaeology. 36 (4): 459–478. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.694.6801. doi:10.1080/0043824042000303656. S2CID 161534521. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 March 2013. Retrieved 1 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Stanford","url_text":"Stanford, Dennis"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130320033824/http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Conservation%20Biology/Karen%20PDF/Clovis/Bradley%20%26%20Stanford%202004.pdf","url_text":"\"The North Atlantic ice-edge corridor: a possible Paleolithic route to the New World\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Archaeology","url_text":"World Archaeology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.694.6801","url_text":"10.1.1.694.6801"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0043824042000303656","url_text":"10.1080/0043824042000303656"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161534521","url_text":"161534521"},{"url":"http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Conservation%20Biology/Karen%20PDF/Clovis/Bradley%20%26%20Stanford%202004.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Carey, Bjorn (19 February 2006). \"First Americans may have been European\". Live Science. Retrieved 1 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.livescience.com/history/060219_first_americans.html","url_text":"\"First Americans may have been European\""}]},{"reference":"Vastag, Brian (1 March 2012). \"Theory jolts familiar view of first Americans\". The Washington Post. pp. A1, A9. Retrieved 1 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/radical-theory-of-first-americans-places-stone-age-europeans-in-delmarva-20000-years-ago/2012/02/28/gIQA4mriiR_story.html","url_text":"\"Theory jolts familiar view of first Americans\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post","url_text":"The Washington Post"}]},{"reference":"Straus, L.G. (April 2000). \"Solutrean settlement of North America? A review of reality\". American Antiquity. 65 (2): 219–226. doi:10.2307/2694056. JSTOR 2694056. S2CID 162349551.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Antiquity","url_text":"American Antiquity"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2694056","url_text":"10.2307/2694056"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2694056","url_text":"2694056"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162349551","url_text":"162349551"}]},{"reference":"Westley, Kieran and Justin Dix (2008). \"The Solutrean Atlantic Hypothesis: A View from the Ocean\". Journal of the North Atlantic. 1: 85–98. doi:10.3721/J080527. 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ISBN 978-0-306-46258-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9780306462580","url_text":"Encyclopedia of Prehistory: Volume 4: Europe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-46258-0","url_text":"978-0-306-46258-0"}]},{"reference":"Straus, L.; Morales, M. R. (2009). \"A preliminary description of Solutrean occupations in El Mirón cave (Ramales de la Victoria, Cantabria)\". S2CID 210020037.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:210020037","url_text":"210020037"}]},{"reference":"Trinkaus, Erik (July 2001). \"Upper Paleolithic human remains from the Gruta do Caldeirão, Tomar, Portugal\" (PDF). 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S2CID 129842509.","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0033-5894%2888%2990057-9","url_text":"\"Origin and consequences of cyclic ice rafting in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean during the past 130,000 years\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988QuRes..29..142H","url_text":"1988QuRes..29..142H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0033-5894%2888%2990057-9","url_text":"10.1016/0033-5894(88)90057-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0033-5894","url_text":"0033-5894"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129842509","url_text":"129842509"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solutrean&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve this 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_port	Open port	["1 Example","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]	Listing open TCP ports that are listening on the local machine. In security parlance, the term open port is used to mean a TCP or UDP port number that is configured to accept packets. In contrast, a port which rejects connections or ignores all packets directed at it is called a closed port. Ports are an integral part of the Internet's communication model — they are the channel through which applications on the client computer can reach the software on the server. Services, such as web pages or FTP, require their respective ports to be "open" on the server in order to be publicly reachable. The above use of the terms "open" and "closed" can sometimes be misleading, though; it blurs the distinction between a given port being reachable (unfiltered) and whether there is an application actually listening on that port. Technically, a given port being "open" (in this context, reachable) is not enough for a communication channel to be established. There needs to be an application (service) listening on that port, accepting the incoming packets and processing them. If there is no application listening on a port, incoming packets to that port will simply be rejected by the computer's operating system. Ports can be "closed" (in this context, filtered) through the use of a firewall. The firewall will filter incoming packets, only letting through those packets for which it has been configured. Packets directed at a port which the firewall is configured to "close" will simply be dropped in transit, as though they never existed. Some malicious software acts as a service, waiting for connections from a remote attacker in order to give them information or control over the machine. It is common security practice to close unused ports in personal computers, so as to block public access to any services which might be running on the computer without the user's knowledge, whether due to legitimate services being misconfigured, or the presence of malicious software. Malicious ("black hat") hackers commonly use port scanning software to find which ports are "open" (unfiltered) in a given computer, and whether or not an actual service is listening on that port. They can then attempt to exploit potential vulnerabilities in any services they find. Example alice@wikipedia:~$ netstat --tcp --listening --numeric Active Internet connections (only servers) Proto Recv-Q Send-Q Local Address Foreign Address State tcp 0 0 127.0.0.1:631 0.0.0.0:* LISTEN tcp 0 0 127.0.0.1:5432 0.0.0.0:* LISTEN tcp 0 0 127.0.0.53:53 0.0.0.0:* LISTEN tcp6 0 0 ::1:631 :::* LISTEN See also Port scanning Nmap Computer security List of TCP and UDP port numbers References ^ Pcmag.com encyclopedia term External links How can I close a port? This computer networking article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"TCP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol"},{"link_name":"UDP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocol"},{"link_name":"port number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_(computer_networking)"},{"link_name":"packets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_(information_technology)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"communication model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_socket"},{"link_name":"client computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client_(computing)"},{"link_name":"server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)"},{"link_name":"web pages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_page"},{"link_name":"FTP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ftp_server"},{"link_name":"firewall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall_(computing)"},{"link_name":"black hat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hat_(computer_security)"},{"link_name":"hackers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker_(computer_security)"},{"link_name":"port scanning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_scanning"},{"link_name":"vulnerabilities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)"}],"text":"In security parlance, the term open port is used to mean a TCP or UDP port number that is configured to accept packets. In contrast, a port which rejects connections or ignores all packets directed at it is called a closed port.[1]Ports are an integral part of the Internet's communication model — they are the channel through which applications on the client computer can reach the software on the server. Services, such as web pages or FTP, require their respective ports to be \"open\" on the server in order to be publicly reachable.The above use of the terms \"open\" and \"closed\" can sometimes be misleading, though; it blurs the distinction between a given port being reachable (unfiltered) and whether there is an application actually listening on that port. Technically, a given port being \"open\" (in this context, reachable) is not enough for a communication channel to be established. There needs to be an application (service) listening on that port, accepting the incoming packets and processing them. If there is no application listening on a port, incoming packets to that port will simply be rejected by the computer's operating system.Ports can be \"closed\" (in this context, filtered) through the use of a firewall. The firewall will filter incoming packets, only letting through those packets for which it has been configured. Packets directed at a port which the firewall is configured to \"close\" will simply be dropped in transit, as though they never existed.Some malicious software acts as a service, waiting for connections from a remote attacker in order to give them information or control over the machine. It is common security practice to close unused ports in personal computers, so as to block public access to any services which might be running on the computer without the user's knowledge, whether due to legitimate services being misconfigured, or the presence of malicious software.Malicious (\"black hat\") hackers commonly use port scanning software to find which ports are \"open\" (unfiltered) in a given computer, and whether or not an actual service is listening on that port. They can then attempt to exploit potential vulnerabilities in any services they find.","title":"Open port"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"alice@wikipedia:~$ netstat --tcp --listening --numeric\nActive Internet connections (only servers)\nProto Recv-Q Send-Q Local Address Foreign Address State \ntcp 0 0 127.0.0.1:631 0.0.0.0:* LISTEN \ntcp 0 0 127.0.0.1:5432 0.0.0.0:* LISTEN \ntcp 0 0 127.0.0.53:53 0.0.0.0:* LISTEN \ntcp6 0 0 ::1:631 :::* LISTEN","title":"Example"}]	[{"image_text":"Listing open TCP ports that are listening on the local machine.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Open_ports.png"}]	[{"title":"Port scanning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_scanning"},{"title":"Nmap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nmap"},{"title":"Computer security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security"},{"title":"List of TCP and UDP port numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_TCP_and_UDP_port_numbers"}]	[]	[{"Link":"https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=open+port&i=48464,00.asp","external_links_name":"Pcmag.com encyclopedia term"},{"Link":"http://www.emsisoft.com/en/kb/articles/tec021114/","external_links_name":"How can I close a port?"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Open_port&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eclipse_Modeling_Framework	Eclipse Modeling Framework	["1 Ecore","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]	Project of Eclipse Foundation Eclipse Modeling FrameworkDeveloper(s)Eclipse FoundationStable release2.37 / February 27, 2024; 3 months ago (2024-02-27) Repositoryhttps://github.com/eclipse-emf/org.eclipse.emfWritten inJavaOperating systemCross-platformPlatformJava platformLicenseEclipse Public License 2.0Websitehttps://eclipse.org/emf/ Eclipse Modeling Framework (EMF) is an Eclipse-based modeling framework and code generation facility for building tools and other applications based on a structured data model. From a model specification described in XML Metadata Interchange (XMI), EMF provides tools and runtime support to produce a set of Java classes for the model, a set of adapter classes that enable viewing and command-based editing of the model, and a basic editor. Models can be specified using annotated Java, UML, XML documents, or modeling tools, then imported into EMF. Most important of all, EMF provides the foundation for interoperability with other EMF-based tools and applications. Ecore Ecore is the core (meta-)model at the heart of EMF. It allows expressing other models by leveraging its constructs. Ecore is also its own metamodel (i.e.: Ecore is defined in terms of itself). According to Ed Merks, EMF project lead, "Ecore is the defacto reference implementation of OMG's EMOF" (Essential Meta-Object Facility). Still according to Merks, EMOF was actually defined by OMG as a simplified version of the more comprehensive 'C'MOF by drawing on the experience of the successful simplification of Ecore's original implementation. Using Ecore as a foundational meta-model allows a modeler to take advantage of the entire EMF ecosystem and tooling - in as much as it's then reasonably easy to map application-level models back to Ecore. This isn't to say that it's best practice for applications to directly leverage Ecore as their metamodel; rather they might consider defining their own metamodels based on Ecore. See also Acceleo, a code generator using EMF models in input ATL, a model transformation language Connected Data Objects (CDO), a free implementation of a Distributed Shared Model on top of EMF Generic Eclipse Modeling System (GEMS) Graphical Modeling Framework (GMF) List of EMF based software Model-driven architecture Xtext References ^ "EMF 2.37.0 Release". Retrieved 11 March 2024. ^ "Eclipse Modeling Framework - Interview with Ed Merks". jaxenter.com. 2010-04-14. Retrieved 2013-11-13. External links EMF project page vteEclipse Foundation Acceleo Adoptium AspectJ BIRT Che Buckminster Eclipse Equinox EclipseLink Golo Jakarta EE Jetty JFace Mylyn OpenJ9 Remote Application Platform Sirius Standard Widget Toolkit Vert.x Virgo Xtext Eclipse Public License This software-engineering-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eclipse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eclipse_(software)"},{"link_name":"modeling framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-driven_architecture"},{"link_name":"code generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_programming"},{"link_name":"data model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_model"},{"link_name":"XML Metadata Interchange (XMI)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_Metadata_Interchange"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"UML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Modeling_Language"},{"link_name":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"}],"text":"Eclipse Modeling Framework (EMF) is an Eclipse-based modeling framework and code generation facility for building tools and other applications based on a structured data model.From a model specification described in XML Metadata Interchange (XMI), EMF provides tools and runtime support to produce a set of Java classes for the model, a set of adapter classes that enable viewing and command-based editing of the model, and a basic editor. Models can be specified using annotated Java, UML, XML documents, or modeling tools, then imported into EMF. Most important of all, EMF provides the foundation for interoperability with other EMF-based tools and applications.","title":"Eclipse Modeling Framework"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ed Merks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ed_Merks&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"OMG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_Management_Group"},{"link_name":"EMOF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-Object_Facility"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Ecore is the core (meta-)model at the heart of EMF. It allows expressing other models by leveraging its constructs. Ecore is also its own metamodel (i.e.: Ecore is defined in terms of itself).According to Ed Merks, EMF project lead, \"Ecore is the defacto reference implementation of OMG's EMOF\" (Essential Meta-Object Facility). Still according to Merks, EMOF was actually defined by OMG as a simplified version of the more comprehensive 'C'MOF by drawing on the experience of the successful simplification of Ecore's original implementation.[2]Using Ecore as a foundational meta-model allows a modeler to take advantage of the entire EMF ecosystem and tooling - in as much as it's then reasonably easy to map application-level models back to Ecore. This isn't to say that it's best practice for applications to directly leverage Ecore as their metamodel; rather they might consider defining their own metamodels based on Ecore.","title":"Ecore"}]	[]	[{"title":"Acceleo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceleo"},{"title":"ATL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATLAS_Transformation_Language"},{"title":"Connected Data Objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connected_Data_Objects"},{"title":"Distributed Shared Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distributed_Shared_Model&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"title":"Generic Eclipse Modeling System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generic_Eclipse_Modeling_System"},{"title":"Graphical Modeling Framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_Modeling_Framework"},{"title":"List of EMF based software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Eclipse_Modeling_Framework_based_software"},{"title":"Model-driven architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-driven_architecture"},{"title":"Xtext","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xtext"}]	[{"reference":"\"EMF 2.37.0 Release\". Retrieved 11 March 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://download.eclipse.org/modeling/emf/emf/builds/release/2.37.0/index.html","url_text":"\"EMF 2.37.0 Release\""}]},{"reference":"\"Eclipse Modeling Framework - Interview with Ed Merks\". jaxenter.com. 2010-04-14. Retrieved 2013-11-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://jaxenter.com/eclipse-modeling-framework-interview-with-ed-merks-100007.html","url_text":"\"Eclipse Modeling Framework - Interview with Ed Merks\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://github.com/eclipse-emf/org.eclipse.emf","external_links_name":"https://github.com/eclipse-emf/org.eclipse.emf"},{"Link":"https://eclipse.org/emf/","external_links_name":"https://eclipse.org/emf/"},{"Link":"https://download.eclipse.org/modeling/emf/emf/builds/release/2.37.0/index.html","external_links_name":"\"EMF 2.37.0 Release\""},{"Link":"https://jaxenter.com/eclipse-modeling-framework-interview-with-ed-merks-100007.html","external_links_name":"\"Eclipse Modeling Framework - Interview with Ed Merks\""},{"Link":"http://www.eclipse.org/emf/","external_links_name":"EMF project page"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eclipse_Modeling_Framework&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALM_(company)	ALM (company)	["1 Organization","2 History","3 Publications","4 References","5 External links"]	Integrated media company located in New York City This article is about American Lawyer Media. For other companies, see alm (disambiguation). ALMIndustryMedia, Legal NewsFounded1979; 45 years ago (1979)FounderSteven BrillHeadquartersSocony–Mobil Building, 150 East 42nd Street,, New York City, U.S.Key peopleBill Carter (CEO)Products The American Lawyer BenefitsPro Law.com Law.com International Corporate Counsel Credit Union Times GlobeSt.com The Legal Intelligencer The National Law Journal Real Estate Forum New York Law Journal ThinkAdvisor Law Journal Press Litigation Daily Legaltech News The Supreme Court Brief The Recorder (California) Connecticut Law Tribune Delaware Law Weekly Texas Lawyer New Jersey Law Journal Parent Time Warner (1997–1998) Wasserstein & Co (1998–2007, 2014–) Incisive Media (2007–2009) Apax Partners (2009–2014) Eagletree Capital (2014-Present) Websitewww.alm.com ALM (formerly American Lawyer Media) is a media company headquartered in the Socony–Mobil Building in Manhattan, and is a provider of specialized business news and information, focused primarily on the legal, insurance, and commercial real estate sectors. The company was started in 1979 by Steven Brill to publish The American Lawyer. Organization ALM owns and publishes 33 national, regional, and international magazines and newspapers, including Credit Union Times, The American Lawyer, the New York Law Journal, Corporate Counsel, The National Law Journal, The Legal Intelligencer, Legal Times, GlobeSt.com, and Real Estate Forum, as well as the Law.com and Law.com International brands. The company also produces conferences and trade shows for business leaders and the legal profession. Law Journal Press, ALM's professional book imprint, publishes over 130 treatises on a broad range of legal topics. Other ALM businesses include newsletter publishing, court verdict and settlement reporting, production of professional educational seminars, market research, and content distribution. History In 1997, Brill sold ALM to Time Warner, mainly for its CourtTV stake. ALM's legal publications were acquired from Time Warner by U.S. Equity Partners, L.P., a private equity fund sponsored by Wasserstein & Co., L.P., in 1998. Shortly afterward, it acquired National Law Publishing Company (parent of The National Law Journal and New York Law Journal) from Boston Ventures and the legal publications of Legal Communications (including The Legal Intelligencer) from Meridian Venture Partners. In 1999, U.S. Equity bought real estate publisher Schein Publications. In 2007, ALM was purchased by Incisive Media for US$630 million. Two years later, Incisive had to restructure the loan used to purchase ALM, and ALM once again became an independent company, owned by the lenders and Apax Partners. Wasserstein & Co. repurchased ALM in 2014. In 2015, ALM acquired Summit Professional Networks. In January 2016, the company acquired British legal magazine Legal Week. Publications The American Lawyer Credit Union Times The Legal Intelligencer The National Law Journal New York Law Journal ThinkAdvisor Law Journal Press Litigation Daily Legaltech News The Supreme Court Brief The Recorder Connecticut Law Tribune Delaware Law Weekly Texas Lawyer New Jersey Law Journal References ^ ALM Brands AlmReprints.com. Retrieved March 8, 2022. ^ "ALM Media Relocates to Midtown Manhattan's Grand Central Submarket". ALM Press Room. February 12, 2018. Retrieved January 9, 2022. ^ "Company Profile". Archived from the original on July 4, 2010. ^ a b Tryhorn, Chris (July 5, 2007). "Incisive Media purchases US publisher ALM". The Guardian. Retrieved June 24, 2010. ^ "Time Warner Buys Court TV Stake". Associated Press. February 20, 1997 – via LA Times. ^ "Time Warner to Shed Legal Publications". Associated Press. July 19, 1997 – via LA Times. ^ "THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Law Publishing Merger Planned". The New York Times. October 24, 1997 – via NYTimes.com. ^ "Archives - Philly.com". articles.philly.com. ^ "Schein Publications Acquired by Wasserstein Perella Private Equity Affiliate. – Free Online Library". www.thefreelibrary.com. Archived from the original on December 31, 2013. Retrieved December 31, 2013. ^ "American Lawyer Media Sold to U.K. Firm for $630 Million". ^ "Incisive Media reaches agreement on refinancing of the Group". Incisive Media (Press release). September 8, 2009. Archived from the original on December 18, 2013. Retrieved December 4, 2013. ^ "Wasserstein buys back law titles for $417M". June 5, 2014. ^ Lukas I. Alpert (January 5, 2015). "Legal Publisher ALM to Acquire Summit Professional Networks". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved February 1, 2015. ^ Nell Gluckman (January 12, 2016). "ALM Buys UK's Legal Week From Incisive Media". The American Lawyer. Retrieved February 3, 2016. External links Companies portal American Lawyer Media Holdings in the International Directory of Company Histories, 2000. vteALMAmerican Lawyer Media The American Lawyer Connecticut Law Tribune Daily Report Online The Legal Intelligencer Legal Week The National Law Journal New York Law Journal Summit Professional Media Futures InsideCounsel	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"alm (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alm_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_in_New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Socony–Mobil Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socony%E2%80%93Mobil_Building"},{"link_name":"Manhattan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"news","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News"},{"link_name":"legal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law"},{"link_name":"commercial real estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_real_estate"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Steven Brill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Brill_(journalist)"}],"text":"This article is about American Lawyer Media. For other companies, see alm (disambiguation).ALM (formerly American Lawyer Media) is a media company headquartered in the Socony–Mobil Building in Manhattan,[2] and is a provider of specialized business news and information, focused primarily on the legal, insurance, and commercial real estate sectors.[3] The company was started in 1979 by Steven Brill to publish The American Lawyer.","title":"ALM (company)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"magazines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magazine"},{"link_name":"newspapers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspaper"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tryhorn-4"},{"link_name":"trade shows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_show"}],"text":"ALM owns and publishes 33 national, regional, and international magazines and newspapers, including Credit Union Times, The American Lawyer, the New York Law Journal, Corporate Counsel, The National Law Journal, The Legal Intelligencer, Legal Times, GlobeSt.com, and Real Estate Forum, as well as the Law.com and Law.com International brands.[4]The company also produces conferences and trade shows for business leaders and the legal profession. Law Journal Press, ALM's professional book imprint, publishes over 130 treatises on a broad range of legal topics. Other ALM businesses include newsletter publishing, court verdict and settlement reporting, production of professional educational seminars, market research, and content distribution.","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Time Warner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Warner"},{"link_name":"CourtTV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TruTV"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Wasserstein & Co., L.P.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Wasserstein"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Incisive Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incisive_Media"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tryhorn-4"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Apax Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apax_Partners"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Summit Professional Networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summit_Professional_Networks"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Legal Week","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_Week"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"In 1997, Brill sold ALM to Time Warner, mainly for its CourtTV stake.[5] ALM's legal publications were acquired from Time Warner by U.S. Equity Partners, L.P., a private equity fund sponsored by Wasserstein & Co., L.P., in 1998.[6] Shortly afterward, it acquired National Law Publishing Company (parent of The National Law Journal and New York Law Journal) from Boston Ventures and the legal publications of Legal Communications (including The Legal Intelligencer) from Meridian Venture Partners.[7][8]In 1999, U.S. Equity bought real estate publisher Schein Publications.[9]In 2007, ALM was purchased by Incisive Media for US$630 million.[4][10] Two years later, Incisive had to restructure the loan used to purchase ALM, and ALM once again became an independent company, owned by the lenders and Apax Partners.[11] Wasserstein & Co. repurchased ALM in 2014.[12]In 2015, ALM acquired Summit Professional Networks.[13]In January 2016, the company acquired British legal magazine Legal Week.[14]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The American Lawyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Lawyer"},{"link_name":"The Legal Intelligencer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Legal_Intelligencer"},{"link_name":"National Law Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Law_Journal"},{"link_name":"New York Law Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Law_Journal"},{"link_name":"Law Journal Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_Journal_Press"},{"link_name":"Connecticut Law Tribune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecticut_Law_Tribune"}],"text":"The American Lawyer\nCredit Union Times\nThe Legal Intelligencer\nThe National Law Journal\nNew York Law Journal\nThinkAdvisor\nLaw Journal Press\nLitigation Daily\nLegaltech News\nThe Supreme Court Brief\nThe Recorder\nConnecticut Law Tribune\nDelaware Law Weekly\nTexas Lawyer\nNew Jersey Law Journal","title":"Publications"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"ALM Media Relocates to Midtown Manhattan's Grand Central Submarket\". ALM Press Room. February 12, 2018. Retrieved January 9, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.alm.com/press_release/alm-media-relocates-midtown-manhattans-grand-central-submarket/","url_text":"\"ALM Media Relocates to Midtown Manhattan's Grand Central Submarket\""}]},{"reference":"\"Company Profile\". Archived from the original on July 4, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.alm.com/pressroom/company-profile/","url_text":"\"Company Profile\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100704192510/http://www.alm.com/pressroom/company-profile/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Tryhorn, Chris (July 5, 2007). \"Incisive Media purchases US publisher ALM\". The Guardian. Retrieved June 24, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/media/2007/jul/05/pressandpublishing.citynews","url_text":"\"Incisive Media purchases US publisher ALM\""}]},{"reference":"\"Time Warner Buys Court TV Stake\". Associated Press. February 20, 1997 – via LA Times.","urls":[{"url":"http://articles.latimes.com/1997-02-20/business/fi-30516_1_time-warner","url_text":"\"Time Warner Buys Court TV Stake\""}]},{"reference":"\"Time Warner to Shed Legal Publications\". Associated Press. July 19, 1997 – via LA Times.","urls":[{"url":"http://articles.latimes.com/1997/jul/19/business/fi-14328","url_text":"\"Time Warner to Shed Legal Publications\""}]},{"reference":"\"THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Law Publishing Merger Planned\". The New York Times. October 24, 1997 – via NYTimes.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/24/business/the-media-business-law-publishing-merger-planned.html","url_text":"\"THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Law Publishing Merger Planned\""}]},{"reference":"\"Archives - Philly.com\". articles.philly.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://articles.philly.com/1998-04-03/business/25764765_1_dorland-data-networks-veronis-suhler-publisher-and-president","url_text":"\"Archives - Philly.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"Schein Publications Acquired by Wasserstein Perella Private Equity Affiliate. – Free Online Library\". www.thefreelibrary.com. Archived from the original on December 31, 2013. Retrieved December 31, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131231214938/http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Schein+Publications+Acquired+by+Wasserstein+Perella+Private+Equity...-a054376963","url_text":"\"Schein Publications Acquired by Wasserstein Perella Private Equity Affiliate. – Free Online Library\""},{"url":"http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Schein+Publications+Acquired+by+Wasserstein+Perella+Private+Equity...-a054376963","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"American Lawyer Media Sold to U.K. Firm for $630 Million\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/BL-LB-4079","url_text":"\"American Lawyer Media Sold to U.K. Firm for $630 Million\""}]},{"reference":"\"Incisive Media reaches agreement on refinancing of the Group\". Incisive Media (Press release). September 8, 2009. Archived from the original on December 18, 2013. Retrieved December 4, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131218121909/http://www.incisivemedia.com/incisive-media/news/2077038/incisive-media-reaches-agreement-refinancing-group","url_text":"\"Incisive Media reaches agreement on refinancing of the Group\""},{"url":"http://www.incisivemedia.com/incisive-media/news/2077038/incisive-media-reaches-agreement-refinancing-group","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Wasserstein buys back law titles for $417M\". June 5, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://nypost.com/2014/06/04/wasserstein-buys-back-law-titles-for-417m/","url_text":"\"Wasserstein buys back law titles for $417M\""}]},{"reference":"Lukas I. Alpert (January 5, 2015). \"Legal Publisher ALM to Acquire Summit Professional Networks\". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved February 1, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/legal-publisher-alm-to-acquire-summit-professional-networks-1420482843","url_text":"\"Legal Publisher ALM to Acquire Summit Professional Networks\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0099-9660","url_text":"0099-9660"}]},{"reference":"Nell Gluckman (January 12, 2016). \"ALM Buys UK's Legal Week From Incisive Media\". The American Lawyer. Retrieved February 3, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.americanlawyer.com/id=1202746715016/ALM-Buys-UKs-Legal-Week-From-Incisive-Media?slreturn=20160103143339","url_text":"\"ALM Buys UK's Legal Week From Incisive Media\""}]}]	[{"Link":"http://www.alm.com/","external_links_name":"www.alm.com"},{"Link":"https://almreprints.com/brands/","external_links_name":"ALM Brands"},{"Link":"http://www.alm.com/press_release/alm-media-relocates-midtown-manhattans-grand-central-submarket/","external_links_name":"\"ALM Media Relocates to Midtown Manhattan's Grand Central Submarket\""},{"Link":"http://www.alm.com/pressroom/company-profile/","external_links_name":"\"Company Profile\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100704192510/http://www.alm.com/pressroom/company-profile/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/media/2007/jul/05/pressandpublishing.citynews","external_links_name":"\"Incisive Media purchases US publisher ALM\""},{"Link":"http://articles.latimes.com/1997-02-20/business/fi-30516_1_time-warner","external_links_name":"\"Time Warner Buys Court TV Stake\""},{"Link":"http://articles.latimes.com/1997/jul/19/business/fi-14328","external_links_name":"\"Time Warner to Shed Legal Publications\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/24/business/the-media-business-law-publishing-merger-planned.html","external_links_name":"\"THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Law Publishing Merger Planned\""},{"Link":"http://articles.philly.com/1998-04-03/business/25764765_1_dorland-data-networks-veronis-suhler-publisher-and-president","external_links_name":"\"Archives - Philly.com\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131231214938/http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Schein+Publications+Acquired+by+Wasserstein+Perella+Private+Equity...-a054376963","external_links_name":"\"Schein Publications Acquired by Wasserstein Perella Private Equity Affiliate. – Free Online Library\""},{"Link":"http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Schein+Publications+Acquired+by+Wasserstein+Perella+Private+Equity...-a054376963","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/BL-LB-4079","external_links_name":"\"American Lawyer Media Sold to U.K. Firm for $630 Million\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131218121909/http://www.incisivemedia.com/incisive-media/news/2077038/incisive-media-reaches-agreement-refinancing-group","external_links_name":"\"Incisive Media reaches agreement on refinancing of the Group\""},{"Link":"http://www.incisivemedia.com/incisive-media/news/2077038/incisive-media-reaches-agreement-refinancing-group","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://nypost.com/2014/06/04/wasserstein-buys-back-law-titles-for-417m/","external_links_name":"\"Wasserstein buys back law titles for $417M\""},{"Link":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/legal-publisher-alm-to-acquire-summit-professional-networks-1420482843","external_links_name":"\"Legal Publisher ALM to Acquire Summit Professional Networks\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0099-9660","external_links_name":"0099-9660"},{"Link":"http://www.americanlawyer.com/id=1202746715016/ALM-Buys-UKs-Legal-Week-From-Incisive-Media?slreturn=20160103143339","external_links_name":"\"ALM Buys UK's Legal Week From Incisive Media\""},{"Link":"http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/american-lawyer-media-holdings-inc-history/","external_links_name":"American Lawyer Media Holdings"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHSIC	Very High Speed Integrated Circuit Program	["1 Program","2 References"]	1980s U.S. government program to research and develop very high speed integrated circuits Not to be confused with Very Large Scale Integration. The Very High Speed Integrated Circuit (VHSIC) Program was a United States Department of Defense (DOD) research program that ran from 1980 to 1990. Its mission was to research and develop very high-speed integrated circuits for the United States Armed Forces. Program VHSIC was launched in 1980 as a joint tri-service (Army/Navy/Air Force) program. The program led to advances in integrated circuit materials, lithography, packaging, testing, and algorithms, and created numerous computer-aided design (CAD) tools. A well-known part of the program's contribution is VHDL (VHSIC Hardware Description Language), a hardware description language (HDL). The program also redirected the military's interest in GaAs ICs back toward the commercial mainstream of CMOS circuits. More than $1 billion in total was spent for the VHSIC program for silicon integrated circuit technology development. A DARPA project which ran concurrently, the VLSI Project, having begun two years earlier in 1978, contributed BSD Unix, the RISC processor, the MOSIS research design fab, and greatly furthered the Mead and Conway revolution in VLSI design automation. By contrast, the VHSIC program was comparatively less cost-effective for the funds invested over a contemporaneous time frame, though the projects had different final objectives and are not entirely comparable for that reason. By the time the program ended in 1990, commercial processors were far outperforming what the Pentagon's program had produced; however, it did manage to subsidize US semiconductor equipment manufacturing, stimulating an industry that shipped much of its product abroad (mainly to Asia). References ^ Alic, John A.; Brooks, Harvey; Branscomb, Lewis M. (1992). Beyond Spinoff: Military and Commercial Technologies in a Changing World. Harvard Business School Press. pp. 269–270. ^ David J. Creasey (1985). Advanced Signal Processing. IEE Telecommunications Series. ISBN 0-86341-037-5. ^ John B. Shoven (1988). Government Policy Towards Industry in the United States and Japan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-33325-3. ^ U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Microelectronics Research and Development – A Background Paper, OTA-B P-C IT-40, pp. 21–22 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1986). ^ Bryen, Stephen (2022-08-25). "Russia's long-time chips failure coming home to roost". Asia Times. Retrieved 2023-05-22.	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The program led to advances in integrated circuit materials, lithography, packaging, testing, and algorithms, and created numerous computer-aided design (CAD) tools. A well-known part of the program's contribution is VHDL (VHSIC Hardware Description Language), a hardware description language (HDL). The program also redirected the military's interest in GaAs ICs back toward the commercial mainstream of CMOS circuits.[2][3]More than $1 billion in total was spent for the VHSIC program for silicon integrated circuit technology development.[4]A DARPA project which ran concurrently, the VLSI Project, having begun two years earlier in 1978, contributed BSD Unix, the RISC processor, the MOSIS research design fab, and greatly furthered the Mead and Conway revolution in VLSI design automation. By contrast, the VHSIC program was comparatively less cost-effective for the funds invested over a contemporaneous time frame, though the projects had different final objectives and are not entirely comparable for that reason.By the time the program ended in 1990, commercial processors were far outperforming what the Pentagon's program had produced; however, it did manage to subsidize US semiconductor equipment manufacturing, stimulating an industry that shipped much of its product abroad (mainly to Asia).[5]","title":"Program"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Alic, John A.; Brooks, Harvey; Branscomb, Lewis M. (1992). Beyond Spinoff: Military and Commercial Technologies in a Changing World. Harvard Business School Press. pp. 269–270.","urls":[]},{"reference":"David J. Creasey (1985). Advanced Signal Processing. IEE Telecommunications Series. ISBN 0-86341-037-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=iszN4Ohe1b0C&q=VHSIC&pg=PA134","url_text":"Advanced Signal Processing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86341-037-5","url_text":"0-86341-037-5"}]},{"reference":"John B. Shoven (1988). Government Policy Towards Industry in the United States and Japan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-33325-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hBpWgC4hcAcC&q=VHSIC&pg=PA346","url_text":"Government Policy Towards Industry in the United States and Japan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-33325-3","url_text":"0-521-33325-3"}]},{"reference":"Bryen, Stephen (2022-08-25). \"Russia's long-time chips failure coming home to roost\". Asia Times. Retrieved 2023-05-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://asiatimes.com/2022/08/russias-chips-failure-coming-home-to-roost/","url_text":"\"Russia's long-time chips failure coming home to roost\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=iszN4Ohe1b0C&q=VHSIC&pg=PA134","external_links_name":"Advanced Signal Processing"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hBpWgC4hcAcC&q=VHSIC&pg=PA346","external_links_name":"Government Policy Towards Industry in the United States and Japan"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=cs0g5VZndIcC&q=vhsic&pg=PA21","external_links_name":"Microelectronics Research and Development – A Background Paper"},{"Link":"https://asiatimes.com/2022/08/russias-chips-failure-coming-home-to-roost/","external_links_name":"\"Russia's long-time chips failure coming home to roost\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pragmatic_Programmer	The Pragmatic Programmer	["1 Publication history","2 References","3 External links"]	1999 non-fiction book by Andrew Hunt and David Thomas The Pragmatic Programmer Authors Andrew Hunt David Thomas SubjectsEducation, computer programmingPublished1999 by Addison-WesleyPublication placeUnited StatesPages320ISBN978-0135957059Websitepragprog.com/titles/tpp20/the-pragmatic-programmer-20th-anniversary-edition/ The Pragmatic Programmer: From Journeyman to Master is a book about computer programming and software engineering, written by Andrew Hunt and David Thomas and published in October 1999. It is used as a textbook in related university courses. It was the first in a series of books under the label The Pragmatic Bookshelf. A second edition, The Pragmatic Programmer: Your Journey to Mastery was released in 2019 for the book's 20th anniversary, with major revisions and new material which reflects new technology and other changes in the software engineering industry over the last twenty years. The book does not present a systematic theory, but rather a collection of tips to improve the development process in a pragmatic way. The main qualities of what the authors refer to as a pragmatic programmer are being an early adopter, to have fast adaptation, inquisitiveness and critical thinking, realism, and being a jack-of-all-trades. The book uses analogies and short stories to present development methodologies and caveats, for example the broken windows theory, the story of the stone soup, or the boiling frog. Some concepts were named or popularized in the book, such as DRY (or Don't Repeat Yourself) and rubber duck debugging, a method of debugging whose name is a reference to a story in the book. Publication history The Pragmatic Programmer, Andrew Hunt and David Thomas, 1999, Addison Wesley, ISBN 0-201-61622-X. The Pragmatic Programmer, 20th Anniversary Edition, David Thomas and Andrew Hunt, 2019, Addison Wesley, ISBN 978-0135957059. References ^ "8 Most Influential Books on Programming of All Time". 11 January 2016. ^ "Top 40 Software Engineering Books". ^ "12 Most Influential Books Every Software Engineer Needs to Read". 16 March 2015. ^ "CSE 331 17sp Software Design & Implementation: Information and Syllabus". ^ Hunt and Thomas, pp. xviii–xix. ^ Hunt and Thomas, pp. 7-9. ^ Pete Goodliffe (2014). Becoming a Better Programmer: A Handbook for People Who Care About Code. O'Reilly Media. p. 82. ISBN 978-1491905586. External links GOTO Book Club interview: Andy Hunt and David Thomas on YouTube This article about a computer book or series of books is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programming"},{"link_name":"software engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering"},{"link_name":"Andrew Hunt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Hunt_(author)"},{"link_name":"David Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Thomas_(programmer)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"early adopter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_adopter_(marketing)"},{"link_name":"jack-of-all-trades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_of_all_trades,_master_of_none"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"broken windows theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broken_windows_theory"},{"link_name":"stone soup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_soup"},{"link_name":"boiling frog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_frog"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Don't Repeat Yourself","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Repeat_Yourself"},{"link_name":"rubber duck debugging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubber_duck_debugging"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"The Pragmatic Programmer: From Journeyman to Master is a book about computer programming and software engineering, written by Andrew Hunt and David Thomas and published in October 1999.[1][2][3] It is used as a textbook in related university courses.[4] It was the first in a series of books under the label The Pragmatic Bookshelf. A second edition, The Pragmatic Programmer: Your Journey to Mastery was released in 2019 for the book's 20th anniversary, with major revisions and new material which reflects new technology and other changes in the software engineering industry over the last twenty years.The book does not present a systematic theory, but rather a collection of tips to improve the development process in a pragmatic way. The main qualities of what the authors refer to as a pragmatic programmer are being an early adopter, to have fast adaptation, inquisitiveness and critical thinking, realism, and being a jack-of-all-trades.[5]The book uses analogies and short stories to present development methodologies and caveats, for example the broken windows theory, the story of the stone soup, or the boiling frog.[6] Some concepts were named or popularized in the book, such as DRY (or Don't Repeat Yourself) and rubber duck debugging, a method of debugging whose name is a reference to a story in the book.[7]","title":"The Pragmatic Programmer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-201-61622-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-61622-X"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0135957059","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0135957059"}],"text":"The Pragmatic Programmer, Andrew Hunt and David Thomas, 1999, Addison Wesley, ISBN 0-201-61622-X.\nThe Pragmatic Programmer, 20th Anniversary Edition, David Thomas and Andrew Hunt, 2019, Addison Wesley, ISBN 978-0135957059.","title":"Publication history"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"8 Most Influential Books on Programming of All Time\". 11 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bgosoftware.com/blog/8-most-influential-books-on-programming-and-computer-science-of-all-time/","url_text":"\"8 Most Influential Books on Programming of All Time\""}]},{"reference":"\"Top 40 Software Engineering Books\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aioptify.com/top-software-books.php","url_text":"\"Top 40 Software Engineering Books\""}]},{"reference":"\"12 Most Influential Books Every Software Engineer Needs to Read\". 16 March 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://jasonroell.com/2015/03/16/12-most-infuential-books-every-software-engineer-needs-to-read/","url_text":"\"12 Most Influential Books Every Software Engineer Needs to Read\""}]},{"reference":"\"CSE 331 17sp Software Design & Implementation: Information and Syllabus\".","urls":[{"url":"https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse331/17sp/syllabus.html","url_text":"\"CSE 331 17sp Software Design & Implementation: Information and Syllabus\""}]},{"reference":"Pete Goodliffe (2014). Becoming a Better Programmer: A Handbook for People Who Care About Code. O'Reilly Media. p. 82. ISBN 978-1491905586.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1491905586","url_text":"978-1491905586"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://pragprog.com/titles/tpp20/the-pragmatic-programmer-20th-anniversary-edition/","external_links_name":"pragprog.com/titles/tpp20/the-pragmatic-programmer-20th-anniversary-edition/"},{"Link":"https://www.bgosoftware.com/blog/8-most-influential-books-on-programming-and-computer-science-of-all-time/","external_links_name":"\"8 Most Influential Books on Programming of All Time\""},{"Link":"http://www.aioptify.com/top-software-books.php","external_links_name":"\"Top 40 Software Engineering Books\""},{"Link":"https://jasonroell.com/2015/03/16/12-most-infuential-books-every-software-engineer-needs-to-read/","external_links_name":"\"12 Most Influential Books Every Software Engineer Needs to Read\""},{"Link":"https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse331/17sp/syllabus.html","external_links_name":"\"CSE 331 17sp Software Design & Implementation: Information and Syllabus\""},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=taCNjiiusRk","external_links_name":"GOTO Book Club interview: Andy Hunt and David Thomas"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Pragmatic_Programmer&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_theory_glossary	Glossary of order theory	[]	Look up Appendix:Glossary of order theory in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. This is a glossary of some terms used in various branches of mathematics that are related to the fields of order, lattice, and domain theory. Note that there is a structured list of order topics available as well. Other helpful resources might be the following overview articles: completeness properties of partial orders distributivity laws of order theory preservation properties of functions between posets. In the following, partial orders will usually just be denoted by their carrier sets. As long as the intended meaning is clear from the context, ≤ {\displaystyle \,\leq \,} will suffice to denote the corresponding relational symbol, even without prior introduction. Furthermore, < will denote the strict order induced by ≤ . {\displaystyle \,\leq .} Contents: Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A Acyclic. A binary relation is acyclic if it contains no "cycles": equivalently, its transitive closure is antisymmetric. Adjoint. See Galois connection. Alexandrov topology. For a preordered set P, any upper set O is Alexandrov-open. Inversely, a topology is Alexandrov if any intersection of open sets is open. Algebraic poset. A poset is algebraic if it has a base of compact elements. Antichain. An antichain is a poset in which no two elements are comparable, i.e., there are no two distinct elements x and y such that x ≤ y. In other words, the order relation of an antichain is just the identity relation. Approximates relation. See way-below relation. Antisymmetric relation. A homogeneous relation R on a set X is antisymmetric, if x R y and y R x implies x = y, for all elements x, y in X. Antitone. An antitone function f between posets P and Q is a function for which, for all elements x, y of P, x ≤ y (in P) implies f(y) ≤ f(x) (in Q). Another name for this property is order-reversing. In analysis, in the presence of total orders, such functions are often called monotonically decreasing, but this is not a very convenient description when dealing with non-total orders. The dual notion is called monotone or order-preserving. Asymmetric relation. A homogeneous relation R on a set X is asymmetric, if x R y implies not y R x, for all elements x, y in X. Atom. An atom in a poset P with least element 0, is an element that is minimal among all elements that are unequal to 0. Atomic. An atomic poset P with least element 0 is one in which, for every non-zero element x of P, there is an atom a of P with a ≤ x. B Base. See continuous poset. Binary relation. A binary relation over two sets X and Y {\displaystyle X{\text{ and }}Y} is a subset of their Cartesian product X × Y . {\displaystyle X\times Y.} Boolean algebra. A Boolean algebra is a distributive lattice with least element 0 and greatest element 1, in which every element x has a complement ¬x, such that x ∧ ¬x = 0 and x ∨ ¬x = 1. Bounded poset. A bounded poset is one that has a least element and a greatest element. Bounded complete. A poset is bounded complete if every of its subsets with some upper bound also has a least such upper bound. The dual notion is not common. C Chain. A chain is a totally ordered set or a totally ordered subset of a poset. See also total order. Chain complete. A partially ordered set in which every chain has a least upper bound. Closure operator. A closure operator on the poset P is a function C : P → P that is monotone, idempotent, and satisfies C(x) ≥ x for all x in P. Compact. An element x of a poset is compact if it is way below itself, i.e. x<<x. One also says that such an x is finite. Comparable. Two elements x and y of a poset P are comparable if either x ≤ y or y ≤ x. Comparability graph. The comparability graph of a poset (P, ≤) is the graph with vertex set P in which the edges are those pairs of distinct elements of P that are comparable under ≤ (and, in particular, under its reflexive reduction <). Complete Boolean algebra. A Boolean algebra that is a complete lattice. Complete Heyting algebra. A Heyting algebra that is a complete lattice is called a complete Heyting algebra. This notion coincides with the concepts frame and locale. Complete lattice. A complete lattice is a poset in which arbitrary (possibly infinite) joins (suprema) and meets (infima) exist. Complete partial order. A complete partial order, or cpo, is a directed complete partial order (q.v.) with least element. Complete relation. Synonym for Connected relation. Complete semilattice. The notion of a complete semilattice is defined in different ways. As explained in the article on completeness (order theory), any poset for which either all suprema or all infima exist is already a complete lattice. Hence the notion of a complete semilattice is sometimes used to coincide with the one of a complete lattice. In other cases, complete (meet-) semilattices are defined to be bounded complete cpos, which is arguably the most complete class of posets that are not already complete lattices. Completely distributive lattice. A complete lattice is completely distributive if arbitrary joins distribute over arbitrary meets. Completion. A completion of a poset is an order-embedding of the poset in a complete lattice. Completion by cuts. Synonym of Dedekind–MacNeille completion. Connected relation. A total or complete relation R on a set X has the property that for all elements x, y of X, at least one of x R y or y R x holds. Continuous poset. A poset is continuous if it has a base, i.e. a subset B of P such that every element x of P is the supremum of a directed set contained in {y in B \| y<<x}. Continuous function. See Scott-continuous. Converse. The converse <° of an order < is that in which x <° y whenever y < x. Cover. An element y of a poset P is said to cover an element x of P (and is called a cover of x) if x < y and there is no element z of P such that x < z < y. cpo. See complete partial order. D dcpo. See directed complete partial order. Dedekind–MacNeille completion. The Dedekind–MacNeille completion of a partially ordered set is the smallest complete lattice that contains it. Dense order. A dense poset P is one in which, for all elements x and y in P with x < y, there is an element z in P, such that x < z < y. A subset Q of P is dense in P if for any elements x < y in P, there is an element z in Q such that x < z < y. Derangement. A permutation of the elements of a set, such that no element appears in its original position. Directed set. A non-empty subset X of a poset P is called directed, if, for all elements x and y of X, there is an element z of X such that x ≤ z and y ≤ z. The dual notion is called filtered. Directed complete partial order. A poset D is said to be a directed complete poset, or dcpo, if every directed subset of D has a supremum. Distributive. A lattice L is called distributive if, for all x, y, and z in L, we find that x ∧ (y ∨ z) = (x ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ z). This condition is known to be equivalent to its order dual. A meet-semilattice is distributive if for all elements a, b and x, a ∧ b ≤ x implies the existence of elements a' ≥ a and b' ≥ b such that a' ∧ b' = x. See also completely distributive. Domain. Domain is a general term for objects like those that are studied in domain theory. If used, it requires further definition. Down-set. See lower set. Dual. For a poset (P, ≤), the dual order Pd = (P, ≥) is defined by setting x ≥ y if and only if y ≤ x. The dual order of P is sometimes denoted by Pop, and is also called opposite or converse order. Any order theoretic notion induces a dual notion, defined by applying the original statement to the order dual of a given set. This exchanges ≤ and ≥, meets and joins, zero and unit. E Extension. For partial orders ≤ and ≤′ on a set X, ≤′ is an extension of ≤ provided that for all elements x and y of X, x ≤ y implies that x ≤′ y. F Filter. A subset X of a poset P is called a filter if it is a filtered upper set. The dual notion is called ideal. Filtered. A non-empty subset X of a poset P is called filtered, if, for all elements x and y of X, there is an element z of X such that z ≤ x and z ≤ y. The dual notion is called directed. Finite element. See compact. Frame. A frame F is a complete lattice, in which, for every x in F and every subset Y of F, the infinite distributive law x ∧ ⋁ {\displaystyle \bigvee } Y = ⋁ {\displaystyle \bigvee } {x ∧ y \| y in Y} holds. Frames are also known as locales and as complete Heyting algebras. G Galois connection. Given two posets P and Q, a pair of monotone functions F:P → Q and G:Q → P is called a Galois connection, if F(x) ≤ y is equivalent to x ≤ G(y), for all x in P and y in Q. F is called the lower adjoint of G and G is called the upper adjoint of F. Greatest element. For a subset X of a poset P, an element a of X is called the greatest element of X, if x ≤ a for every element x in X. The dual notion is called least element. Ground set. The ground set of a poset (X, ≤) is the set X on which the partial order ≤ is defined. H Heyting algebra. A Heyting algebra H is a bounded lattice in which the function fa: H → H, given by fa(x) = a ∧ x is the lower adjoint of a Galois connection, for every element a of H. The upper adjoint of fa is then denoted by ga, with ga(x) = a ⇒; x. Every Boolean algebra is a Heyting algebra. Hasse diagram. A Hasse diagram is a type of mathematical diagram used to represent a finite partially ordered set, in the form of a drawing of its transitive reduction. Homogeneous relation. A homogeneous relation on a set X {\displaystyle X} is a subset of X × X . {\displaystyle X\times X.} Said differently, it is a binary relation over X {\displaystyle X} and itself. I Ideal. An ideal is a subset X of a poset P that is a directed lower set. The dual notion is called filter. Incidence algebra. The incidence algebra of a poset is the associative algebra of all scalar-valued functions on intervals, with addition and scalar multiplication defined pointwise, and multiplication defined as a certain convolution; see incidence algebra for the details. Infimum. For a poset P and a subset X of P, the greatest element in the set of lower bounds of X (if it exists, which it may not) is called the infimum, meet, or greatest lower bound of X. It is denoted by inf X or ⋀ {\displaystyle \bigwedge } X. The infimum of two elements may be written as inf{x,y} or x ∧ y. If the set X is finite, one speaks of a finite infimum. The dual notion is called supremum. Interval. For two elements a, b of a partially ordered set P, the interval is the subset {x in P \| a ≤ x ≤ b} of P. If a ≤ b does not hold the interval will be empty. Interval finite poset. A partially ordered set P is interval finite if every interval of the form {x in P \| x ≤ a} is a finite set. Inverse. See converse. Irreflexive. A relation R on a set X is irreflexive, if there is no element x in X such that x R x. Isotone. See monotone. J Join. See supremum. L Lattice. A lattice is a poset in which all non-empty finite joins (suprema) and meets (infima) exist. Least element. For a subset X of a poset P, an element a of X is called the least element of X, if a ≤ x for every element x in X. The dual notion is called greatest element. The length of a chain is the number of elements less one. A chain with 1 element has length 0, one with 2 elements has length 1, etc. Linear. See total order. Linear extension. A linear extension of a partial order is an extension that is a linear order, or total order. Locale. A locale is a complete Heyting algebra. Locales are also called frames and appear in Stone duality and pointless topology. Locally finite poset. A partially ordered set P is locally finite if every interval = {x in P \| a ≤ x ≤ b} is a finite set. Lower bound. A lower bound of a subset X of a poset P is an element b of P, such that b ≤ x, for all x in X. The dual notion is called upper bound. Lower set. A subset X of a poset P is called a lower set if, for all elements x in X and p in P, p ≤ x implies that p is contained in X. The dual notion is called upper set. M Maximal chain. A chain in a poset to which no element can be added without losing the property of being totally ordered. This is stronger than being a saturated chain, as it also excludes the existence of elements either less than all elements of the chain or greater than all its elements. A finite saturated chain is maximal if and only if it contains both a minimal and a maximal element of the poset. Maximal element. A maximal element of a subset X of a poset P is an element m of X, such that m ≤ x implies m = x, for all x in X. The dual notion is called minimal element. Maximum element. Synonym of greatest element. For a subset X of a poset P, an element a of X is called the maximum element of X if x ≤ a for every element x in X. A maximum element is necessarily maximal, but the converse need not hold. Meet. See infimum. Minimal element. A minimal element of a subset X of a poset P is an element m of X, such that x ≤ m implies m = x, for all x in X. The dual notion is called maximal element. Minimum element. Synonym of least element. For a subset X of a poset P, an element a of X is called the minimum element of X if x ≥ a for every element x in X. A minimum element is necessarily minimal, but the converse need not hold. Monotone. A function f between posets P and Q is monotone if, for all elements x, y of P, x ≤ y (in P) implies f(x) ≤ f(y) (in Q). Other names for this property are isotone and order-preserving. In analysis, in the presence of total orders, such functions are often called monotonically increasing, but this is not a very convenient description when dealing with non-total orders. The dual notion is called antitone or order reversing. O Order-dual. The order dual of a partially ordered set is the same set with the partial order relation replaced by its converse. Order-embedding. A function f between posets P and Q is an order-embedding if, for all elements x, y of P, x ≤ y (in P) is equivalent to f(x) ≤ f(y) (in Q). Order isomorphism. A mapping f: P → Q between two posets P and Q is called an order isomorphism, if it is bijective and both f and f−1 are monotone functions. Equivalently, an order isomorphism is a surjective order embedding. Order-preserving. See monotone. Order-reversing. See antitone. P Partial order. A partial order is a binary relation that is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive. In a slight abuse of terminology, the term is sometimes also used to refer not to such a relation, but to its corresponding partially ordered set. Partially ordered set. A partially ordered set ( P , ≤ ) , {\displaystyle (P,\leq ),} or poset for short, is a set P {\displaystyle P} together with a partial order ≤ {\displaystyle \,\leq \,} on P . {\displaystyle P.} Poset. A partially ordered set. Preorder. A preorder is a binary relation that is reflexive and transitive. Such orders may also be called quasiorders or non-strict preorder. The term preorder is also used to denote an acyclic binary relation (also called an acyclic digraph). Preordered set. A preordered set ( P , ≤ ) {\displaystyle (P,\leq )} is a set P {\displaystyle P} together with a preorder ≤ {\displaystyle \,\leq \,} on P . {\displaystyle P.} Preserving. A function f between posets P and Q is said to preserve suprema (joins), if, for all subsets X of P that have a supremum sup X in P, we find that sup{f(x): x in X} exists and is equal to f(sup X). Such a function is also called join-preserving. Analogously, one says that f preserves finite, non-empty, directed, or arbitrary joins (or meets). The converse property is called join-reflecting. Prime. An ideal I in a lattice L is said to be prime, if, for all elements x and y in L, x ∧ y in I implies x in I or y in I. The dual notion is called a prime filter. Equivalently, a set is a prime filter if and only if its complement is a prime ideal. Principal. A filter is called principal filter if it has a least element. Dually, a principal ideal is an ideal with a greatest element. The least or greatest elements may also be called principal elements in these situations. Projection (operator). A self-map on a partially ordered set that is monotone and idempotent under function composition. Projections play an important role in domain theory. Pseudo-complement. In a Heyting algebra, the element x ⇒; 0 is called the pseudo-complement of x. It is also given by sup{y : y ∧ x = 0}, i.e. as the least upper bound of all elements y with y ∧ x = 0. Q Quasiorder. See preorder. Quasitransitive. A relation is quasitransitive if the relation on distinct elements is transitive. Transitive implies quasitransitive and quasitransitive implies acyclic. R Reflecting. A function f between posets P and Q is said to reflect suprema (joins), if, for all subsets X of P for which the supremum sup{f(x): x in X} exists and is of the form f(s) for some s in P, then we find that sup X exists and that sup X = s . Analogously, one says that f reflects finite, non-empty, directed, or arbitrary joins (or meets). The converse property is called join-preserving. Reflexive. A binary relation R on a set X is reflexive, if x R x holds for every element x in X. Residual. A dual map attached to a residuated mapping. Residuated mapping. A monotone map for which the preimage of a principal down-set is again principal. Equivalently, one component of a Galois connection. S Saturated chain. A chain in a poset such that no element can be added between two of its elements without losing the property of being totally ordered. If the chain is finite, this means that in every pair of successive elements the larger one covers the smaller one. See also maximal chain. Scattered. A total order is scattered if it has no densely ordered subset. Scott-continuous. A monotone function f : P → Q between posets P and Q is Scott-continuous if, for every directed set D that has a supremum sup D in P, the set {fx \| x in D} has the supremum f(sup D) in Q. Stated differently, a Scott-continuous function is one that preserves all directed suprema. This is in fact equivalent to being continuous with respect to the Scott topology on the respective posets. Scott domain. A Scott domain is a partially ordered set which is a bounded complete algebraic cpo. Scott open. See Scott topology. Scott topology. For a poset P, a subset O is Scott-open if it is an upper set and all directed sets D that have a supremum in O have non-empty intersection with O. The set of all Scott-open sets forms a topology, the Scott topology. Semilattice. A semilattice is a poset in which either all finite non-empty joins (suprema) or all finite non-empty meets (infima) exist. Accordingly, one speaks of a join-semilattice or meet-semilattice. Smallest element. See least element. Sperner property of a partially ordered set Sperner poset Strictly Sperner poset Strongly Sperner poset Strict order. See strict partial order. Strict partial order. A strict partial order is a homogeneous binary relation that is transitive, irreflexive, and antisymmetric. Strict preorder. See strict partial order. Supremum. For a poset P and a subset X of P, the least element in the set of upper bounds of X (if it exists, which it may not) is called the supremum, join, or least upper bound of X. It is denoted by sup X or ⋁ {\displaystyle \bigvee } X. The supremum of two elements may be written as sup{x,y} or x ∨ y. If the set X is finite, one speaks of a finite supremum. The dual notion is called infimum. Suzumura consistency. A binary relation R is Suzumura consistent if x R∗ y implies that x R y or not y R x. Symmetric relation. A homogeneous relation R on a set X is symmetric, if x R y implies y R x, for all elements x, y in X. T Top. See unit. Total order. A total order T is a partial order in which, for each x and y in T, we have x ≤ y or y ≤ x. Total orders are also called linear orders or chains. Total relation. Synonym for Connected relation. Transitive relation. A relation R on a set X is transitive, if x R y and y R z imply x R z, for all elements x, y, z in X. Transitive closure. The transitive closure R∗ of a relation R consists of all pairs x,y for which there cists a finite chain x R a, a R b, ..., z R y. U Unit. The greatest element of a poset P can be called unit or just 1 (if it exists). Another common term for this element is top. It is the infimum of the empty set and the supremum of P. The dual notion is called zero. Up-set. See upper set. Upper bound. An upper bound of a subset X of a poset P is an element b of P, such that x ≤ b, for all x in X. The dual notion is called lower bound. Upper set. A subset X of a poset P is called an upper set if, for all elements x in X and p in P, x ≤ p implies that p is contained in X. The dual notion is called lower set. V Valuation. Given a lattice X {\displaystyle X} , a valuation ν : X → [ 0 , 1 ] {\displaystyle \nu :X\to } is strict (that is, ν ( ∅ ) = 0 {\displaystyle \nu (\varnothing )=0} ), monotone, modular (that is, ν ( U ) + ν ( V ) = ν ( U ∪ V ) + ν ( U ∩ V ) {\displaystyle \nu (U)+\nu (V)=\nu (U\cup V)+\nu (U\cap V)} ) and positive. Continuous valuations are a generalization of measures. W Way-below relation. In a poset P, some element x is way below y, written x<<y, if for all directed subsets D of P which have a supremum, y ≤ sup D implies x ≤ d for some d in D. One also says that x approximates y. See also domain theory. Weak order. A partial order ≤ on a set X is a weak order provided that the poset (X, ≤) is isomorphic to a countable collection of sets ordered by comparison of cardinality. Z Zero. The least element of a poset P can be called zero or just 0 (if it exists). Another common term for this element is bottom. Zero is the supremum of the empty set and the infimum of P. The dual notion is called unit. Notes ^ a b c d Bossert, Walter; Suzumura, Kōtarō (2010). Consistency, choice and rationality. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674052994. ^ Deng 2008, p. 22 References The definitions given here are consistent with those that can be found in the following standard reference books: B. A. Davey and H. A. Priestley, Introduction to Lattices and Order, 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press, 2002. G. Gierz, K. H. Hofmann, K. Keimel, J. D. Lawson, M. Mislove and D. S. Scott, Continuous Lattices and Domains, In Encyclopedia of Mathematics and its Applications, Vol. 93, Cambridge University Press, 2003. Specific definitions: Deng, Bangming (2008), Finite dimensional algebras and quantum groups, Mathematical surveys and monographs, vol. 150, American Mathematical Society, ISBN 978-0-8218-4186-0 vteOrder theory Topics Glossary Category Key concepts Binary relation Boolean algebra Cyclic order Lattice Partial order Preorder Total order Weak ordering Results Boolean prime ideal theorem Cantor–Bernstein theorem Cantor's isomorphism theorem Dilworth's theorem Dushnik–Miller theorem Hausdorff maximal principle Knaster–Tarski theorem Kruskal's tree theorem Laver's theorem Mirsky's theorem Szpilrajn extension theorem Zorn's lemma Properties & Types (list) Antisymmetric Asymmetric Boolean algebra topics Completeness Connected Covering Dense Directed (Partial) Equivalence Foundational Heyting algebra Homogeneous Idempotent Lattice Bounded Complemented Complete Distributive Join and meet Reflexive Partial order Chain-complete Graded Eulerian Strict Prefix order Preorder Total Semilattice Semiorder Symmetric Total Tolerance Transitive Well-founded Well-quasi-ordering (Better) (Pre) Well-order Constructions Composition Converse/Transpose Lexicographic order Linear extension Product order Reflexive closure Series-parallel partial order Star product Symmetric closure Transitive closure Topology & Orders Alexandrov topology & Specialization preorder Ordered topological vector space Normal cone Order topology Order topology Topological vector lattice Banach Fréchet Locally convex Normed Related Antichain Cofinal Cofinality Comparability Graph Duality Filter Hasse diagram Ideal Net Subnet Order morphism Embedding Isomorphism Order type Ordered field Positive cone of an ordered field Ordered vector space Partially ordered Positive cone of an ordered vector space Riesz space Partially ordered group Positive cone of a partially ordered group Upper set Young's lattice	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Appendix:Glossary of order theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Glossary_of_order_theory"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_theory"},{"link_name":"lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_(order)"},{"link_name":"domain theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_theory"},{"link_name":"list of order topics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_order_topics"},{"link_name":"completeness properties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Completeness_(order_theory)"},{"link_name":"distributivity laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributivity_(order_theory)"},{"link_name":"preservation properties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_preserving_(order_theory)"},{"link_name":"strict order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strict_order"},{"link_name":"Top","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#top"},{"link_name":"0–9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#0%E2%80%939"},{"link_name":"A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#A"},{"link_name":"B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#B"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#C"},{"link_name":"D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#D"},{"link_name":"E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#E"},{"link_name":"F","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#F"},{"link_name":"G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#G"},{"link_name":"H","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#H"},{"link_name":"I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#I"},{"link_name":"J","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#J"},{"link_name":"K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#K"},{"link_name":"L","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#L"},{"link_name":"M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#M"},{"link_name":"N","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#N"},{"link_name":"O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#O"},{"link_name":"P","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#P"},{"link_name":"Q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Q"},{"link_name":"R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#R"},{"link_name":"S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#S"},{"link_name":"T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#T"},{"link_name":"U","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#U"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#V"},{"link_name":"W","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#W"},{"link_name":"X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#X"},{"link_name":"Y","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Y"},{"link_name":"Z","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Z"}],"text":"Look up Appendix:Glossary of order theory in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.This is a glossary of some terms used in various branches of mathematics that are related to the fields of order, lattice, and domain theory. Note that there is a structured list of order topics available as well. Other helpful resources might be the following overview articles:completeness properties of partial orders\ndistributivity laws of order theory\npreservation properties of functions between posets.In the following, partial orders will usually just be denoted by their carrier sets. As long as the intended meaning is clear from the context, \n \n \n \n \n ≤\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\,\\leq \\,}\n \n will suffice to denote the corresponding relational symbol, even without prior introduction. Furthermore, < will denote the strict order induced by \n \n \n \n \n ≤\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\,\\leq .}Contents: \n\nTop\n0–9\nA\nB\nC\nD\nE\nF\nG\nH\nI\nJ\nK\nL\nM\nN\nO\nP\nQ\nR\nS\nT\nU\nV\nW\nX\nY\nZ","title":"Glossary of order theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"binary relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_relation"},{"link_name":"transitive closure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitive_closure"},{"link_name":"antisymmetric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisymmetric_relation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BosSuz-1"},{"link_name":"Alexandrov topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandrov_topology"},{"link_name":"Algebraic poset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_poset"},{"link_name":"Antichain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antichain"},{"link_name":"homogeneous relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_relation"},{"link_name":"antisymmetric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisymmetric_relation"},{"link_name":"antitone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antitone"},{"link_name":"analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_analysis"},{"link_name":"total orders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_order"},{"link_name":"Asymmetric relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_relation"},{"link_name":"homogeneous relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_relation"},{"link_name":"Atom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom_(order_theory)"}],"text":"Acyclic. A binary relation is acyclic if it contains no \"cycles\": equivalently, its transitive closure is antisymmetric.[1]\nAdjoint. See Galois connection.\nAlexandrov topology. For a preordered set P, any upper set O is Alexandrov-open. Inversely, a topology is Alexandrov if any intersection of open sets is open.\nAlgebraic poset. A poset is algebraic if it has a base of compact elements.\nAntichain. An antichain is a poset in which no two elements are comparable, i.e., there are no two distinct elements x and y such that x ≤ y. In other words, the order relation of an antichain is just the identity relation.\nApproximates relation. See way-below relation.\nAntisymmetric relation. A homogeneous relation R on a set X is antisymmetric, if x R y and y R x implies x = y, for all elements x, y in X.\nAntitone. An antitone function f between posets P and Q is a function for which, for all elements x, y of P, x ≤ y (in P) implies f(y) ≤ f(x) (in Q). Another name for this property is order-reversing. In analysis, in the presence of total orders, such functions are often called monotonically decreasing, but this is not a very convenient description when dealing with non-total orders. The dual notion is called monotone or order-preserving.\nAsymmetric relation. A homogeneous relation R on a set X is asymmetric, if x R y implies not y R x, for all elements x, y in X.\nAtom. An atom in a poset P with least element 0, is an element that is minimal among all elements that are unequal to 0.\nAtomic. An atomic poset P with least element 0 is one in which, for every non-zero element x of P, there is an atom a of P with a ≤ x.","title":"A"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Binary relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_relation"},{"link_name":"Cartesian product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_product"},{"link_name":"Boolean algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_algebra_(structure)"},{"link_name":"Bounded poset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_poset"},{"link_name":"bounded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_poset"},{"link_name":"Bounded complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_complete"},{"link_name":"bounded complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_complete"}],"text":"Base. See continuous poset.\nBinary relation. A binary relation over two sets \n \n \n \n X\n \n and \n \n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X{\\text{ and }}Y}\n \n is a subset of their Cartesian product \n \n \n \n X\n ×\n Y\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X\\times Y.}\n \n\nBoolean algebra. A Boolean algebra is a distributive lattice with least element 0 and greatest element 1, in which every element x has a complement ¬x, such that x ∧ ¬x = 0 and x ∨ ¬x = 1.\nBounded poset. A bounded poset is one that has a least element and a greatest element.\nBounded complete. A poset is bounded complete if every of its subsets with some upper bound also has a least such upper bound. The dual notion is not common.","title":"B"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_order#Chains"},{"link_name":"Chain complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_complete"},{"link_name":"partially ordered set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_ordered_set"},{"link_name":"chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_order#Chains"},{"link_name":"least upper bound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_upper_bound"},{"link_name":"Closure operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closure_operator"},{"link_name":"idempotent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idempotent"},{"link_name":"Compact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_element"},{"link_name":"way below","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Way-below_relation"},{"link_name":"Comparable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparability"},{"link_name":"Comparability graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparability_graph"},{"link_name":"graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Complete Boolean algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_Boolean_algebra"},{"link_name":"Boolean algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_algebra_(structure)"},{"link_name":"Complete Heyting algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_Heyting_algebra"},{"link_name":"Heyting algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heyting_algebra"},{"link_name":"Complete lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_lattice"},{"link_name":"lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_(order)"},{"link_name":"Complete partial order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_partial_order"},{"link_name":"directed complete partial order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_complete_partial_order"},{"link_name":"Connected relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connected_relation"},{"link_name":"completeness (order theory)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Completeness_(order_theory)"},{"link_name":"bounded complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_complete"},{"link_name":"cpos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_partial_order"},{"link_name":"Completely distributive lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Completely_distributive_lattice"},{"link_name":"order-embedding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order-embedding"},{"link_name":"Completion by cuts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dedekind%E2%80%93MacNeille_completion"},{"link_name":"Dedekind–MacNeille completion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dedekind%E2%80%93MacNeille_completion"},{"link_name":"Connected relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connected_relation"},{"link_name":"Continuous poset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_poset"},{"link_name":"cpo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_partial_order"}],"text":"Chain. A chain is a totally ordered set or a totally ordered subset of a poset. See also total order.\nChain complete. A partially ordered set in which every chain has a least upper bound.\nClosure operator. A closure operator on the poset P is a function C : P → P that is monotone, idempotent, and satisfies C(x) ≥ x for all x in P.\nCompact. An element x of a poset is compact if it is way below itself, i.e. x<<x. One also says that such an x is finite.\nComparable. Two elements x and y of a poset P are comparable if either x ≤ y or y ≤ x.\nComparability graph. The comparability graph of a poset (P, ≤) is the graph with vertex set P in which the edges are those pairs of distinct elements of P that are comparable under ≤ (and, in particular, under its reflexive reduction <).\nComplete Boolean algebra. A Boolean algebra that is a complete lattice.\nComplete Heyting algebra. A Heyting algebra that is a complete lattice is called a complete Heyting algebra. This notion coincides with the concepts frame and locale.\nComplete lattice. A complete lattice is a poset in which arbitrary (possibly infinite) joins (suprema) and meets (infima) exist.\nComplete partial order. A complete partial order, or cpo, is a directed complete partial order (q.v.) with least element.\nComplete relation. Synonym for Connected relation.\nComplete semilattice. The notion of a complete semilattice is defined in different ways. As explained in the article on completeness (order theory), any poset for which either all suprema or all infima exist is already a complete lattice. Hence the notion of a complete semilattice is sometimes used to coincide with the one of a complete lattice. In other cases, complete (meet-) semilattices are defined to be bounded complete cpos, which is arguably the most complete class of posets that are not already complete lattices.\nCompletely distributive lattice. A complete lattice is completely distributive if arbitrary joins distribute over arbitrary meets.\nCompletion. A completion of a poset is an order-embedding of the poset in a complete lattice.\nCompletion by cuts. Synonym of Dedekind–MacNeille completion.\nConnected relation. A total or complete relation R on a set X has the property that for all elements x, y of X, at least one of x R y or y R x holds.\nContinuous poset. A poset is continuous if it has a base, i.e. a subset B of P such that every element x of P is the supremum of a directed set contained in {y in B \| y<<x}.\nContinuous function. See Scott-continuous.\nConverse. The converse <° of an order < is that in which x <° y whenever y < x.\nCover. An element y of a poset P is said to cover an element x of P (and is called a cover of x) if x < y and there is no element z of P such that x < z < y.\ncpo. See complete partial order.","title":"C"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"directed complete partial order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_complete_partial_order"},{"link_name":"Dedekind–MacNeille completion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dedekind%E2%80%93MacNeille_completion"},{"link_name":"partially ordered set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_ordered_set"},{"link_name":"complete lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_lattice"},{"link_name":"Dense order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dense_order"},{"link_name":"dense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dense_order"},{"link_name":"Derangement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derangement"},{"link_name":"Directed set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_set"},{"link_name":"non-empty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-empty"},{"link_name":"Directed complete partial order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_complete_partial_order"},{"link_name":"Distributive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributivity_(order_theory)"},{"link_name":"semilattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semilattice"},{"link_name":"Domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_theory"},{"link_name":"domain theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_theory"},{"link_name":"Dual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duality_(order_theory)"},{"link_name":"if and only if","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_and_only_if"}],"text":"dcpo. See directed complete partial order.\nDedekind–MacNeille completion. The Dedekind–MacNeille completion of a partially ordered set is the smallest complete lattice that contains it.\nDense order. A dense poset P is one in which, for all elements x and y in P with x < y, there is an element z in P, such that x < z < y. A subset Q of P is dense in P if for any elements x < y in P, there is an element z in Q such that x < z < y.\nDerangement. A permutation of the elements of a set, such that no element appears in its original position.\nDirected set. A non-empty subset X of a poset P is called directed, if, for all elements x and y of X, there is an element z of X such that x ≤ z and y ≤ z. The dual notion is called filtered.\nDirected complete partial order. A poset D is said to be a directed complete poset, or dcpo, if every directed subset of D has a supremum.\nDistributive. A lattice L is called distributive if, for all x, y, and z in L, we find that x ∧ (y ∨ z) = (x ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ z). This condition is known to be equivalent to its order dual. A meet-semilattice is distributive if for all elements a, b and x, a ∧ b ≤ x implies the existence of elements a' ≥ a and b' ≥ b such that a' ∧ b' = x. See also completely distributive.\nDomain. Domain is a general term for objects like those that are studied in domain theory. If used, it requires further definition.\nDown-set. See lower set.\nDual. For a poset (P, ≤), the dual order Pd = (P, ≥) is defined by setting x ≥ y if and only if y ≤ x. The dual order of P is sometimes denoted by Pop, and is also called opposite or converse order. Any order theoretic notion induces a dual notion, defined by applying the original statement to the order dual of a given set. This exchanges ≤ and ≥, meets and joins, zero and unit.","title":"D"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Extension. For partial orders ≤ and ≤′ on a set X, ≤′ is an extension of ≤ provided that for all elements x and y of X, x ≤ y implies that x ≤′ y.","title":"E"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Filter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"non-empty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-empty"},{"link_name":"Frame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_Heyting_algebra"},{"link_name":"Heyting algebras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heyting_algebra"}],"text":"Filter. A subset X of a poset P is called a filter if it is a filtered upper set. The dual notion is called ideal.\nFiltered. A non-empty subset X of a poset P is called filtered, if, for all elements x and y of X, there is an element z of X such that z ≤ x and z ≤ y. The dual notion is called directed.\nFinite element. See compact.\nFrame. A frame F is a complete lattice, in which, for every x in F and every subset Y of F, the infinite distributive law x ∧ \n \n \n \n ⋁\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\bigvee }\n \nY = \n \n \n \n ⋁\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\bigvee }\n \n{x ∧ y \| y in Y} holds. Frames are also known as locales and as complete Heyting algebras.","title":"F"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Galois connection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois_connection"},{"link_name":"Greatest element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_element"}],"text":"Galois connection. Given two posets P and Q, a pair of monotone functions F:P → Q and G:Q → P is called a Galois connection, if F(x) ≤ y is equivalent to x ≤ G(y), for all x in P and y in Q. F is called the lower adjoint of G and G is called the upper adjoint of F.\nGreatest element. For a subset X of a poset P, an element a of X is called the greatest element of X, if x ≤ a for every element x in X. The dual notion is called least element.\nGround set. The ground set of a poset (X, ≤) is the set X on which the partial order ≤ is defined.","title":"G"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Heyting algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heyting_algebra"},{"link_name":"Galois connection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois_connection"},{"link_name":"Boolean algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_algebra_(structure)"},{"link_name":"Hasse diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasse_diagram"},{"link_name":"transitive reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitive_reduction"},{"link_name":"Homogeneous relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_relation"},{"link_name":"homogeneous relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_relation"},{"link_name":"binary relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_relation"}],"text":"Heyting algebra. A Heyting algebra H is a bounded lattice in which the function fa: H → H, given by fa(x) = a ∧ x is the lower adjoint of a Galois connection, for every element a of H. The upper adjoint of fa is then denoted by ga, with ga(x) = a ⇒; x. Every Boolean algebra is a Heyting algebra.\nHasse diagram. A Hasse diagram is a type of mathematical diagram used to represent a finite partially ordered set, in the form of a drawing of its transitive reduction.\nHomogeneous relation. A homogeneous relation on a set \n \n \n \n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X}\n \n is a subset of \n \n \n \n X\n ×\n X\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X\\times X.}\n \n Said differently, it is a binary relation over \n \n \n \n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X}\n \n and itself.","title":"H"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ideal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_(order_theory)"},{"link_name":"ideal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_(order_theory)"},{"link_name":"Incidence algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidence_algebra"},{"link_name":"incidence algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidence_algebra"},{"link_name":"associative algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associative_algebra"},{"link_name":"incidence algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidence_algebra"},{"link_name":"Infimum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infimum"},{"link_name":"Interval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interval_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Irreflexive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreflexive"},{"link_name":"relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relation_(mathematics)"}],"text":"Ideal. An ideal is a subset X of a poset P that is a directed lower set. The dual notion is called filter.\nIncidence algebra. The incidence algebra of a poset is the associative algebra of all scalar-valued functions on intervals, with addition and scalar multiplication defined pointwise, and multiplication defined as a certain convolution; see incidence algebra for the details.\nInfimum. For a poset P and a subset X of P, the greatest element in the set of lower bounds of X (if it exists, which it may not) is called the infimum, meet, or greatest lower bound of X. It is denoted by inf X or \n \n \n \n ⋀\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\bigwedge }\n \nX. The infimum of two elements may be written as inf{x,y} or x ∧ y. If the set X is finite, one speaks of a finite infimum. The dual notion is called supremum.\nInterval. For two elements a, b of a partially ordered set P, the interval [a,b] is the subset {x in P \| a ≤ x ≤ b} of P. If a ≤ b does not hold the interval will be empty.\nInterval finite poset. A partially ordered set P is interval finite if every interval of the form {x in P \| x ≤ a} is a finite set.[2]\nInverse. See converse.\nIrreflexive. A relation R on a set X is irreflexive, if there is no element x in X such that x R x.\nIsotone. See monotone.","title":"I"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Join. See supremum.","title":"J"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_(order)"},{"link_name":"Least element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_element"},{"link_name":"Linear extension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_extension"},{"link_name":"Locale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_Heyting_algebra"},{"link_name":"Stone duality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_duality"},{"link_name":"pointless topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointless_topology"},{"link_name":"Locally finite poset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locally_finite_poset"},{"link_name":"Lower bound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_bound"},{"link_name":"Lower set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_set"}],"text":"Lattice. A lattice is a poset in which all non-empty finite joins (suprema) and meets (infima) exist.\nLeast element. For a subset X of a poset P, an element a of X is called the least element of X, if a ≤ x for every element x in X. The dual notion is called greatest element.\nThe length of a chain is the number of elements less one. A chain with 1 element has length 0, one with 2 elements has length 1, etc.\nLinear. See total order.\nLinear extension. A linear extension of a partial order is an extension that is a linear order, or total order.\nLocale. A locale is a complete Heyting algebra. Locales are also called frames and appear in Stone duality and pointless topology.\nLocally finite poset. A partially ordered set P is locally finite if every interval [a, b] = {x in P \| a ≤ x ≤ b} is a finite set.\nLower bound. A lower bound of a subset X of a poset P is an element b of P, such that b ≤ x, for all x in X. The dual notion is called upper bound.\nLower set. A subset X of a poset P is called a lower set if, for all elements x in X and p in P, p ≤ x implies that p is contained in X. The dual notion is called upper set.","title":"L"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_order#Chains"},{"link_name":"Maximal element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximal_element"},{"link_name":"Maximum element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_element"},{"link_name":"Minimal element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_element"},{"link_name":"Minimum element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_element"},{"link_name":"Monotone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotone_function"},{"link_name":"analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_analysis"},{"link_name":"total orders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_order"}],"text":"Maximal chain. A chain in a poset to which no element can be added without losing the property of being totally ordered. This is stronger than being a saturated chain, as it also excludes the existence of elements either less than all elements of the chain or greater than all its elements. A finite saturated chain is maximal if and only if it contains both a minimal and a maximal element of the poset.\nMaximal element. A maximal element of a subset X of a poset P is an element m of X, such that m ≤ x implies m = x, for all x in X. The dual notion is called minimal element.\nMaximum element. Synonym of greatest element. For a subset X of a poset P, an element a of X is called the maximum element of X if x ≤ a for every element x in X. A maximum element is necessarily maximal, but the converse need not hold.\nMeet. See infimum.\nMinimal element. A minimal element of a subset X of a poset P is an element m of X, such that x ≤ m implies m = x, for all x in X. The dual notion is called maximal element.\nMinimum element. Synonym of least element. For a subset X of a poset P, an element a of X is called the minimum element of X if x ≥ a for every element x in X. A minimum element is necessarily minimal, but the converse need not hold.\nMonotone. A function f between posets P and Q is monotone if, for all elements x, y of P, x ≤ y (in P) implies f(x) ≤ f(y) (in Q). Other names for this property are isotone and order-preserving. In analysis, in the presence of total orders, such functions are often called monotonically increasing, but this is not a very convenient description when dealing with non-total orders. The dual notion is called antitone or order reversing.","title":"M"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Order-embedding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order-embedding"},{"link_name":"Order isomorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_isomorphism"},{"link_name":"bijective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijective"},{"link_name":"monotone functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotone_function"},{"link_name":"Order-preserving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order-preserving"},{"link_name":"Order-reversing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order-reversing"}],"text":"Order-dual. The order dual of a partially ordered set is the same set with the partial order relation replaced by its converse.\nOrder-embedding. A function f between posets P and Q is an order-embedding if, for all elements x, y of P, x ≤ y (in P) is equivalent to f(x) ≤ f(y) (in Q).\nOrder isomorphism. A mapping f: P → Q between two posets P and Q is called an order isomorphism, if it is bijective and both f and f−1 are monotone functions. Equivalently, an order isomorphism is a surjective order embedding.\nOrder-preserving. See monotone.\nOrder-reversing. See antitone.","title":"O"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Partial order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_order"},{"link_name":"binary relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_relation"},{"link_name":"reflexive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexive_relation"},{"link_name":"antisymmetric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisymmetric_relation"},{"link_name":"transitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitive_relation"},{"link_name":"Partially ordered set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_ordered_set"},{"link_name":"Preorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preorder"},{"link_name":"binary relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_relation"},{"link_name":"reflexive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexive_relation"},{"link_name":"transitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitive_relation"},{"link_name":"acyclic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#A"},{"link_name":"binary relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_relation"},{"link_name":"Preordered set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preordered_set"},{"link_name":"Preserving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit-preserving_function_(order_theory)"},{"link_name":"Prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_ideal"},{"link_name":"if and only if","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_and_only_if"},{"link_name":"Principal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_ideal"},{"link_name":"partially ordered set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_ordered_set"},{"link_name":"monotone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotonic_function"},{"link_name":"idempotent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idempotent"},{"link_name":"function composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_composition"},{"link_name":"domain theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_theory"},{"link_name":"Heyting algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heyting_algebra"}],"text":"Partial order. A partial order is a binary relation that is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive. In a slight abuse of terminology, the term is sometimes also used to refer not to such a relation, but to its corresponding partially ordered set.\nPartially ordered set. A partially ordered set \n \n \n \n (\n P\n ,\n ≤\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (P,\\leq ),}\n \n or poset for short, is a set \n \n \n \n P\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P}\n \n together with a partial order \n \n \n \n \n ≤\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\,\\leq \\,}\n \n on \n \n \n \n P\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P.}\n \n\nPoset. A partially ordered set.\nPreorder. A preorder is a binary relation that is reflexive and transitive. Such orders may also be called quasiorders or non-strict preorder. The term preorder is also used to denote an acyclic binary relation (also called an acyclic digraph).\nPreordered set. A preordered set \n \n \n \n (\n P\n ,\n ≤\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (P,\\leq )}\n \n is a set \n \n \n \n P\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P}\n \n together with a preorder \n \n \n \n \n ≤\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\,\\leq \\,}\n \n on \n \n \n \n P\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P.}\n \n\nPreserving. A function f between posets P and Q is said to preserve suprema (joins), if, for all subsets X of P that have a supremum sup X in P, we find that sup{f(x): x in X} exists and is equal to f(sup X). Such a function is also called join-preserving. Analogously, one says that f preserves finite, non-empty, directed, or arbitrary joins (or meets). The converse property is called join-reflecting.\nPrime. An ideal I in a lattice L is said to be prime, if, for all elements x and y in L, x ∧ y in I implies x in I or y in I. The dual notion is called a prime filter. Equivalently, a set is a prime filter if and only if its complement is a prime ideal.\nPrincipal. A filter is called principal filter if it has a least element. Dually, a principal ideal is an ideal with a greatest element. The least or greatest elements may also be called principal elements in these situations.\nProjection (operator). A self-map on a partially ordered set that is monotone and idempotent under function composition. Projections play an important role in domain theory.\nPseudo-complement. In a Heyting algebra, the element x ⇒; 0 is called the pseudo-complement of x. It is also given by sup{y : y ∧ x = 0}, i.e. as the least upper bound of all elements y with y ∧ x = 0.","title":"P"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Quasitransitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasitransitive_relation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BosSuz-1"}],"text":"Quasiorder. See preorder.\nQuasitransitive. A relation is quasitransitive if the relation on distinct elements is transitive. Transitive implies quasitransitive and quasitransitive implies acyclic.[1]","title":"Q"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Reflecting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_preserving_(order_theory)"},{"link_name":"Reflexive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexive_relation"},{"link_name":"binary relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_relation"},{"link_name":"residuated mapping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residuated_mapping"},{"link_name":"Residuated mapping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residuated_mapping"}],"text":"Reflecting. A function f between posets P and Q is said to reflect suprema (joins), if, for all subsets X of P for which the supremum sup{f(x): x in X} exists and is of the form f(s) for some s in P, then we find that sup X exists and that sup X = s . Analogously, one says that f reflects finite, non-empty, directed, or arbitrary joins (or meets). The converse property is called join-preserving.\nReflexive. A binary relation R on a set X is reflexive, if x R x holds for every element x in X.\nResidual. A dual map attached to a residuated mapping.\nResiduated mapping. A monotone map for which the preimage of a principal down-set is again principal. Equivalently, one component of a Galois connection.","title":"R"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_order#Chains"},{"link_name":"Scattered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scattered_order"},{"link_name":"Scott-continuous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott-continuous"},{"link_name":"preserves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_preserving_function_(order_theory)"},{"link_name":"continuous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuity_(topology)"},{"link_name":"Scott topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_topology"},{"link_name":"Scott domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_domain"},{"link_name":"bounded complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_complete"},{"link_name":"algebraic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_poset"},{"link_name":"cpo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_partial_order"},{"link_name":"upper set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_set"},{"link_name":"topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topology"},{"link_name":"Semilattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semilattice"},{"link_name":"Sperner property of a partially ordered set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperner_property_of_a_partially_ordered_set"},{"link_name":"Sperner poset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperner_poset"},{"link_name":"Strictly Sperner poset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strictly_Sperner_poset"},{"link_name":"Strongly Sperner poset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strongly_Sperner_poset"},{"link_name":"Strict order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strict_order"},{"link_name":"Strict partial order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strict_partial_order"},{"link_name":"homogeneous binary relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_relation"},{"link_name":"transitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitive_relation"},{"link_name":"irreflexive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreflexive_relation"},{"link_name":"antisymmetric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisymmetric_relation"},{"link_name":"Strict preorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strict_preorder"},{"link_name":"Supremum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supremum"},{"link_name":"least element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_element"},{"link_name":"upper bounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_bound"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BosSuz-1"},{"link_name":"Symmetric relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_relation"},{"link_name":"homogeneous relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_relation"}],"text":"Saturated chain. A chain in a poset such that no element can be added between two of its elements without losing the property of being totally ordered. If the chain is finite, this means that in every pair of successive elements the larger one covers the smaller one. See also maximal chain.\nScattered. A total order is scattered if it has no densely ordered subset.\nScott-continuous. A monotone function f : P → Q between posets P and Q is Scott-continuous if, for every directed set D that has a supremum sup D in P, the set {fx \| x in D} has the supremum f(sup D) in Q. Stated differently, a Scott-continuous function is one that preserves all directed suprema. This is in fact equivalent to being continuous with respect to the Scott topology on the respective posets.\nScott domain. A Scott domain is a partially ordered set which is a bounded complete algebraic cpo.\nScott open. See Scott topology.\nScott topology. For a poset P, a subset O is Scott-open if it is an upper set and all directed sets D that have a supremum in O have non-empty intersection with O. The set of all Scott-open sets forms a topology, the Scott topology.\nSemilattice. A semilattice is a poset in which either all finite non-empty joins (suprema) or all finite non-empty meets (infima) exist. Accordingly, one speaks of a join-semilattice or meet-semilattice.\nSmallest element. See least element.\nSperner property of a partially ordered set\nSperner poset\nStrictly Sperner poset\nStrongly Sperner poset\nStrict order. See strict partial order.\nStrict partial order. A strict partial order is a homogeneous binary relation that is transitive, irreflexive, and antisymmetric.\nStrict preorder. See strict partial order.\nSupremum. For a poset P and a subset X of P, the least element in the set of upper bounds of X (if it exists, which it may not) is called the supremum, join, or least upper bound of X. It is denoted by sup X or \n \n \n \n ⋁\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\bigvee }\n \nX. The supremum of two elements may be written as sup{x,y} or x ∨ y. If the set X is finite, one speaks of a finite supremum. The dual notion is called infimum.\nSuzumura consistency. A binary relation R is Suzumura consistent if x R∗ y implies that x R y or not y R x.[1]\nSymmetric relation. A homogeneous relation R on a set X is symmetric, if x R y implies y R x, for all elements x, y in X.","title":"S"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Total order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_order"},{"link_name":"Total relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connected_relation"},{"link_name":"Connected relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connected_relation"},{"link_name":"Transitive relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitive_relation"},{"link_name":"relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_relation"},{"link_name":"Transitive closure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitive_closure"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BosSuz-1"}],"text":"Top. See unit.\nTotal order. A total order T is a partial order in which, for each x and y in T, we have x ≤ y or y ≤ x. Total orders are also called linear orders or chains.\nTotal relation. Synonym for Connected relation.\nTransitive relation. A relation R on a set X is transitive, if x R y and y R z imply x R z, for all elements x, y, z in X.\nTransitive closure. The transitive closure R∗ of a relation R consists of all pairs x,y for which there cists a finite chain x R a, a R b, ..., z R y.[1]","title":"T"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"greatest element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_element"},{"link_name":"Upper bound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_bound"},{"link_name":"Upper set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_set"}],"text":"Unit. The greatest element of a poset P can be called unit or just 1 (if it exists). Another common term for this element is top. It is the infimum of the empty set and the supremum of P. The dual notion is called zero.\nUp-set. See upper set.\nUpper bound. An upper bound of a subset X of a poset P is an element b of P, such that x ≤ b, for all x in X. The dual notion is called lower bound.\nUpper set. A subset X of a poset P is called an upper set if, for all elements x in X and p in P, x ≤ p implies that p is contained in X. The dual notion is called lower set.","title":"U"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Valuation. Given a lattice \n \n \n \n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X}\n \n, a valuation \n \n \n \n ν\n :\n X\n →\n [\n 0\n ,\n 1\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu :X\\to [0,1]}\n \n is strict (that is, \n \n \n \n ν\n (\n ∅\n )\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu (\\varnothing )=0}\n \n), monotone, modular (that is, \n \n \n \n ν\n (\n U\n )\n +\n ν\n (\n V\n )\n =\n ν\n (\n U\n ∪\n V\n )\n +\n ν\n (\n U\n ∩\n V\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu (U)+\\nu (V)=\\nu (U\\cup V)+\\nu (U\\cap V)}\n \n) and positive. Continuous valuations are a generalization of measures.","title":"V"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Way-below relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Way-below_relation"},{"link_name":"domain theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_theory"},{"link_name":"Weak order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_order"},{"link_name":"isomorphic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomorphic"},{"link_name":"cardinality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinality"}],"text":"Way-below relation. In a poset P, some element x is way below y, written x<<y, if for all directed subsets D of P which have a supremum, y ≤ sup D implies x ≤ d for some d in D. One also says that x approximates y. See also domain theory.\nWeak order. A partial order ≤ on a set X is a weak order provided that the poset (X, ≤) is isomorphic to a countable collection of sets ordered by comparison of cardinality.","title":"W"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"least element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_element"}],"text":"Zero. The least element of a poset P can be called zero or just 0 (if it exists). Another common term for this element is bottom. Zero is the supremum of the empty set and the infimum of P. The dual notion is called unit.","title":"Z"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BosSuz_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BosSuz_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BosSuz_1-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BosSuz_1-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0674052994","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674052994"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Deng 2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDeng2008"}],"text":"^ a b c d Bossert, Walter; Suzumura, Kōtarō (2010). Consistency, choice and rationality. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674052994.\n\n^ Deng 2008, p. 22","title":"Notes"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Bossert, Walter; Suzumura, Kōtarō (2010). Consistency, choice and rationality. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674052994.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674052994","url_text":"978-0674052994"}]},{"reference":"Deng, Bangming (2008), Finite dimensional algebras and quantum groups, Mathematical surveys and monographs, vol. 150, American Mathematical Society, ISBN 978-0-8218-4186-0","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8218-4186-0","url_text":"978-0-8218-4186-0"}]}]	[]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language	Chinese language	["1 Classification","2 History","2.1 Old and Middle Chinese","2.2 Classical and vernacular written forms","2.3 Rise of northern dialects","2.4 Influence","3 Varieties","3.1 Grouping","3.2 Standard Chinese","3.3 Nomenclature","4 Phonology","4.1 Tones","5 Grammar","6 Vocabulary","6.1 Loanwords","6.2 Modern borrowings","7 Writing system","7.1 Chinese characters","7.2 Romanization","7.3 Other phonetic transcriptions","8 As a foreign language","9 See also","10 Notes","11 References","11.1 Citations","11.2 Sources","12 Further reading","13 External links"]	National language of China This article is about the Chinese language, which includes many varieties. For the standardized form, see Standard Chinese. For other languages in China, see Languages of China. For different varieties, see Sinitic languages. Chinese汉语; 漢語; Hànyǔ or 中文; ZhōngwénEthnicityHan ChineseGeographicdistributionThe Sinophone world: mainland China, Taiwan, SingaporeNative speakers1.35 billion (2017–2022)Linguistic classificationSino-TibetanChineseEarly formsProto-Sino-Tibetan Old Chinese Eastern Han Chinese Middle Chinese Subdivisions Mandarin Jin Wu Gan Xiang Min Hakka Yue Northern Pinghua Huizhou ISO 639-1zhISO 639-3zhoMap of the Chinese-speaking world Regions with a native Chinese-speaking majority Regions with significant Chinese-speaking minorities Regions where Chinese is not native but an official or educational language Han languageSimplified Chinese汉语Traditional Chinese漢語Literal meaningHan languageTranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinHànyǔBopomofoㄏㄢˋ ㄩˇGwoyeu RomatzyhHannyeuWade–GilesHan4-yu3Tongyong PinyinHàn-yǔYale RomanizationHàn-yǔIPAWuRomanizationHoe3 nyiu2HakkaRomanizationHon NgiYue: CantoneseYale RomanizationHon yúhJyutpingHon3 jyu5Canton RomanizationHon3 yü5IPACantonese pronunciation: Southern MinHokkien POJHàn-gí, Hàn-gúEastern MinFuzhou BUCHáng-ngṳ̄Chinese writingChinese中文Literal meaningChinese writingTranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinZhōngwénBopomofoㄓㄨㄥㄨㄣˊGwoyeu RomatzyhJongwenWade–GilesChung1-wen2Tongyong PinyinJhong-wúnYale RomanizationJūng-wénIPAWuRomanizationTson1 ven1HakkaRomanizationChung-VunYue: CantoneseYale RomanizationJūng mánJyutpingzung1 man42Canton RomanizationZung1 men42IPASouthern MinHokkien POJTiong-bûnEastern MinFuzhou BUCDṳng-ùngHan writingSimplified Chinese汉文Traditional Chinese漢文Literal meaningHan writingTranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinHànwénBopomofoㄏㄢˋ ㄨㄣˊGwoyeu RomatzyhHannwenWade–GilesHan4-wen2Tongyong PinyinHàn-wúnIPA Chinese (simplified Chinese: 汉语; traditional Chinese: 漢語; pinyin: Hànyǔ; lit. 'Han language' or 中文; Zhōngwén; 'Chinese writing') is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in China. Approximately 1.35 billion people, or 17% of the global population, speak a variety of Chinese as their first language. Ying, a speaker of Henan Chinese Chinese languages form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. The spoken varieties of Chinese are usually considered by native speakers to be dialects of a single language. However, their lack of mutual intelligibility means they are sometimes considered to be separate languages in a family. Investigation of the historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is ongoing. Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from Middle Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin with 66%, or around 800 million speakers, followed by Min (75 million, e.g. Southern Min), Wu (74 million, e.g. Shanghainese), and Yue (68 million, e.g. Cantonese). These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with the other varieties within the same branch (e.g. Southern Min). There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including New Xiang with Southwestern Mandarin, Xuanzhou Wu Chinese with Lower Yangtze Mandarin, Jin with Central Plains Mandarin and certain divergent dialects of Hakka with Gan. All varieties of Chinese are tonal at least to some degree, and are largely analytic. The earliest Chinese written records are oracle bone inscriptions dating to the Shang dynasty c. 1250 BCE. The phonetic categories of Old Chinese can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the Northern and Southern period, Middle Chinese went through several sound changes and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. The Qieyun, a rime dictionary, recorded a compromise between the pronunciations of different regions. The royal courts of the Ming and early Qing dynasties operated using a koiné language known as Guanhua, based on the Nanjing dialect of Mandarin. Standard Chinese is an official language of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan), one of the four official languages of Singapore, and one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin and was first officially adopted in the 1930s. The language is written primarily using a logography of Chinese characters, largely shared by readers who may otherwise speak mutually unintelligible varieties. Since the 1950s, the use of simplified characters has been promoted by the government of the People's Republic of China, with Singapore officially adopting them in 1976. Traditional characters are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and among Chinese-speaking communities overseas. Classification Linguists classify all varieties of Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family, together with Burmese, Tibetan and many other languages spoken in the Himalayas and the Southeast Asian Massif. Although the relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as Indo-European or Austroasiatic. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of Proto-Sino-Tibetan, the higher-level structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, but has not been convincingly demonstrated. History Main article: History of the Chinese language The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty. As the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have repeatedly sought to promulgate a unified standard. Old and Middle Chinese Main articles: Old Chinese and Middle Chinese Further information: Reconstruction of Old Chinese The earliest examples of Old Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones dated to c. 1250 BCE, during the Late Shang. The next attested stage came from inscriptions on bronze artifacts dating to the Western Zhou period (1046–771 BCE), the Classic of Poetry and portions of the Book of Documents and I Ching. Scholars have attempted to reconstruct the phonology of Old Chinese by comparing later varieties of Chinese with the rhyming practice of the Classic of Poetry and the phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters. Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differs from Middle Chinese in lacking retroflex and palatal obstruents but having initial consonant clusters of some sort, and in having voiceless nasals and liquids. Most recent reconstructions also describe an atonal language with consonant clusters at the end of the syllable, developing into tone distinctions in Middle Chinese. Several derivational affixes have also been identified, but the language lacks inflection, and indicated grammatical relationships using word order and grammatical particles. Middle Chinese was the language used during Northern and Southern dynasties and the Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties (6th–10th centuries CE). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the Qieyun rime dictionary (601 CE), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by rhyme tables such as the Yunjing constructed by ancient Chinese philologists as a guide to the Qieyun system. These works define phonological categories but with little hint of what sounds they represent. Linguists have identified these sounds by comparing the categories with pronunciations in modern varieties of Chinese, borrowed Chinese words in Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean, and transcription evidence. The resulting system is very complex, with a large number of consonants and vowels, but they are probably not all distinguished in any single dialect. Most linguists now believe it represents a diasystem encompassing 6th-century northern and southern standards for reading the classics. Classical and vernacular written forms Main articles: Classical Chinese and Written vernacular Chinese The complex relationship between spoken and written Chinese is an example of diglossia: as spoken, Chinese varieties have evolved at different rates, while the written language used throughout China changed comparatively little, crystallizing into a prestige form known as Classical or Literary Chinese. Literature written distinctly in the Classical form began to emerge during the Spring and Autumn period. Its use in writing remained nearly universal until the late 19th century, culminating with the widespread adoption of written vernacular Chinese with the May Fourth Movement beginning in 1919. Rise of northern dialects After the fall of the Northern Song dynasty and subsequent reign of the Jurchen Jin and Mongol Yuan dynasties in northern China, a common speech (now called Old Mandarin) developed based on the dialects of the North China Plain around the capital. The 1324 Zhongyuan Yinyun was a dictionary that codified the rhyming conventions of new sanqu verse form in this language. Together with the slightly later Menggu Ziyun, this dictionary describes a language with many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects. Up to the early 20th century, most Chinese people only spoke their local variety. Thus, as a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties, known as 官话; 官話; Guānhuà; 'language of officials'. For most of this period, this language was a koiné based on dialects spoken in the Nanjing area, though not identical to any single dialect. By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court. In the 1930s, a standard national language (国语; 國語; Guóyǔ), was adopted. After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation, the National Language Unification Commission finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic founded in 1949 retained this standard but renamed it 普通话; 普通話; pǔtōnghuà; 'common speech'. The national language is now used in education, the media, and formal situations in both mainland China and Taiwan. Because of their colonial and linguistic history, the language used in education, the media, formal speech, and everyday life in Hong Kong and Macau is the local Cantonese, although the standard language, Mandarin, has become very influential and is being taught in schools. Influence See also: Adoption of Chinese literary culture and Sino-Xenic vocabularies The Tripitaka Koreana, a Korean collection of the Chinese Buddhist canon Historically, the Chinese language has spread to its neighbors through a variety of means. Northern Vietnam was incorporated into the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) in 111 BCE, marking the beginning of a period of Chinese control that ran almost continuously for a millennium. The Four Commanderies of Han were established in northern Korea in the 1st century BCE but disintegrated in the following centuries. Chinese Buddhism spread over East Asia between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, and with it the study of scriptures and literature in Literary Chinese. Later, strong central governments modeled on Chinese institutions were established in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, with Literary Chinese serving as the language of administration and scholarship, a position it would retain until the late 19th century in Korea and (to a lesser extent) Japan, and the early 20th century in Vietnam. Scholars from different lands could communicate, albeit only in writing, using Literary Chinese. Although they used Chinese solely for written communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud using what are known as Sino-Xenic pronunciations. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also extensively imported into the Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese languages, and today comprise over half of their vocabularies. This massive influx led to changes in the phonological structure of the languages, contributing to the development of moraic structure in Japanese and the disruption of vowel harmony in Korean. Borrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in a similar way to the use of Latin and Ancient Greek roots in European languages. Many new compounds, or new meanings for old phrases, were created in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to name Western concepts and artifacts. These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages. They have even been accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin was hidden by their written form. Often different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, and sometimes the final choice differed between countries. The proportion of vocabulary of Chinese origin thus tends to be greater in technical, abstract, or formal language. For example, in Japan, Sino-Japanese words account for about 35% of the words in entertainment magazines, over half the words in newspapers, and 60% of the words in science magazines. Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, initially based on Chinese characters, but later replaced with the hangul alphabet for Korean and supplemented with kana syllabaries for Japanese, while Vietnamese continued to be written with the complex chữ Nôm script. However, these were limited to popular literature until the late 19th century. Today Japanese is written with a composite script using both Chinese characters called kanji, and kana. Korean is written exclusively with hangul in North Korea, although knowledge of the supplementary Chinese characters called hanja is still required, and hanja are increasingly rarely used in South Korea. As a result of its historical colonization by France, Vietnamese now uses the Latin-based Vietnamese alphabet. English words of Chinese origin include tea from Hokkien 茶 (tê), dim sum from Cantonese 點心 (dim2 sam1), and kumquat from Cantonese 金橘 (gam1 gwat1). Varieties Main article: Varieties of Chinese 75km50miles Guangzhou Wuzhou Taishan The sinologist Jerry Norman has estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese. These varieties form a dialect continuum, in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though the rate of change varies immensely. Generally, mountainous South China exhibits more linguistic diversity than the North China Plain. Until the late 20th century, Chinese emigrants to Southeast Asia and North America came from southeast coastal areas, where Min, Hakka, and Yue dialects were spoken. Specifically, most Chinese immigrants to North America until the mid-20th century spoke Taishanese, a variety of Yue from a small coastal area around Taishan, Guangdong. In parts of South China, the dialect of a major city may be only marginally intelligible to its neighbors. For example, Wuzhou and Taishan are located approximately 260 km (160 mi) and 190 km (120 mi) away from Guangzhou respectively. However, the Yue variety spoken in Wuzhou is more similar to the Guangzhou dialect than Taishanese is—while Wuzhou is located directly upstream from Guangzhou on the Pearl River, Taishan is to Guangzhou's southwest, with the two cities separated by several river valleys. In parts of Fujian, the speech of some neighbouring counties or villages is mutually unintelligible. Grouping Range of dialect groups in China proper and Taiwan according to the Language Atlas of China Local varieties of Chinese are conventionally classified into seven dialect groups, largely based on the different evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials: Mandarin, including Standard Chinese, the Beijing dialect, Sichuanese, and also the Dungan language spoken in Central Asia Wu, including Shanghainese, Suzhounese, and Wenzhounese Gan Xiang Min, including Fuzhounese, Hainanese, Hokkien and Teochew Hakka Yue, including Cantonese and Taishanese Proportions of first-language speakers Mandarin (65.7%) Min (6.2%) Wu (6.1%) Yue (5.6%) Jin (5.2%) Gan (3.9%) Hakka (3.5%) Xiang (3.0%) Huizhou (0.3%) Pinghua, others (0.6%) The classification of Li Rong, which is used in the Language Atlas of China (1987), distinguishes three further groups: Jin, previously included in Mandarin. Huizhou, previously included in Wu. Pinghua, previously included in Yue. Some varieties remain unclassified, including the Danzhou dialect on Hainan, Waxianghua spoken in western Hunan, and Shaozhou Tuhua spoken in northern Guangdong. Standard Chinese Main article: Standard Chinese See also: List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official language Standard Chinese is the standard language of China (where it is called 普通话; pǔtōnghuà) and Taiwan, and one of the four official languages of Singapore (where it is called either 华语; 華語; Huáyǔ or 汉语; 漢語; Hànyǔ). Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. The governments of both China and Taiwan intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore, it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools. Diglossia is common among Chinese speakers. For example, a Shanghai resident may speak both Standard Chinese and Shanghainese; if they grew up elsewhere, they are also likely fluent in the dialect of their home region. In addition to Standard Chinese, a majority of Taiwanese people also speak Taiwanese Hokkien (also called 台語; 'Taiwanese'), Hakka, or an Austronesian language. A speaker in Taiwan may mix pronunciations and vocabulary from Standard Chinese and other languages of Taiwan in everyday speech. In part due to traditional cultural ties with Guangdong, Cantonese is used as an everyday language in Hong Kong and Macau. Nomenclature The designation of various Chinese branches remains controversial. Some linguists and most ordinary Chinese people consider all the spoken varieties as one single language, as speakers share a common national identity and a common written form. Others instead argue that it is inappropriate to refer to major branches of Chinese such as Mandarin, Wu, and so on as "dialects" because the mutual unintelligibility between them is too great. However, calling major Chinese branches "languages" would also be wrong under the same criterion, since a branch such as Wu, itself contains many mutually unintelligible varieties, and could not be properly called a single language. There are also viewpoints pointing out that linguists often ignore mutual intelligibility when varieties share intelligibility with a central variety (i.e. prestige variety, such as Standard Mandarin), as the issue requires some careful handling when mutual intelligibility is inconsistent with language identity. The Chinese government's official Chinese designation for the major branches of Chinese is 方言; fāngyán; 'regional speech', whereas the more closely related varieties within these are called 地点方言; 地點方言; dìdiǎn fāngyán; 'local speech'. Because of the difficulties involved in determining the difference between language and dialect, other terms have been proposed. These include topolect, lect, vernacular, regional, and variety. Phonology Further information: Standard Chinese phonology, Historical Chinese phonology, and Varieties of Chinese § Phonology A man speaking Mandarin with a Malaysian accent Syllables in the Chinese languages have some unique characteristics. They are tightly related to the morphology and also to the characters of the writing system, and phonologically they are structured according to fixed rules. The structure of each syllable consists of a nucleus that has a vowel (which can be a monophthong, diphthong, or even a triphthong in certain varieties), preceded by an onset (a single consonant, or consonant + glide; a zero onset is also possible), and followed (optionally) by a coda consonant; a syllable also carries a tone. There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where the nasal sonorant consonants /m/ and /ŋ/ can stand alone as their own syllable. In Mandarin much more than in other spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda (assuming that a final glide is not analyzed as a coda), but syllables that do have codas are restricted to nasals /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, the retroflex approximant /ɻ/, and voiceless stops /p/, /t/, /k/, or /ʔ/. Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Standard Chinese, are limited to only /n/, /ŋ/, and /ɻ/. The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general, there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more polysyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which is only about an eighth as many as English. Tones All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones to distinguish words. A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 12 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned pitch accent system much like modern Japanese. A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese is the application of the four tones of Standard Chinese, along with the neutral tone, to the syllable ma. The tones are exemplified by the following five Chinese words: The syllable ma with each of the primary tones in Standard Chinese Examples of the Standard Mandarin tones Character Gloss Pinyin Pitch contour 妈; 媽 'mother' mā high, level 麻 'hemp' má high, rising 马; 馬 'horse' mǎ low falling, then rising 骂; 罵 'scold' mà high falling 吗; 嗎 INTR.PTC ma (varies) In contrast, Standard Cantonese has six tones. Historically, finals that end in a stop consonant were considered to be "checked tones" and thus counted separately for a total of nine tones. However, they are considered to be duplicates in modern linguistics and are no longer counted as such: Examples of the Standard Cantonese tones Character Gloss Jyutping Yale Pitch contour 诗; 詩 'poem' si1 sī high, level; high, falling 史 'history' si2 sí high, rising 弒 'assassinate' si3 si mid, level 时; 時 'time' si4 sìh low, falling 市 'market' si5 síh low, rising 是 'yes' si6 sih low, level Grammar Main article: Chinese grammar See also: Chinese classifiers Chinese is often described as a 'monosyllabic' language. However, this is only partially correct. It is largely accurate when describing Old and Middle Chinese; in Classical Chinese, around 90% of words consist of a single character that corresponds one-to-one with a morpheme, the smallest unit of meaning in a language. In modern varieties, it usually remains the case that morphemes are monosyllabic—in contrast, English has many multi-syllable morphemes, both bound and free, such as 'seven', 'elephant', 'para-' and '-able'. Some of the more conservative modern varieties, usually found in the south, have largely monosyllabic words, especially with basic vocabulary. However, most nouns, adjectives, and verbs in modern Mandarin are disyllabic. A significant cause of this is phonetic erosion: sound changes over time have steadily reduced the number of possible syllables in the language's inventory. In modern Mandarin, there are only around 1,200 possible syllables, including the tonal distinctions, compared with about 5,000 in Vietnamese (still a largely monosyllabic language), and over 8,000 in English. Most modern varieties tend to form new words through polysyllabic compounds. In some cases, monosyllabic words have become disyllabic formed from different characters without the use of compounding, as in 窟窿; kūlong from 孔; kǒng; this is especially common in Jin varieties. This phonological collapse has led to a corresponding increase in the number of homophones. As an example, the small Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary lists six words that are commonly pronounced as shí in Standard Chinese: Character Gloss MC Cantonese 十 'ten' dzyip sap6 实; 實 'actual' zyit sat6 识; 識 'recognize' dzyek sik1 石 'stone' dzyi sek6 时; 時 'time' dzyi si4 食 'food' zyik sik6 In modern spoken Mandarin, however, tremendous ambiguity would result if all of these words could be used as-is. The 20th century Yuen Ren Chao poem Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den exploits this, consisting of 92 characters all pronounced shi. As such, most of these words have been replaced in speech, if not in writing, with less ambiguous disyllabic compounds. Only the first one, 十, normally appears in monosyllabic form in spoken Mandarin; the rest are normally used in the polysyllabic forms of Word Pinyin Gloss 实际; 實際 shíjì 'actual-connection' 认识; 認識 rènshi 'recognize-know' 石头; 石頭 shítou 'stone-head' 时间; 時間 shíjiān 'time-interval' 食物 shíwù 'foodstuff' respectively. In each, the homophone was disambiguated by the addition of another morpheme, typically either a near-synonym or some sort of generic word (e.g. 'head', 'thing'), the purpose of which is to indicate which of the possible meanings of the other, homophonic syllable is specifically meant. However, when one of the above words forms part of a compound, the disambiguating syllable is generally dropped and the resulting word is still disyllabic. For example, 石; shí alone, and not 石头; 石頭; shítou, appears in compounds as meaning 'stone' such as 石膏; shígāo; 'plaster', 石灰; shíhuī; 'lime', 石窟; shíkū; 'grotto', 石英; 'quartz', and 石油; shíyóu; 'petroleum'. Although many single-syllable morphemes (字; zì) can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllable compounds known as 词; 詞; cí, which more closely resembles the traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese cí can consist of more than one character–morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more. Examples of Chinese words of more than two syllables include 汉堡包; 漢堡包; hànbǎobāo; 'hamburger', 守门员; 守門員; shǒuményuán; 'goalkeeper', and 电子邮件; 電子郵件; diànzǐyóujiàn; 'e-mail'. All varieties of modern Chinese are analytic languages: they depend on syntax (word order and sentence structure), rather than inflectional morphology (changes in the form of a word), to indicate a word's function within a sentence. In other words, Chinese has very few grammatical inflections—it possesses no tenses, no voices, no grammatical number, and only a few articles. They make heavy use of grammatical particles to indicate aspect and mood. In Mandarin, this involves the use of particles such as 了; le; 'PFV', 还; 還; hái; 'still', and 已经; 已經; yǐjīng; 'already'. Chinese has a subject–verb–object word order, and like many other languages of East Asia, makes frequent use of the topic–comment construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of classifiers and measure words, another trait shared with neighboring languages such as Japanese and Korean. Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of serial verb construction, pronoun dropping, and the related subject dropping. Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences. Vocabulary The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 50,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are in use and only about 3,000 are frequently used in Chinese media and newspapers. However, Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words. Because most Chinese words are made up of two or more characters, there are many more Chinese words than characters. A more accurate equivalent for a Chinese character is the morpheme, as characters represent the smallest grammatical units with individual meanings in the Chinese language. Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and lexicalized phrases vary greatly. The Hanyu Da Zidian, a compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including oracle bone versions. The Zhonghua Zihai (1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions and is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants. The CC-CEDICT project (2010) contains 97,404 contemporary entries including idioms, technology terms, and names of political figures, businesses, and products. The 2009 version of the Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary (WDCD), based on CC-CEDICT, contains over 84,000 entries. The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary, the 12-volume Hanyu Da Cidian, records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised Cihai, a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases, and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific, and technical terms. The 2016 edition of Xiandai Hanyu Cidian, an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in mainland China, has 13,000 head characters and defines 70,000 words. Loanwords Like many other languages, Chinese has absorbed a sizable number of loanwords from other cultures. Most Chinese words are formed out of native Chinese morphemes, including words describing imported objects and ideas. However, direct phonetic borrowing of foreign words has gone on since ancient times. Some early Indo-European loanwords in Chinese have been proposed, notably 'honey' (蜜; mì), 'lion' (狮; 獅; shī), and perhaps 'horse' (马; 馬; mǎ), 'pig' (猪; 豬; zhū), 'dog' (犬; quǎn), and 'goose' (鹅; 鵝; é). Ancient words borrowed from along the Silk Road during the Old Chinese period include 'grape' (葡萄; pútáo), 'pomegranate' (石榴; shíliú), and 'lion' (狮子; 獅子; shīzi). Some words were borrowed from Buddhist scriptures, including 'Buddha' (佛; Fó) and 'bodhisattva' (菩萨; 菩薩; Púsà). Other words came from nomadic peoples to the north, such as 'hutong' (胡同). Words borrowed from the peoples along the Silk Road, such as 'grape' (葡萄), generally have Persian etymologies. Buddhist terminology is generally derived from Sanskrit or Pali, the liturgical languages of northern India. Words borrowed from the nomadic tribes of the Gobi, Mongolian or northeast regions generally have Altaic etymologies, such as 琵琶 (pípá), the Chinese lute, or 'cheese or yogurt' (酪; lào), but from exactly which source is not always clear. Modern borrowings This section may contain excessive or irrelevant examples. Please help improve the article by adding descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples. (April 2024) See also: Translation of neologisms into Chinese and Transcription into Chinese characters Modern neologisms are primarily translated into Chinese in one of three ways: free translation (calques), phonetic translation (by sound), or a combination of the two. Today, it is much more common to use existing Chinese morphemes to coin new words to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions and international scientific vocabulary, wherein the Latin and Greek components are usually converted one-for-one into the corresponding Chinese characters. The word 'telephone' was initially loaned phonetically as 德律风; 德律風 (délǜfēng; Shanghainese télífon )—this word was widely used in Shanghai during the 1920s, but the later 电话; 電話 (diànhuà; 'electric speech'), built out of native Chinese morphemes became prevalent. Other examples include 电视; 電視 (diànshì; 'electric vision') 'television' 电脑; 電腦 (diànnǎo; 'electric brain') 'computer' 手机; 手機 (shǒujī; 'hand machine') 'mobile phone' 蓝牙; 藍牙 (lányá; 'blue tooth') 'Bluetooth' 网志; 網誌 (wǎngzhì; 'internet logbook') 'blog' Occasionally, compromises between the transliteration and translation approaches become accepted, such as 汉堡包; 漢堡包 (hànbǎobāo; 'hamburger') from 汉堡; 'Hamburg' + 包 ('bun'). Sometimes translations are designed so that they sound like the original while incorporating Chinese morphemes (phono-semantic matching), such as 马利奥; 馬利奧 (Mǎlì'ào) for the video game character 'Mario'. This is often done for commercial purposes, for example 奔腾; 奔騰 (bēnténg; 'dashing-leaping') for 'Pentium' and 赛百味; 賽百味 (Sàibǎiwèi; 'better-than hundred tastes') for 'Subway'. Foreign words, mainly proper nouns, continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations. For example, 'Israel' becomes 以色列 (Yǐsèliè), and 'Paris' becomes 巴黎 (Bālí). A rather small number of direct transliterations have survived as common words, including 沙发; 沙發 (shāfā; 'sofa'), 马达; 馬達 (mǎdá; 'motor'), 幽默 (yōumò; 'humor'), 逻辑; 邏輯 (luóji, luójí; 'logic'), 时髦; 時髦 (shímáo; 'smart (fashionable)'), and 歇斯底里 (xiēsīdǐlǐ; 'hysterics'). The bulk of these words were originally coined in Shanghai during the early 20th century and later loaned from there into Mandarin, hence their Mandarin pronunciations occasionally being quite divergent from the English. For example, in Shanghainese 沙发; 沙發 (sofa) and 马达; 馬達 ('motor') sound more like their English counterparts. Cantonese differs from Mandarin with some transliterations, such as 梳化 (so1 faa3,2; 'sofa') and 摩打 (mo1 daa2; 'motor'). Western foreign words representing Western concepts have influenced Chinese since the 20th century through transcription. From French, 芭蕾 (bālěi) and 香槟; 香檳 (xiāngbīn) were borrowed for 'ballet' and 'champagne' respectively; 咖啡 (kāfēi) was borrowed from Italian caffè 'coffee'. The influence of English is particularly pronounced: from the early 20th century, many English words were borrowed into Shanghainese, such as 高尔夫; 高爾夫 (gāo'ěrfū; 'golf') and the aforementioned 沙发; 沙發 (shāfā; 'sofa'). Later, American soft power gave rise to 迪斯科 (dísīkē; 'disco'), 可乐; 可樂 (kělè; 'cola'), and mínǐ ('miniskirt'). Contemporary colloquial Cantonese has distinct loanwords from English, such as 卡通 (kaa1 tung1; 'cartoon'), 基佬 (gei1 lou2; 'gay people'), 的士 (dik1 si6,2; 'taxi'), and 巴士 (baa1 si6,2; 'bus'). With the rising popularity of the Internet, there is a current vogue in China for coining English transliterations, for example, 粉丝; 粉絲 (fěnsī; 'fans'), 黑客 (hēikè; 'hacker'), and 博客 (bókè; 'blog'). In Taiwan, some of these transliterations are different, such as 駭客 (hàikè; 'hacker') and 部落格 (bùluògé; 'interconnected tribes') for 'blog'. Another result of English influence on Chinese is the appearance of so-called 字母词; 字母詞 (zìmǔcí; 'lettered words') spelled with letters from the English alphabet. These have appeared in colloquial usage, as well as in magazines and newspapers, and on websites and television: 三G手机 'third generation of cell phones' ← 三 (sān; 'three') + G; 'generation' + 手机; shǒujī ('cell phone') IT界 'IT circles' ← IT + 界 (jiè; 'industry') CIF价 'Cost, Insurance, Freight' ← CIF + 价; jià; 'price' e家庭 'e-home' ← e; 'electronic' + 家庭; jiātíng; 'home' W时代 'wireless era' ← W; 'wireless' + 时代; shídài; 'era' TV族 'TV-watchers' ← TV; 'television' + 族; TV zú; 'clan' Since the 20th century, another source of words has been kanji: Japan re-molded European concepts and inventions into 和製漢語, wasei-kango, 'Japanese-made Chinese', and many of these words have been re-loaned into modern Chinese. Other terms were coined by the Japanese by giving new senses to existing Chinese terms or by referring to expressions used in classical Chinese literature. For example, 经济; 經濟; jīngjì; 経済, keizai in Japanese, which in the original Chinese meant 'the workings of the state', narrowed to 'economy' in Japanese; this narrowed definition was then re-imported into Chinese. As a result, these terms are virtually indistinguishable from native Chinese words: indeed, there is some dispute over some of these terms as to whether the Japanese or Chinese coined them first. As a result of this loaning, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese share a corpus of linguistic terms describing modern terminology, paralleling the similar corpus of terms built from Greco-Latin and shared among European languages. Writing system Main articles: Written Chinese, Mainland Chinese Braille, and Taiwanese Braille "Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion" by Wang Xizhi, written in semi-cursive style The Chinese orthography centers on Chinese characters, which are written within imaginary square blocks, traditionally arranged in vertical columns, read from top to bottom down a column, and right to left across columns, despite alternative arrangement with rows of characters from left to right within a row and from top to bottom across rows (like English and other Western writing systems) having become more popular since the 20th century. Chinese characters denote morphemes independent of phonetic variation in different languages. Thus the character 一 ('one') is pronounced as yī in Standard Chinese, yat1 in Cantonese and it in Hokkien, a form of Min. Most modern written Chinese is in the form of written vernacular Chinese, based on spoken Standard Chinese, regardless of dialectical background. Written vernacular Chinese largely replaced Literary Chinese in the early 20th century as the country's standard written language. However, vocabularies from different Chinese-speaking areas have diverged, and the divergence can be observed in written Chinese. Due to the divergence of variants, some unique morphemes are not found in Standard Chinese. Characters rarely used in Standard Chinese have also been created or inherited from archaic literary standards to represent these unique morphemes. For example, characters like 冇 and 係 are actively used in Cantonese and Hakka, while being archaic or unused in standard written Chinese. The most prominent example of a non-Standard Chinese orthography is Written Cantonese, which is used in tabloids and on the internet among Cantonese speakers in Hong Kong and elsewhere. Chinese had no uniform system of phonetic transcription until the mid-20th century, although enunciation patterns were recorded in early rime books and dictionaries. Early Indian translators, working in Sanskrit and Pali, were the first to attempt to describe the sounds and enunciation patterns of Chinese in a foreign language. After the 15th century, the efforts of Jesuits and Western court missionaries resulted in some Latin character transcription/writing systems, based on various variants of Chinese languages. Some of these Latin character-based systems are still being used to write various Chinese variants in the modern era. In Hunan, women in certain areas write their local Chinese language variant in Nüshu, a syllabary derived from Chinese characters. The Dungan language, considered by many a dialect of Mandarin, is nowadays written in Cyrillic and was previously written in the Arabic script. The Dungan people are primarily Muslim and live mainly in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Russia; many Hui people, living mainly in China, also speak the language. Chinese characters Main article: Chinese characters See also: Chinese character classification 永 is often used to illustrate the eight basic types of strokes of Chinese characters Each Chinese character represents a monosyllabic Chinese word or morpheme. In 100 CE, the famed Han dynasty scholar Xu Shen classified characters into six categories: pictographs, simple ideographs, compound ideographs, phonetic loans, phonetic compounds, and derivative characters. Only 4% were categorized as pictographs, including many of the simplest characters, such as 人 (rén; 'human'), 日 (rì; 'Sun'), 山 (shān; 'mountain'), and 水 (shuǐ; 'water'). Between 80% and 90% were classified as phonetic compounds such as 沖 (chōng; 'pour'), combining a phonetic component 中 (zhōng) with a semantic component of the radical 氵, a reduced form of 水; 'water'. Almost all characters created since have been made using this format. The 18th-century Kangxi Dictionary classified characters under a now-common set of 214 radicals. Modern characters are styled after the regular script. Various other written styles are also used in Chinese calligraphy, including seal script, cursive script and clerical script. Calligraphy artists can write in Traditional and Simplified characters, but they tend to use Traditional characters for traditional art. There are currently two systems for Chinese characters. Traditional characters, used in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau, and many overseas Chinese-speaking communities, largely take their form from received character forms dating back to the late Han dynasty and standardized during the Ming. Simplified characters, introduced by the PRC in 1954 to promote mass literacy, simplifies most complex traditional glyphs to fewer strokes, many to common cursive shorthand variants. Singapore, which has a large Chinese community, was the second nation to officially adopt simplified characters, although it has also become the de facto standard for younger ethnic Chinese in Malaysia. The Internet provides practice reading each of these systems, and most Chinese readers are capable of, if not necessarily comfortable with, reading the alternative system through experience and guesswork. A well-educated Chinese reader today recognizes approximately 4,000 to 6,000 characters; approximately 3,000 characters are required to read a mainland newspaper. The PRC defines literacy amongst workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, though this would be only functional literacy. School children typically learn around 2,000 characters whereas scholars may memorize up to 10,000. A large unabridged dictionary like the Kangxi dictionary, contains over 40,000 characters, including obscure, variant, rare, and archaic characters; fewer than a quarter of these characters are now commonly used. Romanization Main article: Romanization of Chinese 国语; 國語; Guóyǔ; 'National language' written in traditional and simplified forms, followed by various romanizations Romanization is the process of transcribing a language into the Latin script. There are many systems of romanization for the Chinese varieties, due to the lack of a native phonetic transcription until modern times. Chinese is first known to have been written in Latin characters by Western Christian missionaries in the 16th century. Today the most common romanization for Standard Chinese is Hanyu Pinyin, introduced in 1956 by the PRC, and later adopted by Singapore and Taiwan. Pinyin is almost universally employed now for teaching standard spoken Chinese in schools and universities across the Americas, Australia, and Europe. Chinese parents also use Pinyin to teach their children the sounds and tones of new words. In school books that teach Chinese, the pinyin romanization is often shown below a picture of the thing the word represents, with the Chinese character alongside. The second-most common romanization system, the Wade–Giles, was invented by Thomas Wade in 1859 and modified by Herbert Giles in 1892. As this system approximates the phonology of Mandarin Chinese into English consonants and vowels–it is largely an anglicization, it may be particularly helpful for beginner Chinese speakers of an English-speaking background. Wade–Giles was found in academic use in the United States, particularly before the 1980s, and was widely used in Taiwan until 2009. When used within European texts, the tone transcriptions in both pinyin and Wade–Giles are often left out for simplicity; Wade–Giles's extensive use of apostrophes is also usually omitted. Thus, most Western readers will be much more familiar with Beijing than they will be with Běijīng (pinyin), and with Taipei than T'ai2-pei3 (Wade–Giles). This simplification presents syllables as homophones which are not, and therefore exaggerates the number of homophones almost by a factor of four. For comparison: Comparison of Mandarin romanizations Characters Wade–Giles Pinyin Meaning 中国; 中國 Chung1-kuo2 Zhōngguó China 台湾; 台灣 T'ai2-wan1 Táiwān Taiwan 北京 Pei3-ching1 Běijīng Beijing 台北; 臺北 T'ai2-pei3 Táiběi Taipei 孫文 Sun1-wên2 Sūn Wén Sun Yat-sen 毛泽东; 毛澤東 Mao2 Tse2-tung1 Máo Zédōng Mao Zedong 蒋介石; 蔣介石 Chiang3 Chieh4-shih2 Jiǎng Jièshí Chiang Kai-shek 孔子 K'ung3 Tsu3 Kǒngzǐ Confucius Other systems include Gwoyeu Romatzyh, the French EFEO, the Yale system (invented for use by US troops during World War II), as well as distinct systems for the phonetic requirements of Cantonese, Min Nan, Hakka, and other varieties. Other phonetic transcriptions Chinese varieties have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries. The 'Phags-pa script, for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciations of premodern forms of Chinese. Bopomofo (or zhuyin) is a semi-syllabary that is still widely used in Taiwan to aid standard pronunciation. There are also at least two systems of cyrillization for Chinese. The most widespread is the Palladius system. As a foreign language Main article: Chinese as a foreign language Yang Lingfu, former curator of the National Museum of China, giving Chinese language instruction at the Civil Affairs Staging Area in 1945 With the growing importance and influence of China's economy globally, Standard Chinese instruction has been gaining popularity in schools throughout East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Western world. Besides Mandarin, Cantonese is the only other Chinese language that is widely taught as a foreign language, largely due to the economic and cultural influence of Hong Kong and its widespread usage among significant Overseas Chinese communities. In 1991, there were 2,000 foreign learners taking China's official Chinese Proficiency Test, called Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi (HSK), comparable to the English Cambridge Certificate, but by 2005 the number of candidates had risen sharply to 117,660 and in 2010 to 750,000. See also Chengyu Chinese computational linguistics Chinese exclamative particles Chinese honorifics Chinese language law Chinese numerals Chinese punctuation Chinese word-segmented writing Classical Chinese grammar Han unification Languages of China North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics Protection of the Varieties of Chinese Notes ^ The colloquial layers of many varieties, particularly Min varieties, reflect features that predate Middle Chinese. ^ Especially when distinguished from other languages of China ^ "Chinese" refers collectively to the various language varieties that have descended from Old Chinese: native speakers often consider these to be "dialects" of a single language—though the Chinese term 方言; fāngyán; 'dialect' does not carry the precise connotations of "dialect" in English—while linguists typically analyze them as separate languages. See Dialect continuum and Varieties of Chinese for details. ^ Various examples include:David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 312. "The mutual unintelligibility of the varieties is the main ground for referring to them as separate languages."Charles N. Li, Sandra A. Thompson. Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar (1989), p. 2. "The Chinese language family is genetically classified as an independent branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family."Norman (1988), p. 1. " the modern Chinese dialects are really more like a family of languages "DeFrancis (1984), p. 56. "To call Chinese a single language composed of dialects with varying degrees of difference is to mislead by minimizing disparities that according to Chao are as great as those between English and Dutch. To call Chinese a family of languages is to suggest extralinguistic differences that in fact do not exist and to overlook the unique linguistic situation that exists in China." Linguists in China often use a formulation introduced by Fu Maoji in the Encyclopedia of China: 《汉语在语言系属分类中相当于一个语族的地位。》; "In language classification, Chinese has a status equivalent to a language family." ^ a b DeFrancis (1984), p. 42 counts Chinese as having 1,277 tonal syllables, and about 398 to 418 if tones are disregarded; he cites Jespersen, Otto (1928) Monosyllabism in English; London, p. 15 for a count of over 8000 syllables for English. ^ See neutral tone. ^ Using Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese ^ There are plural markers in the language, such as 们; 們; men, used with personal pronouns. ^ A distinction is made between 他; 'he' and 她; 'she' in writing, but this was only introduced in the 20th century—both characters remain exactly homophonous. ^ Hong Kong and Macau Cantonese References Citations ^ Chinese at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024) ^ Norman (1988), pp. 211–214; Pulleyblank (1984), p. 3. ^ "Summary by language size". Ethnologue. 3 October 2018. Retrieved 7 March 2021. ^ Mair (1991), pp. 10, 21. ^ a b Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012), pp. 3, 125. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 12–13. ^ Handel (2008), pp. 422, 434–436. ^ Handel (2008), p. 426. ^ Handel (2008), p. 431. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 183–185. ^ Schüssler (2007), p. 1. ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 2–3. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 42–45. ^ Baxter (1992), p. 177. ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 181–183. ^ Schüssler (2007), p. 12. ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 14–15. ^ Ramsey (1987), p. 125. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 34–42. ^ Norman (1988), p. 24. ^ Norman (1988), p. 48. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 48–49. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 49–51. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 133, 247. ^ Norman (1988), p. 136. ^ Coblin (2000), pp. 549–550. ^ Coblin (2000), pp. 540–541. ^ Ramsey (1987), pp. 3–15. ^ Norman (1988), p. 133. ^ Zhang & Yang (2004). ^ Sohn & Lee (2003), p. 23. ^ Miller (1967), pp. 29–30. ^ Kornicki (2011), pp. 75–77. ^ Kornicki (2011), p. 67. ^ Miyake (2004), pp. 98–99. ^ Shibatani (1990), pp. 120–121. ^ Sohn (2001), p. 89. ^ Shibatani (1990), p. 146. ^ Wilkinson (2000), p. 43. ^ Shibatani (1990), p. 143. ^ a b Norman (2003), p. 72. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 189–191; Ramsey (1987), p. 98. ^ Ramsey (1987), p. 23. ^ Norman (1988), p. 188. ^ a b Wurm et al. (1987). ^ Norman (1988), p. 181. ^ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 53–55. ^ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 55–56. ^ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 72–73. ^ 何, 信翰 (10 August 2019). "自由廣場》Taigi與台語". 自由時報. Retrieved 11 July 2021. ^ 李, 淑鳳 (1 March 2010). "台、華語接觸所引起的台語語音的變化趨勢". 台語研究. 2 (1): 56–71. Retrieved 11 July 2021. ^ Klöter, Henning (2004). "Language Policy in the KMT and DPP eras". China Perspectives. 56. ISSN 1996-4617. Retrieved 30 May 2015. ^ Kuo, Yun-Hsuan (2005). New dialect formation: the case of Taiwanese Mandarin (PhD). University of Essex. Retrieved 26 June 2015. ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 7–8. ^ DeFrancis (1984), pp. 55–57. ^ Thomason (1988), pp. 27–28. ^ Campbell (2008). ^ a b DeFrancis (1984), p. 57. ^ Mair (1991), p. 7. ^ (Bailey 1973, p. 11), cited in Groves (2010), p. 531 ^ Haugen (1966), p. 927. ^ Hudson (1996), p. 22. ^ Mair (1991), p. 17. ^ Norman (1988), p. 52. ^ Matthews & Yip (1994), pp. 20–22. ^ Terrell, Peter, ed. (2005). Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary. Langenscheidt KG. ISBN 978-1-58573-057-5. ^ Norman (1988), p. 10. ^ "Languages - Real Chinese - Mini-guides - Chinese characters". BBC. ^ Timothy Uy and Jim Hsia, Editors, Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary – Advanced Reference Edition, July 2009 ^ Egerod, Søren Christian (12 April 2024). "Chinese languages". Encyclopædia Britannica. Old Chinese vocabulary already contained many words not generally occurring in the other Sino-Tibetan languages. The words for 'honey' and 'lion', and probably also 'horse', 'dog', and 'goose', are connected with Indo-European and were acquired through trade and early contacts. (The nearest known Indo-European languages were Tocharian and Sogdian, a middle Iranian language.) Some words have Austroasiatic cognates and point to early contacts with the ancestral language of Muong–Vietnamese and Mon–Khmer.Ulenbrook, Jan (1967), Einige Übereinstimmungen zwischen dem Chinesischen und dem Indogermanischen (in German) proposes 57 items.Chang, Tsung-tung (1988). "Indo-European Vocabulary in Old Chinese" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. ^ Kane (2006), p. 161. ^ "Requirements for Chinese Text Layout" 中文排版需求. ^ Huang Hua (黃華). 白話為何在五四時期「活」起來了？ (PDF) (in Chinese). Chinese University of Hong Kong. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2022. ^ 粵普之爭為你中文解毒 (in Chinese). ^ 粤语：中国最强方言是如何炼成的_私家历史_澎湃新闻. The Paper 澎湃新闻. ^ 陳宇碩. 白話字滄桑. The New Messenger 新使者雜誌 (in Chinese). ^ 全球華文網-華文世界，數位之最 (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2020. ^ Zimmermann, Basile (2010). "Redesigning Culture: Chinese Characters in Alphabet-Encoded Networks". Design and Culture. 2 (1): 27–43. doi:10.2752/175470710X12593419555126. S2CID 53981784. ^ "How hard is it to learn Chinese?". BBC News. 17 January 2006. Retrieved 28 April 2010. ^ Wakefield, John C., Cantonese as a Second Language: Issues, Experiences, and Suggestions for Teaching and Learning (Routledge Studies in Applied Linguistics), Routledge, New York City, 2019., p.45 ^ (in Chinese) "汉语水平考试中心：2005年外国考生总人数近12万",Gov.cn Archived 19 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine Xinhua News Agency, 16 January 2006. ^ Liu lili (27 June 2011). "Chinese language proficiency test becoming popular in Mexico". Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 12 September 2013. Sources Bailey, Charles James Nice (1973). Variation and linguistic theory. Arlington, Va: Center for Applied Linguistics. ISBN 978-0-87281-032-7. Baxter, William H. (1992). A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-012324-1. Campbell, Lyle (2008), "", Language, vol. 84, no. 3, pp. 636–641, doi:10.1353/lan.0.0054, S2CID 143663395 Chappell, Hilary (2008). "Variation in the grammaticalization of complementizers from verba dicendi in Sinitic languages". Linguistic Typology. 12 (1): 45–98. doi:10.1515/LITY.2008.032. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1A8D-4. ISSN 1430-0532. S2CID 201097561. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, ed. (2012). Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí (dì 2 bǎn): Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn 中国语言地图集(第2版):汉语方言卷 (2nd ed.). Beijing: The Commercial Press. ISBN 978-7-100-07054-6. Coblin, W. South (2000). "A Brief History of Mandarin". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 120 (4): 537–552. doi:10.2307/606615. JSTOR 606615. DeFrancis, John (1984). The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy. University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1068-9. Handel, Zev (2008). "What is Sino-Tibetan? Snapshot of a Field and a Language Family in Flux". Language and Linguistics Compass. 2 (3): 422–441. doi:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00061.x. ISSN 1749-818X. Haugen, Einar (1966). "Dialect, Language, Nation". American Anthropologist. 68 (4): 922–935. doi:10.1525/aa.1966.68.4.02a00040. ISSN 0002-7294. JSTOR 670407. Hudson, R. A. (1996). Sociolinguistics (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56514-1. Hymes, Dell (1971). "Sociolinguistics and the ethnography of speaking". In Ardener, Edwin (ed.). Social Anthropology and Language. Routledge. pp. 47–92. ISBN 978-1-136-53941-1. Groves, Julie May (2010). "Language or dialect, topolect or regiolect? A comparative study of language attitudes towards the status of Cantonese in Hong Kong". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 31 (6): 531–551. doi:10.1080/01434632.2010.509507. ISSN 0143-4632. S2CID 144374994. Kane, Daniel (2006). The Chinese language: its history and current usage. North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle. ISBN 978-0-8048-3853-5. Kornicki, P.F. (2011). "A transnational approach to East Asian book history". In Chakravorty, Swapan; Gupta, Abhijit (eds.). New Word Order: Transnational Themes in Book History. Worldview Publications. pp. 65–79. ISBN 978-81-920651-1-3. Kurpaska, Maria (2010). Chinese language(s): a look through the prism of the Great dictionary of modern Chinese dialects. Trends in linguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-021914-2. Lewis, M. Paul; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2015), Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Eighteenth ed.), Dallas, Texas: SIL International Liang, Sihua (2015). Language attitudes and identities in multilingual China: a linguistic ethnography. Cham: Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-12619-7. Mair, Victor H. (1991). "What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. 29: 1–31. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 May 2018. Retrieved 17 November 2023. Matthews, Stephen; Yip, Virginia (1994). Cantonese: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-08945-6. Tsu-lin, Mei (1970). "Tones and Prosody in Middle Chinese and The Origin of The Rising Tone". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 30: 86–110. doi:10.2307/2718766. JSTOR 2718766. Miller, Roy Andrew (1967). The Japanese Language. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-52717-8. Miyake, Marc Hideo (2004). Old Japanese: A Phonetic Reconstruction. Routledge–Curzon. ISBN 978-0-415-30575-4. Norman, Jerry (1988). Chinese. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3. Norman, Jerry (2003). "The Chinese dialects: phonology". In Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.). The Sino-Tibetan languages. Routledge. pp. 72–83. ISBN 978-0-7007-1129-1. Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1984). Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-0192-8. Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). The Languages of China. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01468-5. Romaine, Suzanne (1994). Language in Society: an Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-875133-5. Schüssler, Axel (2007). ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese. ABC Chinese dictionary series. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2975-9. Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990). The Languages of Japan. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36918-3. Sohn, Ho-Min (2001). The Korean Language. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36943-5. Sohn, Ho-Min; Lee, Peter H. (2003). "Language, forms, prosody, and themes". In Lee, Peter H. (ed.). A History of Korean Literature. Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–51. ISBN 978-0-521-82858-1. Thomason, Sarah Grey (1988). "Languages of the World". In Paulston, Christina Bratt (ed.). International Handbook of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education (1st ed.). New York: Greenwood Press. pp. 17–45. ISBN 978-0-313-24484-1. Van Herk, Gerard (2012). What is sociolinguistics?. Linguistics in the world (1st ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-9319-1. Wardaugh, Ronald; Fuller, Janet (2014). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-73229-8. Wilkinson, Endymion Porter (2000). Chinese History: A Manual. Harvard-Yenching Institute monograph series. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00249-4. Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Li, Rong; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987). Language Atlas of China. Longman. ISBN 978-962-359-085-3. Zhang, Bennan; Yang, Robin R. (2004). "Putonghua education and language policy in postcolonial Hong Kong". In Zhou, Minglang (ed.). Language policy in the People's Republic of China: theory and practice since 1949. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 143–161. ISBN 978-1-4020-8038-8. Sagart, Laurent; Jacques, Guillaume; Lai, Yunfan; Ryder, Robin J.; Thouzeau, Valentin; Greenhill, Simon J.; List, Johann-Mattis (21 May 2019). "Dated language phylogenies shed light on the ancestry of Sino-Tibetan". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (21): 10317–10322. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11610317S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1817972116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6534992. PMID 31061123. "Origin of Sino-Tibetan language family revealed by new research". ScienceDaily (Press release). 6 May 2019. Further reading Arablouei, Ramtin; Rund Abdelfatah (26 May 2022). "The Characters That Built China". Throughline. NPR. Retrieved 27 August 2023. On the history of the standardization of Mandarin as the Chinese primary national dialect. Hannas, William C. (1997), Asia's Orthographic Dilemma, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-1892-0. Huang, Cheng-Teh James; Li, Yen-Hui Audrey; Li, Yafei (2009), The Syntax of Chinese, Cambridge Syntax Guides, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/CBO9781139166935, ISBN 978-0-521-59958-0, S2CID 209828119. Qiu, Xigui (2000), Chinese Writing, translated by Gilbert Louis Mattos and Jerry Norman, Society for the Study of Early China and Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, ISBN 978-1-55729-071-7. R. L. G. (6 June 2013). "Why So Little Chinese in English?". Johnson (blog): Language Borrowing (topic). The Economist. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2023. Tsu, Jing (2022). Kingdom of Characters: The Language Revolution That Made China Modern. New York: Riverhead Books. ISBN 9780735214729. OCLC 1246726702. External links Chinese edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chinese languages. Wikiquote has quotations related to Chinese language. Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for Chinese. 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Sino-Tibetan Yue Cantonese Malaysian Cantonese Hakka Min Eastern Min Fuqing Fuzhou Hainanese Pu-Xian Min Southern Min Hokkien Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien Penang Hokkien Chaoshan Min Teochew Mandarin Chinese Malaysian Mandarin Indian Dravidian Malayalam Tamil Malaysian Tamil Telugu Indo-European Gujarati Hindi Punjabi Urdu Indonesianarchipelago Acehnese Banjar Baweanese Buginese Javanese Kerinci Mandailing Minangkabau Rawa Philippine Philippine Iranun Maranao Molbog Suluk Others Cham Creoles Chavacano Kristang Manglish Malay trade and creole languages Baba Malay Chetty Malay Cocos Malay Sabah Malay Mixed & Others Rojak Tanglish Esperanto Immigrants African Arab Bangladeshi Burmese Cambodian East Timorese Filipino Indonesian comparison with Malaysian Iranian Japanese Korean Laotian Nepalese Pakistani Sri Lankan Thai Vietnamese SignsMain Malaysian Sign Language Manually Coded Malay By states Penang Sign Language Selangor Sign Language 1 Extinct languages 2 Nearly extinct languages vteChinese language loan vocabularies Sinosphere Japanese Korean Vietnamese English Spanish Portals: Language China Taiwan Singapore Hong Kong Authority control databases National Germany Israel United States Japan Czech Republic Other NARA	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Standard Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Languages of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_China"},{"link_name":"Sinitic languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinitic_languages"},{"link_name":"simplified Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"traditional Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Chinese"},{"link_name":"languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dialect-perspective-5"},{"link_name":"Han Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Chinese"},{"link_name":"many minority ethnic groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"variety of Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_of_Chinese"},{"link_name":"first language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_language"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Sinitic branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinitic_languages"},{"link_name":"Sino-Tibetan language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_language"},{"link_name":"dialects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialect"},{"link_name":"mutual intelligibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility"},{"link_name":"family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Middle Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Mandarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Min","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Southern Min","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Min"},{"link_name":"Wu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Shanghainese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghainese"},{"link_name":"Yue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yue_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Cantonese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantonese"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChinese_Academy_of_Social_Sciences20123,_125-9"},{"link_name":"New Xiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Xiang"},{"link_name":"Southwestern Mandarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwestern_Mandarin"},{"link_name":"Xuanzhou Wu Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuanzhou_Wu_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Lower Yangtze Mandarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin"},{"link_name":"Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Central Plains Mandarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Plains_Mandarin"},{"link_name":"Hakka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakka_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Gan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gan_Chinese"},{"link_name":"tonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"analytic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_language"},{"link_name":"oracle bone inscriptions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_bone_inscriptions"},{"link_name":"Shang dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Old Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Northern and Southern period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_period"},{"link_name":"sound changes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_change"},{"link_name":"Qieyun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qieyun"},{"link_name":"rime dictionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rime_dictionary"},{"link_name":"Qing dynasties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasties"},{"link_name":"koiné language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language"},{"link_name":"Guanhua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)"},{"link_name":"Nanjing dialect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing_dialect"},{"link_name":"Standard Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Chinese"},{"link_name":"People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"official languages of Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Singapore"},{"link_name":"official languages of the United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_languages_of_the_United_Nations"},{"link_name":"Beijing dialect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing_dialect"},{"link_name":"logography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logography"},{"link_name":"Chinese characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"simplified characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_characters"},{"link_name":"Traditional characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_characters"},{"link_name":"communities overseas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Chinese"}],"text":"This article is about the Chinese language, which includes many varieties. For the standardized form, see Standard Chinese. For other languages in China, see Languages of China. For different varieties, see Sinitic languages.Chinese (simplified Chinese: 汉语; traditional Chinese: 漢語; pinyin: Hànyǔ; lit. 'Han language' or 中文; Zhōngwén; 'Chinese writing') is a group of languages[c] spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in China. Approximately 1.35 billion people, or 17% of the global population, speak a variety of Chinese as their first language.[3]Ying, a speaker of Henan ChineseChinese languages form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. The spoken varieties of Chinese are usually considered by native speakers to be dialects of a single language. However, their lack of mutual intelligibility means they are sometimes considered to be separate languages in a family.[d] Investigation of the historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is ongoing. Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from Middle Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin with 66%, or around 800 million speakers, followed by Min (75 million, e.g. Southern Min), Wu (74 million, e.g. Shanghainese), and Yue (68 million, e.g. Cantonese).[5] These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with the other varieties within the same branch (e.g. Southern Min). There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including New Xiang with Southwestern Mandarin, Xuanzhou Wu Chinese with Lower Yangtze Mandarin, Jin with Central Plains Mandarin and certain divergent dialects of Hakka with Gan. All varieties of Chinese are tonal at least to some degree, and are largely analytic.The earliest Chinese written records are oracle bone inscriptions dating to the Shang dynasty c. 1250 BCE. The phonetic categories of Old Chinese can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the Northern and Southern period, Middle Chinese went through several sound changes and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. The Qieyun, a rime dictionary, recorded a compromise between the pronunciations of different regions. The royal courts of the Ming and early Qing dynasties operated using a koiné language known as Guanhua, based on the Nanjing dialect of Mandarin.Standard Chinese is an official language of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan), one of the four official languages of Singapore, and one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin and was first officially adopted in the 1930s. The language is written primarily using a logography of Chinese characters, largely shared by readers who may otherwise speak mutually unintelligible varieties. Since the 1950s, the use of simplified characters has been promoted by the government of the People's Republic of China, with Singapore officially adopting them in 1976. Traditional characters are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and among Chinese-speaking communities overseas.","title":"Chinese language"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sino-Tibetan language family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_language_family"},{"link_name":"Burmese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmese_language"},{"link_name":"Tibetan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetic_languages"},{"link_name":"Himalayas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayas"},{"link_name":"Southeast Asian Massif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asian_Massif"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198812%E2%80%9313-10"},{"link_name":"Indo-European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European"},{"link_name":"Austroasiatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austroasiatic"},{"link_name":"inflection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2008422,_434%E2%80%93436-11"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2008426-12"},{"link_name":"Tibeto-Burman languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2008431-13"}],"text":"Linguists classify all varieties of Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family, together with Burmese, Tibetan and many other languages spoken in the Himalayas and the Southeast Asian Massif.[6] Although the relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as Indo-European or Austroasiatic. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive border zones.[7] Without a secure reconstruction of Proto-Sino-Tibetan, the higher-level structure of the family remains unclear.[8] A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, but has not been convincingly demonstrated.[9]","title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shang dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988183%E2%80%93185-14"}],"text":"The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty. As the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have repeatedly sought to promulgate a unified standard.[10]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Reconstruction of Old Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_of_Old_Chinese"},{"link_name":"oracle bones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_bone"},{"link_name":"Late Shang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Shang"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESch%C3%BCssler20071-15"},{"link_name":"inscriptions on bronze artifacts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions"},{"link_name":"Western Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Zhou"},{"link_name":"Classic of Poetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry"},{"link_name":"Book of Documents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Documents"},{"link_name":"I Ching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Ching"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter19922%E2%80%933-16"},{"link_name":"phonology of Old Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonology_of_Old_Chinese"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198842%E2%80%9345-17"},{"link_name":"consonant clusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant_cluster"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992177-18"},{"link_name":"tone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992181%E2%80%93183-19"},{"link_name":"derivational affixes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivational_affix"},{"link_name":"inflection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection"},{"link_name":"grammatical particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_particle"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESch%C3%BCssler200712-20"},{"link_name":"Northern and Southern dynasties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties"},{"link_name":"Sui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sui_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Tang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Qieyun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qieyun"},{"link_name":"rhyme tables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyme_table"},{"link_name":"Yunjing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunjing"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199214%E2%80%9315-21"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1987125-22"},{"link_name":"varieties of Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese"},{"link_name":"borrowed Chinese words","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Xenic_vocabularies"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198834%E2%80%9342-23"},{"link_name":"diasystem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diasystem"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198824-24"}],"sub_title":"Old and Middle Chinese","text":"Further information: Reconstruction of Old ChineseThe earliest examples of Old Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones dated to c. 1250 BCE, during the Late Shang.[11] The next attested stage came from inscriptions on bronze artifacts dating to the Western Zhou period (1046–771 BCE), the Classic of Poetry and portions of the Book of Documents and I Ching.[12] Scholars have attempted to reconstruct the phonology of Old Chinese by comparing later varieties of Chinese with the rhyming practice of the Classic of Poetry and the phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters.[13] Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differs from Middle Chinese in lacking retroflex and palatal obstruents but having initial consonant clusters of some sort, and in having voiceless nasals and liquids.[14] Most recent reconstructions also describe an atonal language with consonant clusters at the end of the syllable, developing into tone distinctions in Middle Chinese.[15] Several derivational affixes have also been identified, but the language lacks inflection, and indicated grammatical relationships using word order and grammatical particles.[16]Middle Chinese was the language used during Northern and Southern dynasties and the Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties (6th–10th centuries CE). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the Qieyun rime dictionary (601 CE), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by rhyme tables such as the Yunjing constructed by ancient Chinese philologists as a guide to the Qieyun system.[17] These works define phonological categories but with little hint of what sounds they represent.[18] Linguists have identified these sounds by comparing the categories with pronunciations in modern varieties of Chinese, borrowed Chinese words in Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean, and transcription evidence.[19] The resulting system is very complex, with a large number of consonants and vowels, but they are probably not all distinguished in any single dialect. Most linguists now believe it represents a diasystem encompassing 6th-century northern and southern standards for reading the classics.[20]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"diglossia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diglossia"},{"link_name":"Classical or Literary Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Spring and Autumn period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period"},{"link_name":"written vernacular Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese"},{"link_name":"May Fourth Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement"}],"sub_title":"Classical and vernacular written forms","text":"The complex relationship between spoken and written Chinese is an example of diglossia: as spoken, Chinese varieties have evolved at different rates, while the written language used throughout China changed comparatively little, crystallizing into a prestige form known as Classical or Literary Chinese. Literature written distinctly in the Classical form began to emerge during the Spring and Autumn period. Its use in writing remained nearly universal until the late 19th century, culminating with the widespread adoption of written vernacular Chinese with the May Fourth Movement beginning in 1919.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Northern Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Song"},{"link_name":"Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)"},{"link_name":"Yuan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Old Mandarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Mandarin"},{"link_name":"North China Plain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_China_Plain"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198848-25"},{"link_name":"Zhongyuan Yinyun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhongyuan_Yinyun"},{"link_name":"sanqu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanqu"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198848%E2%80%9349-26"},{"link_name":"Menggu Ziyun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menggu_Ziyun"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198849%E2%80%9351-27"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988133,_247-28"},{"link_name":"Ming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming"},{"link_name":"Qing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing"},{"link_name":"common language based on Mandarin varieties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988136-29"},{"link_name":"Nanjing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2000549%E2%80%93550-30"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2000540%E2%80%93541-31"},{"link_name":"standard national language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Chinese"},{"link_name":"National Language Unification Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Languages_Committee"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey19873%E2%80%9315-32"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988133-33"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"Macau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macau"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhangYang2004-34"}],"sub_title":"Rise of northern dialects","text":"After the fall of the Northern Song dynasty and subsequent reign of the Jurchen Jin and Mongol Yuan dynasties in northern China, a common speech (now called Old Mandarin) developed based on the dialects of the North China Plain around the capital.[21]\nThe 1324 Zhongyuan Yinyun was a dictionary that codified the rhyming conventions of new sanqu verse form in this language.[22]\nTogether with the slightly later Menggu Ziyun, this dictionary describes a language with many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects.[23]Up to the early 20th century, most Chinese people only spoke their local variety.[24]\nThus, as a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties, known as 官话; 官話; Guānhuà; 'language of officials'.[25]\nFor most of this period, this language was a koiné based on dialects spoken in the Nanjing area, though not identical to any single dialect.[26]\nBy the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court.[27]In the 1930s, a standard national language (国语; 國語; Guóyǔ), was adopted. After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation, the National Language Unification Commission finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic founded in 1949 retained this standard but renamed it 普通话; 普通話; pǔtōnghuà; 'common speech'.[28] The national language is now used in education, the media, and formal situations in both mainland China and Taiwan.[29] Because of their colonial and linguistic history, the language used in education, the media, formal speech, and everyday life in Hong Kong and Macau is the local Cantonese, although the standard language, Mandarin, has become very influential and is being taught in schools.[30]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Adoption of Chinese literary culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoption_of_Chinese_literary_culture"},{"link_name":"Sino-Xenic vocabularies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Xenic_vocabularies"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tripitaka_Koreana.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tripitaka Koreana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripitaka_Koreana"},{"link_name":"Chinese Buddhist canon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon"},{"link_name":"Han dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty"},{"link_name":"period of Chinese control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_domination_of_Vietnam"},{"link_name":"Four Commanderies of Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Commanderies_of_Han"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohnLee200323-35"},{"link_name":"Chinese Buddhism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller196729%E2%80%9330-36"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki201175%E2%80%9377-37"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki201167-38"},{"link_name":"Sino-Xenic pronunciations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Xenic_pronunciations"},{"link_name":"Korean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Vietnamese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiyake200498%E2%80%9399-39"},{"link_name":"moraic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990120%E2%80%93121-40"},{"link_name":"vowel harmony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel_harmony"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn200189-41"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990146-42"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson200043-43"},{"link_name":"Sino-Japanese words","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Japanese_words"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990143-44"},{"link_name":"Chinese characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"hangul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangul"},{"link_name":"kana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kana"},{"link_name":"chữ Nôm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m"},{"link_name":"kanji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanji"},{"link_name":"hanja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanja"},{"link_name":"Vietnamese alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet"},{"link_name":"English words of Chinese origin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Chinese_origin"},{"link_name":"Hokkien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokkien"},{"link_name":"dim sum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dim_sum"},{"link_name":"kumquat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumquat"}],"sub_title":"Influence","text":"See also: Adoption of Chinese literary culture and Sino-Xenic vocabulariesThe Tripitaka Koreana, a Korean collection of the Chinese Buddhist canonHistorically, the Chinese language has spread to its neighbors through a variety of means. Northern Vietnam was incorporated into the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) in 111 BCE, marking the beginning of a period of Chinese control that ran almost continuously for a millennium. The Four Commanderies of Han were established in northern Korea in the 1st century BCE but disintegrated in the following centuries.[31] Chinese Buddhism spread over East Asia between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, and with it the study of scriptures and literature in Literary Chinese.[32] Later, strong central governments modeled on Chinese institutions were established in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, with Literary Chinese serving as the language of administration and scholarship, a position it would retain until the late 19th century in Korea and (to a lesser extent) Japan, and the early 20th century in Vietnam.[33] Scholars from different lands could communicate, albeit only in writing, using Literary Chinese.[34]Although they used Chinese solely for written communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud using what are known as Sino-Xenic pronunciations. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also extensively imported into the Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese languages, and today comprise over half of their vocabularies.[35] This massive influx led to changes in the phonological structure of the languages, contributing to the development of moraic structure in Japanese[36] and the disruption of vowel harmony in Korean.[37]Borrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in a similar way to the use of Latin and Ancient Greek roots in European languages.[38] Many new compounds, or new meanings for old phrases, were created in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to name Western concepts and artifacts. These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages. They have even been accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin was hidden by their written form. Often different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, and sometimes the final choice differed between countries.[39] The proportion of vocabulary of Chinese origin thus tends to be greater in technical, abstract, or formal language. For example, in Japan, Sino-Japanese words account for about 35% of the words in entertainment magazines, over half the words in newspapers, and 60% of the words in science magazines.[40]Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, initially based on Chinese characters, but later replaced with the hangul alphabet for Korean and supplemented with kana syllabaries for Japanese, while Vietnamese continued to be written with the complex chữ Nôm script. However, these were limited to popular literature until the late 19th century. Today Japanese is written with a composite script using both Chinese characters called kanji, and kana. Korean is written exclusively with hangul in North Korea, although knowledge of the supplementary Chinese characters called hanja is still required, and hanja are increasingly rarely used in South Korea. As a result of its historical colonization by France, Vietnamese now uses the Latin-based Vietnamese alphabet.English words of Chinese origin include tea from Hokkien 茶 (tê), dim sum from Cantonese 點心 (dim2 sam1), and kumquat from Cantonese 金橘 (gam1 gwat1).","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Map/7/23/112/en"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.openstreetmap.org/copyright"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Policy:Maps_Terms_of_Use"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Map/8/23/112/en"},{"link_name":"Jerry Norman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200372-45"},{"link_name":"dialect continuum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialect_continuum"},{"link_name":"North China Plain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_China_Plain"},{"link_name":"Taishanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taishanese"},{"link_name":"Taishan, Guangdong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taishan,_Guangdong"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988189%E2%80%93191Ramsey198798-46"},{"link_name":"Wuzhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuzhou"},{"link_name":"Guangzhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangzhou"},{"link_name":"Pearl River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_River"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey198723-47"},{"link_name":"Fujian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujian"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988188-48"}],"text":"75km50miles\nGuangzhou\n\nWuzhou\n\nTaishanThe sinologist Jerry Norman has estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese.[41] These varieties form a dialect continuum, in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though the rate of change varies immensely. Generally, mountainous South China exhibits more linguistic diversity than the North China Plain. Until the late 20th century, Chinese emigrants to Southeast Asia and North America came from southeast coastal areas, where Min, Hakka, and Yue dialects were spoken. Specifically, most Chinese immigrants to North America until the mid-20th century spoke Taishanese, a variety of Yue from a small coastal area around Taishan, Guangdong.[42]In parts of South China, the dialect of a major city may be only marginally intelligible to its neighbors. For example, Wuzhou and Taishan are located approximately 260 km (160 mi) and 190 km (120 mi) away from Guangzhou respectively. However, the Yue variety spoken in Wuzhou is more similar to the Guangzhou dialect than Taishanese is—while Wuzhou is located directly upstream from Guangzhou on the Pearl River, Taishan is to Guangzhou's southwest, with the two cities separated by several river valleys.[43] In parts of Fujian, the speech of some neighbouring counties or villages is mutually unintelligible.[44]","title":"Varieties"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg"},{"link_name":"China proper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_proper"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWurmLiBaumannLee1987-49"},{"link_name":"Middle Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Chinese"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988181-50"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201053%E2%80%9355-51"},{"link_name":"Mandarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Standard Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Beijing dialect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing_dialect"},{"link_name":"Sichuanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sichuanese_Mandarin"},{"link_name":"Dungan language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungan_language"},{"link_name":"Central Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia"},{"link_name":"Wu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Shanghainese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghainese"},{"link_name":"Suzhounese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzhounese"},{"link_name":"Wenzhounese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wenzhounese"},{"link_name":"Gan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gan_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Xiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiang_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Min","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Fuzhounese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzhounese"},{"link_name":"Hainanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hainanese"},{"link_name":"Hokkien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokkien"},{"link_name":"Teochew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teochew_dialect"},{"link_name":"Hakka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakka_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Yue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yue_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Taishanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taishanese"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChinese_Academy_of_Social_Sciences20123,_125-9"},{"link_name":"Mandarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Min","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Wu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Yue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yue_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Gan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gan_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Hakka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakka_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Xiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiang_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Huizhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Pinghua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinghua"},{"link_name":"Li Rong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Rong_(linguist)"},{"link_name":"Language Atlas of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_Atlas_of_China"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWurmLiBaumannLee1987-49"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201055%E2%80%9356-52"},{"link_name":"Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Huizhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Pinghua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinghua"},{"link_name":"Danzhou dialect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danzhou_dialect"},{"link_name":"Hainan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hainan"},{"link_name":"Waxianghua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waxianghua"},{"link_name":"Hunan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunan"},{"link_name":"Shaozhou Tuhua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaozhou_Tuhua"},{"link_name":"Guangdong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangdong"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201072%E2%80%9373-53"}],"sub_title":"Grouping","text":"Range of dialect groups in China proper and Taiwan according to the Language Atlas of China[45]Local varieties of Chinese are conventionally classified into seven dialect groups, largely based on the different evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials:[46][47]Mandarin, including Standard Chinese, the Beijing dialect, Sichuanese, and also the Dungan language spoken in Central Asia\nWu, including Shanghainese, Suzhounese, and Wenzhounese\nGan\nXiang\nMin, including Fuzhounese, Hainanese, Hokkien and Teochew\nHakka\nYue, including Cantonese and TaishaneseProportions of first-language speakers[5]\n\n Mandarin (65.7%) Min (6.2%) Wu (6.1%) Yue (5.6%) Jin (5.2%) Gan (3.9%) Hakka (3.5%) Xiang (3.0%) Huizhou (0.3%) Pinghua, others (0.6%)The classification of Li Rong, which is used in the Language Atlas of China (1987), distinguishes three further groups:[45][48]Jin, previously included in Mandarin.\nHuizhou, previously included in Wu.\nPinghua, previously included in Yue.Some varieties remain unclassified, including the Danzhou dialect on Hainan, Waxianghua spoken in western Hunan, and Shaozhou Tuhua spoken in northern Guangdong.[49]","title":"Varieties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_territories_where_Chinese_is_an_official_language"},{"link_name":"standard language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_language"},{"link_name":"Diglossia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diglossia"},{"link_name":"Shanghainese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghainese"},{"link_name":"Taiwanese people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwanese_people"},{"link_name":"Taiwanese Hokkien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Hakka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakka_language"},{"link_name":"Austronesian language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austronesian_language"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"languages of Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Taiwan"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Guangdong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangdong"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"Macau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macau"}],"sub_title":"Standard Chinese","text":"See also: List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official languageStandard Chinese is the standard language of China (where it is called 普通话; pǔtōnghuà) and Taiwan, and one of the four official languages of Singapore (where it is called either 华语; 華語; Huáyǔ or 汉语; 漢語; Hànyǔ). Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. The governments of both China and Taiwan intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore, it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools.Diglossia is common among Chinese speakers. For example, a Shanghai resident may speak both Standard Chinese and Shanghainese; if they grew up elsewhere, they are also likely fluent in the dialect of their home region. In addition to Standard Chinese, a majority of Taiwanese people also speak Taiwanese Hokkien (also called 台語; 'Taiwanese'[50][51]), Hakka, or an Austronesian language.[52] A speaker in Taiwan may mix pronunciations and vocabulary from Standard Chinese and other languages of Taiwan in everyday speech.[53] In part due to traditional cultural ties with Guangdong, Cantonese is used as an everyday language in Hong Kong and Macau.","title":"Varieties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter19927%E2%80%938-58"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis198455%E2%80%9357-59"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomason198827%E2%80%9328-60"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200372-45"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell2008-61"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis198457-62"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair19917-63"},{"link_name":"lect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lect"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaugen1966927-65"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis198457-62"},{"link_name":"variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_variety"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson199622-66"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair199117-67"}],"sub_title":"Nomenclature","text":"The designation of various Chinese branches remains controversial. Some linguists and most ordinary Chinese people consider all the spoken varieties as one single language, as speakers share a common national identity and a common written form.[54] Others instead argue that it is inappropriate to refer to major branches of Chinese such as Mandarin, Wu, and so on as \"dialects\" because the mutual unintelligibility between them is too great.[55][56] However, calling major Chinese branches \"languages\" would also be wrong under the same criterion, since a branch such as Wu, itself contains many mutually unintelligible varieties, and could not be properly called a single language.[41]There are also viewpoints pointing out that linguists often ignore mutual intelligibility when varieties share intelligibility with a central variety (i.e. prestige variety, such as Standard Mandarin), as the issue requires some careful handling when mutual intelligibility is inconsistent with language identity.[57]The Chinese government's official Chinese designation for the major branches of Chinese is 方言; fāngyán; 'regional speech', whereas the more closely related varieties within these are called 地点方言; 地點方言; dìdiǎn fāngyán; 'local speech'.[58]Because of the difficulties involved in determining the difference between language and dialect, other terms have been proposed. These include topolect,[59] lect,[60] vernacular,[61] regional,[58] and variety.[62][63]","title":"Varieties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Standard Chinese phonology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology"},{"link_name":"Historical Chinese phonology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_Chinese_phonology"},{"link_name":"Varieties of Chinese § Phonology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese#Phonology"},{"link_name":"morphology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"phonologically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonologically"},{"link_name":"nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_nucleus"},{"link_name":"vowel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel"},{"link_name":"monophthong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophthong"},{"link_name":"diphthong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphthong"},{"link_name":"triphthong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triphthong"},{"link_name":"onset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_onset"},{"link_name":"consonant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant"},{"link_name":"glide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semivowel"},{"link_name":"coda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_coda"},{"link_name":"tone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"nasal sonorant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nasal_sonorant&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DeFrancis_p42-68"}],"text":"Further information: Standard Chinese phonology, Historical Chinese phonology, and Varieties of Chinese § PhonologyA man speaking Mandarin with a Malaysian accentSyllables in the Chinese languages have some unique characteristics. They are tightly related to the morphology and also to the characters of the writing system, and phonologically they are structured according to fixed rules.The structure of each syllable consists of a nucleus that has a vowel (which can be a monophthong, diphthong, or even a triphthong in certain varieties), preceded by an onset (a single consonant, or consonant + glide; a zero onset is also possible), and followed (optionally) by a coda consonant; a syllable also carries a tone. There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where the nasal sonorant consonants /m/ and /ŋ/ can stand alone as their own syllable.In Mandarin much more than in other spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda (assuming that a final glide is not analyzed as a coda), but syllables that do have codas are restricted to nasals /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, the retroflex approximant /ɻ/, and voiceless stops /p/, /t/, /k/, or /ʔ/. Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Standard Chinese, are limited to only /n/, /ŋ/, and /ɻ/.The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general, there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more polysyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which is only about an eighth as many as English.[e]","title":"Phonology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198852-69"},{"link_name":"pitch accent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_accent"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_tone_(Mandarin).svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Second_tone_(Mandarin).svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Third_tone_(Mandarin).svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fourth_tone_(Mandarin).svg"},{"link_name":"stop consonant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_consonant"},{"link_name":"checked tones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checked_tone"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsYip199420%E2%80%9322-71"}],"sub_title":"Tones","text":"All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones to distinguish words.[64] A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 12 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned pitch accent system much like modern Japanese.A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese is the application of the four tones of Standard Chinese, along with the neutral tone, to the syllable ma. The tones are exemplified by the following five Chinese words:The syllable ma with each of the primary tones in Standard ChineseIn contrast, Standard Cantonese has six tones. Historically, finals that end in a stop consonant were considered to be \"checked tones\" and thus counted separately for a total of nine tones. However, they are considered to be duplicates in modern linguistics and are no longer counted as such:[65]","title":"Phonology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese classifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_classifiers"},{"link_name":"morpheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morpheme"},{"link_name":"bound and free","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bound_and_free_morphemes"},{"link_name":"words","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Words"},{"link_name":"phonetic erosion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetic_erosion"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DeFrancis_p42-68"},{"link_name":"compounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_word"},{"link_name":"homophones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophone"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"Yuen Ren Chao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuen_Ren_Chao"},{"link_name":"Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lion-Eating_Poet_in_the_Stone_Den"},{"link_name":"analytic languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_language"},{"link_name":"syntax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax"},{"link_name":"inflectional morphology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflectional_morphology"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198810-74"},{"link_name":"grammatical inflections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_inflection"},{"link_name":"tenses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenses"},{"link_name":"voices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_voice"},{"link_name":"grammatical number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_number"},{"link_name":"[h]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"articles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(grammar)"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"grammatical particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_particle"},{"link_name":"aspect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_aspect"},{"link_name":"mood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood"},{"link_name":"subject–verb–object word order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object_word_order"},{"link_name":"topic–comment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topic%E2%80%93comment"},{"link_name":"classifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"measure words","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measure_word"},{"link_name":"serial verb construction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_verb_construction"},{"link_name":"pronoun dropping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro-drop_language"},{"link_name":"subject dropping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_subject_language"}],"text":"See also: Chinese classifiersChinese is often described as a 'monosyllabic' language. However, this is only partially correct. It is largely accurate when describing Old and Middle Chinese; in Classical Chinese, around 90% of words consist of a single character that corresponds one-to-one with a morpheme, the smallest unit of meaning in a language. In modern varieties, it usually remains the case that morphemes are monosyllabic—in contrast, English has many multi-syllable morphemes, both bound and free, such as 'seven', 'elephant', 'para-' and '-able'. Some of the more conservative modern varieties, usually found in the south, have largely monosyllabic words, especially with basic vocabulary. However, most nouns, adjectives, and verbs in modern Mandarin are disyllabic. A significant cause of this is phonetic erosion: sound changes over time have steadily reduced the number of possible syllables in the language's inventory. In modern Mandarin, there are only around 1,200 possible syllables, including the tonal distinctions, compared with about 5,000 in Vietnamese (still a largely monosyllabic language), and over 8,000 in English.[e]Most modern varieties tend to form new words through polysyllabic compounds. In some cases, monosyllabic words have become disyllabic formed from different characters without the use of compounding, as in 窟窿; kūlong from 孔; kǒng; this is especially common in Jin varieties. This phonological collapse has led to a corresponding increase in the number of homophones. As an example, the small Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary[66] lists six words that are commonly pronounced as shí in Standard Chinese:In modern spoken Mandarin, however, tremendous ambiguity would result if all of these words could be used as-is. The 20th century Yuen Ren Chao poem Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den exploits this, consisting of 92 characters all pronounced shi. As such, most of these words have been replaced in speech, if not in writing, with less ambiguous disyllabic compounds. Only the first one, 十, normally appears in monosyllabic form in spoken Mandarin; the rest are normally used in the polysyllabic forms ofrespectively. In each, the homophone was disambiguated by the addition of another morpheme, typically either a near-synonym or some sort of generic word (e.g. 'head', 'thing'), the purpose of which is to indicate which of the possible meanings of the other, homophonic syllable is specifically meant.However, when one of the above words forms part of a compound, the disambiguating syllable is generally dropped and the resulting word is still disyllabic. For example, 石; shí alone, and not 石头; 石頭; shítou, appears in compounds as meaning 'stone' such as 石膏; shígāo; 'plaster', 石灰; shíhuī; 'lime', 石窟; shíkū; 'grotto', 石英; 'quartz', and 石油; shíyóu; 'petroleum'. Although many single-syllable morphemes (字; zì) can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllable compounds known as 词; 詞; cí, which more closely resembles the traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese cí can consist of more than one character–morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more.Examples of Chinese words of more than two syllables include 汉堡包; 漢堡包; hànbǎobāo; 'hamburger', 守门员; 守門員; shǒuményuán; 'goalkeeper', and 电子邮件; 電子郵件; diànzǐyóujiàn; 'e-mail'.All varieties of modern Chinese are analytic languages: they depend on syntax (word order and sentence structure), rather than inflectional morphology (changes in the form of a word), to indicate a word's function within a sentence.[67] In other words, Chinese has very few grammatical inflections—it possesses no tenses, no voices, no grammatical number,[h] and only a few articles.[i] They make heavy use of grammatical particles to indicate aspect and mood. In Mandarin, this involves the use of particles such as 了; le; 'PFV', 还; 還; hái; 'still', and 已经; 已經; yǐjīng; 'already'.Chinese has a subject–verb–object word order, and like many other languages of East Asia, makes frequent use of the topic–comment construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of classifiers and measure words, another trait shared with neighboring languages such as Japanese and Korean. Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of serial verb construction, pronoun dropping, and the related subject dropping. Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences.","title":"Grammar"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Hanyu Da Zidian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanyu_Da_Zidian"},{"link_name":"Zhonghua Zihai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhonghua_Zihai"},{"link_name":"CC-CEDICT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CC-CEDICT"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"Hanyu Da Cidian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanyu_Da_Cidian"},{"link_name":"Cihai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cihai"},{"link_name":"Xiandai Hanyu Cidian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiandai_Hanyu_Cidian"}],"text":"The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 50,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are in use and only about 3,000 are frequently used in Chinese media and newspapers.[68] However, Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words. Because most Chinese words are made up of two or more characters, there are many more Chinese words than characters. A more accurate equivalent for a Chinese character is the morpheme, as characters represent the smallest grammatical units with individual meanings in the Chinese language.Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and lexicalized phrases vary greatly. The Hanyu Da Zidian, a compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including oracle bone versions. The Zhonghua Zihai (1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions and is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants. The CC-CEDICT project (2010) contains 97,404 contemporary entries including idioms, technology terms, and names of political figures, businesses, and products. The 2009 version of the Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary (WDCD),[69] based on CC-CEDICT, contains over 84,000 entries.The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary, the 12-volume Hanyu Da Cidian, records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised Cihai, a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases, and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific, and technical terms.The 2016 edition of Xiandai Hanyu Cidian, an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in mainland China, has 13,000 head characters and defines 70,000 words.","title":"Vocabulary"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"loanwords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loanword"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"Silk Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road"},{"link_name":"hutong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutong"},{"link_name":"Sanskrit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit"},{"link_name":"Pali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali"},{"link_name":"Gobi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gobi"},{"link_name":"Altaic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altaic"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKane2006161-80"}],"sub_title":"Loanwords","text":"Like many other languages, Chinese has absorbed a sizable number of loanwords from other cultures. Most Chinese words are formed out of native Chinese morphemes, including words describing imported objects and ideas. However, direct phonetic borrowing of foreign words has gone on since ancient times.Some early Indo-European loanwords in Chinese have been proposed, notably 'honey' (蜜; mì), 'lion' (狮; 獅; shī), and perhaps 'horse' (马; 馬; mǎ), 'pig' (猪; 豬; zhū), 'dog' (犬; quǎn), and 'goose' (鹅; 鵝; é).[70]\nAncient words borrowed from along the Silk Road during the Old Chinese period include 'grape' (葡萄; pútáo), 'pomegranate' (石榴; shíliú), and 'lion' (狮子; 獅子; shīzi). Some words were borrowed from Buddhist scriptures, including 'Buddha' (佛; Fó) and 'bodhisattva' (菩萨; 菩薩; Púsà). Other words came from nomadic peoples to the north, such as 'hutong' (胡同). Words borrowed from the peoples along the Silk Road, such as 'grape' (葡萄), generally have Persian etymologies. Buddhist terminology is generally derived from Sanskrit or Pali, the liturgical languages of northern India. Words borrowed from the nomadic tribes of the Gobi, Mongolian or northeast regions generally have Altaic etymologies, such as 琵琶 (pípá), the Chinese lute, or 'cheese or yogurt' (酪; lào), but from exactly which source is not always clear.[71]","title":"Vocabulary"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Translation of neologisms into Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_of_neologisms_into_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Transcription into Chinese characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_into_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"calques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calque"},{"link_name":"a combination of the two","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phono-semantic_matching"},{"link_name":"international scientific vocabulary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary"},{"link_name":"phono-semantic matching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phono-semantic_matching"},{"link_name":"Mario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario"},{"link_name":"Pentium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium"},{"link_name":"Subway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subway_(restaurant)"},{"link_name":"proper nouns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_noun"},{"link_name":"soft power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_power"},{"link_name":"wasei-kango","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasei-kango"}],"sub_title":"Modern borrowings","text":"See also: Translation of neologisms into Chinese and Transcription into Chinese charactersModern neologisms are primarily translated into Chinese in one of three ways: free translation (calques), phonetic translation (by sound), or a combination of the two. Today, it is much more common to use existing Chinese morphemes to coin new words to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions and international scientific vocabulary, wherein the Latin and Greek components are usually converted one-for-one into the corresponding Chinese characters. The word 'telephone' was initially loaned phonetically as 德律风; 德律風 (délǜfēng; Shanghainese télífon [təlɪfoŋ])—this word was widely used in Shanghai during the 1920s, but the later 电话; 電話 (diànhuà; 'electric speech'), built out of native Chinese morphemes became prevalent. Other examples includeOccasionally, compromises between the transliteration and translation approaches become accepted, such as 汉堡包; 漢堡包 (hànbǎobāo; 'hamburger') from 汉堡; 'Hamburg' + 包 ('bun'). Sometimes translations are designed so that they sound like the original while incorporating Chinese morphemes (phono-semantic matching), such as 马利奥; 馬利奧 (Mǎlì'ào) for the video game character 'Mario'. This is often done for commercial purposes, for example 奔腾; 奔騰 (bēnténg; 'dashing-leaping') for 'Pentium' and 赛百味; 賽百味 (Sàibǎiwèi; 'better-than hundred tastes') for 'Subway'.Foreign words, mainly proper nouns, continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations. For example, 'Israel' becomes 以色列 (Yǐsèliè), and 'Paris' becomes 巴黎 (Bālí). A rather small number of direct transliterations have survived as common words, including 沙发; 沙發 (shāfā; 'sofa'), 马达; 馬達 (mǎdá; 'motor'), 幽默 (yōumò; 'humor'), 逻辑; 邏輯 (luóji, luójí; 'logic'), 时髦; 時髦 (shímáo; 'smart (fashionable)'), and 歇斯底里 (xiēsīdǐlǐ; 'hysterics'). The bulk of these words were originally coined in Shanghai during the early 20th century and later loaned from there into Mandarin, hence their Mandarin pronunciations occasionally being quite divergent from the English. For example, in Shanghainese 沙发; 沙發 (sofa) and 马达; 馬達 ('motor') sound more like their English counterparts. Cantonese differs from Mandarin with some transliterations, such as 梳化 (so1 faa3,2; 'sofa') and 摩打 (mo1 daa2; 'motor').Western foreign words representing Western concepts have influenced Chinese since the 20th century through transcription. From French, 芭蕾 (bālěi) and 香槟; 香檳 (xiāngbīn) were borrowed for 'ballet' and 'champagne' respectively; 咖啡 (kāfēi) was borrowed from Italian caffè 'coffee'. The influence of English is particularly pronounced: from the early 20th century, many English words were borrowed into Shanghainese, such as 高尔夫; 高爾夫 (gāo'ěrfū; 'golf') and the aforementioned 沙发; 沙發 (shāfā; 'sofa'). Later, American soft power gave rise to 迪斯科 (dísīkē; 'disco'), 可乐; 可樂 (kělè; 'cola'), and mínǐ ('miniskirt'). Contemporary colloquial Cantonese has distinct loanwords from English, such as 卡通 (kaa1 tung1; 'cartoon'), 基佬 (gei1 lou2; 'gay people'), 的士 (dik1 si6,2; 'taxi'), and 巴士 (baa1 si6,2; 'bus'). With the rising popularity of the Internet, there is a current vogue in China for coining English transliterations, for example, 粉丝; 粉絲 (fěnsī; 'fans'), 黑客 (hēikè; 'hacker'), and 博客 (bókè; 'blog'). In Taiwan, some of these transliterations are different, such as 駭客 (hàikè; 'hacker') and 部落格 (bùluògé; 'interconnected tribes') for 'blog'.Another result of English influence on Chinese is the appearance of so-called 字母词; 字母詞 (zìmǔcí; 'lettered words') spelled with letters from the English alphabet. These have appeared in colloquial usage, as well as in magazines and newspapers, and on websites and television:Since the 20th century, another source of words has been kanji: Japan re-molded European concepts and inventions into 和製漢語, wasei-kango, 'Japanese-made Chinese', and many of these words have been re-loaned into modern Chinese. Other terms were coined by the Japanese by giving new senses to existing Chinese terms or by referring to expressions used in classical Chinese literature. For example, 经济; 經濟; jīngjì; 経済, keizai in Japanese, which in the original Chinese meant 'the workings of the state', narrowed to 'economy' in Japanese; this narrowed definition was then re-imported into Chinese. As a result, these terms are virtually indistinguishable from native Chinese words: indeed, there is some dispute over some of these terms as to whether the Japanese or Chinese coined them first. As a result of this loaning, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese share a corpus of linguistic terms describing modern terminology, paralleling the similar corpus of terms built from Greco-Latin and shared among European languages.","title":"Vocabulary"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:XingshuLantingxv.jpg"},{"link_name":"Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lantingji_Xu"},{"link_name":"Wang Xizhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Xizhi"},{"link_name":"semi-cursive style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-cursive_script"},{"link_name":"orthography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthography"},{"link_name":"Chinese characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"morphemes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morpheme"},{"link_name":"written vernacular Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"},{"link_name":"Written Cantonese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Written_Cantonese"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"},{"link_name":"rime books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rime_book"},{"link_name":"Sanskrit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit"},{"link_name":"Pali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Hunan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunan"},{"link_name":"Nüshu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCshu"},{"link_name":"syllabary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllabary"},{"link_name":"Dungan language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungan_language"},{"link_name":"Cyrillic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic"},{"link_name":"Arabic script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_script"},{"link_name":"Dungan people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungan_people"},{"link_name":"Hui people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hui_people"}],"text":"\"Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion\" by Wang Xizhi, written in semi-cursive styleThe Chinese orthography centers on Chinese characters, which are written within imaginary square blocks, traditionally arranged in vertical columns, read from top to bottom down a column, and right to left across columns, despite alternative arrangement with rows of characters from left to right within a row and from top to bottom across rows (like English and other Western writing systems) having become more popular since the 20th century.[72] Chinese characters denote morphemes independent of phonetic variation in different languages. Thus the character 一 ('one') is pronounced as yī in Standard Chinese, yat1 in Cantonese and it in Hokkien, a form of Min.Most modern written Chinese is in the form of written vernacular Chinese, based on spoken Standard Chinese, regardless of dialectical background. Written vernacular Chinese largely replaced Literary Chinese in the early 20th century as the country's standard written language.[73] However, vocabularies from different Chinese-speaking areas have diverged, and the divergence can be observed in written Chinese.[74][better source needed]Due to the divergence of variants, some unique morphemes are not found in Standard Chinese. Characters rarely used in Standard Chinese have also been created or inherited from archaic literary standards to represent these unique morphemes. For example, characters like 冇 and 係 are actively used in Cantonese and Hakka, while being archaic or unused in standard written Chinese. The most prominent example of a non-Standard Chinese orthography is Written Cantonese, which is used in tabloids and on the internet among Cantonese speakers in Hong Kong and elsewhere.[75][better source needed]Chinese had no uniform system of phonetic transcription until the mid-20th century, although enunciation patterns were recorded in early rime books and dictionaries. Early Indian translators, working in Sanskrit and Pali, were the first to attempt to describe the sounds and enunciation patterns of Chinese in a foreign language. After the 15th century, the efforts of Jesuits and Western court missionaries resulted in some Latin character transcription/writing systems, based on various variants of Chinese languages. Some of these Latin character-based systems are still being used to write various Chinese variants in the modern era.[76]In Hunan, women in certain areas write their local Chinese language variant in Nüshu, a syllabary derived from Chinese characters. The Dungan language, considered by many a dialect of Mandarin, is nowadays written in Cyrillic and was previously written in the Arabic script. The Dungan people are primarily Muslim and live mainly in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Russia; many Hui people, living mainly in China, also speak the language.","title":"Writing system"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese character classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_character_classification"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:8_strokes_of_%E6%B0%B8-zh.svg"},{"link_name":"Xu Shen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xu_Shen"},{"link_name":"pictographs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pictograph"},{"link_name":"ideographs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideograph"},{"link_name":"radical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_(Chinese_character)"},{"link_name":"Kangxi Dictionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary"},{"link_name":"regular script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_script"},{"link_name":"Chinese calligraphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy"},{"link_name":"seal script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seal_script"},{"link_name":"cursive script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursive_script_(East_Asia)"},{"link_name":"clerical script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clerical_script"},{"link_name":"Traditional characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_characters"},{"link_name":"Simplified characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_characters"},{"link_name":"glyphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyph"},{"link_name":"shorthand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shorthand"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"mainland newspaper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspapers_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"}],"sub_title":"Chinese characters","text":"See also: Chinese character classification永 is often used to illustrate the eight basic types of strokes of Chinese charactersEach Chinese character represents a monosyllabic Chinese word or morpheme. In 100 CE, the famed Han dynasty scholar Xu Shen classified characters into six categories: pictographs, simple ideographs, compound ideographs, phonetic loans, phonetic compounds, and derivative characters. Only 4% were categorized as pictographs, including many of the simplest characters, such as 人 (rén; 'human'), 日 (rì; 'Sun'), 山 (shān; 'mountain'), and 水 (shuǐ; 'water'). Between 80% and 90% were classified as phonetic compounds such as 沖 (chōng; 'pour'), combining a phonetic component 中 (zhōng) with a semantic component of the radical 氵, a reduced form of 水; 'water'. Almost all characters created since have been made using this format. The 18th-century Kangxi Dictionary classified characters under a now-common set of 214 radicals.Modern characters are styled after the regular script. Various other written styles are also used in Chinese calligraphy, including seal script, cursive script and clerical script. Calligraphy artists can write in Traditional and Simplified characters, but they tend to use Traditional characters for traditional art.There are currently two systems for Chinese characters. Traditional characters, used in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau, and many overseas Chinese-speaking communities, largely take their form from received character forms dating back to the late Han dynasty and standardized during the Ming. Simplified characters, introduced by the PRC in 1954 to promote mass literacy, simplifies most complex traditional glyphs to fewer strokes, many to common cursive shorthand variants. Singapore, which has a large Chinese community, was the second nation to officially adopt simplified characters, although it has also become the de facto standard for younger ethnic Chinese in Malaysia.The Internet provides practice reading each of these systems, and most Chinese readers are capable of, if not necessarily comfortable with, reading the alternative system through experience and guesswork.[77]A well-educated Chinese reader today recognizes approximately 4,000 to 6,000 characters; approximately 3,000 characters are required to read a mainland newspaper. The PRC defines literacy amongst workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, though this would be only functional literacy. School children typically learn around 2,000 characters whereas scholars may memorize up to 10,000.[78] A large unabridged dictionary like the Kangxi dictionary, contains over 40,000 characters, including obscure, variant, rare, and archaic characters; fewer than a quarter of these characters are now commonly used.","title":"Writing system"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gwoyu.svg"},{"link_name":"Romanization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization"},{"link_name":"Latin script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_script"},{"link_name":"Christian missionaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_China"},{"link_name":"Hanyu Pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Wade–Giles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles"},{"link_name":"anglicization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglicization"},{"link_name":"Gwoyeu Romatzyh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwoyeu_Romatzyh"},{"link_name":"EFEO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EFEO_Chinese_transcription"},{"link_name":"Yale system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Mandarin"}],"sub_title":"Romanization","text":"国语; 國語; Guóyǔ; 'National language' written in traditional and simplified forms, followed by various romanizationsRomanization is the process of transcribing a language into the Latin script. There are many systems of romanization for the Chinese varieties, due to the lack of a native phonetic transcription until modern times. Chinese is first known to have been written in Latin characters by Western Christian missionaries in the 16th century.Today the most common romanization for Standard Chinese is Hanyu Pinyin, introduced in 1956 by the PRC, and later adopted by Singapore and Taiwan. Pinyin is almost universally employed now for teaching standard spoken Chinese in schools and universities across the Americas, Australia, and Europe. Chinese parents also use Pinyin to teach their children the sounds and tones of new words. In school books that teach Chinese, the pinyin romanization is often shown below a picture of the thing the word represents, with the Chinese character alongside.The second-most common romanization system, the Wade–Giles, was invented by Thomas Wade in 1859 and modified by Herbert Giles in 1892. As this system approximates the phonology of Mandarin Chinese into English consonants and vowels–it is largely an anglicization, it may be particularly helpful for beginner Chinese speakers of an English-speaking background. Wade–Giles was found in academic use in the United States, particularly before the 1980s, and was widely used in Taiwan until 2009.When used within European texts, the tone transcriptions in both pinyin and Wade–Giles are often left out for simplicity; Wade–Giles's extensive use of apostrophes is also usually omitted. Thus, most Western readers will be much more familiar with Beijing than they will be with Běijīng (pinyin), and with Taipei than T'ai2-pei3 (Wade–Giles). This simplification presents syllables as homophones which are not, and therefore exaggerates the number of homophones almost by a factor of four.For comparison:Other systems include Gwoyeu Romatzyh, the French EFEO, the Yale system (invented for use by US troops during World War II), as well as distinct systems for the phonetic requirements of Cantonese, Min Nan, Hakka, and other varieties.","title":"Writing system"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"'Phags-pa script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27Phags-pa_script"},{"link_name":"Bopomofo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bopomofo"},{"link_name":"semi-syllabary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-syllabary"},{"link_name":"cyrillization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillization"},{"link_name":"Palladius system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladius_system"}],"sub_title":"Other phonetic transcriptions","text":"Chinese varieties have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries. The 'Phags-pa script, for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciations of premodern forms of Chinese. Bopomofo (or zhuyin) is a semi-syllabary that is still widely used in Taiwan to aid standard pronunciation. There are also at least two systems of cyrillization for Chinese. The most widespread is the Palladius system.","title":"Writing system"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_Language_Training_at_CASA.PNG"},{"link_name":"National Museum of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_China"},{"link_name":"Civil Affairs Staging Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Affairs_Staging_Area"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanyu_Shuiping_Kaoshi"},{"link_name":"Cambridge Certificate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge_ESOL_examination"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"}],"text":"Yang Lingfu, former curator of the National Museum of China, giving Chinese language instruction at the Civil Affairs Staging Area in 1945With the growing importance and influence of China's economy globally, Standard Chinese instruction has been gaining popularity in schools throughout East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Western world.[79]Besides Mandarin, Cantonese is the only other Chinese language that is widely taught as a foreign language, largely due to the economic and cultural influence of Hong Kong and its widespread usage among significant Overseas Chinese communities.[80]In 1991, there were 2,000 foreign learners taking China's official Chinese Proficiency Test, called Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi (HSK), comparable to the English Cambridge Certificate, but by 2005 the number of candidates had risen sharply to 117,660[81] and in 2010 to 750,000.[82]","title":"As a foreign language"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988211%E2%80%93214Pulleyblank19843-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"languages of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_China"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-dialect-perspective_5-0"},{"link_name":"Dialect continuum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialect_continuum"},{"link_name":"Varieties of Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"Norman (1988)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFNorman1988"},{"link_name":"DeFrancis (1984)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDeFrancis1984"},{"link_name":"Fu Maoji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fu_Maoji"},{"link_name":"Encyclopedia of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_China"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair199110,_21-7"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-DeFrancis_p42_68-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-DeFrancis_p42_68-1"},{"link_name":"DeFrancis (1984)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDeFrancis1984"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-70"},{"link_name":"neutral tone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_tone"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-73"},{"link_name":"Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baxter%27s_transcription_for_Middle_Chinese"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-75"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-76"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-81"}],"text":"^ The colloquial layers of many varieties, particularly Min varieties, reflect features that predate Middle Chinese.[2]\n\n^ Especially when distinguished from other languages of China\n\n^ \"Chinese\" refers collectively to the various language varieties that have descended from Old Chinese: native speakers often consider these to be \"dialects\" of a single language—though the Chinese term 方言; fāngyán; 'dialect' does not carry the precise connotations of \"dialect\" in English—while linguists typically analyze them as separate languages. See Dialect continuum and Varieties of Chinese for details.\n\n^ Various examples include:David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 312. \"The mutual unintelligibility of the varieties is the main ground for referring to them as separate languages.\"Charles N. Li, Sandra A. Thompson. Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar (1989), p. 2. \"The Chinese language family is genetically classified as an independent branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family.\"Norman (1988), p. 1. \"[...] the modern Chinese dialects are really more like a family of languages [...]\"DeFrancis (1984), p. 56. \"To call Chinese a single language composed of dialects with varying degrees of difference is to mislead by minimizing disparities that according to Chao are as great as those between English and Dutch. To call Chinese a family of languages is to suggest extralinguistic differences that in fact do not exist and to overlook the unique linguistic situation that exists in China.\"\nLinguists in China often use a formulation introduced by Fu Maoji in the Encyclopedia of China: 《汉语在语言系属分类中相当于一个语族的地位。》; \"In language classification, Chinese has a status equivalent to a language family.\"[4]\n\n\n^ a b DeFrancis (1984), p. 42 counts Chinese as having 1,277 tonal syllables, and about 398 to 418 if tones are disregarded; he cites Jespersen, Otto (1928) Monosyllabism in English; London, p. 15 for a count of over 8000 syllables for English.\n\n^ See neutral tone.\n\n^ Using Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese\n\n^ There are plural markers in the language, such as 们; 們; men, used with personal pronouns.\n\n^ A distinction is made between 他; 'he' and 她; 'she' in writing, but this was only introduced in the 20th century—both characters remain exactly homophonous.\n\n^ Hong Kong and Macau Cantonese","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The Characters That Built China\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.npr.org/2022/05/25/1101378470/the-characters-that-built-china"},{"link_name":"Throughline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throughline"},{"link_name":"NPR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPR"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8248-1892-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1892-0"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1017/CBO9781139166935","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139166935"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-59958-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59958-0"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"209828119","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:209828119"},{"link_name":"Qiu, Xigui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiu_Xigui"},{"link_name":"Jerry Norman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)"},{"link_name":"University of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-55729-071-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55729-071-7"},{"link_name":"\"Why So Little Chinese in English?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2013/06/language-borrowing"},{"link_name":"The Economist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economist"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.today/20130620054846/http://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2013/06/language-borrowing"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780735214729","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780735214729"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1246726702","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1246726702"}],"text":"Arablouei, Ramtin; Rund Abdelfatah (26 May 2022). \"The Characters That Built China\". Throughline. NPR. Retrieved 27 August 2023. On the history of the standardization of Mandarin as the Chinese primary national dialect.\nHannas, William C. (1997), Asia's Orthographic Dilemma, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-1892-0.\nHuang, Cheng-Teh James; Li, Yen-Hui Audrey; Li, Yafei (2009), The Syntax of Chinese, Cambridge Syntax Guides, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/CBO9781139166935, ISBN 978-0-521-59958-0, S2CID 209828119.\nQiu, Xigui (2000), Chinese Writing, translated by Gilbert Louis Mattos and Jerry Norman, Society for the Study of Early China and Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, ISBN 978-1-55729-071-7.\nR. L. G. (6 June 2013). \"Why So Little Chinese in English?\". Johnson (blog): Language Borrowing (topic). The Economist. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2023.\nTsu, Jing (2022). Kingdom of Characters: The Language Revolution That Made China Modern. New York: Riverhead Books. ISBN 9780735214729. OCLC 1246726702.","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"Ying, a speaker of Henan Chinese"},{"image_text":"The Tripitaka Koreana, a Korean collection of the Chinese Buddhist canon","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Tripitaka_Koreana.jpg/220px-Tripitaka_Koreana.jpg"},{"image_text":"Range of dialect groups in China proper and Taiwan according to the Language Atlas of China[45]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg/240px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A man speaking Mandarin with a Malaysian accent"},{},{"image_text":"\"Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion\" by Wang Xizhi, written in semi-cursive style","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/XingshuLantingxv.jpg/220px-XingshuLantingxv.jpg"},{"image_text":"永 is often used to illustrate the eight basic types of strokes of Chinese characters","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/8_strokes_of_%E6%B0%B8-zh.svg/220px-8_strokes_of_%E6%B0%B8-zh.svg.png"},{"image_text":"国语; 國語; Guóyǔ; 'National language' written in traditional and simplified forms, followed by various romanizations","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Gwoyu.svg/130px-Gwoyu.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Yang Lingfu, former curator of the National Museum of China, giving Chinese language instruction at the Civil Affairs Staging Area in 1945","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Chinese_Language_Training_at_CASA.PNG/300px-Chinese_Language_Training_at_CASA.PNG"}]	[{"title":"Chengyu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chengyu"},{"title":"Chinese computational linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_computational_linguistics"},{"title":"Chinese exclamative particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_exclamative_particles"},{"title":"Chinese honorifics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_honorifics"},{"title":"Chinese language law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language_law"},{"title":"Chinese numerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_numerals"},{"title":"Chinese punctuation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_punctuation"},{"title":"Chinese word-segmented writing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_word-segmented_writing"},{"title":"Classical Chinese grammar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar"},{"title":"Han unification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_unification"},{"title":"Languages of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_China"},{"title":"North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Conference_on_Chinese_Linguistics"},{"title":"Protection of the Varieties of Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protection_of_the_Varieties_of_Chinese"}]	[{"reference":"\"Summary by language size\". Ethnologue. 3 October 2018. Retrieved 7 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size","url_text":"\"Summary by language size\""}]},{"reference":"何, 信翰 (10 August 2019). \"自由廣場》Taigi與台語\". 自由時報. Retrieved 11 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://talk.ltn.com.tw/amp/article/paper/1309601","url_text":"\"自由廣場》Taigi與台語\""}]},{"reference":"李, 淑鳳 (1 March 2010). \"台、華語接觸所引起的台語語音的變化趨勢\". 台語研究. 2 (1): 56–71. Retrieved 11 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.airitilibrary.com/Publication/alDetailedMesh?docid=20763611-201003-201004230089-201004230089-56-71","url_text":"\"台、華語接觸所引起的台語語音的變化趨勢\""}]},{"reference":"Klöter, Henning (2004). \"Language Policy in the KMT and DPP eras\". China Perspectives. 56. ISSN 1996-4617. Retrieved 30 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/442","url_text":"\"Language Policy in the KMT and DPP eras\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1996-4617","url_text":"1996-4617"}]},{"reference":"Kuo, Yun-Hsuan (2005). New dialect formation: the case of Taiwanese Mandarin (PhD). University of Essex. Retrieved 26 June 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/YUN-HSUAN_KUO","url_text":"New dialect formation: the case of Taiwanese Mandarin"}]},{"reference":"Terrell, Peter, ed. (2005). Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary. Langenscheidt KG. ISBN 978-1-58573-057-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/langenscheidtpoc00lang","url_text":"Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58573-057-5","url_text":"978-1-58573-057-5"}]},{"reference":"\"Languages - Real Chinese - Mini-guides - Chinese characters\". BBC.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/chinese/real_chinese/mini_guides/characters/characters_howmany.shtml","url_text":"\"Languages - Real Chinese - Mini-guides - Chinese characters\""}]},{"reference":"Egerod, Søren Christian (12 April 2024). \"Chinese languages\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Old Chinese vocabulary already contained many words not generally occurring in the other Sino-Tibetan languages. The words for 'honey' and 'lion', and probably also 'horse', 'dog', and 'goose', are connected with Indo-European and were acquired through trade and early contacts. (The nearest known Indo-European languages were Tocharian and Sogdian, a middle Iranian language.) Some words have Austroasiatic cognates and point to early contacts with the ancestral language of Muong–Vietnamese and Mon–Khmer.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-languages","url_text":"\"Chinese languages\""}]},{"reference":"Ulenbrook, Jan (1967), Einige Übereinstimmungen zwischen dem Chinesischen und dem Indogermanischen (in German)","urls":[]},{"reference":"Chang, Tsung-tung (1988). \"Indo-European Vocabulary in Old Chinese\" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers.","urls":[{"url":"http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp007_old_chinese.pdf","url_text":"\"Indo-European Vocabulary in Old Chinese\""}]},{"reference":"\"Requirements for Chinese Text Layout\" 中文排版需求.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.w3.org/TR/clreq/","url_text":"\"Requirements for Chinese Text Layout\" 中文排版需求"}]},{"reference":"Huang Hua (黃華). 白話為何在五四時期「活」起來了？ (PDF) (in Chinese). Chinese University of Hong Kong. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c142-201309003.pdf","url_text":"白話為何在五四時期「活」起來了？"},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c142-201309003.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"粵普之爭為你中文解毒 (in Chinese).","urls":[{"url":"https://stedu.stheadline.com/sec/article/628/%E7%B2%B5%E6%99%AE%E4%B9%8B%E7%88%AD-%E7%82%BA%E4%BD%A0%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%E8%A7%A3%E6%AF%92","url_text":"粵普之爭為你中文解毒"}]},{"reference":"粤语：中国最强方言是如何炼成的_私家历史_澎湃新闻. The Paper 澎湃新闻.","urls":[{"url":"http://m.thepaper.cn/wifiKey_detail.jsp?contid=1298257","url_text":"粤语：中国最强方言是如何炼成的_私家历史_澎湃新闻"}]},{"reference":"陳宇碩. 白話字滄桑. The New Messenger 新使者雜誌 (in Chinese).","urls":[{"url":"http://newmsgr.pct.org.tw/Magazine.aspx?strTID=1&strISID=125&strMagID=M2011081602899","url_text":"白話字滄桑"}]},{"reference":"全球華文網-華文世界，數位之最 (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200806192001/http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/compete/writing/big5event_winner2-2.htm","url_text":"全球華文網-華文世界，數位之最"},{"url":"http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/compete/writing/big5event_winner2-2.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Zimmermann, Basile (2010). \"Redesigning Culture: Chinese Characters in Alphabet-Encoded Networks\". Design and Culture. 2 (1): 27–43. doi:10.2752/175470710X12593419555126. S2CID 53981784.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:87901","url_text":"\"Redesigning Culture: Chinese Characters in Alphabet-Encoded Networks\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2752%2F175470710X12593419555126","url_text":"10.2752/175470710X12593419555126"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53981784","url_text":"53981784"}]},{"reference":"\"How hard is it to learn Chinese?\". BBC News. 17 January 2006. Retrieved 28 April 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/4617646.stm","url_text":"\"How hard is it to learn Chinese?\""}]},{"reference":"Liu lili (27 June 2011). \"Chinese language proficiency test becoming popular in Mexico\". Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 12 September 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110629055803/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-06/27/c_13951048.htm","url_text":"\"Chinese language proficiency test becoming popular in Mexico\""},{"url":"http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-06/27/c_13951048.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Bailey, Charles James Nice (1973). Variation and linguistic theory. Arlington, Va: Center for Applied Linguistics. ISBN 978-0-87281-032-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87281-032-7","url_text":"978-0-87281-032-7"}]},{"reference":"Baxter, William H. (1992). A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-012324-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_H._Baxter","url_text":"Baxter, William H."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012324-1","url_text":"978-3-11-012324-1"}]},{"reference":"Campbell, Lyle (2008), \"[Untitled review of Ethnologue, 15th edition]\", Language, vol. 84, no. 3, pp. 636–641, doi:10.1353/lan.0.0054, S2CID 143663395","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnologue","url_text":"\"[Untitled review of Ethnologue, 15th edition]\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1353%2Flan.0.0054","url_text":"10.1353/lan.0.0054"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143663395","url_text":"143663395"}]},{"reference":"Chappell, Hilary (2008). \"Variation in the grammaticalization of complementizers from verba dicendi in Sinitic languages\". Linguistic Typology. 12 (1): 45–98. doi:10.1515/LITY.2008.032. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1A8D-4. ISSN 1430-0532. S2CID 201097561.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/LITY.2008.032/html","url_text":"\"Variation in the grammaticalization of complementizers from verba dicendi in Sinitic languages\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1515%2FLITY.2008.032","url_text":"10.1515/LITY.2008.032"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-0013-1A8D-4","url_text":"11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1A8D-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1430-0532","url_text":"1430-0532"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201097561","url_text":"201097561"}]},{"reference":"Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, ed. (2012). Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí (dì 2 bǎn): Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn 中国语言地图集(第2版):汉语方言卷 [Language Atlas of China: Chinese dialects] (2nd ed.). Beijing: The Commercial Press. ISBN 978-7-100-07054-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-100-07054-6","url_text":"978-7-100-07054-6"}]},{"reference":"Coblin, W. South (2000). \"A Brief History of Mandarin\". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 120 (4): 537–552. doi:10.2307/606615. JSTOR 606615.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weldon_South_Coblin","url_text":"Coblin, W. South"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/606615","url_text":"\"A Brief History of Mandarin\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F606615","url_text":"10.2307/606615"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/606615","url_text":"606615"}]},{"reference":"DeFrancis, John (1984). The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy. University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1068-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_DeFrancis","url_text":"DeFrancis, John"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Hawai%CA%BBi_Press","url_text":"University of Hawaiʻi Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1068-9","url_text":"978-0-8248-1068-9"}]},{"reference":"Handel, Zev (2008). \"What is Sino-Tibetan? Snapshot of a Field and a Language Family in Flux\". Language and Linguistics Compass. 2 (3): 422–441. doi:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00061.x. ISSN 1749-818X.","urls":[{"url":"https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00061.x","url_text":"\"What is Sino-Tibetan? Snapshot of a Field and a Language Family in Flux\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-818X.2008.00061.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00061.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1749-818X","url_text":"1749-818X"}]},{"reference":"Haugen, Einar (1966). \"Dialect, Language, Nation\". American Anthropologist. 68 (4): 922–935. doi:10.1525/aa.1966.68.4.02a00040. ISSN 0002-7294. JSTOR 670407.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einar_Haugen","url_text":"Haugen, Einar"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1966.68.4.02a00040","url_text":"\"Dialect, Language, Nation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1966.68.4.02a00040","url_text":"10.1525/aa.1966.68.4.02a00040"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7294","url_text":"0002-7294"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/670407","url_text":"670407"}]},{"reference":"Hudson, R. A. (1996). Sociolinguistics (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 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S2CID 144374994.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01434632.2010.509507","url_text":"\"Language or dialect, topolect or regiolect? A comparative study of language attitudes towards the status of Cantonese in Hong Kong\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01434632.2010.509507","url_text":"10.1080/01434632.2010.509507"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0143-4632","url_text":"0143-4632"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144374994","url_text":"144374994"}]},{"reference":"Kane, Daniel (2006). The Chinese language: its history and current usage. North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle. ISBN 978-0-8048-3853-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8048-3853-5","url_text":"978-0-8048-3853-5"}]},{"reference":"Kornicki, P.F. (2011). \"A transnational approach to East Asian book history\". In Chakravorty, Swapan; Gupta, Abhijit (eds.). New Word Order: Transnational Themes in Book History. Worldview Publications. pp. 65–79. ISBN 978-81-920651-1-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Kornicki","url_text":"Kornicki, P.F."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-920651-1-3","url_text":"978-81-920651-1-3"}]},{"reference":"Kurpaska, Maria (2010). Chinese language(s): a look through the prism of the Great dictionary of modern Chinese dialects. Trends in linguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-021914-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-021914-2","url_text":"978-3-11-021914-2"}]},{"reference":"Lewis, M. Paul; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2015), Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Eighteenth ed.), Dallas, Texas: SIL International","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ethnologue.com/","url_text":"Ethnologue: Languages of the World"}]},{"reference":"Liang, Sihua (2015). Language attitudes and identities in multilingual China: a linguistic ethnography. Cham: Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-12619-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-12619-7","url_text":"978-3-319-12619-7"}]},{"reference":"Mair, Victor H. (1991). \"What Is a Chinese \"Dialect/Topolect\"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms\" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. 29: 1–31. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 May 2018. Retrieved 17 November 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_H._Mair","url_text":"Mair, Victor H."},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180510155608/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf","url_text":"\"What Is a Chinese \"Dialect/Topolect\"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms\""},{"url":"https://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Matthews, Stephen; Yip, Virginia (1994). Cantonese: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-08945-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Matthews_(linguist)","url_text":"Matthews, Stephen"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Yip","url_text":"Yip, Virginia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-08945-6","url_text":"978-0-415-08945-6"}]},{"reference":"Tsu-lin, Mei (1970). \"Tones and Prosody in Middle Chinese and The Origin of The Rising Tone\". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 30: 86–110. doi:10.2307/2718766. JSTOR 2718766.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mei_Tsu-lin","url_text":"Tsu-lin, Mei"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718766","url_text":"\"Tones and Prosody in Middle Chinese and The Origin of The Rising Tone\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2718766","url_text":"10.2307/2718766"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718766","url_text":"2718766"}]},{"reference":"Miller, Roy Andrew (1967). The Japanese Language. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-52717-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Andrew_Miller","url_text":"Miller, Roy Andrew"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/japaneselanguage0000mill_o3y1","url_text":"The Japanese Language"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-52717-8","url_text":"978-0-226-52717-8"}]},{"reference":"Miyake, Marc Hideo (2004). Old Japanese: A Phonetic Reconstruction. Routledge–Curzon. ISBN 978-0-415-30575-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Hideo_Miyake","url_text":"Miyake, Marc Hideo"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30575-4","url_text":"978-0-415-30575-4"}]},{"reference":"Norman, Jerry (1988). Chinese. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)","url_text":"Norman, Jerry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3","url_text":"978-0-521-29653-3"}]},{"reference":"Norman, Jerry (2003). \"The Chinese dialects: phonology\". In Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.). The Sino-Tibetan languages. Routledge. pp. 72–83. ISBN 978-0-7007-1129-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1129-1","url_text":"978-0-7007-1129-1"}]},{"reference":"Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1984). Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-0192-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_G._Pulleyblank","url_text":"Pulleyblank, Edwin G."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0192-8","url_text":"978-0-7748-0192-8"}]},{"reference":"Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). The Languages of China. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01468-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01468-5","url_text":"978-0-691-01468-5"}]},{"reference":"Romaine, Suzanne (1994). Language in Society: an Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-875133-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875133-5","url_text":"978-0-19-875133-5"}]},{"reference":"Schüssler, Axel (2007). ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese. ABC Chinese dictionary series. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2975-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2975-9","url_text":"978-0-8248-2975-9"}]},{"reference":"Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990). The Languages of Japan. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36918-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36918-3","url_text":"978-0-521-36918-3"}]},{"reference":"Sohn, Ho-Min (2001). The Korean Language. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36943-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/koreanlanguage0000sohn","url_text":"The Korean Language"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36943-5","url_text":"978-0-521-36943-5"}]},{"reference":"Sohn, Ho-Min; Lee, Peter H. (2003). \"Language, forms, prosody, and themes\". In Lee, Peter H. (ed.). A History of Korean Literature. Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–51. ISBN 978-0-521-82858-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82858-1","url_text":"978-0-521-82858-1"}]},{"reference":"Thomason, Sarah Grey (1988). \"Languages of the World\". In Paulston, Christina Bratt (ed.). International Handbook of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education (1st ed.). New York: Greenwood Press. pp. 17–45. ISBN 978-0-313-24484-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-24484-1","url_text":"978-0-313-24484-1"}]},{"reference":"Van Herk, Gerard (2012). What is sociolinguistics?. Linguistics in the world (1st ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-9319-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9319-1","url_text":"978-1-4051-9319-1"}]},{"reference":"Wardaugh, Ronald; Fuller, Janet (2014). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-73229-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-73229-8","url_text":"978-1-118-73229-8"}]},{"reference":"Wilkinson, Endymion Porter (2000). Chinese History: A Manual. Harvard-Yenching Institute monograph series. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00249-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endymion_Wilkinson","url_text":"Wilkinson, Endymion Porter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00249-4","url_text":"978-0-674-00249-4"}]},{"reference":"Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Li, Rong; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987). Language Atlas of China. Longman. ISBN 978-962-359-085-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-359-085-3","url_text":"978-962-359-085-3"}]},{"reference":"Zhang, Bennan; Yang, Robin R. (2004). \"Putonghua education and language policy in postcolonial Hong Kong\". In Zhou, Minglang (ed.). Language policy in the People's Republic of China: theory and practice since 1949. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 143–161. ISBN 978-1-4020-8038-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8038-8","url_text":"978-1-4020-8038-8"}]},{"reference":"Sagart, Laurent; Jacques, Guillaume; Lai, Yunfan; Ryder, Robin J.; Thouzeau, Valentin; Greenhill, Simon J.; List, Johann-Mattis (21 May 2019). \"Dated language phylogenies shed light on the ancestry of Sino-Tibetan\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (21): 10317–10322. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11610317S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1817972116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6534992. PMID 31061123.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurent_Sagart","url_text":"Sagart, Laurent"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_Jacques","url_text":"Jacques, Guillaume"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6534992","url_text":"\"Dated language phylogenies shed light on the ancestry of Sino-Tibetan\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PNAS..11610317S","url_text":"2019PNAS..11610317S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1817972116","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.1817972116"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424","url_text":"0027-8424"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6534992","url_text":"6534992"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31061123","url_text":"31061123"}]},{"reference":"\"Origin of Sino-Tibetan language family revealed by new research\". ScienceDaily (Press release). 6 May 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/05/190506151822.htm","url_text":"\"Origin of Sino-Tibetan language family revealed by new research\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceDaily","url_text":"ScienceDaily"}]},{"reference":"Arablouei, Ramtin; Rund Abdelfatah (26 May 2022). \"The Characters That Built China\". Throughline. NPR. Retrieved 27 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.npr.org/2022/05/25/1101378470/the-characters-that-built-china","url_text":"\"The Characters That Built China\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throughline","url_text":"Throughline"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPR","url_text":"NPR"}]},{"reference":"Hannas, William C. (1997), Asia's Orthographic Dilemma, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-1892-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1892-0","url_text":"978-0-8248-1892-0"}]},{"reference":"Huang, Cheng-Teh James; Li, Yen-Hui Audrey; Li, Yafei (2009), The Syntax of Chinese, Cambridge Syntax Guides, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/CBO9781139166935, ISBN 978-0-521-59958-0, S2CID 209828119.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139166935","url_text":"10.1017/CBO9781139166935"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59958-0","url_text":"978-0-521-59958-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:209828119","url_text":"209828119"}]},{"reference":"Qiu, Xigui (2000), Chinese Writing, translated by Gilbert Louis Mattos and Jerry Norman, Society for the Study of Early China and Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, ISBN 978-1-55729-071-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiu_Xigui","url_text":"Qiu, Xigui"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)","url_text":"Jerry Norman"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California","url_text":"University of California"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55729-071-7","url_text":"978-1-55729-071-7"}]},{"reference":"R. L. G. (6 June 2013). \"Why So Little Chinese in English?\". Johnson (blog): Language Borrowing (topic). The Economist. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2013/06/language-borrowing","url_text":"\"Why So Little Chinese in English?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economist","url_text":"The Economist"},{"url":"https://archive.today/20130620054846/http://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2013/06/language-borrowing","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Tsu, Jing (2022). Kingdom of Characters: The Language Revolution That Made China Modern. New York: Riverhead Books. ISBN 9780735214729. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_methodus_pro_maximis_et_minimis	Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis	["1 Full title","2 Influence","3 Citation and translations","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]	Seven-page scientific journal article by Leibniz that introduced infinitesimal calculus This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) First page of the "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis", Acta Eruditorum, October 1684 "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis" is the first published work on the subject of calculus. It was published by Gottfried Leibniz in the Acta Eruditorum in October 1684. It is considered to be the birth of infinitesimal calculus. Full title The full title of the published work is "Nova methodus pro maximis et minimis, itemque tangentibus, quae nec fractas nec irrationales quantitates moratur, et singulare pro illis calculi genus." In English, the full title can be translated as "A new method for maxima and minima, and for tangents, that is not hindered by fractional or irrational quantities, and a singular kind of calculus for the above mentioned." It is from this title that this branch of mathematics takes the name calculus. Influence Although calculus was independently co-invented by Isaac Newton, most of the notation in modern calculus is from Leibniz. Leibniz's careful attention to his notation makes some believe that "his contribution to calculus was much more influential than Newton's." Citation and translations Leibniz, Gottfried (1684). "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis". Acta Eruditorum (in Latin). 3: 467–473. Figures Tab. XII. Leibniz, Gottfried (1768). "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis". In Dutens, Louis (ed.). Gothofredi Guillelmi Leibnitii Opera Omnia (in Latin). Vol. 3. Geneva: Fratres de Tournes. pp. 167–172. Figures Tab. VI. Struik, Dirk J., ed. (1969). "A New Method for Maxima and Minima". A Source Book in Mathematics, 1200-1800. Harvard University Press. pp. 272–280. Bruce, Ian, ed. (2014). "A New Method for Finding Maxima and Minima" (PDF). 17centurymaths.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2023-05-21. See also Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy References ^ "Mathematical Treasure: Leibniz's Papers on Calculus". maa.org. Mathematical Association of America. Retrieved 2024-04-03. ^ a b Newton and Leibniz: the birth of calculus ^ "The History of Calculus". Archived from the original on 2013-12-08. Retrieved 2013-12-30. ^ Greatest Mathematicians of All Time External links Mathematical Treasure: Leibniz's Papers on Calculus: "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis..." (Latin original) This article about a mathematical publication is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leibniz-Acta-1684-NovaMethodus.jpg"},{"link_name":"calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus"},{"link_name":"Gottfried Leibniz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz"},{"link_name":"Acta Eruditorum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acta_Eruditorum"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"infinitesimal calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinitesimal_calculus"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-unifi-2"}],"text":"First page of the \"Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis\", Acta Eruditorum, October 1684\"Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis\" is the first published work on the subject of calculus. It was published by Gottfried Leibniz in the Acta Eruditorum in October 1684.[1] It is considered to be the birth of infinitesimal calculus.[2]","title":"Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-unifi-2"}],"text":"The full title of the published work is \"Nova methodus pro maximis et minimis, itemque tangentibus, quae nec fractas nec irrationales quantitates moratur, et singulare pro illis calculi genus.\" In English, the full title can be translated as \"A new method for maxima and minima, and for tangents, that is not hindered by fractional or irrational quantities, and a singular kind of calculus for the above mentioned.\"[2] It is from this title that this branch of mathematics takes the name calculus.","title":"Full title"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Isaac Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Although calculus was independently co-invented by Isaac Newton, most of the notation in modern calculus is from Leibniz.[3] Leibniz's careful attention to his notation makes some believe that \"his contribution to calculus was much more influential than Newton's.\"[4]","title":"Influence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Leibniz, Gottfried","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz"},{"link_name":"\"Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/s1id13206500/page/467/"},{"link_name":"Tab. 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Acta Eruditorum (in Latin). 3: 467–473. Figures Tab. XII.\nLeibniz, Gottfried (1768). \"Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis\". In Dutens, Louis (ed.). Gothofredi Guillelmi Leibnitii Opera Omnia (in Latin). Vol. 3. Geneva: Fratres de Tournes. pp. 167–172. Figures Tab. VI.\nStruik, Dirk J., ed. (1969). \"A New Method for Maxima and Minima\". A Source Book in Mathematics, 1200-1800. Harvard University Press. pp. 272–280.\nBruce, Ian, ed. (2014). \"A New Method for Finding Maxima and Minima\" (PDF). 17centurymaths.com. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin_I._Goldman	Alvin Goldman	["1 Education and career","2 Philosophical work","2.1 Action theory","2.2 Epistemology","2.3 Other work","3 Bibliography","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]	American philosopher (born 1938) Alvin GoldmanBorn1938EraContemporary philosophyRegionWestern philosophySchoolAnalyticFoundationalismThesisAction (1965)Doctoral advisorPaul BenacerrafMain interestsEpistemology, philosophy of actionNotable ideasCausal theory of knowledge, social epistemology, externalist foundationalist theory of justification Alvin Ira Goldman (born 1938) is an American philosopher who is emeritus Board of Governors Professor of Philosophy and Cognitive Science at Rutgers University in New Jersey and a leading figure in epistemology. Education and career Goldman earned his BA from Columbia University and PhD from Princeton University and previously taught at the University of Michigan (1963–1980), the University of Illinois, Chicago (1980–1983) and the University of Arizona (1983–1994). He joined the Rutgers faculty in 1994 and retired in 2018. He is married to the ethicist Holly Martin Smith. Philosophical work Goldman has done influential work on a wide range of philosophical topics, but his principal areas of research are epistemology, philosophy of mind, and cognitive science. Action theory Goldman's early book, A Theory of Human Action (a revised version of his Ph.D. thesis), presents a systematic way of classifying and relating the many actions we perform at any time. Its influence was broad and can be found in, among other writings, John Rawls's book A Theory of Justice. Goldman's early work in action theory soon gave way to work in other branches of philosophy, most influentially epistemology. Epistemology Goldman's accounts of knowledge and justified belief, using notions like causation and reliability instead of normative concepts like permissibility and obligation, contributed to a philosophical approach that came to be known in the 1970s as naturalized epistemology. (Unlike W.V.O. Quine's version of naturalized epistemology, however, Goldman's retains a traditional focus on questions of justification.) Goldman's view emerged initially as part of the efforts in the 1960s to find a "fourth" condition in response to the Gettier challenge to the account of knowledge as "justified true belief." In his 1967 paper, "A Causal Theory of Knowing", Goldman proposed that knowledge amounts to the true belief appropriately caused by the fact that makes it true. Later, he claimed knowledge amounts to true belief that is produced by a reliable process. Goldman has described his "naturalistic" approach to epistemology as splitting "epistemology (individual epistemology, anyway) into two parts... The first part is dedicated to the 'analytic' task of identifying the criteria, or satisfaction conditions, for various normative epistemic statuses. With respect to the normative status of justifiedness (of belief), the proposed criterion is the reliability of the belief-forming processes by which the belief is produced. Defense of this criterion of justifiedness was not based on scientific psychology, but rather a familiar form of armchair methodology. The second part is the task where the science enters the picture. Psychological science is required to identify the kinds of operations or computations available to the human cognizer, how well they work when operating on certain inputs and under certain conditions." More recently, Goldman has focused his epistemological efforts on questions of social epistemology, of the different social mechanisms through which knowledge is transmitted in society. His work in social epistemology has dealt with the law (especially evidence), voting and media, among other topics. He attempts to provide (in his words) a less radical view of social epistemology than those suggested by cultural theorists and postmodernists under that name. His approach uses tools of analytic philosophy especially formal epistemology to analyze problems in social knowledge. Some of this work is summarized in his book Knowledge in a Social World. Other work Goldman has devoted significant time to showing how research in cognitive science is relevant to a variety of branches of philosophy including epistemology. Much of this work appears in his books Epistemology and Cognition, Philosophical Applications of Cognitive Science, and Simulating Minds. Bibliography Action (1965) "A Causal Theory of Knowing" in The Journal of Philosophy v. 64 (1967), pp. 357–372. A Theory of Human Action (1970) "Epistemics: The Regulative Theory of Cognition," The Journal of Philosophy 75 (1978) pp. 509–523. "What is Justified Belief?" in Justification and Knowledge (1979), pp. 1–23. Epistemology and Cognition (1986) Liaisons: Philosophy Meets the Cognitive and Social Sciences (1991) Philosophical Applications of Cognitive Science (1993) Readings in Philosophy and Cognitive Science (editor), (1993) Knowledge in a Social World (1999) Pathways to Knowledge: Private and Public (2004) Simulating Minds (2006) Joint Ventures: Mindreading, Mirroring, and Embodied Cognition (2013) See also American philosophy List of American philosophers Reliabilism References ^ Goldman CV fas-philosophy.rutgers.edu ^ "Alvin Goldman Retirement Conference". ^ Goldman, Alvin I. Liaisons: Philosophy meets the cognitive and social sciences. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1992. (Chapter 5, 85-103) ^ "Thinking About Mindreading, Mirroring and Embedded Cognition et al… - 3:AM Magazine". Archived from the original on 2017-12-29. Retrieved 2015-07-11. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Alvin Goldman. Alvin Goldman's home page Article partly devoted to Goldman's epistemic views Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on reliabilism, written by Goldman Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on naturalised epistemology, relevant to Goldman vteAnalytic philosophyRelated articlesAreas of focus Metaphysics Epistemology Language Mathematics Science Turns Aretaic Linguistic Performative Logic Classical Deviant Mathematical Non-classical Paraconsistent Philosophical Predicate Theories Anti-realism Causal theory of reference Descriptivism Emotivism Feminism Functionalism Logical atomism Logical positivism Marxism Neurophilosophy Ordinary language Pragmatism Quietism Scientific structuralism Sense data Analytic theology Analytical Thomism Concepts Analysis (paradox of analysis) Analytic–synthetic distinction Counterfactual Natural kind Reflective equilibrium Supervenience Modality Actualism Necessity Possibility Possible world Realism Rigid designator Philosophers Noam Chomsky Keith Donnellan Gottlob Frege Edmund Gettier Jaakko Hintikka Giuseppe Peano Russ Shafer-Landau Ernest Sosa Barry Stroud Australian realism David Malet Armstrong David Chalmers J. L. Mackie Peter Singer J. J. C. Smart Cambridge Arif Ahmed Charlie Broad Casimir Lewy Norman Malcolm G. E. Moore Graham Priest Bertrand Russell Frank P. Ramsey Ludwig Wittgenstein Oxford G. E. M. Anscombe J. L. Austin Michael Dummett Antony Flew Philippa Foot Peter Geach Paul Grice R. M. Hare Alasdair MacIntyre Derek Parfit Gilbert Ryle John Searle P. F. Strawson Richard Swinburne Charles Taylor Bernard Williams Timothy Williamson Logical positivists A. J. Ayer Ernest Nagel Berlin Circle Carl Gustav Hempel Hans Reichenbach Vienna Circle Rudolf Carnap Hans Hahn Otto Neurath Moritz Schlick Friedrich Waismann Harvard Roderick Chisholm Donald Davidson Daniel Dennett Nelson Goodman Christine Korsgaard Thomas Nagel Robert Nozick Hilary Putnam W. V. O. Quine John Rawls Notre Dame Robert Audi Peter van Inwagen Pittsburgh School Robert Brandom Patricia Churchland Paul Churchland Adolf Grünbaum John McDowell Ruth Millikan Alexander Pruss Nicholas Rescher Wilfrid Sellars Bas van Fraassen Pragmatism Susan Haack Nicholas Rescher Morton White Princeton Alonzo Church Jerry Fodor Kurt Gödel David Lewis Jaegwon Kim Saul Kripke Richard Rorty Nathan Salmon Michael Walzer Quietism James F. Conant Alice Crary Cora Diamond Reformed Alvin Plantinga William Lane Craig Nicholas Wolterstorff Science Paul Feyerabend Thomas Kuhn Karl Popper Stanford School Nancy Cartwright John Dupré Peter Galison Ian Hacking Patrick Suppes Lwow-Warsaw Jan Łukasiewicz Alfred Tarski Category Index vteEpistemologyEpistemologists Thomas Aquinas Augustine of Hippo William Alston Robert Audi A. J. Ayer George Berkeley Laurence BonJour Gilles Deleuze Keith DeRose René Descartes John Dewey Fred Dretske Edmund Gettier Alvin Goldman Nelson Goodman Paul Grice Anil Gupta Susan Haack David Hume Immanuel Kant Søren Kierkegaard Peter Klein Saul Kripke Hilary Kornblith David Lewis John Locke G. E. Moore John McDowell Robert Nozick Alvin Plantinga Plato Duncan Pritchard James Pryor Hilary Putnam W. V. O. Quine Thomas Reid Bertrand Russell Gilbert Ryle Wilfrid Sellars Susanna Siegel Ernest Sosa P. F. Strawson Baruch Spinoza Timothy Williamson Ludwig Wittgenstein Nicholas Wolterstorff Vienna Circle more... Theories Coherentism Constructivism Contextualism Empiricism Evolutionary epistemology Fallibilism Feminist epistemology Fideism Foundationalism Holism Infinitism Innatism Naïve realism Naturalized epistemology Phenomenalism Positivism Rationalism Reductionism Reliabilism Representational realism Skepticism Transcendental idealism Concepts A priori knowledge A posteriori knowledge Analysis Analytic–synthetic distinction Belief Common sense Descriptive knowledge Exploratory thought Epistemic injustice Epistemic virtue Gettier problem Induction Internalism and externalism Justification Knowledge Objectivity Privileged access Problem of induction Problem of other minds Perception Procedural knowledge Proposition Regress argument Simplicity Truth more... Related articles Outline of epistemology Faith and rationality Formal epistemology Metaepistemology Philosophy of perception Philosophy of science Social epistemology Virtue epistemology Category Task Force Stubs Discussion vtePhilosophy of mindPhilosophers G. E. M. Anscombe Aristotle Armstrong Thomas Aquinas J. L. Austin Alexander Bain George Berkeley Henri Bergson Ned Block Franz Brentano C. D. Broad Tyler Burge David Chalmers Patricia Churchland Paul Churchland Andy Clark Dharmakirti Donald Davidson Daniel Dennett René Descartes Fred Dretske Fodor Goldman Martin Heidegger David Hume Edmund Husserl William James Frank Cameron Jackson Immanuel Kant David Lewis (philosopher) John Locke Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Maurice Merleau-Ponty Marvin Minsky Thomas Nagel Alva Noë Derek Parfit Plato Hilary Putnam Richard Rorty Gilbert Ryle John Searle Wilfrid Sellars Baruch Spinoza Alan Turing Michael Tye Vasubandhu Ludwig Wittgenstein Stephen Yablo Zhuangzi more... Theories Behaviorism Biological naturalism Dualism Eliminative materialism Emergent materialism Epiphenomenalism Functionalism Interactionism Naïve realism Neurophenomenology Neutral monism New mysterianism Nondualism Occasionalism Parallelism Phenomenalism Phenomenology Physicalism Type physicalism Property dualism Representational Solipsism Substance dualism Concepts Abstract object Artificial intelligence Chinese room Creativity Cognition Cognitive closure Concept Consciousness Hard problem of consciousness Hypostatic abstraction Idea Identity Intelligence Intentionality Introspection Intuition Language of thought Mental event Mental image Mental process Mental property Mental representation Mind Mind–body problem Pain Problem of other minds Propositional attitude Qualia Tabula rasa Understanding Zombie Related Metaphysics Philosophy of artificial intelligence / information / perception / self Category Philosophers category Project Task Force Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway Spain France BnF data Catalonia Germany Italy Israel Belgium United States Czech Republic Australia Korea Croatia Netherlands Poland Academics CiNii PhilPeople zbMATH People Trove Other SNAC IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"},{"link_name":"Cognitive Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_Science"},{"link_name":"Rutgers University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutgers_University"},{"link_name":"New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"epistemology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology"}],"text":"Alvin Ira Goldman (born 1938) is an American philosopher who is emeritus Board of Governors Professor of Philosophy and Cognitive Science at Rutgers University in New Jersey and a leading figure in epistemology.","title":"Alvin Goldman"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Columbia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University"},{"link_name":"Princeton University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University"},{"link_name":"University of Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Michigan"},{"link_name":"University of Illinois, Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Illinois,_Chicago"},{"link_name":"University of Arizona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Arizona"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Holly Martin Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holly_Martin_Smith"}],"text":"Goldman earned his BA from Columbia University and PhD from Princeton University and previously taught at the University of Michigan (1963–1980), the University of Illinois, Chicago (1980–1983) and the University of Arizona (1983–1994). He joined the Rutgers faculty in 1994[1] and retired in 2018.[2]He is married to the ethicist Holly Martin Smith.","title":"Education and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"epistemology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology"},{"link_name":"philosophy of mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind"},{"link_name":"cognitive science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science"}],"text":"Goldman has done influential work on a wide range of philosophical topics, but his principal areas of research are epistemology, philosophy of mind, and cognitive science.","title":"Philosophical work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A Theory of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice"}],"sub_title":"Action theory","text":"Goldman's early book, A Theory of Human Action (a revised version of his Ph.D. thesis), presents a systematic way of classifying and relating the many actions we perform at any time. Its influence was broad and can be found in, among other writings, John Rawls's book A Theory of Justice. Goldman's early work in action theory soon gave way to work in other branches of philosophy, most influentially epistemology.","title":"Philosophical work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"naturalized epistemology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology"},{"link_name":"W.V.O. Quine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.V.O._Quine"},{"link_name":"Gettier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gettier"},{"link_name":"A Causal Theory of Knowing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Causal_Theory_of_Knowing"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"social epistemology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_epistemology"},{"link_name":"cultural theorists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_theory"},{"link_name":"postmodernists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism"},{"link_name":"analytic philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy"},{"link_name":"formal epistemology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_epistemology"}],"sub_title":"Epistemology","text":"Goldman's accounts of knowledge and justified belief, using notions like causation and reliability instead of normative concepts like permissibility and obligation, contributed to a philosophical approach that came to be known in the 1970s as naturalized epistemology. (Unlike W.V.O. Quine's version of naturalized epistemology, however, Goldman's retains a traditional focus on questions of justification.) Goldman's view emerged initially as part of the efforts in the 1960s to find a \"fourth\" condition in response to the Gettier challenge to the account of knowledge as \"justified true belief.\" In his 1967 paper, \"A Causal Theory of Knowing\", Goldman proposed that knowledge amounts to the true belief appropriately caused by the fact that makes it true. Later, he claimed knowledge amounts to true belief that is produced by a reliable process.[3]Goldman has described his \"naturalistic\" approach to epistemology as splitting \"epistemology (individual epistemology, anyway) into two parts...The first part is dedicated to the 'analytic' task of identifying the criteria, or satisfaction conditions, for various normative epistemic statuses. With respect to the normative status of justifiedness (of belief), the proposed criterion is the reliability of the belief-forming processes by which the belief is produced. Defense of this criterion of justifiedness was not based on scientific psychology, but rather a familiar form of armchair methodology.\nThe second part is the task where the science enters the picture. Psychological science is required to identify the kinds of operations or computations available to the human cognizer, how well they work when operating on certain inputs and under certain conditions.\"[4]More recently, Goldman has focused his epistemological efforts on questions of social epistemology, of the different social mechanisms through which knowledge is transmitted in society. His work in social epistemology has dealt with the law (especially evidence), voting and media, among other topics. He attempts to provide (in his words) a less radical view of social epistemology than those suggested by cultural theorists and postmodernists under that name. His approach uses tools of analytic philosophy especially formal epistemology to analyze problems in social knowledge. Some of this work is summarized in his book Knowledge in a Social World.","title":"Philosophical work"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Other work","text":"Goldman has devoted significant time to showing how research in cognitive science is relevant to a variety of branches of philosophy including epistemology. Much of this work appears in his books Epistemology and Cognition, Philosophical Applications of Cognitive Science, and Simulating Minds.","title":"Philosophical work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A Causal Theory of Knowing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Causal_Theory_of_Knowing"},{"link_name":"The Journal of Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Journal_of_Philosophy"}],"text":"Action (1965)\n\"A Causal Theory of Knowing\" in The Journal of Philosophy v. 64 (1967), pp. 357–372.\nA Theory of Human Action (1970)\n\"Epistemics: The Regulative Theory of Cognition,\" The Journal of Philosophy 75 (1978) pp. 509–523.\n\"What is Justified Belief?\" in Justification and Knowledge (1979), pp. 1–23.\nEpistemology and Cognition (1986)\nLiaisons: Philosophy Meets the Cognitive and Social Sciences (1991)\nPhilosophical Applications of Cognitive Science (1993)\nReadings in Philosophy and Cognitive Science (editor), (1993)\nKnowledge in a Social World (1999)\nPathways to Knowledge: Private and Public (2004)\nSimulating Minds (2006)\nJoint Ventures: Mindreading, Mirroring, and Embodied Cognition (2013)","title":"Bibliography"}]	[]	[{"title":"American philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_philosophy"},{"title":"List of American philosophers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_philosophers"},{"title":"Reliabilism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliabilism"}]	[{"reference":"\"Alvin Goldman Retirement Conference\".","urls":[{"url":"https://ruccs.rutgers.edu/component/jevents/icalrepeat.detail/2018/02/27/586/-/alvin-goldman-retirement-conference","url_text":"\"Alvin Goldman Retirement Conference\""}]},{"reference":"\"Thinking About Mindreading, Mirroring and Embedded Cognition et al… - 3:AM Magazine\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG	Standardization agreement	["1 Partial list","1.1 Draft STANAG","2 References","3 External links"]	NATO technical standard (STANAG) This article is about the list of NATO agreements. For the specific agreement regarding gun magazines, see STANAG magazine. In NATO, a standardization agreement (STANAG, redundantly: STANAG agreement) defines processes, procedures, terms, and conditions for common military or technical procedures or equipment between the member countries of the alliance. Each NATO state ratifies a STANAG and implements it within its own military. The purpose is to provide common operational and administrative procedures and logistics, so one member nation's military may use the stores and support of another member's military. STANAGs also form the basis for technical interoperability between a wide variety of communication and information systems (CIS) essential for NATO and Allied operations. The Allied Data Publication 34 (ADatP-34) NATO Interoperability Standards and Profiles which is covered by STANAG 5524, maintains a catalogue of relevant information and communication technology standards. STANAGs are published in English and French, the two official languages of NATO, by the NATO Standardization Office in Brussels. Among the hundreds of standardization agreements (the total as of April 2007 was just short of 1,300) are those for calibres of small arms ammunition, map markings, communications procedures, and classification of bridges. Partial list STANAG 1008 (Edition 9, 24 August 2004): Characteristics of Shipboard Electrical Power Systems in Warships of the North Atlantic Treaty Navies STANAG 1022 (Edition 6): Combat Charts, Amphibious Charts and Combat/Landing Charts STANAG 1034 (Edition 17, 24 May 2005): Allied Naval Gunfire Support (ATP-4(E)) STANAG 1040 (Edition 23, 16 December 2004): Naval Cooperation and Guidance for Shipping (NCAGS) (ATP-2(B) Vol. 1) STANAG 1041 (Edition 16, 29 March 2001): Anti-Submarine Evasive Steering (ATP-3(B)) STANAG 1052 (Edition 32, 12 July 2006): Allied Submarine and Anti-Submarine Exercise Manual (AXP-01(D)) STANAG 1059 (Edition 8, 19 February 2004): National Distinguishing Letters for Use by NATO Armed Forces STANAG 1063 (Edition 18): Allied Naval Communications Exercises (AXP-3(C) MXP-3(C)) STANAG 1236 (Edition 3, 2 November 2010): Glide Slope Indicators for Helicopter Operations from NATO Ships STANAG 1471 HOSTAC Ship Helicopter Operating Limits (SHOL) STANAG 1472 (Edition 1, 7 September 2011): NVD Compatible Flight Deck Status Displays on Single Ships STANAG 2003 (Edition 6): Patrol Reports STANAG 2014 (Edition 7): Operations Plans, Warning Orders, and Administrative/Logistics Orders STANAG 2019 (Edition 6, 24 May 2011): NATO Joint Military Symbology – NATO Military Symbols for Land Based Systems (APP-6) STANAG 2021 Military Load Classification of Bridges, Rafts and Vehicles STANAG 2022 Intelligence Reports STANAG 2033 Interrogation of Prisoners of War (PW) STANAG 2041 (Edition 4): Operations Orders, Tables and Graphics for Road Movement STANAG 2044 (Edition 5): Procedures for Dealing with Prisoners of War STANAG 2083 Radiological Hazards STANAG 2084 (Edition 5): Handling and Reporting of Captured Enemy Equipment and Documents STANAG 2085 NATO Combined Military Police STANAG 2087 Medical Employment of Air Transport in the Forward Area STANAG 2097 (Edition 6): Nomenclature and Classification of Equipment STANAG 2116 – this STANAG covers, among other subjects, NATO official rank grade comparisons covering Ranks and insignia of NATO STANAG 2138 (Edition 4, May 1996): Troop trial Principles and Procedures – Combat Clothing and Personal Equipment STANAG 2143 (Edition 4): Explosive Ordnance Reconnaissance/Explosive Ordnance Disposal STANAG 2149 (Edition 3): Intelligence Request STANAG 2154 Regulations for Military Motor Vehicle Movement by Road STANAG 2175 (Edition 3): Classification and Designation of Flat Wagons Suitable for Transporting Military Equipment STANAG 2310 7.62×51mm NATO adopted in the 1953 as the sole standard infantry rifle cartridge (7.62x51mm) up until STANAG 4172 in 1980. STANAG 2324 The adoption of the US MIL-STD-1913 "Picatinny rail" as the NATO standard optical and electronic sight mount and standard accessory rail (canceled). See also 4694. STANAG 2345 (Edition 3, 13 February 2003): Evaluation and control of personnel exposure to radio frequency fields – 3 kHz to 300 GHz STANAG 2389 (Edition 1): Minimum Standards of Proficiency for Trained Explosive Ordnance Disposal Personnel STANAG 2404 (Draft): Joint Anti-Armor Operations STANAG 2509 Civil-military co-operation (CIMIC) doctrine STANAG 2433 (published Jan 2005): The military intelligence intelligence data STANAG 2437 Allied Joint Publication AJP-01: "ALLIED JOINT DOCTRINE" STANAG 2525 Allied Joint Doctrine for Communications and Information Systems STANAG 2604 (Edition 3, 14 Aug 1992): Braking Systems Between Tractors, Draw Bar Trailer And Semi-trailer Equipment Combinations For Military Use STANAG 2805 Fording and Flotation Requirements for Combat and Support Ground Vehicles STANAG 2832 (Edition 2): Restrictions for the Transport of Military Equipment by Rail on European Railways STANAG 2834 (Edition 2): The Operation of the Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technical Information Center (EODTIC) STANAG 2866 Medical Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Personnel STANAG 2868 (Edition 4): Land Force Tactical Doctrine (ATP-35(A)) STANAG 2873 Medical Support Operations in an NBC Environment STANAG 2889 (Edition 3): Marking of Hazardous Areas and Routes Through Them STANAG 2895 Extreme Climatic Conditions and Derived Conditions for Use in Defining Design/Test Criteria for NATO Forces Materiel STANAG 2920 The adoption of standards for ballistic protection levels and testing STANAG 2931 Distinctive Markings and Camouflage of Medical Facilities and Evacuation Platforms STANAG 2937 Survival, Emergency, and Individual Combat Rations – nutritional values and packaging STANAG 2961 Classes of Supply of NATO Land Forces STANAG 2984 Graduated Levels of Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear Threats and Associated Protective Measures STANAG 2999 (Edition 1): Use of Helicopters in Land Operations (ATP-49) STANAG 3011: Joint Range Extension Applications Protocol (JREAP), a Tactical Data Link (TDL) protocol STANAG 3117 Aircraft Marshalling Signals STANAG 3150 Uniform System of Supply Classification STANAG 3151 Uniform System of Item of Supply Identification STANAG 3277 (Edition 6): Air Reconnaissance Request/Task Form STANAG 3350: Analogue Video Standard for Aircraft System Applications STANAG 3377: Air Reconnaissance Intelligence Report Forms STANAG 3497 (Edition 1): Aeromedical Training of Aircrew in Aircrew NBC Equipment and Procedures STANAG 3585 (Edition 6): 20x102mm autocannon ammunition STANAG 3596 Air Reconnaissance Requesting and Target Reporting Guide STANAG 3680 AAP-6 NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions STANAG 3700 (Edition 4): NATO Tactical Air Doctrine (ATP-33(B)) STANAG 3736 (Edition 8): Offensive Air Support Operations (ATP-27(B)) STANAG 3797 (27 Apr 2009) Minimum Qualifications for Forward Air Controllers & Laser Operators in Support of Forward Air Controllers STANAG 3805 (Edition 4): Doctrine and Procedures for Airspace Control in Time of Crisis and War (ATP-40(A)) STANAG 3820 (Edition 3): 27×145mm autocannon ammunition STANAG 3838: MIL-STD-1553, mechanical, electrical and functional characteristics of a serial data bus STANAG 3880 (Edition 2): Counter Air Operations (ATP-42(B)) STANAG 3910 High Speed Data Transmission Under STANAG 3838 or Fibre Optic Equivalent Control – 1 Mbit/sec MIL-STD-1553B data bus augmented by a 20 Mbit/s, Optical or Electrical, High Speed (HS) channel. Revised by prEN 3910, which remains provisional. Optical version implemented (as EFAbus) on the Eurofighter Typhoon (EF2000)) and electrical (as EN 3910) on Dassault Rafale. STANAG 4007 (Edition 2, 31 May 1996): Electrical Connectors Between Prime Movers, Trailers And Towed Artillery STANAG 4019 Emergency Towing Facilities STANAG 4074 2-pin 24V jump-start connectors. Heavy duty plugs and sockets for jump-starting military vehicles with up to 1000A STANAG 4082 (Edition 2, 28 May 1969): Adoption of a Standard Artillery Computer Meteorological Message (METCM) STANAG 4090 9×19mm NATO adopted as standard small arms ammunition (9 mm) STANAG 4101 (Edition 2, 21 Feb 2000): Towing Attachments STANAG 4107 (Edition 7, August 2006): Mutual Acceptance of Government Quality Assurance and Usage of the Allied Quality Assurance Publications STANAG 4140 (Edition 2, 28 May 2001): Adoption of a Standard Target Acquisition Meteorological Message (METTA) STANAG 4119 (Edition 2, 5 February 2007): Adoption of a Standard Cannon Artillery Firing Table Format) STANAG 4172 The adoption of the 5.56×45mm NATO round as the standard chambering of all NATO service rifles in 1980. STANAG 4173 25x137mm autocannon ammunition STANAG 4184 (Edition 3, 27 November 1998): Microwave Landing System (MLS) STANAG 4203 Technical standards for single channel HF radio equipment STANAG 4222 (Edition 1, 14 March 1990): Standard Specification for Digital Representation of Shipboard Data Parameters STANAG 4232 Digital Interoperability Between SHF Tactical Satellite Communications Terminals STANAG 4233 Digital interoperability between EHF Tactical Satellite Communications Terminals STANAG 4285 Characteristics of 1200/2400/3600 bit/s single tone MODEMs for HF radio links STANAG 4355 (Edition 3, 17 April 2009): Modified Point Mass Trajectory Model STANAG 4370 Environmental Testing STANAG 4381 (Edition 1, 8 July 1994): Blackout Lighting Systems For Tactical Land Vehicles STANAG 4383 12.7×99mm NATO adopted as standard small arms ammunition (12.7mm) STANAG 4385 120 mm ammunition for smoothbore tank guns STANAG 4395 (Edition 2, 10 May 2001): Connector For Tactical Land Wheeled Vehicles With Anti Lock Braking Systems STANAG 4406 The adoption of a military message standard based around the civil X.400 standard STANAG 4420 Display Symbology and Colors for NATO Maritime Units STANAG 4425 A way to determine interchangeability of indirect fire ammunition; lists various artillery calibers, including 105 mm and 155 mm STANAG 4458 105 mm ammunition for rifled tank guns STANAG 4509 Technical performance specification providing for the interchangeability of 5.7×28mm ammunition STANAG 4516 mentioned in conjunction with 35 mm x 228 KDG ammunition STANAG 4525 Explosives, Physical/Mechanical Properties, Thermomechanical Analysis for Determining the Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion (TMA) STANAG 4529 Characteristics of single tone MODEMs for HF radio links with 1240 Hz bandwidth STANAG 4545 (Edition 2, 6 May 2013): NATO Secondary Imagery Format (NSIF) STANAG 4559 (Edition 3, Amendment 2, 3 August 2016): NATO Standard Intelligence Surveillance Reconnaissance Library Interface (NSILI) STANAG 4564 (Edition 1, 25 October 2007): Warship Electronic Chart Display and Information Systems (WECDIS) STANAG 4565 (Edition 1, 26 September 2003): Airborne Multi-Mode Receiver for Precision Approach and Landing STANAG 4569 Protection levels for Occupants of Logistic and Light Armoured Vehicles STANAG 4575 (Edition 4, 2 December 2014): NATO Advanced Data Storage Interface (NADSI) STANAG 4579 The adoption of standard Identification of Friend or Foe hardware that can be recognized and processed between all NATO nations STANAG 4586 Standard Interface of the Unmanned Control System (UCS) for NATO UAV interoperability STANAG 4603 Modelling and Simulation Architecture Standards for Technical Interoperability: High Level Architecture (HLA) STANAG 4606 (Edition 4, 29 January 2021): Super High Frequency (SHF) MILitary SATellite COMmunications (MILSATCOM) EPM (Electronically Protected Measures) Waveform for Class B services STANAG 4607 (Edition 3, 14 September 2010): NATO Ground Moving Target Indicator Format (GMTIF) STANAG 4609 (Edition 4, 19 December 2016): NATO Digital Motion Imagery Standard STANAG 4624 30x173mm autocannon ammunition STANAG 4626: Modular and Open Avionics Architectures – Part I – Architecture STANAG 4628 (Edition 1, 16 March 2011): Controller Area Network (Can) Protocols For Military Applications STANAG 4676:(Edition 1, 20 May 2014): NATO Intelligence Surveillance Reconnaissance Tracking Standard (NITS) STANAG 4694: NATO Accessory Rail STANAG 4704: NATO requirements for calibration support of test & measurement equipment STANAG 4748: JANUS, used for underwater acoustic communication STANAG 4754: NATO Generic Vehicle Architecture (NGVA) for Land Systems STANAG 4774: Confidentiality Label Syntax STANAG 4778: Metadata Binding Mechanism STANAG 5066: The adoption of a Profile for HF Data Communications, supporting Selective Repeat ARQ error control, HF E-Mail and IP-over-HF operation STANAG 5516: Link 16 – ECM Resistant Tactical Data Exchange, a Tactical Data Link (TDL) protocol STANAG 5518: Joint Range Extension Applications Protocol (JREAP), a Tactical Data Link (TDL) protocol STANAG 5524: NATO Interoperability Standards and Profiles, a catalogue of relevant information and communication technology standards STANAG 5602: Standard Interface for Military Platform Link Evaluation (SIMPLE), a Tactical Data Link (TDL) protocol STANAG 6001 (Edition 4, 12 October 2010) Language Proficiency Levels STANAG 6004 Meaconing, Intrusion, Jamming, and Interference Report STANAG 6010 EW in the Land Battle (ATP-51) STANAG 6022 (Edition 2, 22 March 2010): Adoption of a Standard Gridded Data Meteorological Message (METGM) STANAG 7023 (Edition 4, Amendment 1, 16 June 2016): NATO Primary Image Format (NPIF) STANAG 7024 (Edition 2, 2 August 2001): Imagery Air Reconnaissance Tape Recorder Standard STANAG 7074 Digital Geographic Exchange Standard (DIGEST), STANAG 7141 (Edition 4, 20 December 2006): Joint NATO Doctrine for environmental protection during NATO-led military activities STANAG 7170 (Edition 2, 5 November 2010): Additional Military Layers (AML) – Digital geospatial data products Draft STANAG STANAG 4179 A type of detachable firearm magazine proposed for standardization based on the USGI M16 rifle magazine. STANAG 4181 A type of stripper clip and guide tool use to load magazines proposed for standardization based on the USGI M16 rifle stripper clips and guide tools. References ^ "NATO - STANAG 2085 - NATO Combined Military Police \| Engineering360". ^ a b c d "NATO Small Arms Ammunition Interchangeability via Direct Evidence Testing Archived 2013-07-19 at the Wayback Machine", US Army RDECOM, 25 May 2011 ^ US Army Field Manual 4-02.21. Division and Brigade Surgeon's Handbook. Appendix A, Guide for Geneva Conventions Compliance. ^ "NATO STANAG 3797 MINIMUM QUALIFICATIONS FOR FORWARD AIR CONTROLLERS & LASER OPERATORS IN SUPPORT OF FORWARD AIR CONTROLLERS – IHS, Inc". 2009-08-29. Archived from the original on 2009-08-29. Retrieved 2017-12-16.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) ^ AECMA Working Group C2-GT9, High Speed Data Transmission Under STANAG 3838 or Fibre Optic Equivalent Control, prEN3910-001, Ed P1, ASD-STAN, 1/31/1996. ^ "STANAG 4172 (Edition 2) 5.56 mm Ammunition (Linked or Otherwise) 5 May 1993" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 January 2019. Retrieved 25 January 2019. ^ STANAG 4172 (Edition 2) 5.56 mm AMMUNITION (LINKED OR OTHERWISE) 5 May 1993 ^ "external 4406 reference". Archived from the original on 2010-11-26. Retrieved 2013-01-22. ^ "NATO – STANAG 4509 TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION PROVIDING FOR THE INTERCHANGEABILITY OF 5.7 mm x 28 AMMUNITION". globalspec.com. 4 December 2020. ^ "Rheinmetall's family of medium calibre cannons". Rheinmetall. Retrieved 5 August 2022. ^ CRAIG International Ballistics – NIJ EN STANAG Ballistic Standards ^ a b "NATO Infantry Weapons Standardization Archived 2012-12-01 at the Wayback Machine", NDIA Conference 2008 External links U.S. Department of Defense quick search for military standards IEEE listing of NATO standards, of NPFC standards NATO STANAG Library (in English) (old website 1998) NATO STANAG search engine (old site 2006) NATO HQ STANAGs UK Defence Standardization vteNorth Atlantic Treaty OrganizationSymbols Animus in consulendo liber Flag of NATO "The NATO Hymn" NATO Day NATO Medal NATO Star History North Atlantic Treaty Summits Operations List of exercises Enlargement potential withdrawal Opposition to NATO .nato Internet domain Structure NATO headquarters Council International Staff International Military Staff Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe Air Command Land Command Maritime Command JFC Brunssum JFC Naples JFC Norfolk Joint Support and Enabling Command STRIKFORNATO SHAPE International Band Allied Command Transformation Parliamentary Assembly Standardization agreement People Secretary General Chair of the Military Committee Supreme Allied Commander Europe Supreme Allied Commander Transformation Members Albania Belgium Bulgaria Canada Croatia Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Turkey United Kingdom United States Multilateral relations Atlantic Treaty Association Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council Mediterranean Dialogue Individual Partnership Action Plan Istanbul Cooperation Initiative Major non-NATO ally NATO global partners Open door policy Partnership for Peace Relationship with the European Union Relationship with Russia eastward NATO expansion issues See also Baghdad Pact (METO/CENTO) Balkan Pact Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) Suwałki Gap	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"STANAG magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_magazine"},{"link_name":"NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO"},{"link_name":"redundantly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redundant_acronym"},{"link_name":"military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military"},{"link_name":"logistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistics"},{"link_name":"NATO Interoperability Standards and Profiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO_Interoperability_Standards_and_Profiles"},{"link_name":"information and communication technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_and_communications_technology"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language"},{"link_name":"NATO Standardization Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO_Standardization_Office"},{"link_name":"Brussels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Standardization_agreement&action=edit"},{"link_name":"calibres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliber"},{"link_name":"ammunition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammunition"}],"text":"This article is about the list of NATO agreements. For the specific agreement regarding gun magazines, see STANAG magazine.In NATO, a standardization agreement (STANAG, redundantly: STANAG agreement) defines processes, procedures, terms, and conditions for common military or technical procedures or equipment between the member countries of the alliance. Each NATO state ratifies a STANAG and implements it within its own military. The purpose is to provide common operational and administrative procedures and logistics, so one member nation's military may use the stores and support of another member's military.\nSTANAGs also form the basis for technical interoperability between a wide variety of communication and information systems (CIS) essential for NATO and Allied operations. The Allied Data Publication 34 (ADatP-34) NATO Interoperability Standards and Profiles which is covered by STANAG 5524, maintains a catalogue of relevant information and communication technology standards.STANAGs are published in English and French, the two official languages of NATO, by the NATO Standardization Office in Brussels.Among the hundreds of standardization agreements (the total as of April 2007[update] was just short of 1,300) are those for calibres of small arms ammunition, map markings, communications procedures, and classification of bridges.","title":"Standardization agreement"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"STANAG 1059","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_1059"},{"link_name":"National Distinguishing Letters for Use by NATO Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NATO_country_codes"},{"link_name":"STANAG 1236","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_1236"},{"link_name":"STANAG 1472","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_1472"},{"link_name":"NATO Military Symbols for Land Based Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO_Military_Symbols_for_Land_Based_Systems"},{"link_name":"Military Police","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Police"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sa2085-1"},{"link_name":"Ranks and insignia of NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranks_and_insignia_of_NATO"},{"link_name":"7.62×51mm NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7.62%C3%9751mm_NATO"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RDECOM-2"},{"link_name":"Picatinny rail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picatinny_rail"},{"link_name":"4694","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO_Accessory_Rail"},{"link_name":"STANAG 2437","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_2437"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USA_FM4-02-21-3"},{"link_name":"Classes of Supply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classes_of_supply"},{"link_name":"Joint Range Extension Applications Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JREAP"},{"link_name":"Tactical Data Link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactical_Data_Link"},{"link_name":"STANAG 3350","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_3350"},{"link_name":"20x102mm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20_mm_caliber"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"27×145mm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=27%C3%97145mm&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"MIL-STD-1553","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIL-STD-1553"},{"link_name":"STANAG 3910","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_3910"},{"link_name":"MIL-STD-1553B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIL-STD-1553B"},{"link_name":"prEN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Committee_for_Standardization"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prEN_3910_1996-5"},{"link_name":"Eurofighter Typhoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurofighter_Typhoon"},{"link_name":"Dassault Rafale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dassault_Rafale"},{"link_name":"STANAG 4007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_4007"},{"link_name":"STANAG 4082","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_4082"},{"link_name":"9×19mm NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9%C3%9719mm_NATO"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RDECOM-2"},{"link_name":"STANAG 4140","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_4140"},{"link_name":"STANAG 4119","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_4119"},{"link_name":"5.56×45mm NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5.56%C3%9745mm_NATO"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RDECOM-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"25x137mm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/25mm_caliber"},{"link_name":"STANAG 4355","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_4355"},{"link_name":"12.7×99mm NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12.7%C3%9799mm_NATO"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RDECOM-2"},{"link_name":"120 mm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/120%C3%97570mm_NATO"},{"link_name":"X.400","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.400"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"artillery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artillery"},{"link_name":"105 mm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/105_mm"},{"link_name":"155 mm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/155_mm"},{"link_name":"105 mm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/105%C3%97617mmR"},{"link_name":"5.7×28mm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5.7%C3%9728mm"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-st4516-10"},{"link_name":"WECDIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WECDIS"},{"link_name":"STANAG 4569","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_4569"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Identification of Friend or Foe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identification_Friend_or_Foe"},{"link_name":"STANAG 4586","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_4586"},{"link_name":"UAV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle"},{"link_name":"High Level Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Level_Architecture"},{"link_name":"STANAG 4607","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_4607"},{"link_name":"Moving Target Indicator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_Target_Indication"},{"link_name":"30x173mm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30_mm_caliber"},{"link_name":"STANAG 4626","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_4626"},{"link_name":"STANAG 4694","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO_Accessory_Rail"},{"link_name":"underwater acoustic communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underwater_acoustic_communication"},{"link_name":"NATO Generic Vehicle Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NATO_Generic_Vehicle_Architecture&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"STANAG 5066","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_5066"},{"link_name":"Selective Repeat ARQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_Repeat_ARQ"},{"link_name":"STANAG 5516","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link_16"},{"link_name":"Link 16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link_16"},{"link_name":"Tactical Data Link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactical_Data_Link"},{"link_name":"STANAG 5518","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JREAP"},{"link_name":"Tactical Data Link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactical_Data_Link"},{"link_name":"STANAG 5524","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO_Interoperability_Standards_and_Profiles"},{"link_name":"STANAG 5602","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_5602"},{"link_name":"Tactical Data Link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactical_Data_Link"},{"link_name":"STANAG 6022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_6022"},{"link_name":"STANAG 7074","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_7074"},{"link_name":"Digital Geographic Exchange Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Geographic_Exchange_Standard"}],"text":"STANAG 1008 (Edition 9, 24 August 2004): Characteristics of Shipboard Electrical Power Systems in Warships of the North Atlantic Treaty Navies\nSTANAG 1022 (Edition 6): Combat Charts, Amphibious Charts and Combat/Landing Charts\nSTANAG 1034 (Edition 17, 24 May 2005): Allied Naval Gunfire Support (ATP-4(E))\nSTANAG 1040 (Edition 23, 16 December 2004): Naval Cooperation and Guidance for Shipping (NCAGS) (ATP-2(B) Vol. 1)\nSTANAG 1041 (Edition 16, 29 March 2001): Anti-Submarine Evasive Steering (ATP-3(B))\nSTANAG 1052 (Edition 32, 12 July 2006): Allied Submarine and Anti-Submarine Exercise Manual (AXP-01(D))\nSTANAG 1059 (Edition 8, 19 February 2004): National Distinguishing Letters for Use by NATO Armed Forces\nSTANAG 1063 (Edition 18): Allied Naval Communications Exercises (AXP-3(C) MXP-3(C))\nSTANAG 1236 (Edition 3, 2 November 2010): Glide Slope Indicators for Helicopter Operations from NATO Ships\nSTANAG 1471 HOSTAC Ship Helicopter Operating Limits (SHOL)\nSTANAG 1472 (Edition 1, 7 September 2011): NVD Compatible Flight Deck Status Displays on Single Ships\nSTANAG 2003 (Edition 6): Patrol Reports\nSTANAG 2014 (Edition 7): Operations Plans, Warning Orders, and Administrative/Logistics Orders\nSTANAG 2019 (Edition 6, 24 May 2011): NATO Joint Military Symbology – NATO Military Symbols for Land Based Systems (APP-6)\nSTANAG 2021 Military Load Classification of Bridges, Rafts and Vehicles\nSTANAG 2022 Intelligence Reports\nSTANAG 2033 Interrogation of Prisoners of War (PW)\nSTANAG 2041 (Edition 4): Operations Orders, Tables and Graphics for Road Movement\nSTANAG 2044 (Edition 5): Procedures for Dealing with Prisoners of War\nSTANAG 2083 Radiological Hazards\nSTANAG 2084 (Edition 5): Handling and Reporting of Captured Enemy Equipment and Documents\nSTANAG 2085 NATO Combined Military Police[1]\nSTANAG 2087 Medical Employment of Air Transport in the Forward Area\nSTANAG 2097 (Edition 6): Nomenclature and Classification of Equipment\nSTANAG 2116 – this STANAG covers, among other subjects, NATO official rank grade comparisons covering Ranks and insignia of NATO\nSTANAG 2138 (Edition 4, May 1996): Troop trial Principles and Procedures – Combat Clothing and Personal Equipment\nSTANAG 2143 (Edition 4): Explosive Ordnance Reconnaissance/Explosive Ordnance Disposal\nSTANAG 2149 (Edition 3): Intelligence Request\nSTANAG 2154 Regulations for Military Motor Vehicle Movement by Road\nSTANAG 2175 (Edition 3): Classification and Designation of Flat Wagons Suitable for Transporting Military Equipment\nSTANAG 2310 7.62×51mm NATO adopted in the 1953 as the sole standard infantry rifle cartridge (7.62x51mm) up until STANAG 4172 in 1980.[2]\nSTANAG 2324 The adoption of the US MIL-STD-1913 \"Picatinny rail\" as the NATO standard optical and electronic sight mount and standard accessory rail (canceled). See also 4694.\nSTANAG 2345 (Edition 3, 13 February 2003): Evaluation and control of personnel exposure to radio frequency fields – 3 kHz to 300 GHz\nSTANAG 2389 (Edition 1): Minimum Standards of Proficiency for Trained Explosive Ordnance Disposal Personnel\nSTANAG 2404 (Draft): Joint Anti-Armor Operations\nSTANAG 2509 Civil-military co-operation (CIMIC) doctrine\nSTANAG 2433 (published Jan 2005): The military intelligence intelligence data\nSTANAG 2437 Allied Joint Publication AJP-01: \"ALLIED JOINT DOCTRINE\"\nSTANAG 2525 Allied Joint Doctrine for Communications and Information Systems\nSTANAG 2604 (Edition 3, 14 Aug 1992): Braking Systems Between Tractors, Draw Bar Trailer And Semi-trailer Equipment Combinations For Military Use\nSTANAG 2805 Fording and Flotation Requirements for Combat and Support Ground Vehicles\nSTANAG 2832 (Edition 2): Restrictions for the Transport of Military Equipment by Rail on European Railways\nSTANAG 2834 (Edition 2): The Operation of the Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technical Information Center (EODTIC)\nSTANAG 2866 Medical Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Personnel\nSTANAG 2868 (Edition 4): Land Force Tactical Doctrine (ATP-35(A))\nSTANAG 2873 Medical Support Operations in an NBC Environment\nSTANAG 2889 (Edition 3): Marking of Hazardous Areas and Routes Through Them\nSTANAG 2895 Extreme Climatic Conditions and Derived Conditions for Use in Defining Design/Test Criteria for NATO Forces Materiel\nSTANAG 2920 The adoption of standards for ballistic protection levels and testing\nSTANAG 2931 Distinctive Markings and Camouflage of Medical Facilities and Evacuation Platforms[3]\nSTANAG 2937 Survival, Emergency, and Individual Combat Rations – nutritional values and packaging\nSTANAG 2961 Classes of Supply of NATO Land Forces\nSTANAG 2984 Graduated Levels of Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear Threats and Associated Protective Measures\nSTANAG 2999 (Edition 1): Use of Helicopters in Land Operations (ATP-49)\nSTANAG 3011: Joint Range Extension Applications Protocol (JREAP), a Tactical Data Link (TDL) protocol\nSTANAG 3117 Aircraft Marshalling Signals\nSTANAG 3150 Uniform System of Supply Classification\nSTANAG 3151 Uniform System of Item of Supply Identification\nSTANAG 3277 (Edition 6): Air Reconnaissance Request/Task Form\nSTANAG 3350: Analogue Video Standard for Aircraft System Applications\nSTANAG 3377: Air Reconnaissance Intelligence Report Forms\nSTANAG 3497 (Edition 1): Aeromedical Training of Aircrew in Aircrew NBC Equipment and Procedures\nSTANAG 3585 (Edition 6): 20x102mm autocannon ammunition\nSTANAG 3596 Air Reconnaissance Requesting and Target Reporting Guide\nSTANAG 3680 AAP-6 NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions\nSTANAG 3700 (Edition 4): NATO Tactical Air Doctrine (ATP-33(B))\nSTANAG 3736 (Edition 8): Offensive Air Support Operations (ATP-27(B))\nSTANAG 3797 (27 Apr 2009) Minimum Qualifications for Forward Air Controllers & Laser Operators in Support of Forward Air Controllers[4]\nSTANAG 3805 (Edition 4): Doctrine and Procedures for Airspace Control in Time of Crisis and War (ATP-40(A))\nSTANAG 3820 (Edition 3): 27×145mm autocannon ammunition\nSTANAG 3838: MIL-STD-1553, mechanical, electrical and functional characteristics of a serial data bus\nSTANAG 3880 (Edition 2): Counter Air Operations (ATP-42(B))\nSTANAG 3910 High Speed Data Transmission Under STANAG 3838 or Fibre Optic Equivalent Control – 1 Mbit/sec MIL-STD-1553B data bus augmented by a 20 Mbit/s, Optical or Electrical, High Speed (HS) channel. Revised by prEN 3910, which remains provisional.[5] Optical version implemented (as EFAbus) on the Eurofighter Typhoon (EF2000)) and electrical (as EN 3910) on Dassault Rafale.\nSTANAG 4007 (Edition 2, 31 May 1996): Electrical Connectors Between Prime Movers, Trailers And Towed Artillery\nSTANAG 4019 Emergency Towing Facilities\nSTANAG 4074 2-pin 24V jump-start connectors. Heavy duty plugs and sockets for jump-starting military vehicles with up to 1000A\nSTANAG 4082 (Edition 2, 28 May 1969): Adoption of a Standard Artillery Computer Meteorological Message (METCM)\nSTANAG 4090 9×19mm NATO adopted as standard small arms ammunition (9 mm)[2]\nSTANAG 4101 (Edition 2, 21 Feb 2000): Towing Attachments\nSTANAG 4107 (Edition 7, August 2006): Mutual Acceptance of Government Quality Assurance and Usage of the Allied Quality Assurance Publications\nSTANAG 4140 (Edition 2, 28 May 2001): Adoption of a Standard Target Acquisition Meteorological Message (METTA)\nSTANAG 4119 (Edition 2, 5 February 2007): Adoption of a Standard Cannon Artillery Firing Table Format)\nSTANAG 4172 The adoption of the 5.56×45mm NATO round as the standard chambering of all NATO service rifles in 1980.[2][6][7]\nSTANAG 4173 25x137mm autocannon ammunition\nSTANAG 4184 (Edition 3, 27 November 1998): Microwave Landing System (MLS)\nSTANAG 4203 Technical standards for single channel HF radio equipment\nSTANAG 4222 (Edition 1, 14 March 1990): Standard Specification for Digital Representation of Shipboard Data Parameters\nSTANAG 4232 Digital Interoperability Between SHF Tactical Satellite Communications Terminals\nSTANAG 4233 Digital interoperability between EHF Tactical Satellite Communications Terminals\nSTANAG 4285 Characteristics of 1200/2400/3600 bit/s single tone MODEMs for HF radio links\nSTANAG 4355 (Edition 3, 17 April 2009): Modified Point Mass Trajectory Model\nSTANAG 4370 Environmental Testing\nSTANAG 4381 (Edition 1, 8 July 1994): Blackout Lighting Systems For Tactical Land Vehicles\nSTANAG 4383 12.7×99mm NATO adopted as standard small arms ammunition (12.7mm)[2]\nSTANAG 4385 120 mm ammunition for smoothbore tank guns\nSTANAG 4395 (Edition 2, 10 May 2001): Connector For Tactical Land Wheeled Vehicles With Anti Lock Braking Systems\nSTANAG 4406 The adoption of a military message standard based around the civil X.400 standard[8]\nSTANAG 4420 Display Symbology and Colors for NATO Maritime Units\nSTANAG 4425 A way to determine interchangeability of indirect fire ammunition; lists various artillery calibers, including 105 mm and 155 mm\nSTANAG 4458 105 mm ammunition for rifled tank guns\nSTANAG 4509 Technical performance specification providing for the interchangeability of 5.7×28mm ammunition[9]\nSTANAG 4516 mentioned in conjunction with 35 mm x 228 KDG ammunition[10]\nSTANAG 4525 Explosives, Physical/Mechanical Properties, Thermomechanical Analysis for Determining the Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion (TMA)\nSTANAG 4529 Characteristics of single tone MODEMs for HF radio links with 1240 Hz bandwidth\nSTANAG 4545 (Edition 2, 6 May 2013): NATO Secondary Imagery Format (NSIF)\nSTANAG 4559 (Edition 3, Amendment 2, 3 August 2016): NATO Standard Intelligence Surveillance Reconnaissance Library Interface (NSILI)\nSTANAG 4564 (Edition 1, 25 October 2007): Warship Electronic Chart Display and Information Systems (WECDIS)\nSTANAG 4565 (Edition 1, 26 September 2003): Airborne Multi-Mode Receiver for Precision Approach and Landing\nSTANAG 4569 Protection levels for Occupants of Logistic and Light Armoured Vehicles[11]\nSTANAG 4575 (Edition 4, 2 December 2014): NATO Advanced Data Storage Interface (NADSI)\nSTANAG 4579 The adoption of standard Identification of Friend or Foe hardware that can be recognized and processed between all NATO nations\nSTANAG 4586 Standard Interface of the Unmanned Control System (UCS) for NATO UAV interoperability\nSTANAG 4603 Modelling and Simulation Architecture Standards for Technical Interoperability: High Level Architecture (HLA)\nSTANAG 4606 (Edition 4, 29 January 2021): Super High Frequency (SHF) MILitary SATellite COMmunications (MILSATCOM) EPM (Electronically Protected Measures) Waveform for Class B services\nSTANAG 4607 (Edition 3, 14 September 2010): NATO Ground Moving Target Indicator Format (GMTIF)\nSTANAG 4609 (Edition 4, 19 December 2016): NATO Digital Motion Imagery Standard\nSTANAG 4624 30x173mm autocannon ammunition\nSTANAG 4626: Modular and Open Avionics Architectures – Part I – Architecture\nSTANAG 4628 (Edition 1, 16 March 2011): Controller Area Network (Can) Protocols For Military Applications\nSTANAG 4676:(Edition 1, 20 May 2014): NATO Intelligence Surveillance Reconnaissance Tracking Standard (NITS)\nSTANAG 4694: NATO Accessory Rail\nSTANAG 4704: NATO requirements for calibration support of test & measurement equipment\nSTANAG 4748: JANUS, used for underwater acoustic communication\nSTANAG 4754: NATO Generic Vehicle Architecture (NGVA) for Land Systems\nSTANAG 4774: Confidentiality Label Syntax\nSTANAG 4778: Metadata Binding Mechanism\nSTANAG 5066: The adoption of a Profile for HF Data Communications, supporting Selective Repeat ARQ error control, HF E-Mail and IP-over-HF operation\nSTANAG 5516: Link 16 – ECM Resistant Tactical Data Exchange, a Tactical Data Link (TDL) protocol\nSTANAG 5518: Joint Range Extension Applications Protocol (JREAP), a Tactical Data Link (TDL) protocol\nSTANAG 5524: NATO Interoperability Standards and Profiles, a catalogue of relevant information and communication technology standards\nSTANAG 5602: Standard Interface for Military Platform Link Evaluation (SIMPLE), a Tactical Data Link (TDL) protocol\nSTANAG 6001 (Edition 4, 12 October 2010) Language Proficiency Levels\nSTANAG 6004 Meaconing, Intrusion, Jamming, and Interference Report\nSTANAG 6010 EW in the Land Battle (ATP-51)\nSTANAG 6022 (Edition 2, 22 March 2010): Adoption of a Standard Gridded Data Meteorological Message (METGM)\nSTANAG 7023 (Edition 4, Amendment 1, 16 June 2016): NATO Primary Image Format (NPIF)\nSTANAG 7024 (Edition 2, 2 August 2001): Imagery Air Reconnaissance Tape Recorder Standard\nSTANAG 7074 Digital Geographic Exchange Standard (DIGEST),\nSTANAG 7141 (Edition 4, 20 December 2006): Joint NATO Doctrine for environmental protection during NATO-led military activities\nSTANAG 7170 (Edition 2, 5 November 2010): Additional Military Layers (AML) – Digital geospatial data products","title":"Partial list"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"STANAG 4179","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_4179"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dtic.mil-12"},{"link_name":"STANAG 4181","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STANAG_magazine#Loading_tools"},{"link_name":"stripper clip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stripper_clip"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dtic.mil-12"}],"sub_title":"Draft STANAG","text":"STANAG 4179 A type of detachable firearm magazine proposed for standardization based on the USGI M16 rifle magazine.[12]\nSTANAG 4181 A type of stripper clip and guide tool use to load magazines proposed for standardization based on the USGI M16 rifle stripper clips and guide tools.[12]","title":"Partial list"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"NATO - STANAG 2085 - NATO Combined Military Police \| Engineering360\".","urls":[{"url":"https://standards.globalspec.com/std/267796/STANAG%202085","url_text":"\"NATO - STANAG 2085 - NATO Combined Military Police \| Engineering360\""}]},{"reference":"\"NATO STANAG 3797 MINIMUM QUALIFICATIONS FOR FORWARD AIR CONTROLLERS & LASER OPERATORS IN SUPPORT OF FORWARD AIR CONTROLLERS – IHS, Inc\". 2009-08-29. Archived from the original on 2009-08-29. Retrieved 2017-12-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090829190451/http://aero-defense.ihs.com/document/abstract/FJYQJBAAAAAAAAAA","url_text":"\"NATO STANAG 3797 MINIMUM QUALIFICATIONS FOR FORWARD AIR CONTROLLERS & LASER OPERATORS IN SUPPORT OF FORWARD AIR CONTROLLERS – IHS, Inc\""}]},{"reference":"\"STANAG 4172 (Edition 2) 5.56 mm Ammunition (Linked or Otherwise) 5 May 1993\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 January 2019. Retrieved 25 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190125183425/http://www.skytterlag2.no/filestore/Skytterlag/klepp-filarkiv/Div/556x45NATO.pdf","url_text":"\"STANAG 4172 (Edition 2) 5.56 mm Ammunition (Linked or Otherwise) 5 May 1993\""},{"url":"http://www.skytterlag2.no/filestore/Skytterlag/klepp-filarkiv/Div/556x45NATO.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"external 4406 reference\". Archived from the original on 2010-11-26. Retrieved 2013-01-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101126124326/http://nexor.com/standards/stanag","url_text":"\"external 4406 reference\""},{"url":"http://www.nexor.com/standards/stanag","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"NATO – STANAG 4509 TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION PROVIDING FOR THE INTERCHANGEABILITY OF 5.7 mm x 28 AMMUNITION\". globalspec.com. 4 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://standards.globalspec.com/std/14352364/stanag-4509","url_text":"\"NATO – STANAG 4509 TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION PROVIDING FOR THE INTERCHANGEABILITY OF 5.7 mm x 28 AMMUNITION\""}]},{"reference":"\"Rheinmetall's family of medium calibre cannons\". Rheinmetall. Retrieved 5 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rheinmetall-defence.com/en/rheinmetall_defence/systems_and_products/weapons_and_ammunition/direct_fire/medium_calibre/index.php","url_text":"\"Rheinmetall's family of medium calibre cannons\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Standardization_agreement&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://standards.globalspec.com/std/267796/STANAG%202085","external_links_name":"\"NATO - STANAG 2085 - NATO Combined Military Police \| Engineering360\""},{"Link":"http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2011smallarms/WednesdayInter12315Pellegrino.pdf","external_links_name":"NATO Small Arms Ammunition Interchangeability via Direct Evidence Testing"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130719202427/http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2011smallarms/WednesdayInter12315Pellegrino.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090829190451/http://aero-defense.ihs.com/document/abstract/FJYQJBAAAAAAAAAA","external_links_name":"\"NATO STANAG 3797 MINIMUM QUALIFICATIONS FOR FORWARD AIR CONTROLLERS & LASER OPERATORS IN SUPPORT OF FORWARD AIR CONTROLLERS – IHS, Inc\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190125183425/http://www.skytterlag2.no/filestore/Skytterlag/klepp-filarkiv/Div/556x45NATO.pdf","external_links_name":"\"STANAG 4172 (Edition 2) 5.56 mm Ammunition (Linked or Otherwise) 5 May 1993\""},{"Link":"http://www.skytterlag2.no/filestore/Skytterlag/klepp-filarkiv/Div/556x45NATO.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://s3-mittlag-prod.cmd.as/production/uploads/attachment/file/16294/556x45NATO.pdf","external_links_name":"STANAG 4172 (Edition 2) 5.56 mm AMMUNITION (LINKED OR OTHERWISE) 5 May 1993"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101126124326/http://nexor.com/standards/stanag","external_links_name":"\"external 4406 reference\""},{"Link":"http://www.nexor.com/standards/stanag","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://standards.globalspec.com/std/14352364/stanag-4509","external_links_name":"\"NATO – STANAG 4509 TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION PROVIDING FOR THE INTERCHANGEABILITY OF 5.7 mm x 28 AMMUNITION\""},{"Link":"https://www.rheinmetall-defence.com/en/rheinmetall_defence/systems_and_products/weapons_and_ammunition/direct_fire/medium_calibre/index.php","external_links_name":"\"Rheinmetall's family of medium calibre cannons\""},{"Link":"http://www.ballistics.com.au/technical/ballisticandstabstandards.php#stanag","external_links_name":"CRAIG International Ballistics – NIJ EN STANAG Ballistic Standards"},{"Link":"http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2008Intl/Arvidsson.pdf","external_links_name":"NATO Infantry Weapons Standardization"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121201183951/http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2008Intl/Arvidsson.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://quicksearch.dla.mil/","external_links_name":"U.S. Department of Defense quick search for military standards"},{"Link":"https://standards.globalspec.com/stds/sdo/NATO","external_links_name":"IEEE listing of NATO standards"},{"Link":"https://standards.globalspec.com/stds/sdo/NPFC","external_links_name":"of NPFC standards"},{"Link":"https://nso.nato.int/nso/nsdd/listpromulg.html","external_links_name":"NATO STANAG Library (in English)"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/19980130062149/http://www.nato.int/docu/standard.htm","external_links_name":"old website 1998"},{"Link":"https://nso.nato.int/nso/nsdd/_CommonList.html","external_links_name":"NATO STANAG search engine"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060306082444/http://otan.w3sites.net/Serveur2.html","external_links_name":"old site 2006"},{"Link":"https://nhqc3s.hq.nato.int/Standards.aspx","external_links_name":"NATO HQ STANAGs"},{"Link":"https://www.gov.uk/guidance/uk-defence-standardization","external_links_name":"UK Defence Standardization"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania	Kingdom of Romania	["1 History","1.1 Unification and monarchy","1.2 Old Kingdom (1881–1918)","1.3 World War I","1.4 Greater Romania","1.4.1 Union with Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania","1.4.2 The interbellum years","1.5 World War II","1.6 Post-war Kingdom (1945–1947)","2 Economy","2.1 Pre-Kingdom Era to World War I","2.2 Agriculture","2.3 Expansion and growth","2.4 Industrial development","2.5 Armament industry","3 Demographics","3.1 Cities","3.2 Education","4 Administrative division","4.1 Maps","5 Timeline (1859–1940)","6 Monarchs","6.1 Kings of Romania (1881–1947)","6.2 Queens-consort of Romania","6.3 Timeline","7 Royal Standards","8 See also","9 Notes","10 References","11 Further reading","12 External links"]	Coordinates: 44°25′N 26°06′E / 44.417°N 26.100°E / 44.417; 26.100Kingdom in Europe between 1881 and 1947 Kingdom of RomaniaRegatul României (Romanian)1881–1947 Flag Coat of arms Motto: Nihil Sine Deo("Nothing without God")Anthem: Marș triumfal("Triumphant March")(1881–1884) Trăiască Regele("Long live the King")(1884–1948) The Kingdom of Romania in 1939The Kingdom of Romania in 1942Capital Bucharest(1881–1916, 1918–1947) Iași (1916–1918) Largest cityBucharest (1881–1916, 1918–1947) Iași (1916–1918)Official languagesRomanianCommon languages List Hungarian, German, Yiddish, Ukrainian, Russian, Bulgarian, Romani, Turkish, Gagauz and others Religion Romanian Orthodox (State Religion)Demonym(s)RomanianGovernmentUnitary parliamentaryconstitutional monarchy under a Fascist dictatorship(1937–1938) Royal dictatorship(1938–1940) Legionarist totalitarian diarchy (1940–1941) Fascist military dictatorship(1941–1944) People's democracy(1945–1947) King • 1881–1914 Carol I• 1914–1927 Ferdinand I• 1927–1930 (1st reign) Michael I• 1930–1940 Carol II• 1940–1947 (2nd reign) Michael I Prime Minister • 1881 (first) Ion Brătianu• 1940–1944 Ion Antonescu• 1945–1947 (last) Petru Groza LegislatureParliament(1881–1937; 1939–1940)None (rule by decree)(1937–1939; 1940–1946)Assembly of Deputies(1946–1947)• Upper houseSenate(1881–1937; 1939–1940)• Lower houseAssembly of Deputies(1881–1937; 1939–1940)Historical eraBelle ÉpoqueWorld War IInterwar periodWorld War II• Kingdom proclaimed 13 March 1881• Treaty of Bucharest 10 August 1913• Treaty of Trianon 4 June 1920• Union Constitution 29 March 1923• Absolute monarchy 20 February 1938• National Legionary State 14 September 1940• Iron Guard rebellion 21 January 1941• King Michael's Coup 23 August 1944• Soviet occupation 12 September 1944• Communist government 6 March 1945• Republic proclaimed 30 December 1947 Area 1915137,903 km2 (53,245 sq mi)1940295,049 km2 (113,919 sq mi)Population• 1915 7,900,000• 1940 20,058,378 GDP (nominal)1938 estimate• Total$2.834 billionCurrencyRomanian LeuISO 3166 codeRO Preceded by Succeeded by 1881:Principality of Romania 1913:Kingdom of Bulgaria 1918:Moldavian Democratic Republic Duchy of Bukovina Kingdom of Hungary 1947:Romanian People's Republic 1940/1944:Moldavian SSR Ukrainian SSR 1940:Kingdom of Bulgaria Today part ofRomaniaMoldovaUkraineBulgaria a. ^ Was formally declared Conducător (literally, "Leader") of the state on 6 September 1940, by a royal decree which consecrated a ceremonial role for the monarch. b. ^ Area and population according to Ioan Suciu, Istoria contemporana a României (1918–2005). c. ^ The indicator for the localities of Romania (1941). d. ^ 1938 GDP in lei amounting to 387.204 billion (20,487 lei per capita at an estimated population of 18.9 million) at the 1938 average exchange rate of 1 leu for $0.00732. The Kingdom of Romania (Romanian: Regatul României) was a constitutional monarchy that existed from 13 March (O.S.) / 25 March 1881 with the crowning of prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as King Carol I (thus beginning the Romanian royal family), until 1947 with the abdication of King Michael I and the Romanian parliament's proclamation of the Romanian People's Republic. From 1859 to 1877, Romania evolved from a personal union of two principalities: (Moldavia and Wallachia) called the Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia also known as "The Little Union" under a single prince to an autonomous principality with a Hohenzollern monarchy. The country gained its independence from the Ottoman Empire during the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War (known locally as the Romanian War of Independence), after which it was forced to cede the southern part of Bessarabia in exchange for Northern Dobruja. The kingdom's territory during the reign of King Carol I, between 13 (O.S.) / 25 March 1881 and 27 September (O.S.) / 10 October 1914 is sometimes referred to as the Romanian Old Kingdom, to distinguish it from "Greater Romania", which included the provinces that became part of the state after World War I (Bessarabia, Banat, Bukovina, and Transylvania). With the exception of the southern halves of Bukovina and Transylvania, these territories were ceded to neighboring countries in 1940, under the pressure of Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union. Following the abolishment of the 1923 constitution by King Carol II in 1938, the Kingdom of Romania became an absolute monarchy, only to become a military dictatorship under Ion Antonescu in 1940 after the forced abdication of King Carol II, with his successor, King Michael I being a figurehead with no effective political power. The country's name was changed to Legionary Romania. The disastrous World War II campaign on the side of the Axis powers led to King Michael's Coup against Ion Antonescu in 1944, as a result of which the Kingdom of Romania became a constitutional monarchy again and switched sides to the Allies, recovering Northern Transylvania. The influence of the neighbouring Soviet Union and the policies followed by Communist-dominated coalition governments ultimately led to the abolition of the monarchy, with Romania becoming a Soviet satellite state as the People's Republic of Romania on the last day of 1947. History Unification and monarchy Part of a series on the History of Romania Prehistory Cucuteni–Trypillia culture Hamangia culture Bronze Age in Romania Prehistory of Transylvania Antiquity Dacia Dacian Wars Roman Dacia Origin of the Romanians Middle Ages (Early) History of Transylvania Banat in the Middle Ages First Bulgarian Empire Second Bulgarian Empire Voivodeship of Maramureș Founding of Wallachia Founding of Moldavia Rumelia Eyalet Early Modern Times Silistra Eyalet Principality of Transylvania Eyalet of Temesvar Varat Eyalet Phanariotes Danubian Principalities National Awakening Transylvanian School Organic Statute 1848 Moldavian Revolution 1848 Wallachian Revolution Danube Vilayet United Principalities ASTRA War of Independence Kingdom of Romania World War I Union with Bessarabia Union with Bukovina Union with Transylvania Greater Romania Fascist Kingdom Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina World War II Socialist Republic of Romania Soviet occupation Revolution Post-Revolution Romania since 1989 By topic Economic history Romanian language Historical timeline Military history Christianity Islam Judaism By historical region Banat Crișana Bukovina Dobruja Maramureș Moldavia Muntenia Oltenia Transylvania Wallachia Romania portalvte See also: Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia and Romanian War of Independence The 1859 ascendancy of Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince of both Moldavia and Wallachia under the nominal suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire united an identifiably Romanian nation under a single ruler. On 24 January (O.S.) / 5 February 1862, the two principalities were formally united to form the Principality of Romania, with Bucharest as its capital. On 11 (O.S.) / 23 February 1866 a so-called "monstrous coalition", composed of Conservatives and radical Liberals, forced Cuza to abdicate. The German prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was appointed as Prince of Romania, in a move to assure German backing to unity and future independence. He immediately adopted the Romanian spelling of his name, Carol, and his cognatic descendants would rule Romania until the overthrow of the monarchy in 1947. Following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Treaty of Berlin, 1878 and acquired Dobruja, although it was forced to surrender southern Bessarabia (Budjak) to Russia. On 15 March 1881, as an assertion of full sovereignty, the Romanian parliament raised the country to the status of a kingdom, and Carol was crowned king on 10 May. Proclamation Act of the Kingdom of Romania The new state, squeezed between the Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and Russian Empires, with Slavic populations on its southwestern, southern, and northeastern borders, the Black Sea due east, and Hungarian neighbours on its western and northwestern borders, looked to the West, particularly France, for its cultural, educational, and administrative models. Abstaining from the Initial Balkan War against the Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Romania entered the Second Balkan War in June 1913 against the Tsardom of Bulgaria. 330,000 Romanian troops moved across the Danube and into Bulgaria. One army occupied Southern Dobruja and another moved into northern Bulgaria to threaten Sofia, helping to bring an end to the war. Romania thus acquired the ethnically mixed territory of Southern Dobruja, which it had desired for years. In 1916 Romania entered World War I on the Entente side. Romania engaged in a conflict against Bulgaria but as a result Bulgarian forces, after a series of successful battles, regained Dobruja, which had been previously ceded from Bulgaria by the treaty of Bucharest and the Berlin congress. Although the Romanian forces did not fare well militarily, by the end of the war the Austrian and Russian empires were gone; various assemblies proclaimed as representative bodies in Transylvania, Bessarabia and Bukovina decided on union with Romania. In 1919 by the Treaty of Saint-Germain and in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon most of the territories claimed were assigned to Romania. Old Kingdom (1881–1918) Main articles: Romanian Old Kingdom and Romania during World War I The Romanian Old Kingdom (Romanian: Vechiul Regat or just Regat; German: Regat or Altreich) is a colloquial term referring to the territory covered by the first independent Romanian nation state, which was composed of the Danubian Principalities – Wallachia and Moldavia. It was achieved when, under the auspices of the Treaty of Paris (1856), the ad hoc Divans of both countries – which were under Imperial Ottoman suzerainty at the time – voted for Alexander Ioan Cuza as their prince, thus achieving a de facto unification. The region itself is defined by the result of that political act, followed by the inclusion of Northern Dobruja in 1878, the proclamation of the Kingdom of Romania in 1881, and the annexation of Southern Dobruja in 1913. 1901 German map of Romania The term came into use after World War I, when the Old Kingdom was opposed to Greater Romania, which included Transylvania, Banat, Bessarabia, and Bukovina. Nowadays, the term is mainly of historical relevance, and is otherwise used as a common term for all regions in Romania included in both the Old Kingdom and present-day borders (namely: Wallachia, Moldavia, and Northern Dobruja). World War I Main article: Romania in World War I Romania delayed in entering World War I, but ultimately declared war on the Central Powers in 1916. The Romanian military campaign ended in stalemate when the Central Powers quickly crushed the country's offensive into Transylvania and occupied Wallachia and Dobruja, including Bucharest and the strategically important oil fields, by the end of 1916. In 1917, despite fierce Romanian resistance, especially at the Battle of Mărășești, due to Russia's withdrawal from the war following the October Revolution, Romania, being almost completely surrounded by the Central Powers, was forced to also drop from the war, signing the Armistice of Focșani and next year, in May 1918, the Treaty of Bucharest. But after the successful offensive on the Thessaloniki front which put Bulgaria out of the war, Romania's government quickly reasserted control and put an army back into the field on 10 November 1918, a day before the war ended in Western Europe. Following the proclamation of the union of Transylvania with the Kingdom of Romania on 1 December 1918 by the representatives of Transylvanian Romanians gathered at Alba Iulia, Transylvania was soon united with the Kingdom, as was Bessarabia earlier in 1918, since the power vacuum in Russia caused by the civil war there allowed the Sfatul Țării, or National Council, to proclaim the union of Bessarabia with Romania. War with the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919 resulted in the occupation of Budapest by Romanian troops and the end of Béla Kun's Bolshevik regime. Greater Romania Union with Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania Main articles: Union of Transylvania with Romania, Union of Bessarabia with Romania, and Union of Bukovina with Romania See also: Greater Romania At the Paris Peace Conference, Romania received the territories of Transylvania, part of Banat and other territories from Hungary, as well as Bessarabia (Eastern Moldavia between Prut and Dniester rivers) and Bukovina. In the Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favor of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and in 1920 some of the Western powers recognized Romanian rule over Bessarabia by the Treaty of Paris. Thus, Romania in 1920 was more than twice the size it had been in 1914. The last territorial change during this period came in 1923, when a few border settlements were exchanged between Romania and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The most notable Romanian acquisition was the town of Jimbolia, while the most notable Yugoslav acquisition was the town of Jaša Tomić. Romania made no further territorial claims; nonetheless the kingdom's expansion aroused enmity from several of its neighbors, including Bulgaria, the Soviet Union, and especially Hungary. Greater Romania now encompassed a significant minority population, especially of Hungarians, and faced the difficulty of assimilation. Transylvania had significant Hungarian and German population who were accustomed to being the power structure; with a historically contemptuous attitude towards Romanians, they now feared reprisals. Both groups were effectively excluded from politics as the postwar regime passed an edict stating that all personnel employed by the state had to speak Romanian. The new state was also a highly centralized one, so it was unlikely that the Hungarian or German minorities would exercise political influence without personal connections in the government in Bucharest. Despite these policies, the Romanian government permitted both Germans and Hungarians the freedom to have separate schools, publications and judicial hearings in their respective languages. These rights were not extended to other minorities, Jews in particular. Ethnic map of Romanians within the Kingdom of Hungary in 1890 The interbellum years The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered in English: "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time. Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi)). At the 1930 census, there were over 18 million inhabitants in Romania. The resulting "Greater Romania" did not survive World War II. Until 1938, Romania's governments maintained the form, if not always the substance, of a liberal constitutional monarchy. The National Liberal Party, dominant in the years immediately after World War I, became increasingly clientelist and nationalist, and in 1927 was supplanted in power by the National Peasants' Party. Between 1930 and 1940 there were over 25 separate governments; on several occasions in the last few years before World War II, the rivalry between the fascist Iron Guard and other political groupings approached the level of a civil war. Upon the death of King Ferdinand in 1927, his son, Prince Carol, was prevented from succeeding him because of previous marital scandals that had resulted in his renunciation of rights to the throne. After living three years in exile, with his brother Nicolae serving as regent and his young son Michael as king, Carol changed his mind and with the support of the ruling National Peasants' Party he returned and proclaimed himself king. Iuliu Maniu, leader of the National Peasants' Party, engineered Carol's return on the basis of a promise that he would forsake his mistress Magda Lupescu, and Lupescu herself had agreed to the arrangement. However, it became clear upon Carol's first re-encounter with his former wife, Elena, that he had no interest in a reconciliation with her, and Carol soon arranged for Magda Lupescu's return to his side. Her unpopularity was a millstone around Carol's neck for the rest of his reign, particularly because she was widely viewed as his closest advisor and confidante. Maniu and his National Peasant Party shared the same general political aims as the Iron Guard: both fought against the corruption and dictatorial policies of King Carol II and the National Liberal Party. The worldwide Great Depression that started in 1929 and was also present in Romania destabilised the country. The early 1930s were marked by social unrest, high unemployment, and strikes. In several instances, the Romanian government violently repressed strikes and riots, notably the 1929 miners' strike in Valea Jiului and the strike in the Grivița railroad workshops. In the mid-1930s, the Romanian economy recovered and the industry grew significantly, although about 80% of Romanians were still employed in agriculture. French economic and political influence was predominant in the early 1920s but then Germany became more dominant, especially in the 1930s. Romanian pavilion at EXPO Paris 1937 As the 1930s progressed, Romania's already shaky democracy slowly deteriorated toward fascist dictatorship. The constitution of 1923 gave the king free rein to dissolve parliament and call elections at will; as a result, Romania experienced over 25 governments in a single decade. Increasingly, these governments were dominated by a number of anti-Semitic, ultra-nationalist, and mostly at least quasi-fascist parties. The National Liberal Party steadily became more nationalistic than liberal, but nonetheless lost its dominance over Romanian politics. It was eclipsed by parties like the (relatively moderate) National Peasants' Party and its more radical Romanian Front offshoot, the National-Christian Defense League (LANC) and the Iron Guard. In 1935, LANC merged with the National Agrarian Party to form the National Christian Party (NCP). The quasi-mystical fascist Iron Guard was an earlier LANC offshoot that, even more than these other parties, exploited nationalist feelings, fear of communism, and resentment of alleged foreign and Jewish domination of the economy. Already the Iron Guard had embraced the politics of assassination, and various governments had reacted more or less in kind. On December 10, 1933, Liberal prime minister Ion Duca "dissolved" the Iron Guard, arresting thousands; consequently, 19 days later he was assassinated by Iron Guard legionnaires. Throughout the 1930s, these nationalist parties had a mutually distrustful relationship with King Carol II. Nonetheless, in December 1937, the king appointed National Christian Party leader, the poet Octavian Goga, as prime minister of Romania's first Fascist government. Around this time, Carol met with Adolf Hitler, who expressed his wish to see a Romanian government headed by the pro-Nazi Iron Guard. Instead, on 10 February 1938 King Carol II used the occasion of a public insult by Goga toward Lupescu as a reason to dismiss the government and institute a short-lived royal dictatorship, sanctioned 17 days later by a new constitution under which the king named personally not only the prime minister but all the ministers. In April 1938, King Carol had Iron Guard leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu (aka "The Captain") arrested and imprisoned. On the night of 29–30 November 1938, Codreanu and several other legionnaires were killed while purportedly attempting to escape from prison. It is generally agreed that there was no such escape attempt, but that they were murdered in retaliation for a series of assassinations by Iron Guard commandos. The royal dictatorship was brief. On 7 March 1939, a new government was formed with Armand Călinescu as prime minister; on 21 September 1939, three weeks after the start of World War II, Călinescu, in turn, was also assassinated by legionnaires avenging Codreanu's murder. In 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which stipulated, among other things, the Soviet "interest" in Bessarabia. After the 1940 territorial losses and growing increasingly unpopular, Carol was compelled to abdicate and name general Ion Antonescu as the new Prime-Minister with full powers in ruling the state by royal decree. World War II Main article: Romania in World War II See also: Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, Second Vienna Award, and Treaty of Craiova Post-war Kingdom (1945–1947) See also: Soviet occupation of Romania and Michael I of Romania § Reign under Communism This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2024) Economy Pre-Kingdom Era to World War I At the time of the proclamation of the Kingdom, there were already several industrial facilities in the country: The Assan and Olamazu steam mills, built in 1853 and 1862 respectively, a brick factory built in 1865, and two sugar factories built in 1873, among others. In 1857, the first oil refinery in the world was built at Ploiești. In 1880, after several railways were built, the CFR was founded. After proclamation of the Kingdom, the pre-established industrial facilities began to be highly developed: 6 more, larger, sugar factories were built and the railway network was expanded more. Another, more modern brick factory was built in 1891. Agriculture Despite all of these industrial achievements, the overwhelming majority of Romania's economy remained agricultural. In 1919, a staggering 72% of Romanians were engaged in agriculture. The Romanian peasantry was among the poorest in the region, a situation aggravated by one of Europe's highest birth rates. Farming was primitive and machinery and chemical fertilizers almost unheard of. The Regat (prewar Romania) was traditionally a land of large estates worked by peasants who either had little or no land of their own. The situation in Transylvania and Bessarabia was marginally better. After peasant calls for land reform snowballed into an avalanche, King Ferdinand had to oblige, especially once the Russian Revolution had encouraged peasants to take the matter in their own hands. The land reform passed in 1921 accomplished little however. Large landowners still controlled up to 30% of Romania's land, including the forests peasants depended on for fuel. The redistributed plots were invariably too small to feed their owners and most peasants could not overcome their tradition of growing grain over cash crops. Nothing was done to remedy basic problems such as rural overpopulation and technological backwardness. Draft animals were rare, to say nothing of machinery, actual productivity was worse than before. Romanian agriculture struggled in the international market, and with the onset of the Great Depression, collapsed completely. Expansion and growth Romania's 1913 GDP at the 1990 exchange rate amounted to $11.7 billion. However, the 1990 dollar was 9.27 times weaker than the 1938 dollar. Thus, Romania's 1913 GDP at the 1938 exchange rate amounted to $1.262 billion. The 1938 Romanian GDP amounted to 387.204 billion lei, with a GDP per capita of 20,487 lei at an estimated population of 18.9 million. The 1938 average exchange rate was of 1 leu for US$0.00732. Romania's 1938 GDP thus amounted to $2.834 billion. Romania's public debt as of 1 April 1938 amounted to 112,267,290,144 lei, of which 78,398,078,964 lei consisted of external debt. Total public debt thus amounted to 29% of Romania's 1938 GDP, while public external debt amounted to just over 20%. Industrial development The Malaxa Prime, a Romanian-made steel-wrought locomotive Despite the destruction provoked by the First World War, Romanian industry managed significant growth, as a result of new establishments and development of the older ones. The MALAXA industrial engineering and manufacturing company was established in 1921 by Romanian industrialist Nicolae Malaxa and dealt especially with rolling stock maintenance and manufacturing. It developed rapidly, and by 1930 Romania had managed to cease importing locomotives altogether, all required rolling stock being supplied by the local industry. Industrial facilities acquired along with the new provinces, such as the Reșița works, also contributed to the rapid development of Romanian heavy industry. Other important establishments were the Copșa Mică works, producing non-ferrous metals and the Romanian Optical Enterprise. Construction also developed, as great monuments like the Caraiman Cross (1928), Arcul de Triumf (1936), and the Mausoleum of Mărășești (1938) were erected. The oil industry was also greatly expanded, making Romania one of the top oil exporters by the late 1930s, which also attracted German and Italian interest. In 1938, Romania produced 6.6 million tons of crude oil, 284,000 tons of crude steel, 133,000 tons of pig iron, 510,000 tons of cement, and 289,000 tons of rolled steel. Armament industry 250 mm Negrei mortar Romanian military industry during World War I was mainly focused on converting various fortification guns into field and anti-aircraft artillery. Up to 334 German 53 mm Fahrpanzer guns, 93 French 57 mm Hotchkiss guns, 66 Krupp 150 mm guns and dozens more 210 mm guns were mounted on Romanian-built carriages and transformed into mobile field artillery, with 45 Krupp 75 mm guns and 132 Hotchkiss 57 mm guns being transformed into anti-aircraft artillery. The Romanians also upgraded 120 German Krupp 105 mm howitzers, the result being the most effective field howitzer in Europe at that time. Romania even managed to design and build from scratch its own model of mortar, the 250 mm Negrei Model 1916. Other Romanian technological assets include the building of Vlaicu III, the world's first aircraft made of metal. The Romanian Navy possessed the largest warships on the Danube. They were a class of 4 river monitors, built locally at the Galați shipyard using parts manufactured in Austria-Hungary, and the first one launched was Lascăr Catargiu, in 1907. The Romanian monitors displaced almost 700 tons, were armed with three 120 mm naval guns in 3 turrets, two 120 mm naval howitzers, four 47 mm anti-aircraft guns and two 6.5 machine guns. The monitors took part in the Battle of Turtucaia and the First Battle of Cobadin. The Romanian-designed Schneider 150 mm Model 1912 howitzer was considered one of the most modern field guns on the Western Front. A formation of IAR-80 fighter aircraft Minelayer NMS Amiral Murgescu The Romanian armament industry was expanded greatly during the Interwar period and World War II. New factories were constructed, such as the Industria Aeronautică Română and Societatea Pentru Exploatări Tehnice aircraft factories, which produced hundreds of indigenous aircraft, such as IAR 37, IAR 80, and SET 7. Before the war, Romania acquired from France the licence to produce hundreds of Brandt Mle 27/31 and Brandt Mle 1935 mortars, with hundreds more produced during the war, and also the licence to produce 140 French 47 mm Schneider anti-tank guns at the Concordia factory, with 118 produced between 26 May 1939 and 1 August 1940 and hundreds more produced during the war; these guns were to be towed by Malaxa Tip UE armored carriers, built since late 1939 at the Malaxa factory under French licence, eventually 126 being built until March 1941. Czechoslovak licence was acquired in 1938 to produce the ZB vz. 30 machine gun, with 5,000 being built at the Cugir gun factory until the start of Operation Barbarossa in June 1941. Romania also acquired the licence to produce the R-1 tankette, but ultimately only one prototype was built locally. German licence was acquired in 1938 to produce 360 37 mm Rheinmetall anti-aircraft guns, but only 102 were produced until May 1941. British licence was acquired to produce 100 Vickers Model 1931 75 mm anti-aircraft guns at the Reșița works, with the first battery of 6 guns entering service on 1 August 1939, and 100 more guns were built during the war for a total production of 200. On 14 June, Romania launched the first locally-built warship, the minelayer NMS Amiral Murgescu. During the war, Romania copied and produced hundreds of Soviet M1938 mortars, as well as designing and producing up to 400 75 mm Reșița Model 1943 anti-tank guns. Infantry weapons designed and produced by Romania during the war include the Orița M1941 sub-machinegun and the Argeș flamethrower. Romania also built 30 Vănătorul de care R-35, 34 TACAM T-60, 21 TACAM R-2 tank destroyers and rebuilt 34 captured Soviet Komsomolets armored tractors. A few prototype vehicles were also built, such as the Mareșal tank destroyer, which is credited with being the inspiration for the German Hetzer, a Renault R-35 tank with a T-26 turret and an artillery tractor known as T-1. Warships built include the submarines NMS Rechinul and NMS Marsuinul, a class of 4 minesweepers, 6 Dutch-designed torpedo boats and 2 gunboats. Demographics Ethnic map (1930 census) According to the 1930 Romanian Census, Romania had a population of 18,057,028. Romanians made up 71.9% of the population and 28.1% of the population were ethnic minorities. Population of Romania according to ethnic group in 1930 Ethnicity number % Romanians 12,981,324 71.9 Hungarians 1,425,507 7.9 Germans 745,421 4.1 Jews 728,115 4.0 Ruthenians and Ukrainians 582,115 3.2 Russians 409,150 2.3 Bulgarians 366,384 2.0 Romani 262,501 1.5 Turks 154,772 0.9 Gagauzes 105,750 0.6 Czechs and Slovaks 51,842 0.3 Serbs, Croats and Slovenes 51,062 0.3 Poles 48,310 0.3 Greeks 26,495 0.1 Tatars 22,141 0.1 Armenians 15,544 0.0 Hutsuls 12,456 0.0 Albanians 4,670 0.0 Others 56,355 0.3 Undeclared 7,114 0.0 Total 18,057,028 100.0 Cities Physical map of Romania in 1939 Largest cities as per 1930 census: Rank Name Population 1 Bucharest 570,881(639,0401) 2 Chișinău (now located in Moldova) 114,896 3 Cernăuți (now located in Ukraine) 112,427 4 Iași 102,872 5 Cluj 100,844 6 Galați 100,611 7 Timișoara 91,580 Notes: 1 - including 12 suburban communities. Two of Romania's seven largest cities in 1930 are currently located outside of Romania as a result of World War II border changes. Education Literacy rate in interwar Romania (1930) While the Romanian nobility had a long tradition of sending their sons to Europe's finest schools, the educated were otherwise a tiny minority. Transylvania had the most educated population in Greater Romania, while Bessarabia fared the worst. While legally all Romanians were required to undergo at least four years of schooling, in practice few actually did and the system was designed to separate those who would go on to higher education from those who would not. While this was partially necessary due to limited resources, it ensured that peasants had almost no chance of becoming educated. High school and college education in Romania was modeled after the French system. Students undertook a rigid curriculum based around the liberal arts. Romania suffered from the same problem as the rest of Eastern Europe, which was that most students, coming from aristocratic backgrounds, preferred to study subjects such as theology, philosophy, literature and the fine arts over science, business, and engineering. Administrative division See also: Historical administrative divisions of Romania After Independence, the Romanian Old Kingdom was divided into 33 counties. After World War I, as a result of the 1925 administrative unification law, the territory was divided into 71 counties, 489 districts (plăși) and 8,879 communes. In 1938, King Carol II promulgated a new Constitution, and subsequently he had the administrative division of the Romanian territory changed. Ten ținuturi (approximate translation: "lands") were created (by merging the counties) to be ruled by rezidenți regali (approximate translation: "Royal Residents") - appointed directly by the King. This administrative reform did not last and the counties were re-established after the fall of Carol's regime. Maps Administrative map of Romania in 1881–1913 Administrative map of Romania in 1925–1938 Regions (Ținuturi) of Romania in 1938–1940 Romania in 1942 Kingdom of Romania in 1947 Timeline (1859–1940) Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and World War I but were lost after World War II, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after World War I and remained so after World War II. Timeline of the borders of Romania between 1859 and 2010 • 1859 – Alexander John Cuza unites Moldavia and Wallachia under his personal rule. • 1862 – Formal union of Moldavia and Wallachia to form principality of Romania. • 1866 – Cuza forced to abdicate and a foreign dynasty is established. Carol I signed the first modern Constitution. • 1877 – April 16. Treaty by which the Russian troops are allowed to pass through Romanian territoryApril 24. Russia declares war on the Ottoman Empire and its troops enter RomaniaMay 9. Romanian independence declared by the Romanian parliament, start of Romanian War of IndependenceMay 10. Carol I ratifies independence declaration • 1878 – Under Treaty of Berlin, Ottoman Empire recognizes Romanian independence. Romania ceded southern Bessarabia to Russia. • 1881 – Carol I was proclaimed King of Romania on March 14. • 1894 – Leaders of the Transylvanian Romanians who sent a Memorandum to the Austrian Emperor demanding national rights for the Romanians are found guilty of treason. • 1907 – Violent peasant revolts crushed throughout Romania, thousands of persons killed. • 1914 – Death of Carol I, succeeded by his nephew Ferdinand. • 1916 – August. Romania enters World War I on the Entente side.December. Romanian Treasure sent to Russia for safekeeping but was seized by Soviets after the Romanian army refused to withdraw from Bessarabia. • 1918 – March 27. The union of Bessarabia with Romania is proclaimed. November 28. The union of Bukovina with Romania is declared. December 1. The union of Transylvania with Romania is declared. This day concludes a series of unifications between the Kingdom of Romania and its claimed historical regions. However, the terms of these proclamations (and, subsequently, the materialization of the Greater Romania ideal) would only be de facto recognized 2 years later, following the Treaty of Trianon. By the Treaty of Versailles, Romania agreed to grant citizenship to the former citizens of Russian and Austro-Hungarian Empires living in the new Romanian territories. • 1919 – A military conflict occurs between Romania and Hungarian Soviet Republic led by Béla Kun. The Romanian Army takes over Budapest on 4 August 1919. The city is ruled by a military administration until 16 November 1919.The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye officially assigns Bukovina to Romania. • 1920 – The Treaty of Trianon officially assigns Transylvania, Banat and Partium to Romania.Little Entente alliance with Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia initiated. • 1921 – A major and radical agrarian reform.Polish–Romanian alliance established. • 1923 – The 1923 Constitution is adopted based on a National Liberal Party project.National-Christian Defense League (LANC) founded. • 1924 – LANC member (later Iron Guard founder) Corneliu Zelea Codreanu assassinates the Prefect of Police in Iași, but is acquitted. • 1926 – Liberal Electoral Law adopted.Franco-Romanian Treaty. • 1927 – The National Peasants' Party takes over the government from the National Liberal Party.The Legion of the Archangel Michael, later the Iron Guard, splits from LANC.Michael (Mihai) becomes king under a regency regime. • 1929 – Beginning of the Great Depression in the world and in Romania. • 1930 – Carol II crowned King. • 1931 – First ban on Iron Guard. • 1933 – 16 February. Grivița Railcar Workshops strike violently put down by police.10 December. Prime Minister Ion Duca "dissolves" the Iron Guard, arresting thousands; 19 days later he is assassinated by Iron Guard legionnaires. • 1935 – LANC and National Agrarian Party merge to form the fascist National Christian Party (NCP). • 1937 – Electoral "non-aggression pact" between the National Peasants' Party and Iron Guard, later adding the Agrarian Union. Romanian Communist Party denounces pact, but, in practice, supports the National-Peasants.LANC forms government, but is rapidly in conflict with Carol II over his Jewish mistress. • 1938 – 10 February. Royal dictatorship declared. New constitution adopted 27 February.29–30 November. Iron Guard leader Codreanu and other legionnaires shot on the King's orders. • 1939 – 7 March. Armand Călinescu forms government.23 August. Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact stipulates Soviet "interest" in Bessarabia.1 September. Germany and Soviet Union invades Poland. Start of World War II.21 September. Călinescu assassinated by Iron Guard legionnaires. • 1940 – 6 September. After the forced abdication of King Carol II, his 19-year-old son Michael I assumes the throne, being obliged to grant dictatorial powers to Prime Minister and Conducător Ion Antonescu.14 September. The Kingdom of Romania is supplanted by a short-lived dictatorship called the National Legionary State. Selection of newspapers of the Kingdom of Romania Alegătorul liber, January 23, 1875 Bukarester Tagblatt, August 10, 1880 (in German) Voința naționala, November 1, 1884 Opinia, August 22, 1913 Monarchs See also: King of Romania and List of heads of state of Romania King Carol I (1881–1914) King Ferdinand I (1914–1927) Prince Nicholas (Regent) (1927–1930) King Carol II (1930–1940) King Michael I (1927–1930; 1940–1947) Kings of Romania (1881–1947) NameLifespanReign startReign endNotesFamilyImageCharles ICarol(1839-04-20)20 April 1839 – 10 October 1914(1914-10-10) (aged 75)15 March 188110 October 1914Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen elected Sovereign Prince of Romania 20 April 1866Hohenzollern-SigmaringenFerdinand IFerdinand(1865-08-24)24 August 1865 – 20 July 1927(1927-07-20) (aged 61)10 October 191420 July 1927Nephew of Carol IHohenzollern-SigmaringenMichael I(1st reign)Mihai(1921-10-25)25 October 1921 – 5 December 2017(2017-12-05) (aged 96)20 July 19278 June 1930Grandson of Ferdinand IHohenzollern-SigmaringenCharles IICarol II(1893-10-15)15 October 1893 – 4 April 1953(1953-04-04) (aged 59)8 June 19306 September 1940Son of Ferdinand IHohenzollern-SigmaringenMichael I(2nd reign)Mihai(1921-10-25)25 October 1921 – 5 December 2017(2017-12-05) (aged 96)6 September 194030 December 1947Son of Carol II; RestoredHohenzollern-Sigmaringen Further information: Lifespan Timeline of Kings of Romania Queens-consort of Romania NameLifespanReign startReign endNotesFamilyImageElisabeth(1843-12-29)29 December 1843 – 2 March 1916(1916-03-02) (aged 72)15 March 188110 October 1914Consort of King Carol IWiedMarie(1875-10-29)29 October 1875 – 18 July 1938(1938-07-18) (aged 62)10 October 191420 July 1927Consort of King FerdinandSaxe-Coburg and GothaHelen(1896-05-02)2 May 1896 – 28 November 1982(1982-11-28) (aged 86)Consort of Crown Prince CarolQueen Mother on Michael I's 2nd accessionGreece (Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg) Timeline This is a graphical lifespan timeline of Kings Royal Standards See also: List of flags of Romania Royal Standard (1881–1922) Royal Standard (1922–1947) See also Danubian Vilayet (1864–1878), Ottoman administrative division that included Northern Dobruja Historical administrative divisions of Romania Kingdom of Romania under Fascism Monarchism in Romania Notes ^ The Treaty of Paris – recognizing the union with Bessarabia – never came into effect because one of its signatories, Japan, refused to ratify it. This meant that the union was not recognized by the international community, making it – unlike the other provinces – more of a de facto union than an official, de jure one. Furthermore, President Woodrow Wilson left the peace conference to emphasize his disagreements earlier in 1919, and because the U.S. Congress did not ratify the Treaty of Trianon, the United States of America and the Kingdom of Hungary signed a separate peace treaty on 29 August 1921. References ^ "Constitutiunea din 1923" (in Romanian). Legislatie pentru Democratie. Retrieved 19 September 2011. ^ Bataković, Dušan T. (2011). Minorities in the Balkans: state policy and interethnic relations (1804 - 2004): Les minorites dans les Balkans. Balkanološki institut SANU. p. 98. ISBN 9788671790680. ^ Dennis Deletant, Hitler's Forgotten Ally: Ion Antonescu and His Regime, Romania, 1940–1944, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2006. ISBN 1-4039-9341-6 ^ Ioan Scurtu (2005). "Istoria contemporana a României (1918-2005)" (in Romanian). Bucharest. Retrieved 19 September 2011. ^ Institutul Central de Statistică (1943). "Indicatorul localităților din România" (PDF) (in Romanian). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 20 October 2015. ^ a b D. Berg-Schlosser, J. Mitchell, Springer, Feb 23, 2000, The Conditions of Democracy in Europe 1919-39: Systematic Case Studies, p. 392 ^ a b United States - Bureau of Mines, Economics and Statistics Branch, December 1944, Foreign Minerals Survey - The Mineral Resources of Rumania, p. 4 ^ "Timeline". Archived from the original on 2016-12-19. ^ "Romania - The Crimean War and Unification". ^ Deju, Elena (2018-11-18). "Aspecte ale influenţei limbii franceze asupra limbii române". Analele Universității "Dunărea de Jos" din Galați. Fascicula XXIV, Lexic comun / Lexic specializat. 19 (1): 139–146. doi:10.35219/lcls.2018.1.08. ISSN 1844-9476. S2CID 216956637. ^ "Unele consideraţii privind impactul dreptului francez asupra celui românesc, în contextul formării României moderne". Conferința Internațională de Drept, Studii Europene și Relații Internaționale (in Romanian). I (I): 668–675. 2013. ISSN 2668-0645. ^ "Text of the Treaty of Trianon". World War I Document Archive. Retrieved 2007-12-07. ^ Bernard Anthony Cook (2001). Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia. Taylor&Francis. p. 162. ISBN 0-8153-4057-5. Retrieved 2007-12-07. ^ Malbone W. Graham (October 1944). "The Legal Status of the Bukovina and Bessarabia". American Journal of International Law. 38 (4). American Society of International Law: 667–673. doi:10.2307/2192802. JSTOR 2192802. S2CID 146890589. ^ Dan Petre, Hotarele românismului în date (Ed. Litera Internațional, București, 2005), pp. 106–107 ^ Peter Jordan (1989), Atlas Ost- und Südosteuropa: aktuelle Karten zu Ökologie, Bevölkerung und Wirtschaft, Issue 2, Österreichisches Ost- und Südosteuropa-Institut, p. 27 ^ Takako Ueta, Eric Remacle, Peter Lang (2005), Japan and Enlarged Europe: Partners in Global Governance, p. 81 ^ 1921. évi XLVIII. törvénycikk az Amerikai Egyesült-Államokkal 1921. évi augusztus hó 29. napján Budapesten kötött békeszerződés becikkelyezéséről - XLVIII. Act of 1921 about the enactment the peace treaty signed in Budapest on 29. August 1921 with the United States of America - http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3&param=7504 Archived 2017-09-21 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Statul național unitar (România Mare 1919–1940)". Media.ici.ro (in Romanian). Archived from the original on 2010-01-08. Retrieved 19 September 2011. ^ Rebecca Ann Haynes, "Reluctant allies? Iuliu Maniu and Corneliu Zelea Codreanu against King Carol II of Romania." The Slavonic and East European Review (2007): 105-134. online ^ William A. Hoisington Jr, "The Struggle for Economic Influence in Southeastern Europe: The French Failure in Romania, 1940." Journal of Modern History 43.3 (1971): 468-482. ^ Ioan Scurtu; Theodora Stănescu-Stanciu; Georgiana Margareta Scurtu. "Decret regal privind investirea generalului Ion Antonescu cu depline puteri". Istoria românilor între anii 1918–1940 (in Romanian). Archived from the original on 2 October 2011. Retrieved 19 September 2011. ^ "WORLD EVENTS: 1844-1856". PBS.org. Retrieved 2009-04-22. world's first oil refinery ^ a b "industria romana inainte de primul razboi mondial Archives - Romania Military". 5 December 2014. ^ Stephen Broadberry, Mark Harrison, Cambridge University Press, Sep 29, 2005, The Economics of World War I, pp. 7-8 ^ Inflation calculator ^ M. Epstein, Springer, Dec 23, 2016, The Statesman's Year-Book: Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1939, p. 1275 ^ "Metallic Welded Constructions. Faur Bucharest Romania". ^ Revolutionary Breakthroughs and National Development: The Case of Romania, 1944-1965, p. 82, Ken Jowitt, University of California Press, Jan 8, 2021 ^ Adrian Storea, Gheorghe Băjenaru, Artileria română în date și imagini (Romanian artillery in data and pictures), pp. 40, 49, 50, 54, 59, 61, 63, 65 and 66 (in Romanian) ^ Jozef Wilczynski, Technology in Comecon: Acceleration of Technological Progress Through Economic Planning and the Market, p. 243 ^ International Naval Research Organization, Warship International, Volume 21, p. 160 ^ Frederick Thomas Jane, Jane's Fighting Ships, p. 343 ^ Robert Gardiner, Conway's All the World Fighting Ships 1906–1921, p. 422 ^ Adrian Storea, Gheorghe Băjenaru, Artileria română în date și imagini (Romanian artillery in data and pictures), p. 53 (in Romanian) ^ Third Axis. Fourth Ally. Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941-1945, pp. 29, 30, 75 and 147 ^ Dan Ovidiu Pintilie, Istoricul societății Concordia 1907-1948, p. 142 (in Romanian) ^ a b Third Axis. Fourth Ally. Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941-1945, p. 75 ^ a b c Third Axis. Fourth Ally. Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941-1945, p. 29 ^ Charles K. Kliment, Vladimir Francev, Czechoslovak Armored Fighting Vehicles, pp. 113-134 ^ a b c Steven J. Zaloga, Tanks of Hitler's Eastern Allies 1941-45, p. 31 ^ Third Axis. Fourth Ally. Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941-1945, p. 220 ^ Spencer C. Tucker, World War II at Sea: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia, p. 633 ^ Cristian Crăciunoiu, Romanian Navy torpedo boats ^ Populaţia pe Neamuri (in Romanian). Institutul Central de Statistică. 16 July 2008. pp. XXIV. Retrieved 2011-10-27. ^ Nicholas ruling as prince regent. ^ With Ion Antonescu as Conducător, from 6 September 1940 to 23 August 1944. Further reading Great Britain. Admiralty. A handbook of Roumania (1920) primary source that focuses on prewar economy and society online free Treptow, Kurt W. A history of Romania (1996). Raluca Goleșteanu-Jacobs, Habsburg Galicia and the Romanian Kingdom Sociocultural Development, 1866–1914 (2023), Routledge, Poland-Transnational Histories External links Kingdom of Romania at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from WiktionaryMedia from CommonsNews from WikinewsQuotations from WikiquoteTexts from WikisourceTextbooks from WikibooksResources from Wikiversity Lampe, John R. (1982). Balkan Economic History, 1550–1950: From Imperial Borderlands to Developing Nations. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-30368-0. vteRomania articles Topics History Timeline ancient Prehistoric Romania Dacia Roman Dacia Early Middle Ages Middle Ages Early Modern Era United Principalities Kingdom World War I Greater Romania World War II Communist Romania Revolution Since 1989 Geography Cities Climate Counties Earthquakes Fauna Flora Historical regions Islands Lakes Mountains Protected areas Rivers Territorial evolution Topography Politics Administrative divisions Constitution Elections Foreign relations Government Human rights LGBT Judiciary Law enforcement Military Chief of the General Staff Parliament Political parties President Prime Minister Unification with Moldova Economy Agriculture Energy Exports Foreign investment Foreign trade Forestry Great Depression Industry automotive construction mining petrochemical Leu (currency) National Bank Property bubble Science and technology Services Squatting Stock Exchange Telecommunications Tourism Transport Society Crime Demographics Education Healthcare Immigration Languages Minorities Prostitution Public holidays Racism Refugees Religion Romanians Gypsies Social structure Urban planning Welfare Culture Academy Architecture Art Cinema Cuisine Wine Flag Folklore Humour Literature Media Music Philosophy Sport World Heritage Sites OutlineIndex Category Portal Commons vteMonarchies Monarch Imperial, royal and noble ranks List of current sovereign monarchs List of current non-sovereign monarchs List of monarchy referendums Type Absolute Constitutional Diarchy Elective Federal Hereditary Non-sovereign Personal union Regency Topics Abdication Abolition of monarchy Aristocracy Criticism of monarchy Democratization Decolonization Dynasty Government Head of state Legitimacy (political) Oligarchy Order of succession Republicanism Self-proclaimed monarchy Sovereignty Titles Chhatrapati Emperor King Queen regnant Prince regnant Raja khan Tsar Sultan Shah Pharaoh CurrentAfrica Eswatini Lesotho Morocco list Asia Bahrain Bhutan Brunei Cambodia Japan Jordan Kuwait Malaysia Oman Qatar Saudi Arabia Thailand United Arab Emirates list Europe Andorra Belgium Denmark Liechtenstein Luxembourg Monaco Netherlands Norway Spain Sweden Vatican City (Holy See) Oceania Tonga Commonwealth realms Antigua and Barbuda Australia Bahamas Belize Canada Grenada Jamaica New Zealand Cook Islands Niue Papua New Guinea Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Solomon Islands Tuvalu United Kingdom FormerAfrica Adamawa Ankole Aussa Barotseland Bagirmi Bornu Burundi Central Africa Dahomey Egypt Ethiopia Ghana Gomma Gumma Kaffa Kongo Libya Luba Madagascar Mali Maore Maravi Mwali Ndzuwani Ngazidja Rwanda Shilluk Islands of Refreshment Tunisia Wituland Wassoulou Yeke Zanzibar Zimbabwe and other Americas Araucanía Aztec Brazil Haiti Inca Mexico Miskito Suriname Talamanca Trinidad Thirteen Colonies Asia Afghanistan Asir Bengal Bukhara Burma Cebu Chehab China Dapitan Hejaz Indonesia Iran (Qajar) Iraq Jabal Shammar Kandy (Sri Lanka) Kathiri Khiva Korea Kumul Kurdistan Laos Maguindanao Mahra Maldives Manchukuo Mongolia Najran Nepal Qu'aiti Ryukyu Sarawak Shan Sikkim Sip Song Chau Tai Sulu Syria Tibet Taiwan Upper Asir Upper Yafa Vietnam Yemen (South Yemen) Europe Albania Aragon Asturias Austria Austria-Hungary Bavaria Bosnia Brittany Bulgaria Crimea Cilicia Corsica Cyprus Finland France Galicia Georgia Germany Greece Granada Hanover Hungary Iceland Imereti Ireland Italy Kartli-Kakheti Lithuania Majorca Man Moldavia Montenegro Navarre Neuchâtel Ottoman Empire Papal States Piedmont-Sardinia Poland–Lithuania Portugal Prussia Romania Russia Samos Saxony Savoy Scotland Serbia Tavolara Two Sicilies Tuscany United Baltic Duchy Yugoslavia Valencia Württemberg Oceania Abemama Bora Bora Easter Island Kingdom of Fiji Hawaii Huahine Mangareva Niuē-Fekai Nuku Hiva Raiatea Rapa Iti Rarotonga Rimatara Rurutu Tahuata Tahiti Commonwealth realms Barbados Ceylon (Sri Lanka) Fiji The Gambia Ghana Guyana India (British Raj, princely states) Irish Free State / Ireland Kenya Malawi Malta Mauritius Nigeria Pakistan Rhodesia Sierra Leone South Africa Tanganyika Trinidad and Tobago Uganda 44°25′N 26°06′E / 44.417°N 26.100°E / 44.417; 26.100	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Romanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_language"},{"link_name":"constitutional monarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy"},{"link_name":"O.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoption_of_the_Gregorian_calendar#Adoption_in_Eastern_Europe"},{"link_name":"Carol I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_I_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"Romanian royal family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_royal_family"},{"link_name":"Michael I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_I_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"Romanian People's Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"personal union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_union"},{"link_name":"principalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality"},{"link_name":"Moldavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavia"},{"link_name":"Wallachia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallachia"},{"link_name":"Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unification_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia"},{"link_name":"Hohenzollern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Hohenzollern"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)"},{"link_name":"Romanian War of Independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_War_of_Independence"},{"link_name":"Bessarabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessarabia"},{"link_name":"Northern Dobruja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Dobruja"},{"link_name":"O.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoption_of_the_Gregorian_calendar#Adoption_in_Eastern_Europe"},{"link_name":"O.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoption_of_the_Gregorian_calendar#Adoption_in_Eastern_Europe"},{"link_name":"Romanian Old Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_Old_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Greater Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Romania"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Bessarabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessarabia"},{"link_name":"Banat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banat"},{"link_name":"Bukovina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukovina"},{"link_name":"Transylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transylvania"},{"link_name":"Bukovina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukovina"},{"link_name":"Transylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transylvania"},{"link_name":"Nazi Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"King Carol II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Carol_II"},{"link_name":"absolute monarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchy"},{"link_name":"military dictatorship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_dictatorship"},{"link_name":"Ion Antonescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_Antonescu"},{"link_name":"King Michael I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_I_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"Legionary Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Legionary_State"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Axis powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_powers"},{"link_name":"King Michael's Coup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Michael%27s_Coup"},{"link_name":"constitutional monarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy"},{"link_name":"Allies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Northern Transylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Transylvania"},{"link_name":"Communist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"satellite state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_state"},{"link_name":"People's Republic of Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Romania"}],"text":"Kingdom in Europe between 1881 and 1947The Kingdom of Romania (Romanian: Regatul României) was a constitutional monarchy that existed from 13 March (O.S.) / 25 March 1881 with the crowning of prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as King Carol I (thus beginning the Romanian royal family), until 1947 with the abdication of King Michael I and the Romanian parliament's proclamation of the Romanian People's Republic.From 1859 to 1877, Romania evolved from a personal union of two principalities: (Moldavia and Wallachia) called the Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia also known as \"The Little Union\" under a single prince to an autonomous principality with a Hohenzollern monarchy. The country gained its independence from the Ottoman Empire during the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War (known locally as the Romanian War of Independence), after which it was forced to cede the southern part of Bessarabia in exchange for Northern Dobruja. The kingdom's territory during the reign of King Carol I, between 13 (O.S.) / 25 March 1881 and 27 September (O.S.) / 10 October 1914 is sometimes referred to as the Romanian Old Kingdom, to distinguish it from \"Greater Romania\", which included the provinces that became part of the state after World War I (Bessarabia, Banat, Bukovina, and Transylvania).With the exception of the southern halves of Bukovina and Transylvania, these territories were ceded to neighboring countries in 1940, under the pressure of Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union. Following the abolishment of the 1923 constitution by King Carol II in 1938, the Kingdom of Romania became an absolute monarchy, only to become a military dictatorship under Ion Antonescu in 1940 after the forced abdication of King Carol II, with his successor, King Michael I being a figurehead with no effective political power. The country's name was changed to Legionary Romania.The disastrous World War II campaign on the side of the Axis powers led to King Michael's Coup against Ion Antonescu in 1944, as a result of which the Kingdom of Romania became a constitutional monarchy again and switched sides to the Allies, recovering Northern Transylvania. The influence of the neighbouring Soviet Union and the policies followed by Communist-dominated coalition governments ultimately led to the abolition of the monarchy, with Romania becoming a Soviet satellite state as the People's Republic of Romania on the last day of 1947.","title":"Kingdom of Romania"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unification_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia"},{"link_name":"Romanian War of Independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_War_of_Independence"},{"link_name":"Alexandru Ioan Cuza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandru_Ioan_Cuza"},{"link_name":"Moldavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavia"},{"link_name":"Wallachia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallachia"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"suzerainty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzerainty"},{"link_name":"O.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoption_of_the_Gregorian_calendar#Adoption_in_Eastern_Europe"},{"link_name":"Principality of Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"Bucharest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucharest"},{"link_name":"O.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoption_of_the_Gregorian_calendar#Adoption_in_Eastern_Europe"},{"link_name":"monstrous coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monstrous_coalition"},{"link_name":"German prince","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_prince"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Carol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_I_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Berlin, 1878","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Berlin,_1878"},{"link_name":"Dobruja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobruja"},{"link_name":"Budjak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budjak"},{"link_name":"Romanian parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Romania"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Actul_proclamarii_Regatului_Romania.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ottoman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Austro-Hungarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Russia"},{"link_name":"Hungarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Initial Balkan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Balkan_War"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Second Balkan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Balkan_War"},{"link_name":"Tsardom of Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsardom_of_Bulgaria"},{"link_name":"Southern Dobruja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Dobruja"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Entente","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_Entente"},{"link_name":"Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria"},{"link_name":"Dobruja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobruja"},{"link_name":"Berlin congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin"},{"link_name":"Transylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transylvania"},{"link_name":"Bessarabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessarabia"},{"link_name":"Bukovina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukovina"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Saint-Germain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Trianon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Trianon"}],"sub_title":"Unification and monarchy","text":"See also: Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia and Romanian War of IndependenceThe 1859 ascendancy of Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince of both Moldavia and Wallachia under the nominal[8][9] suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire united an identifiably Romanian nation under a single ruler. On 24 January (O.S.) / 5 February 1862, the two principalities were formally united to form the Principality of Romania, with Bucharest as its capital.On 11 (O.S.) / 23 February 1866 a so-called \"monstrous coalition\", composed of Conservatives and radical Liberals, forced Cuza to abdicate. The German prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was appointed as Prince of Romania, in a move to assure German backing to unity and future independence. He immediately adopted the Romanian spelling of his name, Carol, and his cognatic descendants would rule Romania until the overthrow of the monarchy in 1947.Following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Treaty of Berlin, 1878 and acquired Dobruja, although it was forced to surrender southern Bessarabia (Budjak) to Russia. On 15 March 1881, as an assertion of full sovereignty, the Romanian parliament raised the country to the status of a kingdom, and Carol was crowned king on 10 May.Proclamation Act of the Kingdom of RomaniaThe new state, squeezed between the Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and Russian Empires, with Slavic populations on its southwestern, southern, and northeastern borders, the Black Sea due east, and Hungarian neighbours on its western and northwestern borders, looked to the West, particularly France, for its cultural, educational, and administrative models.[10][11]Abstaining from the Initial Balkan War against the Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Romania entered the Second Balkan War in June 1913 against the Tsardom of Bulgaria. 330,000 Romanian troops moved across the Danube and into Bulgaria. One army occupied Southern Dobruja and another moved into northern Bulgaria to threaten Sofia, helping to bring an end to the war. Romania thus acquired the ethnically mixed territory of Southern Dobruja, which it had desired for years.In 1916 Romania entered World War I on the Entente side. Romania engaged in a conflict against Bulgaria but as a result Bulgarian forces, after a series of successful battles, regained Dobruja, which had been previously ceded from Bulgaria by the treaty of Bucharest and the Berlin congress. Although the Romanian forces did not fare well militarily, by the end of the war the Austrian and Russian empires were gone; various assemblies proclaimed as representative bodies in Transylvania, Bessarabia and Bukovina decided on union with Romania. In 1919 by the Treaty of Saint-Germain and in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon most of the territories claimed were assigned to Romania.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Romanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_language"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"nation state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nation_state"},{"link_name":"Danubian Principalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danubian_Principalities"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Paris (1856)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1856)"},{"link_name":"ad hoc Divans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hoc_Divans"},{"link_name":"Imperial Ottoman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"suzerainty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzerainty"},{"link_name":"Alexander Ioan Cuza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Ioan_Cuza"},{"link_name":"de facto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto"},{"link_name":"Northern Dobruja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Dobruja"},{"link_name":"Southern Dobruja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Dobruja"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Romania1901.JPG"},{"link_name":"Greater Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Romania"},{"link_name":"Banat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banat"}],"sub_title":"Old Kingdom (1881–1918)","text":"The Romanian Old Kingdom (Romanian: Vechiul Regat or just Regat; German: Regat or Altreich) is a colloquial term referring to the territory covered by the first independent Romanian nation state, which was composed of the Danubian Principalities – Wallachia and Moldavia. It was achieved when, under the auspices of the Treaty of Paris (1856), the ad hoc Divans of both countries – which were under Imperial Ottoman suzerainty at the time – voted for Alexander Ioan Cuza as their prince, thus achieving a de facto unification. The region itself is defined by the result of that political act, followed by the inclusion of Northern Dobruja in 1878, the proclamation of the Kingdom of Romania in 1881, and the annexation of Southern Dobruja in 1913.1901 German map of RomaniaThe term came into use after World War I, when the Old Kingdom was opposed to Greater Romania, which included Transylvania, Banat, Bessarabia, and Bukovina. Nowadays, the term is mainly of historical relevance, and is otherwise used as a common term for all regions in Romania included in both the Old Kingdom and present-day borders (namely: Wallachia, Moldavia, and Northern Dobruja).","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Romanian military campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_I"},{"link_name":"offensive into Transylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Transylvania"},{"link_name":"Battle of Mărășești","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_M%C4%83r%C4%83%C8%99e%C8%99ti"},{"link_name":"October Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Armistice of Focșani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_of_Foc%C8%99ani"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Bucharest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1918)"},{"link_name":"Thessaloniki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaloniki"},{"link_name":"union of Transylvania with the Kingdom of Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Transylvania_with_Romania"},{"link_name":"Alba Iulia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alba_Iulia"},{"link_name":"Bessarabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessarabia"},{"link_name":"Sfatul Țării","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sfatul_%C8%9A%C4%83rii"},{"link_name":"union of Bessarabia with Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Bessarabia_with_Romania"},{"link_name":"War with the Hungarian Soviet Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian%E2%80%93Romanian_War_of_1919"},{"link_name":"Béla Kun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Kun"}],"sub_title":"World War I","text":"Romania delayed in entering World War I, but ultimately declared war on the Central Powers in 1916. The Romanian military campaign ended in stalemate when the Central Powers quickly crushed the country's offensive into Transylvania and occupied Wallachia and Dobruja, including Bucharest and the strategically important oil fields, by the end of 1916. In 1917, despite fierce Romanian resistance, especially at the Battle of Mărășești, due to Russia's withdrawal from the war following the October Revolution, Romania, being almost completely surrounded by the Central Powers, was forced to also drop from the war, signing the Armistice of Focșani and next year, in May 1918, the Treaty of Bucharest. But after the successful offensive on the Thessaloniki front which put Bulgaria out of the war, Romania's government quickly reasserted control and put an army back into the field on 10 November 1918, a day before the war ended in Western Europe. Following the proclamation of the union of Transylvania with the Kingdom of Romania on 1 December 1918 by the representatives of Transylvanian Romanians gathered at Alba Iulia, Transylvania was soon united with the Kingdom, as was Bessarabia earlier in 1918, since the power vacuum in Russia caused by the civil war there allowed the Sfatul Țării, or National Council, to proclaim the union of Bessarabia with Romania. War with the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919 resulted in the occupation of Budapest by Romanian troops and the end of Béla Kun's Bolshevik regime.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Greater Romania","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greater Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Romania"},{"link_name":"Paris Peace Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)"},{"link_name":"Transylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transylvania"},{"link_name":"Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary"},{"link_name":"Prut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prut"},{"link_name":"Dniester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dniester"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Trianon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Trianon"},{"link_name":"Austro-Hungarian Monarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Monarchy"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Bukovina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukovina"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Saint Germain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Germain"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1920)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia"},{"link_name":"Jimbolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimbolia"},{"link_name":"Jaša Tomić","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ja%C5%A1a_Tomi%C4%87,_Se%C4%8Danj"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Greater Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Romania"},{"link_name":"Hungarians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarians"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RomaniansInHungary1890.png"}],"sub_title":"Greater Romania - Union with Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania","text":"See also: Greater RomaniaAt the Paris Peace Conference, Romania received the territories of Transylvania, part of Banat and other territories from Hungary, as well as Bessarabia (Eastern Moldavia between Prut and Dniester rivers) and Bukovina. In the Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favor of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania.[12] The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain,[13] and in 1920 some of the Western powers recognized Romanian rule over Bessarabia by the Treaty of Paris.[14] Thus, Romania in 1920 was more than twice the size it had been in 1914. The last territorial change during this period came in 1923, when a few border settlements were exchanged between Romania and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The most notable Romanian acquisition was the town of Jimbolia, while the most notable Yugoslav acquisition was the town of Jaša Tomić.[15][16]Romania made no further territorial claims; nonetheless the kingdom's expansion aroused enmity from several of its neighbors, including Bulgaria, the Soviet Union, and especially Hungary.[a] Greater Romania now encompassed a significant minority population, especially of Hungarians, and faced the difficulty of assimilation. Transylvania had significant Hungarian and German population who were accustomed to being the power structure; with a historically contemptuous[citation needed] attitude towards Romanians, they now feared reprisals. Both groups were effectively excluded from politics as the postwar regime passed an edict stating that all personnel employed by the state had to speak Romanian. The new state was also a highly centralized one, so it was unlikely that the Hungarian or German minorities would exercise political influence without personal connections in the government in Bucharest. Despite these policies, the Romanian government permitted both Germans and Hungarians the freedom to have separate schools, publications and judicial hearings in their respective languages.[citation needed] These rights were not extended to other minorities, Jews in particular.[citation needed]Ethnic map of Romanians within the Kingdom of Hungary in 1890","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"interwar period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interwar_period"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"National Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Liberal_Party_(Romania,_1875)"},{"link_name":"clientelist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clientelism"},{"link_name":"nationalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalism"},{"link_name":"National Peasants' Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Peasants%27_Party"},{"link_name":"Iron Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Guard"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"Prince Carol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_II_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"Michael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_I_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"Iuliu Maniu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iuliu_Maniu"},{"link_name":"Magda Lupescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magda_Lupescu"},{"link_name":"Elena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_of_Greece_and_Denmark"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"worldwide Great Depression that started in 1929","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression"},{"link_name":"was also present in Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Romania"},{"link_name":"Valea Jiului","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valea_Jiului"},{"link_name":"Grivița","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grivi%C8%9Ba"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paris-expo-1937-pavillon_de_la_Roumanie-10.jpg"},{"link_name":"fascist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism"},{"link_name":"anti-Semitic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Semitism"},{"link_name":"National Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Liberal_Party_(Romania,_1875)"},{"link_name":"Romanian Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_Front"},{"link_name":"National-Christian Defense League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National-Christian_Defense_League"},{"link_name":"Iron Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Guard"},{"link_name":"National Agrarian Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Agrarian_Party_(Romania)"},{"link_name":"National Christian Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Christian_Party"},{"link_name":"Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew"},{"link_name":"Ion Duca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_Duca"},{"link_name":"Octavian Goga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octavian_Goga"},{"link_name":"Fascist government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania_under_Fascism"},{"link_name":"Adolf Hitler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler"},{"link_name":"Corneliu Zelea Codreanu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corneliu_Zelea_Codreanu"},{"link_name":"Armand Călinescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_C%C4%83linescu"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact"},{"link_name":"Ion Antonescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_Antonescu"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Greater Romania - The interbellum years","text":"The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation \"Great Romania\", but more commonly rendered in English: \"Greater Romania\") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time. Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi)[19]). At the 1930 census, there were over 18 million inhabitants in Romania.The resulting \"Greater Romania\" did not survive World War II. Until 1938, Romania's governments maintained the form, if not always the substance, of a liberal constitutional monarchy. The National Liberal Party, dominant in the years immediately after World War I, became increasingly clientelist and nationalist, and in 1927 was supplanted in power by the National Peasants' Party. Between 1930 and 1940 there were over 25 separate governments; on several occasions in the last few years before World War II, the rivalry between the fascist Iron Guard and other political groupings approached the level of a civil war.[citation needed]Upon the death of King Ferdinand in 1927, his son, Prince Carol, was prevented from succeeding him because of previous marital scandals that had resulted in his renunciation of rights to the throne. After living three years in exile, with his brother Nicolae serving as regent and his young son Michael as king, Carol changed his mind and with the support of the ruling National Peasants' Party he returned and proclaimed himself king.Iuliu Maniu, leader of the National Peasants' Party, engineered Carol's return on the basis of a promise that he would forsake his mistress Magda Lupescu, and Lupescu herself had agreed to the arrangement. However, it became clear upon Carol's first re-encounter with his former wife, Elena, that he had no interest in a reconciliation with her, and Carol soon arranged for Magda Lupescu's return to his side. Her unpopularity was a millstone around Carol's neck for the rest of his reign, particularly because she was widely viewed as his closest advisor and confidante. Maniu and his National Peasant Party shared the same general political aims as the Iron Guard: both fought against the corruption and dictatorial policies of King Carol II and the National Liberal Party.[20]The worldwide Great Depression that started in 1929 and was also present in Romania destabilised the country. The early 1930s were marked by social unrest, high unemployment, and strikes. In several instances, the Romanian government violently repressed strikes and riots, notably the 1929 miners' strike in Valea Jiului and the strike in the Grivița railroad workshops. In the mid-1930s, the Romanian economy recovered and the industry grew significantly, although about 80% of Romanians were still employed in agriculture. French economic and political influence was predominant in the early 1920s but then Germany became more dominant, especially in the 1930s.[21]Romanian pavilion at EXPO Paris 1937As the 1930s progressed, Romania's already shaky democracy slowly deteriorated toward fascist dictatorship. The constitution of 1923 gave the king free rein to dissolve parliament and call elections at will; as a result, Romania experienced over 25 governments in a single decade.Increasingly, these governments were dominated by a number of anti-Semitic, ultra-nationalist, and mostly at least quasi-fascist parties. The National Liberal Party steadily became more nationalistic than liberal, but nonetheless lost its dominance over Romanian politics. It was eclipsed by parties like the (relatively moderate) National Peasants' Party and its more radical Romanian Front offshoot, the National-Christian Defense League (LANC) and the Iron Guard. In 1935, LANC merged with the National Agrarian Party to form the National Christian Party (NCP). The quasi-mystical fascist Iron Guard was an earlier LANC offshoot that, even more than these other parties, exploited nationalist feelings, fear of communism, and resentment of alleged foreign and Jewish domination of the economy.Already the Iron Guard had embraced the politics of assassination, and various governments had reacted more or less in kind. On December 10, 1933, Liberal prime minister Ion Duca \"dissolved\" the Iron Guard, arresting thousands; consequently, 19 days later he was assassinated by Iron Guard legionnaires.Throughout the 1930s, these nationalist parties had a mutually distrustful relationship with King Carol II. Nonetheless, in December 1937, the king appointed National Christian Party leader, the poet Octavian Goga, as prime minister of Romania's first Fascist government. Around this time, Carol met with Adolf Hitler, who expressed his wish to see a Romanian government headed by the pro-Nazi Iron Guard. Instead, on 10 February 1938 King Carol II used the occasion of a public insult by Goga toward Lupescu as a reason to dismiss the government and institute a short-lived royal dictatorship, sanctioned 17 days later by a new constitution under which the king named personally not only the prime minister but all the ministers.In April 1938, King Carol had Iron Guard leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu (aka \"The Captain\") arrested and imprisoned. On the night of 29–30 November 1938, Codreanu and several other legionnaires were killed while purportedly attempting to escape from prison. It is generally agreed that there was no such escape attempt, but that they were murdered in retaliation for a series of assassinations by Iron Guard commandos.The royal dictatorship was brief. On 7 March 1939, a new government was formed with Armand Călinescu as prime minister; on 21 September 1939, three weeks after the start of World War II, Călinescu, in turn, was also assassinated by legionnaires avenging Codreanu's murder.In 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which stipulated, among other things, the Soviet \"interest\" in Bessarabia. After the 1940 territorial losses and growing increasingly unpopular, Carol was compelled to abdicate and name general Ion Antonescu as the new Prime-Minister with full powers in ruling the state by royal decree.[22]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina"},{"link_name":"Second Vienna Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Vienna_Award"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Craiova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Craiova"}],"sub_title":"World War II","text":"See also: Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, Second Vienna Award, and Treaty of Craiova","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Soviet occupation of Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"Michael I of Romania § Reign under Communism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_I_of_Romania#Reign_under_Communism"}],"sub_title":"Post-war Kingdom (1945–1947)","text":"See also: Soviet occupation of Romania and Michael I of Romania § Reign under Communism","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"steam mills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_mill"},{"link_name":"Ploiești","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploie%C8%99ti"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"CFR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C4%83ile_Ferate_Rom%C3%A2ne"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rumaniamilitary.ro-25"}],"sub_title":"Pre-Kingdom Era to World War I","text":"At the time of the proclamation of the Kingdom, there were already several industrial facilities in the country: The Assan and Olamazu steam mills, built in 1853 and 1862 respectively, a brick factory built in 1865, and two sugar factories built in 1873, among others. In 1857, the first oil refinery in the world was built at Ploiești.[23] In 1880, after several railways were built, the CFR was founded. After proclamation of the Kingdom, the pre-established industrial facilities began to be highly developed: 6 more, larger, sugar factories were built and the railway network was expanded more. Another, more modern brick factory was built in 1891.[24]","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rumaniamilitary.ro-25"},{"link_name":"The land reform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_reform_in_Romania#1921_reform"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"the Great Depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Romania"}],"sub_title":"Agriculture","text":"Despite all of these industrial achievements, the overwhelming majority of Romania's economy remained agricultural.[24] In 1919, a staggering 72% of Romanians were engaged in agriculture. The Romanian peasantry was among the poorest in the region, a situation aggravated by one of Europe's highest birth rates. Farming was primitive and machinery and chemical fertilizers almost unheard of. The Regat (prewar Romania) was traditionally a land of large estates worked by peasants who either had little or no land of their own. The situation in Transylvania and Bessarabia was marginally better. After peasant calls for land reform snowballed into an avalanche, King Ferdinand had to oblige, especially once the Russian Revolution had encouraged peasants to take the matter in their own hands. The land reform passed in 1921 accomplished little however. Large landowners still controlled up to 30% of Romania's land, including the forests peasants depended on for fuel. The redistributed plots were invariably too small to feed their owners and most peasants could not overcome their tradition of growing grain over cash crops. Nothing was done to remedy basic problems such as rural overpopulation and technological backwardness. Draft animals were rare, to say nothing of machinery, actual productivity was worse than before. Romanian agriculture struggled in the international market,[citation needed] and with the onset of the Great Depression, collapsed completely.","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-books.google.ro-6"},{"link_name":"leu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_leu"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-H_vNAAAAMAAJ_1944,_p._4-7"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Expansion and growth","text":"Romania's 1913 GDP at the 1990 exchange rate amounted to $11.7 billion.[25] However, the 1990 dollar was 9.27 times weaker than the 1938 dollar.[26] Thus, Romania's 1913 GDP at the 1938 exchange rate amounted to $1.262 billion.The 1938 Romanian GDP amounted to 387.204 billion lei, with a GDP per capita of 20,487 lei at an estimated population of 18.9 million.[6] The 1938 average exchange rate was of 1 leu for US$0.00732.[7] Romania's 1938 GDP thus amounted to $2.834 billion.Romania's public debt as of 1 April 1938 amounted to 112,267,290,144 lei, of which 78,398,078,964 lei consisted of external debt.[27] Total public debt thus amounted to 29% of Romania's 1938 GDP, while public external debt amounted to just over 20%.","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Romania_CFR_151.002_2-10-2.JPG"},{"link_name":"MALAXA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAUR"},{"link_name":"Nicolae Malaxa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolae_Malaxa"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Reșița works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re%C8%99i%C8%9Ba_works"},{"link_name":"Copșa Mică works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cop%C8%99a_Mic%C4%83_works"},{"link_name":"Romanian Optical Enterprise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I.O.R."},{"link_name":"Caraiman Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroes%27_Cross_on_Caraiman_Peak"},{"link_name":"Arcul de Triumf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcul_de_Triumf"},{"link_name":"Mausoleum of Mărășești","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_M%C4%83r%C4%83%C8%99e%C8%99ti"},{"link_name":"interest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%E2%80%93Romanian_Treaty_for_the_Development_of_Economic_Relations_between_the_Two_Countries_(1939)"},{"link_name":"pig iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig_iron"},{"link_name":"cement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cement"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Industrial development","text":"The Malaxa Prime, a Romanian-made steel-wrought locomotiveDespite the destruction provoked by the First World War, Romanian industry managed significant growth, as a result of new establishments and development of the older ones. The MALAXA industrial engineering and manufacturing company was established in 1921 by Romanian industrialist Nicolae Malaxa and dealt especially with rolling stock maintenance and manufacturing. It developed rapidly, and by 1930 Romania had managed to cease importing locomotives altogether, all required rolling stock being supplied by the local industry.[28] Industrial facilities acquired along with the new provinces, such as the Reșița works, also contributed to the rapid development of Romanian heavy industry. Other important establishments were the Copșa Mică works, producing non-ferrous metals and the Romanian Optical Enterprise. Construction also developed, as great monuments like the Caraiman Cross (1928), Arcul de Triumf (1936), and the Mausoleum of Mărășești (1938) were erected. The oil industry was also greatly expanded, making Romania one of the top oil exporters by the late 1930s, which also attracted German and Italian interest.In 1938, Romania produced 6.6 million tons of crude oil, 284,000 tons of crude steel, 133,000 tons of pig iron, 510,000 tons of cement, and 289,000 tons of rolled steel.[29]","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mortier_Negrei_250_mm_Model_1916.JPG"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Fahrpanzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahrpanzer"},{"link_name":"carriages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_carriage"},{"link_name":"upgraded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10.5_cm_Feldhaubitze_M.12"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Vlaicu III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Vlaicu_III"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Galați shipyard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gala%C8%9Bi_shipyard"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Battle of Turtucaia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Turtucaia"},{"link_name":"First Battle of Cobadin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Battle_of_Cobadin"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IAR80.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amiral_Murgescu_(side).jpg"},{"link_name":"NMS Amiral Murgescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMS_Amiral_Murgescu"},{"link_name":"Industria Aeronautică Română","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industria_Aeronautic%C4%83_Rom%C3%A2n%C4%83"},{"link_name":"Societatea Pentru Exploatări Tehnice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societatea_Pentru_Exploat%C4%83ri_Tehnice"},{"link_name":"IAR 37","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAR_37"},{"link_name":"IAR 80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAR_80"},{"link_name":"SET 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SET_7"},{"link_name":"Brandt Mle 27/31","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandt_Mle_27/31"},{"link_name":"Brandt Mle 1935","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandt_Mle_1935"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-39"},{"link_name":"Malaxa Tip UE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault_UE_Chenillette"},{"link_name":"ZB vz. 30","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZB_vz._30"},{"link_name":"Operation Barbarossa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-40"},{"link_name":"R-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-1_tank"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"37 mm Rheinmetall anti-aircraft guns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3.7_cm_Flak_18/36/37/43"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-40"},{"link_name":"Vickers Model 1931","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vickers_Model_1931"},{"link_name":"Reșița works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re%C8%99i%C8%9Ba_works"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-40"},{"link_name":"NMS Amiral Murgescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMS_Amiral_Murgescu"},{"link_name":"M1938 mortars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M1938_mortar"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-39"},{"link_name":"75 mm Reșița Model 1943","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/75_mm_Re%C8%99i%C8%9Ba_Model_1943"},{"link_name":"Orița M1941","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ori%C8%9Ba_M1941"},{"link_name":"Argeș flamethrower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arge%C8%99_(flamethrower)"},{"link_name":"Vănătorul de care R-35","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault_R-35#Romania"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto2-42"},{"link_name":"TACAM T-60","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TACAM_T-60"},{"link_name":"TACAM R-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TACAM_R-2"},{"link_name":"Komsomolets armored tractors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komsomolets_armored_tractor"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Mareșal tank destroyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%C8%99al_tank_destroyer"},{"link_name":"Hetzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetzer"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto2-42"},{"link_name":"Renault R-35","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault_R-35"},{"link_name":"T-26","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto2-42"},{"link_name":"T-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-1_tractor"},{"link_name":"NMS Rechinul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMS_Rechinul"},{"link_name":"NMS Marsuinul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMS_Marsuinul"},{"link_name":"a class of 4 minesweepers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democra%C8%9Bia-class_minesweeper"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"Armament industry","text":"250 mm Negrei mortarRomanian military industry during World War I was mainly focused on converting various fortification guns into field and anti-aircraft artillery. Up to 334 German 53 mm Fahrpanzer guns, 93 French 57 mm Hotchkiss guns, 66 Krupp 150 mm guns and dozens more 210 mm guns were mounted on Romanian-built carriages and transformed into mobile field artillery, with 45 Krupp 75 mm guns and 132 Hotchkiss 57 mm guns being transformed into anti-aircraft artillery. The Romanians also upgraded 120 German Krupp 105 mm howitzers, the result being the most effective field howitzer in Europe at that time. Romania even managed to design and build from scratch its own model of mortar, the 250 mm Negrei Model 1916.[30] Other Romanian technological assets include the building of Vlaicu III, the world's first aircraft made of metal.[31] The Romanian Navy possessed the largest warships on the Danube. They were a class of 4 river monitors, built locally at the Galați shipyard using parts manufactured in Austria-Hungary, and the first one launched was Lascăr Catargiu, in 1907.[32][33] The Romanian monitors displaced almost 700 tons, were armed with three 120 mm naval guns in 3 turrets, two 120 mm naval howitzers, four 47 mm anti-aircraft guns and two 6.5 machine guns.[34] The monitors took part in the Battle of Turtucaia and the First Battle of Cobadin. The Romanian-designed Schneider 150 mm Model 1912 howitzer was considered one of the most modern field guns on the Western Front.[35]A formation of IAR-80 fighter aircraftMinelayer NMS Amiral MurgescuThe Romanian armament industry was expanded greatly during the Interwar period and World War II. New factories were constructed, such as the Industria Aeronautică Română and Societatea Pentru Exploatări Tehnice aircraft factories, which produced hundreds of indigenous aircraft, such as IAR 37, IAR 80, and SET 7. Before the war, Romania acquired from France the licence to produce hundreds of Brandt Mle 27/31 and Brandt Mle 1935 mortars, with hundreds more produced during the war,[36] and also the licence to produce 140 French 47 mm Schneider anti-tank guns at the Concordia factory, with 118 produced between 26 May 1939 and 1 August 1940 and hundreds more produced during the war;[37][38] these guns were to be towed by Malaxa Tip UE armored carriers, built since late 1939 at the Malaxa factory under French licence, eventually 126 being built until March 1941. Czechoslovak licence was acquired in 1938 to produce the ZB vz. 30 machine gun, with 5,000 being built at the Cugir gun factory until the start of Operation Barbarossa in June 1941.[39] Romania also acquired the licence to produce the R-1 tankette, but ultimately only one prototype was built locally.[40] German licence was acquired in 1938 to produce 360 37 mm Rheinmetall anti-aircraft guns, but only 102 were produced until May 1941.[39] British licence was acquired to produce 100 Vickers Model 1931 75 mm anti-aircraft guns at the Reșița works, with the first battery of 6 guns entering service on 1 August 1939, and 100 more guns were built during the war for a total production of 200.[39] On 14 June, Romania launched the first locally-built warship, the minelayer NMS Amiral Murgescu.During the war, Romania copied and produced hundreds of Soviet M1938 mortars,[38] as well as designing and producing up to 400 75 mm Reșița Model 1943 anti-tank guns. Infantry weapons designed and produced by Romania during the war include the Orița M1941 sub-machinegun and the Argeș flamethrower. Romania also built 30 Vănătorul de care R-35,[41] 34 TACAM T-60, 21 TACAM R-2 tank destroyers and rebuilt 34 captured Soviet Komsomolets armored tractors.[42] A few prototype vehicles were also built, such as the Mareșal tank destroyer, which is credited with being the inspiration for the German Hetzer,[41] a Renault R-35 tank with a T-26 turret[41] and an artillery tractor known as T-1. Warships built include the submarines NMS Rechinul and NMS Marsuinul, a class of 4 minesweepers, 6 Dutch-designed torpedo boats[43] and 2 gunboats.[44]","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Romania_1930_ethnic_map_EN.png"},{"link_name":"1930 Romanian Census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1930_Romanian_Census"},{"link_name":"Romanians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanians"},{"link_name":"ethnic minorities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minorities_in_Romania"}],"text":"Ethnic map (1930 census)According to the 1930 Romanian Census, Romania had a population of 18,057,028. Romanians made up 71.9% of the population and 28.1% of the population were ethnic minorities.","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Romania1939physical.jpg"},{"link_name":"World War II border changes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_border_changes"}],"sub_title":"Cities","text":"Physical map of Romania in 1939Largest cities as per 1930 census:Notes: 1 - including 12 suburban communities.Two of Romania's seven largest cities in 1930 are currently located outside of Romania as a result of World War II border changes.","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Romania_1930_literacy_EN.svg"},{"link_name":"Literacy rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_rate"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Education","text":"Literacy rate in interwar Romania (1930)While the Romanian nobility had a long tradition of sending their sons to Europe's finest schools, the educated were otherwise a tiny minority. Transylvania had the most educated population in Greater Romania, while Bessarabia fared the worst. While legally all Romanians were required to undergo at least four years of schooling, in practice few actually did and the system was designed to separate those who would go on to higher education from those who would not. While this was partially necessary due to limited resources, it ensured that peasants had almost no chance of becoming educated.[citation needed]High school and college education in Romania was modeled after the French system. Students undertook a rigid curriculum based around the liberal arts. Romania suffered from the same problem as the rest of Eastern Europe, which was that most students, coming from aristocratic backgrounds, preferred to study subjects such as theology, philosophy, literature and the fine arts over science, business, and engineering.[citation needed]","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Historical administrative divisions of Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_administrative_divisions_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"plăși","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plas%C4%83"},{"link_name":"communes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communes_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"King Carol II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_II_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"Constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1938_Constitution_of_Romania"}],"text":"See also: Historical administrative divisions of RomaniaAfter Independence, the Romanian Old Kingdom was divided into 33 counties.After World War I, as a result of the 1925 administrative unification law, the territory was divided into 71 counties, 489 districts (plăși) and 8,879 communes.In 1938, King Carol II promulgated a new Constitution, and subsequently he had the administrative division of the Romanian territory changed. Ten ținuturi (approximate translation: \"lands\") were created (by merging the counties) to be ruled by rezidenți regali (approximate translation: \"Royal Residents\") - appointed directly by the King. This administrative reform did not last and the counties were re-established after the fall of Carol's regime.","title":"Administrative division"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Romania_Judete_Antebelice_(RO).svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Romania_1930_counties.500px.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tinuturi_Romania.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ROMANIA_MAI_1942.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Romania_1948.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Maps","text":"Administrative map of Romania in 1881–1913\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAdministrative map of Romania in 1925–1938\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRegions (Ținuturi) of Romania in 1938–1940\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRomania in 1942\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tKingdom of Romania in 1947","title":"Administrative division"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Romania_territory_during_20th_century.gif"},{"link_name":"Second Balkan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Balkan_War"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RomaniaBorderHistoryAnnimation_1859-2010.gif"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aleg%C4%83torul_liber_1875-01-23,_nr._001.pdf"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bukarester_Tagblatt_1880-08-10,_nr._001.pdf"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voin%C8%9Ba_na%C8%9Bionala_1884-11-01.pdf"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Opinia_1913-08-22,_nr._01966.pdf"}],"text":"Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and World War I but were lost after World War II, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after World War I and remained so after World War II.Timeline of the borders of Romania between 1859 and 2010Selection of newspapers of the Kingdom of Romania\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAlegătorul liber, January 23, 1875\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBukarester Tagblatt, August 10, 1880 (in German)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tVoința naționala, November 1, 1884\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tOpinia, August 22, 1913","title":"Timeline (1859–1940)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"King of Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"List of heads of state of Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Romania"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carol_I_King_of_Romania.jpg"},{"link_name":"King Carol I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_I_of_Romania"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:King_Ferdinand_of_Romania.jpg"},{"link_name":"King Ferdinand I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Romania"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1903Nicholas-09.jpg"},{"link_name":"Prince Nicholas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Nicholas_of_Romania"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carol_al_II-lea.jpg"},{"link_name":"King Carol II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_II_of_Romania"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mihai.jpg"},{"link_name":"King Michael I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_I_of_Romania"}],"text":"See also: King of Romania and List of heads of state of RomaniaKing Carol I (1881–1914)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tKing Ferdinand I (1914–1927)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPrince Nicholas (Regent) (1927–1930)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tKing Carol II (1930–1940)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tKing Michael I (1927–1930; 1940–1947)","title":"Monarchs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lifespan Timeline of Kings of Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifespan_Timeline_of_Kings_of_Romania"}],"sub_title":"Kings of Romania (1881–1947)","text":"Further information: Lifespan Timeline of Kings of Romania","title":"Monarchs"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Queens-consort of Romania","title":"Monarchs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"graphical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_chart"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Romania&action=edit&section=26"},{"link_name":"List of flags of Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_of_Romania"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Royal_standard_of_Romania_(King,_1881_model).svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Royal_standard_of_Romania_(King,_1922_model).svg"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Romania&action=edit&section=27"},{"link_name":"Danubian Vilayet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danubian_Vilayet"},{"link_name":"Historical administrative divisions of Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_administrative_divisions_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Romania under Fascism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania_under_Fascism"},{"link_name":"Monarchism in Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchism_in_Romania"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Romania&action=edit&section=28"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_President"},{"link_name":"Woodrow Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Trianon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Trianon"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Romania&action=edit&section=29"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Constitutiunea din 1923\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//legislatie.resurse-pentru-democratie.org/const_1923.php"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9788671790680","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788671790680"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Dennis Deletant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Deletant"},{"link_name":"Palgrave Macmillan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-4039-9341-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4039-9341-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-AreaPop_4-0"},{"link_name":"\"Istoria contemporana a României (1918-2005)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.scribd.com/doc/8031827/Scurtu-Ioan-Istoria-a-a-Romaniei-19182005"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Indicator41_5-0"},{"link_name":"\"Indicatorul localităților din România\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160304202804/http://www.cimec.ro/pdf/dl.asp?filename=indicatorul-localitatilor-din-Romania-1941.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cimec.ro/pdf/dl.asp?filename=indicatorul-localitatilor-din-Romania-1941.pdf"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-books.google.ro_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-books.google.ro_6-1"},{"link_name":"D. Berg-Schlosser, J. Mitchell, Springer, Feb 23, 2000, The Conditions of Democracy in Europe 1919-39: Systematic Case Studies, p. 392","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=sUVaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA392"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-H_vNAAAAMAAJ_1944,_p._4_7-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-H_vNAAAAMAAJ_1944,_p._4_7-1"},{"link_name":"United States - Bureau of Mines, Economics and Statistics Branch, December 1944, Foreign Minerals Survey - The Mineral Resources of Rumania, p. 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=H_vNAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA10-PA4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"Timeline\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20161219231851/http://www.uaic.ro/en/university-2/university/timeline/"},{"link_name":"the 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române\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.gup.ugal.ro/ugaljournals/index.php/lcls/article/view/1701"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.35219/lcls.2018.1.08","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.35219%2Flcls.2018.1.08"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1844-9476","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1844-9476"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"216956637","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216956637"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"\"Unele consideraţii privind impactul dreptului francez asupra celui românesc, în contextul formării României 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State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Free_State"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Kenya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenya_(1963%E2%80%931964)"},{"link_name":"Malawi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malawi"},{"link_name":"Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Malta"},{"link_name":"Mauritius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritius_(1968%E2%80%931992)"},{"link_name":"Nigeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_of_Nigeria"},{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion_of_Pakistan"},{"link_name":"Rhodesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodesia"},{"link_name":"Sierra Leone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone_(1961%E2%80%931971)"},{"link_name":"South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa"},{"link_name":"Tanganyika","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanganyika_(1961%E2%80%931964)"},{"link_name":"Trinidad and Tobago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago"},{"link_name":"Uganda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_(1962%E2%80%931963)"},{"link_name":"44°25′N 26°06′E / 44.417°N 26.100°E / 44.417; 26.100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kingdom_of_Romania&params=44_25_N_26_06_E_source:eswiki_type:country"}],"sub_title":"Timeline","text":"This is a graphical lifespan timeline of KingsRoyal Standards[edit]\nSee also: List of flags of Romania\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRoyal Standard (1881–1922)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRoyal Standard (1922–1947)\n\t\t\n\nSee also[edit]\nDanubian Vilayet (1864–1878), Ottoman administrative division that included Northern Dobruja\nHistorical administrative divisions of Romania\nKingdom of Romania under Fascism\nMonarchism in Romania\nNotes[edit]\n\n\n^ The Treaty of Paris – recognizing the union with Bessarabia – never came into effect because one of its signatories, Japan, refused to ratify it. This meant that the union was not recognized by the international community, making it – unlike the other provinces – more of a de facto union than an official, de jure one.[17] Furthermore, President Woodrow Wilson left the peace conference to emphasize his disagreements earlier in 1919, and because the U.S. Congress did not ratify the Treaty of Trianon, the United States of America and the Kingdom of Hungary signed a separate peace treaty on 29 August 1921.[18]\n\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n\n^ \"Constitutiunea din 1923\" (in Romanian). Legislatie pentru Democratie. Retrieved 19 September 2011.\n\n^ Bataković, Dušan T. (2011). Minorities in the Balkans: state policy and interethnic relations (1804 - 2004): Les minorites dans les Balkans. Balkanološki institut SANU. p. 98. ISBN 9788671790680.\n\n^ Dennis Deletant, Hitler's Forgotten Ally: Ion Antonescu and His Regime, Romania, 1940–1944, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2006. ISBN 1-4039-9341-6\n\n^ Ioan Scurtu (2005). \"Istoria contemporana a României (1918-2005)\" (in Romanian). Bucharest. Retrieved 19 September 2011.\n\n^ Institutul Central de Statistică (1943). \"Indicatorul localităților din România\" (PDF) (in Romanian). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 20 October 2015.\n\n^ a b D. Berg-Schlosser, J. Mitchell, Springer, Feb 23, 2000, The Conditions of Democracy in Europe 1919-39: Systematic Case Studies, p. 392\n\n^ a b United States - Bureau of Mines, Economics and Statistics Branch, December 1944, Foreign Minerals Survey - The Mineral Resources of Rumania, p. 4\n\n^ \"Timeline\". Archived from the original on 2016-12-19.\n\n^ \"Romania - The Crimean War and Unification\".\n\n^ Deju, Elena (2018-11-18). \"Aspecte ale influenţei limbii franceze asupra limbii române\". Analele Universității \"Dunărea de Jos\" din Galați. Fascicula XXIV, Lexic comun / Lexic specializat. 19 (1): 139–146. doi:10.35219/lcls.2018.1.08. ISSN 1844-9476. S2CID 216956637.\n\n^ \"Unele consideraţii privind impactul dreptului francez asupra celui românesc, în contextul formării României moderne\". Conferința Internațională de Drept, Studii Europene și Relații Internaționale (in Romanian). I (I): 668–675. 2013. ISSN 2668-0645.\n\n^ \"Text of the Treaty of Trianon\". World War I Document Archive. Retrieved 2007-12-07.\n\n^ Bernard Anthony Cook (2001). Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia. Taylor&Francis. p. 162. ISBN 0-8153-4057-5. Retrieved 2007-12-07.\n\n^ Malbone W. Graham (October 1944). \"The Legal Status of the Bukovina and Bessarabia\". American Journal of International Law. 38 (4). American Society of International Law: 667–673. doi:10.2307/2192802. JSTOR 2192802. S2CID 146890589.\n\n^ Dan Petre, Hotarele românismului în date (Ed. Litera Internațional, București, 2005), pp. 106–107\n\n^ Peter Jordan (1989), Atlas Ost- und Südosteuropa: aktuelle Karten zu Ökologie, Bevölkerung und Wirtschaft, Issue 2, Österreichisches Ost- und Südosteuropa-Institut, p. 27\n\n^ Takako Ueta, Eric Remacle, Peter Lang (2005), Japan and Enlarged Europe: Partners in Global Governance, p. 81\n\n^ 1921. évi XLVIII. törvénycikk az Amerikai Egyesült-Államokkal 1921. évi augusztus hó 29. napján Budapesten kötött békeszerződés becikkelyezéséről - XLVIII. Act of 1921 about the enactment the peace treaty signed in Budapest on 29. August 1921 with the United States of America - http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3&param=7504 Archived 2017-09-21 at the Wayback Machine\n\n^ \"Statul național unitar (România Mare 1919–1940)\". Media.ici.ro (in Romanian). Archived from the original on 2010-01-08. Retrieved 19 September 2011.\n\n^ Rebecca Ann Haynes, \"Reluctant allies? Iuliu Maniu and Corneliu Zelea Codreanu against King Carol II of Romania.\" The Slavonic and East European Review (2007): 105-134. online\n\n^ William A. Hoisington Jr, \"The Struggle for Economic Influence in Southeastern Europe: The French Failure in Romania, 1940.\" Journal of Modern History 43.3 (1971): 468-482.\n\n^ Ioan Scurtu; Theodora Stănescu-Stanciu; Georgiana Margareta Scurtu. \"Decret regal privind investirea generalului Ion Antonescu cu depline puteri\". Istoria românilor între anii 1918–1940 (in Romanian). Archived from the original on 2 October 2011. Retrieved 19 September 2011.\n\n^ \"WORLD EVENTS: 1844-1856\". PBS.org. Retrieved 2009-04-22. world's first oil refinery\n\n^ a b \"industria romana inainte de primul razboi mondial Archives - Romania Military\". 5 December 2014.\n\n^ Stephen Broadberry, Mark Harrison, Cambridge University Press, Sep 29, 2005, The Economics of World War I, pp. 7-8\n\n^ Inflation calculator\n\n^ M. Epstein, Springer, Dec 23, 2016, The Statesman's Year-Book: Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1939, p. 1275\n\n^ \"Metallic Welded Constructions. Faur Bucharest Romania\".\n\n^ Revolutionary Breakthroughs and National Development: The Case of Romania, 1944-1965, p. 82, Ken Jowitt, University of California Press, Jan 8, 2021\n\n^ Adrian Storea, Gheorghe Băjenaru, Artileria română în date și imagini (Romanian artillery in data and pictures), pp. 40, 49, 50, 54, 59, 61, 63, 65 and 66 (in Romanian)\n\n^ Jozef Wilczynski, Technology in Comecon: Acceleration of Technological Progress Through Economic Planning and the Market, p. 243\n\n^ International Naval Research Organization, Warship International, Volume 21, p. 160\n\n^ Frederick Thomas Jane, Jane's Fighting Ships, p. 343\n\n^ Robert Gardiner, Conway's All the World Fighting Ships 1906–1921, p. 422\n\n^ Adrian Storea, Gheorghe Băjenaru, Artileria română în date și imagini (Romanian artillery in data and pictures), p. 53 (in Romanian)\n\n^ Third Axis. Fourth Ally. Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941-1945, pp. 29, 30, 75 and 147\n\n^ Dan Ovidiu Pintilie, Istoricul societății Concordia 1907-1948, p. 142 (in Romanian)\n\n^ a b Third Axis. Fourth Ally. Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941-1945, p. 75\n\n^ a b c Third Axis. Fourth Ally. Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941-1945, p. 29\n\n^ Charles K. Kliment, Vladimir Francev, Czechoslovak Armored Fighting Vehicles, pp. 113-134\n\n^ a b c Steven J. Zaloga, Tanks of Hitler's Eastern Allies 1941-45, p. 31\n\n^ Third Axis. Fourth Ally. Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941-1945, p. 220\n\n^ Spencer C. Tucker, World War II at Sea: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia, p. 633\n\n^ Cristian Crăciunoiu, Romanian Navy torpedo boats\n\n^ Populaţia pe Neamuri (in Romanian). Institutul Central de Statistică. 16 July 2008. pp. XXIV. Retrieved 2011-10-27.\n\n^ Nicholas ruling as prince regent.\n\n^ With Ion Antonescu as Conducător, from 6 September 1940 to 23 August 1944.\n\n\nFurther reading[edit]\nGreat Britain. Admiralty. A handbook of Roumania (1920) primary source that focuses on prewar economy and society online free\nTreptow, Kurt W. A history of Romania (1996).\nRaluca Goleșteanu-Jacobs, Habsburg Galicia and the Romanian Kingdom Sociocultural Development, 1866–1914 (2023), Routledge, Poland-Transnational Histories\nExternal links[edit]\n\n\nKingdom of Romania at Wikipedia's sister projects\n\nDefinitions from WiktionaryMedia from CommonsNews from WikinewsQuotations from WikiquoteTexts from WikisourceTextbooks from WikibooksResources from Wikiversity\n\nLampe, John R. (1982). Balkan Economic History, 1550–1950: From Imperial Borderlands to Developing Nations. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-30368-0.\nvteRomania articles\nTopics\nHistory\nTimeline\nancient\nPrehistoric Romania\nDacia\nRoman Dacia\nEarly Middle Ages\nMiddle Ages\nEarly Modern Era\nUnited Principalities\nKingdom\nWorld War I\nGreater Romania\nWorld War II\nCommunist Romania\nRevolution\nSince 1989\nGeography\nCities\nClimate\nCounties\nEarthquakes\nFauna\nFlora\nHistorical regions\nIslands\nLakes\nMountains\nProtected areas\nRivers\nTerritorial evolution\nTopography\nPolitics\nAdministrative divisions\nConstitution\nElections\nForeign relations\nGovernment\nHuman rights\nLGBT\nJudiciary\nLaw enforcement\nMilitary\nChief of the General Staff\nParliament\nPolitical parties\nPresident\nPrime Minister\nUnification with Moldova\nEconomy\nAgriculture\nEnergy\nExports\nForeign investment\nForeign trade\nForestry\nGreat Depression\nIndustry\nautomotive\nconstruction\nmining\npetrochemical\nLeu (currency)\nNational Bank\nProperty bubble\nScience and technology\nServices\nSquatting\nStock Exchange\nTelecommunications\nTourism\nTransport\nSociety\nCrime\nDemographics\nEducation\nHealthcare\nImmigration\nLanguages\nMinorities\nProstitution\nPublic holidays\nRacism\nRefugees\nReligion\nRomanians\nGypsies\nSocial structure\nUrban planning\nWelfare\nCulture\nAcademy\nArchitecture\nArt\nCinema\nCuisine\nWine\nFlag\nFolklore\nHumour\nLiterature\nMedia\nMusic\nPhilosophy\nSport\nWorld Heritage Sites\nOutlineIndex\nCategory\nPortal\n Commons\nvteMonarchies\nMonarch\nImperial, royal and noble ranks\nList of current sovereign monarchs\nList of current non-sovereign monarchs\nList of monarchy referendums\nType\nAbsolute\nConstitutional\nDiarchy\nElective\nFederal\nHereditary\nNon-sovereign\nPersonal union\nRegency\nTopics\nAbdication\nAbolition of monarchy\nAristocracy\nCriticism of monarchy\nDemocratization\nDecolonization\nDynasty\nGovernment\nHead of state\nLegitimacy (political)\nOligarchy\nOrder of succession\nRepublicanism\nSelf-proclaimed monarchy\nSovereignty\nTitles\nChhatrapati\nEmperor\nKing\nQueen regnant\nPrince regnant\nRaja\nkhan\nTsar\nSultan\nShah\nPharaoh\nCurrentAfrica\nEswatini\nLesotho\nMorocco\nlist\nAsia\nBahrain\nBhutan\nBrunei\nCambodia\nJapan\nJordan\nKuwait\nMalaysia\nOman\nQatar\nSaudi Arabia\nThailand\nUnited Arab Emirates\nlist\nEurope\nAndorra\nBelgium\nDenmark\nLiechtenstein\nLuxembourg\nMonaco\nNetherlands\nNorway\nSpain\nSweden\nVatican City (Holy See)\nOceania\nTonga\nCommonwealth realms\nAntigua and Barbuda\nAustralia\nBahamas\nBelize\nCanada\nGrenada\nJamaica\nNew Zealand\nCook Islands\nNiue\nPapua New Guinea\nSaint Kitts and Nevis\nSaint Lucia\nSaint Vincent and the Grenadines\nSolomon Islands\nTuvalu\nUnited Kingdom\nFormerAfrica\nAdamawa\nAnkole\nAussa\nBarotseland\nBagirmi\nBornu\nBurundi\nCentral Africa\nDahomey\nEgypt\nEthiopia\nGhana\nGomma\nGumma\nKaffa\nKongo\nLibya\nLuba\nMadagascar\nMali\nMaore\nMaravi\nMwali\nNdzuwani\nNgazidja\nRwanda\nShilluk\nIslands of Refreshment\nTunisia\nWituland\nWassoulou\nYeke\nZanzibar\nZimbabwe\nand other\nAmericas\nAraucanía\nAztec\nBrazil\nHaiti\nInca\nMexico\nMiskito\nSuriname\nTalamanca\nTrinidad\nThirteen Colonies\nAsia\nAfghanistan\nAsir\nBengal\nBukhara\nBurma\nCebu\nChehab\nChina\nDapitan\nHejaz\nIndonesia\nIran (Qajar)\nIraq\nJabal Shammar\nKandy (Sri Lanka)\nKathiri\nKhiva\nKorea\nKumul\nKurdistan\nLaos\nMaguindanao\nMahra\nMaldives\nManchukuo\nMongolia\nNajran\nNepal\nQu'aiti\nRyukyu\nSarawak\nShan\nSikkim\nSip Song Chau Tai\nSulu\nSyria\nTibet\nTaiwan\nUpper Asir\nUpper Yafa\nVietnam\nYemen (South Yemen)\nEurope\nAlbania\nAragon\nAsturias\nAustria\nAustria-Hungary\nBavaria\nBosnia\nBrittany\nBulgaria\nCrimea\nCilicia\nCorsica\nCyprus\nFinland\nFrance\nGalicia\nGeorgia\nGermany\nGreece\nGranada\nHanover\nHungary\nIceland\nImereti\nIreland\nItaly\nKartli-Kakheti\nLithuania\nMajorca\nMan\nMoldavia\nMontenegro\nNavarre\nNeuchâtel\nOttoman Empire\nPapal States\nPiedmont-Sardinia\nPoland–Lithuania\nPortugal\nPrussia\nRomania\nRussia\nSamos\nSaxony\nSavoy\nScotland\nSerbia\nTavolara\nTwo Sicilies\nTuscany\nUnited Baltic Duchy\nYugoslavia\nValencia\nWürttemberg\nOceania\nAbemama\nBora Bora\nEaster Island\nKingdom of Fiji\nHawaii\nHuahine\nMangareva\nNiuē-Fekai\nNuku Hiva\nRaiatea\nRapa Iti\nRarotonga\nRimatara\nRurutu\nTahuata\nTahiti\nCommonwealth realms\nBarbados\nCeylon (Sri Lanka)\nFiji\nThe Gambia\nGhana\nGuyana\nIndia (British Raj, princely states)\nIrish Free State / Ireland\nKenya\nMalawi\nMalta\nMauritius\nNigeria\nPakistan\nRhodesia\nSierra Leone\nSouth Africa\nTanganyika\nTrinidad and Tobago\nUganda\n\n44°25′N 26°06′E / 44.417°N 26.100°E / 44.417; 26.100","title":"Monarchs"}]	[{"image_text":"Proclamation Act of the Kingdom of Romania","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Actul_proclamarii_Regatului_Romania.jpg/220px-Actul_proclamarii_Regatului_Romania.jpg"},{"image_text":"1901 German map of Romania","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Romania1901.JPG/220px-Romania1901.JPG"},{"image_text":"Ethnic map of Romanians within the Kingdom of Hungary in 1890","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/RomaniansInHungary1890.png/220px-RomaniansInHungary1890.png"},{"image_text":"Romanian pavilion at EXPO Paris 1937","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Paris-expo-1937-pavillon_de_la_Roumanie-10.jpg/220px-Paris-expo-1937-pavillon_de_la_Roumanie-10.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Malaxa Prime, a Romanian-made steel-wrought locomotive","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Romania_CFR_151.002_2-10-2.JPG/220px-Romania_CFR_151.002_2-10-2.JPG"},{"image_text":"250 mm Negrei mortar","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Mortier_Negrei_250_mm_Model_1916.JPG/220px-Mortier_Negrei_250_mm_Model_1916.JPG"},{"image_text":"A formation of IAR-80 fighter aircraft","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/IAR80.jpg/220px-IAR80.jpg"},{"image_text":"Minelayer NMS Amiral Murgescu","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Amiral_Murgescu_%28side%29.jpg/220px-Amiral_Murgescu_%28side%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ethnic map (1930 census)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Romania_1930_ethnic_map_EN.png/220px-Romania_1930_ethnic_map_EN.png"},{"image_text":"Physical map of Romania in 1939","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Romania1939physical.jpg/220px-Romania1939physical.jpg"},{"image_text":"Literacy rate in interwar Romania (1930)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Romania_1930_literacy_EN.svg/220px-Romania_1930_literacy_EN.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and World War I but were lost after World War II, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after World War I and remained so after World War II.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Romania_territory_during_20th_century.gif/220px-Romania_territory_during_20th_century.gif"},{"image_text":"Timeline of the borders of Romania between 1859 and 2010","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/RomaniaBorderHistoryAnnimation_1859-2010.gif/220px-RomaniaBorderHistoryAnnimation_1859-2010.gif"}]	null	[{"reference":"\"Constitutiunea din 1923\" (in Romanian). Legislatie pentru Democratie. Retrieved 19 September 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://legislatie.resurse-pentru-democratie.org/const_1923.php","url_text":"\"Constitutiunea din 1923\""}]},{"reference":"Bataković, Dušan T. (2011). Minorities in the Balkans: state policy and interethnic relations (1804 - 2004): Les minorites dans les Balkans. Balkanološki institut SANU. p. 98. ISBN 9788671790680.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788671790680","url_text":"9788671790680"}]},{"reference":"Ioan Scurtu (2005). \"Istoria contemporana a României (1918-2005)\" (in Romanian). Bucharest. Retrieved 19 September 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.scribd.com/doc/8031827/Scurtu-Ioan-Istoria-a-a-Romaniei-19182005","url_text":"\"Istoria contemporana a României (1918-2005)\""}]},{"reference":"Institutul Central de Statistică (1943). \"Indicatorul localităților din România\" (PDF) (in Romanian). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 20 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304202804/http://www.cimec.ro/pdf/dl.asp?filename=indicatorul-localitatilor-din-Romania-1941.pdf","url_text":"\"Indicatorul localităților din România\""},{"url":"http://www.cimec.ro/pdf/dl.asp?filename=indicatorul-localitatilor-din-Romania-1941.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Timeline\". Archived from the original on 2016-12-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161219231851/http://www.uaic.ro/en/university-2/university/timeline/","url_text":"\"Timeline\""},{"url":"https://www.uaic.ro/en/university-2/university/timeline/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Romania - The Crimean War and Unification\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-11119.html","url_text":"\"Romania - The Crimean War and Unification\""}]},{"reference":"Deju, Elena (2018-11-18). \"Aspecte ale influenţei limbii franceze asupra limbii române\". Analele Universității \"Dunărea de Jos\" din Galați. Fascicula XXIV, Lexic comun / Lexic specializat. 19 (1): 139–146. doi:10.35219/lcls.2018.1.08. ISSN 1844-9476. S2CID 216956637.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gup.ugal.ro/ugaljournals/index.php/lcls/article/view/1701","url_text":"\"Aspecte ale influenţei limbii franceze asupra limbii române\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.35219%2Flcls.2018.1.08","url_text":"10.35219/lcls.2018.1.08"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1844-9476","url_text":"1844-9476"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216956637","url_text":"216956637"}]},{"reference":"\"Unele consideraţii privind impactul dreptului francez asupra celui românesc, în contextul formării României moderne\". Conferința Internațională de Drept, Studii Europene și Relații Internaționale (in Romanian). I (I): 668–675. 2013. ISSN 2668-0645.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=821715","url_text":"\"Unele consideraţii privind impactul dreptului francez asupra celui românesc, în contextul formării României moderne\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2668-0645","url_text":"2668-0645"}]},{"reference":"\"Text of the Treaty of Trianon\". World War I Document Archive. Retrieved 2007-12-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Trianon","url_text":"\"Text of the Treaty of Trianon\""}]},{"reference":"Bernard Anthony Cook (2001). Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia. Taylor&Francis. p. 162. ISBN 0-8153-4057-5. Retrieved 2007-12-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ox_gXq2jpdYC&q=treaty+of+st+germain+text+bukovina&pg=PA162","url_text":"Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8153-4057-5","url_text":"0-8153-4057-5"}]},{"reference":"Malbone W. Graham (October 1944). \"The Legal Status of the Bukovina and Bessarabia\". American Journal of International Law. 38 (4). American Society of International Law: 667–673. doi:10.2307/2192802. JSTOR 2192802. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D9_(video)	Digital-S	["1 Technical details","2 HD recording","3 Additional information","4 References","5 External links"]	Professional digital video cassette format D-9 VideotapeD-9 VideotapeMedia typeMagnetic cassette tapeEncodingNTSC, PALStandardInterlaced videoUsageVideo production D-9 or Digital-S as it was originally known, is a professional digital video videocassette format created by JVC in 1995. It is a direct competitor to Sony's Digital Betacam. Its name was changed to D-9 in 1999 by the SMPTE. It was used to a small extent in Europe and Asia and saw some use in the US, notably by the Fox News Channel, but was a commercial failure compared with Digital Betacam. It was superseded by high definition tapeless formats. Technical details D-9 uses a tape shell of the VHS form factor although some front-loading VHS VCRs will refuse to pull the cassette in because of the curved edges. The tape itself uses a much higher quality metal particle formulation. The recording system is digital and for video uses DV compression at a 50 Mbit/s bitrate. Video is recorded in 4:2:2 component format at a variety of standard-definition resolutions, in either 4:3 or 16:9 aspect ratios. Audio is recorded as 16-bit/48 kHz PCM with up to four separate channels. The tape is 1/2 inch wide, the helical scan head drum is 62 mm in diameter, and the video tracks, which are read by the video heads in the head drum, are 20 microns wide. Video quality is generally very high; at standard definition, D-9's quality is comparable with Digital Betacam. The BR-D51U model is additionally capable of analogue S-VHS playback. HD recording For high definition video recording, JVC developed an extension to D-9 called D-9 HD, using twice the number of recording heads to record a 100 Mbit/s video bitstream at resolutions of 720p60, 1080i60 and 1080p24. This variant can also record 8 channels of PCM audio at 16 bits and 48 kHz. The higher data rate and increased tape speed mean that the recording time of any given cassette would be halved. D-9 HD, based on specifications, would have been higher quality than Sony HDCAM but lower than Sony HDCAM SR; no objective tests were made comparing these formats. It is not clear whether this proposed format was ever manufactured or sold. Additional information Although D-9 uses the same video codec as DV, the video bitrate of D-9 is significantly higher than that of the "prosumer" format. DVCPRO achieves bitrate parity with D-9 and D-9 HD, but has a slower tape speed, making it less reliable. Some of the D-9 television studio gear is capable of recording with Sel-Sync or pre-read and is provided with four-channel audio like Digital Betacam. Serial digital interfaces (SDI) are also provided. A dockable recorder, the JVC BR-D40, attached to a variety of cameras, and there was a one-piece camcorder, the JVC DY-70U. References ^ "D-9: Introduction to the format" ^ "D-9 / Digital-S video digitised & transferred to FFV1, MOV & MP4". The Great Bear. Retrieved 2024-02-13. ^ "D-9 in action worldwide" ^ "D-9 technical specifications" Archived 2007-10-23 at the Wayback Machine, Displays general D-9 technical specifications. Accessed October 13, 2007. ^ Tozer, E. P. J. (November 12, 2012). Broadcast Engineer's Reference Book. CRC Press. ISBN 9781136024184 – via Google Books. ^ "JVC Professional Japan" ^ "D-9 HD Technical Specifications" ^ "D-9 HD". pro.jvc.com. Retrieved 2015-11-11. ^ "JVC" (PDF). JVC. External links JVC's Japanese D-9 product page vteVideo storage formatsVideotapeAnalog Quadruplex (1956) VERA (1958) Ampex 2 inch helical VTR (1961) Sony 2 inch helical VTR (1961) Type A (1965) CV-2000 (1965) Akai (1967) EIAJ-1 (1969) U-matic (1971) Cartrivision (1972) Philips VCR (1972) V-Cord (1974) VX (1974) Betamax (1975) IVC (1975) Type B (1976) Type C (1976) VHS (1976) VK (1977) SVR (1979) Video 2000 (1980) CVC (1980) VHS-C (1982) M (1982) Betacam (1982) Video8 (1985) Betacam SP (1986) MII (1986) S-VHS (1987) S-VHS-C (1987) Hi8 (1989) Ruvi (1998) Digital D1 (1986) D2 (1988) D3 (1991) DCT (1992) Digital Betacam (1993) D5 (1994) Digital-S (D9) (1995) Betacam SX (1996) Digital8 (1999) MPEG IMX (2000) MicroMV (2001) High Definition Sony HDVS (1984) UniHi (1984) BCH 1000 (1992) W-VHS (1994) HDCAM (1997) D-VHS (1998) D6 HDTV VTR (2000) HDV (2003) HDCAM SR (2003) VideodiscAnalog Phonovision (1927) Ampex-HS (1967) TeD (1975) LaserDisc (1978) CED (1981) VHD (1983) Laserfilm (1984) CD Video (1987) VSD (1990) Digital VCD (1993) MovieCD (1996) DVD (1996) MiniDVD (c. 1996) CVD (1998) SVCD (1998) EVD (2003) PVD (Personal Video Disc) (2003) UMD (2004) FVD (2005) High Definition MUSE Hi-Vision LD (1994) Professional Disc (PFD) (2003) HVD (High-Definition Versatile Disc) (2004) VMD (2006) HD DVD (2006) BD (Blu-ray Disc) (2006) MiniBD (c. 2006) HVD (Holographic Versatile Disc) (2007) CBHD (China Blue High-definition Disc) (2008) Ultra-High Definition UHD-BD (Ultra HD Blu-ray) (2016) VirtualMedia agnostic DV (1995) DVCPRO (1995) DVCAM (1996) DVCPRO50 (1997) DVCPRO HD (2000) Tapeless CamCutter Editcam (1995) XDCAM (2003) GBA-TV (2004) MOD (2005) AVCHD (2006) AVC-Intra (2006) TOD (2007) iFrame (2009) XAVC (2012) Solid state P2 (2004) SxS (2007) MicroP2 (2012) Video recorded to film Kinescope (1947) Electronicam kinescope (1950s) Electronic Video Recording (1967) vteHigh-definition (HD)Concepts High-definition television High-definition video Ultra-high-definition television Resolutions 720p (HD) 1080i (Full HD) 1080p (Full HD) 1440p (Quad HD) 2160p (4K Ultra HD) 4320p (8K Ultra HD) 8640p (16K Ultra HD) Analog broadcast(All defunct) 819 line system HD MAC MUSE (Hi-Vision) Digital broadcast ATSC DMB-T/H DVB ISDB SBTVD Audio Dolby Digital Surround sound DSD DXD DTS Filming and storage DCI HDV HD media andcompression Archival Disc AV1 Blu-ray CBHD D-VHS DVD-Audio H.264 H.265 H.266 HD DVD HD VMD MPEG-2 MUSE LaserDisc MVC Super Audio CD Ultra HD Blu-ray Uncompressed VC-1 W-VHS Connectors Component DisplayPort DVI HDMI VGA Deployments List of digital television deployments by country vteHigh-definition mediaMedia formats Archival Disc Blu-ray China Blue High-definition Disc (CBHD) D-VHS HD DVD Holographic Versatile Disc MUSE LaserDisc Ultra HD Blu-ray W-VHS Promoter Blu-ray Disc Association China High-definition DVD Industry Association HD DVD Promotion Group HVD Forum Interactivity Advanced Content BD-Java Recordable formats BD-R BD-RE D-VHS HD DVD-R HD DVD-RAM HD DVD-RW W-VHS Comparison Comparison of high-definition optical disc formats Copy prevention AACS (BD, FVD, and HD DVD) BD+ (BD) HDCP (BD and HD DVD) ROM Mark (BD) Cinavia (BD) Blu-ray players TotalMedia Theatre PowerDVD PlayStation 3 Sony BDP-S1 PlayStation 4 Xbox One Ultra HD Blu-ray players PlayStation 5 Xbox One S Xbox One X Xbox Series X HD DVD players Xbox 360 HD DVD Drive	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"digital video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_video"},{"link_name":"videocassette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videocassette"},{"link_name":"JVC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JVC"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"Digital Betacam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Betacam"},{"link_name":"SMPTE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMPTE"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Fox News Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_News_Channel"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"D-9 or Digital-S as it was originally known, is a professional digital video videocassette format created by JVC in 1995.It is a direct competitor to Sony's Digital Betacam. Its name was changed to D-9 in 1999 by the SMPTE.[1] [2]It was used to a small extent in Europe and Asia and saw some use in the US, notably by the Fox News Channel,[3] but was a commercial failure compared with Digital Betacam. It was superseded by high definition tapeless formats.","title":"Digital-S"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"VHS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHS"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"DV compression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DV_(video_format)#DV_compression"},{"link_name":"bitrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitrate"},{"link_name":"4:2:2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chroma_subsampling"},{"link_name":"component","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Component_video"},{"link_name":"standard-definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard-definition"},{"link_name":"aspect ratios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratio_(image)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"D-9 uses a tape shell of the VHS form factor although some front-loading VHS VCRs will refuse to pull the cassette in because of the curved edges.[citation needed] The tape itself uses a much higher quality metal particle formulation. The recording system is digital and for video uses DV compression at a 50 Mbit/s bitrate. Video is recorded in 4:2:2 component format at a variety of standard-definition resolutions, in either 4:3 or 16:9 aspect ratios. Audio is recorded as 16-bit/48 kHz PCM with up to four separate channels.[4] The tape is 1/2 inch wide, the helical scan head drum is 62 mm in diameter, and the video tracks, which are read by the video heads in the head drum, are 20 microns wide.[5] Video quality is generally very high; at standard definition, D-9's quality is comparable with Digital Betacam.[6] The BR-D51U model is additionally capable of analogue S-VHS playback.","title":"Technical details"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"high definition video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_definition_video"},{"link_name":"PCM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-code_modulation"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"HDCAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDCAM"},{"link_name":"HDCAM SR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDCAM_SR"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"For high definition video recording, JVC developed an extension to D-9 called D-9 HD, using twice the number of recording heads to record a 100 Mbit/s video bitstream at resolutions of 720p60, 1080i60 and 1080p24. This variant can also record 8 channels of PCM audio at 16 bits and 48 kHz. The higher data rate and increased tape speed mean that the recording time of any given cassette would be halved.[7] D-9 HD, based on specifications, would have been higher quality than Sony HDCAM but lower than Sony HDCAM SR; no objective tests were made comparing these formats. It is not clear whether this proposed format was ever manufactured or sold.[8]","title":"HD recording"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DV_(video_format)"},{"link_name":"prosumer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prosumer#Etymology_2"},{"link_name":"DVCPRO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVCPRO"},{"link_name":"television studio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_studio"},{"link_name":"Sel-Sync","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sel-Sync"},{"link_name":"Serial digital interfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_digital_interface"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Although D-9 uses the same video codec as DV, the video bitrate of D-9 is significantly higher than that of the \"prosumer\" format. DVCPRO achieves bitrate parity with D-9 and D-9 HD, but has a slower tape speed, making it less reliable. Some of the D-9 television studio gear is capable of recording with Sel-Sync or pre-read and is provided with four-channel audio like Digital Betacam. Serial digital interfaces (SDI) are also provided. A dockable recorder, the JVC BR-D40, attached to a variety of cameras, and there was a one-piece camcorder, the JVC DY-70U.[9]","title":"Additional information"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"D-9 / Digital-S video digitised & transferred to FFV1, MOV & MP4\". The Great Bear. Retrieved 2024-02-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://thegreatbear.co.uk/project/d-9/","url_text":"\"D-9 / Digital-S video digitised & transferred to FFV1, MOV & MP4\""}]},{"reference":"Tozer, E. P. J. (November 12, 2012). Broadcast Engineer's Reference Book. CRC Press. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Company_of_Japan	JVC	["1 History","1.1 1927 creation to World War II","1.2 Post-war","1.3 1970s, 1980s and the VHS/Betamax format war","1.4 Other notable achievements","1.5 21st century","2 Sponsorship","3 Brand name","4 Subsidiaries","5 Product gallery","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","9 External links"]	Japanese international electronics corporation For other uses, see JVC (disambiguation). This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (October 2018) This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (May 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Victor Company of Japan, LimitedTrade nameJVCNative name日本ビクター株式会社Romanized nameNihon Bikutā kabushiki gaishaCompany typeSubsidiaryTraded as TYO: 6792 OSE: 6792 (1960–2008) IndustryElectronicsFoundedSeptember 13, 1927; 96 years ago (1927-09-13)Yokohama, JapanDefunctOctober 1, 2011 (2011-10-01)FateMerged with Kenwood CorporationSuccessorJVCKenwood CorporationHeadquartersYokohama, JapanKey peopleShoichiro Eguchi, PresidentProductsAudio, visual, computer-related electronics and software, media productsRevenue ¥658.4 billion (Fiscal year ended March 31, 2008)Number of employees19,044 (consolidated, as of March 31, 2008)Parent Victor Talking Machine Company (1927–1929) Radio Corporation of America (1929–1942) Matsushita Electric (1953–2008) JVC Kenwood Holdings (2008–2011) JVCKenwood (2011–present) Websitewww.jvc.netFootnotes / references JVC (short for Japan Victor Company) is a Japanese brand owned by JVCKenwood. Founded in 1927 as the Victor Talking Machine Company of Japan and later as Victor Company of Japan, Ltd. (日本ビクター株式会社, Nihon Bikutā kabushiki gaisha), the company was best known for introducing Japan's first televisions and for developing the Video Home System (VHS) video recorder. From 1953 to 2008, the Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. was the majority stockholder in JVC. In 2008, JVC merged with Kenwood Corporation to create JVCKenwood. JVC sold their electronic products in their home market of Japan under the "Victor" name with the His Master's Voice logo but used the name JVC or Nivico in the past for export due to differing ownership of the His Master's Voice logo and the ownership of the "Victor" name from successors of the Victor Talking Machine Company. In 2011, the Victor brand for electronics in Japan was replaced by the global JVC brand. However, the previous "Victor" name and logo are retained by JVCKenwood Victor Entertainment, and are used as JVCKenwood's luxury HiFi marque. History This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message) 1927 creation to World War II JVC was founded in 1927 as the Victor Talking Machine Company of Japan, Limited, a subsidiary of the United States' leading phonograph and record company, the Victor Talking Machine Company of Camden, New Jersey. In 1929, the Radio Corporation of America purchased Victor and its foreign subsidiaries, including the Japan operations. In the late 1920s, JVC produced only phonographs and records; following the acquisition by RCA, JVC began producing radios, and in 1939, Japan's first locally-made television. In 1943, amidst the hostilities between the United States and Japan during World War II, JVC seceded from RCA Victor, retaining the 'Victor' and "His Master's Voice" trademarks for use in Japan only. After the war, JVC resumed distribution of RCA Victor recordings in Japan until RCA established its separate distribution in Japan during the late 1960s. Today, the record company in Japan is known as Victor Entertainment. Post-war JVC HR-3300U VIDSTAR (1977) In 1953, JVC became majority-owned by the Panasonic Corporation. Panasonic released its ownership in 2007. In the 1960s, JVC established the Nivico (Nippon Victor Corporation) brand for Delmonico's line of console televisions and stereos. In 1970, JVC marketed the Videosphere, a portable cathode ray tube (CRT) television inside a space-helmet-shaped casing with an alarm clock at the base. It was a commercial success. In 1971, JVC introduced the first discrete system for four channel quadraphonic sound on vinyl records - CD-4 (Compatible Discrete Four Channel) or Quadradisc, as it was called by the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) in the United States. In 1973, the JVC Cutting Center opened (in the USA) to provide mastering for CD-4 discs. The Mark II 1/2 speed system was used until mid-1975 when it was replaced with the Mark III 1/2 speed system. In 1978, Mobile Fidelity began using the JVC Cutting Center to 1/2 speed master Stereo/Mono discs. In 1975, JVC introduced the first combined portable battery-operated radio with inbuilt TV, as the model 3050. The TV was a 3-inch (7.6 cm) black-and-white cathode ray tube. One year later, JVC expanded the model to add a cassette recorder, as the 3060, creating the world's first boombox with radio, cassette and TV. In 1976, the first VCR to use VHS was the Victor HR-3300, and was introduced by the president of JVC at the Okura Hotel in Tokyo on September 9, 1976. JVC started selling the HR-3300 in Akihabara, Tokyo, Japan on October 31, 1976. Region-specific versions of the JVC HR-3300 were also distributed later on, such as the HR-3300U in the United States, and HR-3300EK in the United Kingdom. 1970s, 1980s and the VHS/Betamax format war JVC's VHS tape won over Betamax to become common home recording format. JVC HR-S5960E,S-VHS-Videorecorder In the late 1970s, JVC developed the VHS format, introducing the first VHS recorders to the consumer market in 1976 for the equivalent of US$1,060. Sony, which had introduced the Betamax home videocassette tape a year earlier, became the main competitor for JVC's VHS format into the 1980s, creating the videotape format war. The Betamax cassette was smaller, with slightly superior picture quality to the VHS cassette, but this resulted in Betamax having less recording time. The two companies competed fiercely to encourage others to adopt their format, but by 1984 forty companies were using JVC's VHS format, while only 12 used Betamax. Sony began producing VHS recorders in 1988 and after 1993 stopped making Betamax recorders for the US market, and then completely in 2002. One reason for the market penetration of VHS in the UK were the sales of blank tapes by JVC UK Ltd to major Hollywood studios. This launched the nascent home video rental market, which was hardly touched by Sony at the time. This ability to take movies home helped the sale of the VHS hardware immensely. Added to this JVC stated in a promotional tape presented by BBC TV legend Cliff Michelmore, that "You'll be able to buy the sort of films the BBC and ITV will never show you, for whatever reason". The adult movie industry adopted VHS as their common format and with a certain level of software availability, hardware sales grew. Other notable achievements In 1979, JVC demonstrated a prototype of its video high density (VHD) disc system. This system was capacitance-based, like capacitance electronic disc (CED), but the discs were grooveless with the stylus being guided by servo signals in the disc surface. The VHD discs were initially handled by the operator and played on a machine that looked like an audio LP turntable, but JVC used caddy-housed discs when the system was marketed. Development suffered numerous delays, and the product was launched in 1983 in Japan, followed by the United Kingdom in 1984, to a limited industrial market. In 1981, JVC introduced a line of revolutionary direct-drive cassette decks, topped by the DD-9, that provided previously unattainable levels of speed stability. During the 1980s JVC briefly marketed its portable audio equipment similar to the Sony Walkman on the market at the time. The JVC CQ-F2K was released in 1982 and had a detachable radio mounted to the headphones for a compact, wire-free listening experience. JVC had difficulty making the products successful, and a few years later stopped making them. In Japan, JVC marketed the products under the name "Victor". In 1986, JVC released the HC-95, a personal computer with a 3.58 MHz Zilog Z80A processor, 64 KB RAM, running on MSX Basic 2.0. It included two 3.5" floppy disk drives and conformed to the graphics specification of the MSX-2 standard. However, like the Pioneer PX-7, it also carried a sophisticated hardware interface that handled video superimposition and various interactive video processing features. The JVC HC-95 was first sold in Japan, and then Europe, but sales were disappointing. JVC video recorders were marketed by the Ferguson Radio Corporation in the UK, with just cosmetic changes. However, Ferguson needed to find another supplier for its camcorders when JVC produced only the VHS-C format, rather than video8. Ferguson was later acquired by Thomson SA, which ended the relationship. JVC later invented hard drive camcorders. 21st century JVC HD100 ProHD video camera (2006) In October 2001, the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences presented JVC an Emmy Award for "outstanding achievement in technological advancement" for "Pioneering Development of Consumer Camcorders". Annual sponsorships of the world-renowned JVC Tokyo Video Festival and the JVC Jazz Festival have helped attract the attention of more customers. JVC has been a worldwide football (soccer) supporter since 1982, having a former kit sponsorship with Arsenal and continuing its role as an official partner of 2002 FIFA World Cup Korea/Japan. JVC made headlines as the first-ever corporate partner of the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex. JVC has recently forged corporate partnerships with ESPN Zone and Foxploration. In 2005, JVC joined HANA, the High-Definition Audio-Video Network Alliance, to help establish standards in consumer-electronics interoperability. In 2005, JVC announced their development of the first DVD-RW DL media (the dual-layer version of the rewritable DVD-RW format). In December 2006, Matsushita entered talks with Kenwood and Cerberus Capital Management to sell its stake in JVC. In 2007, Victor Company of Japan Ltd confirmed a strategic capital alliance with Kenwood and SPARKX Investment, resulting in Matsushita's holding being reduced to approximately 37%. In March 2008, Matsushita (Panasonic) agreed to spin off the company and merge it with Kenwood Electronics, creating JVCKenwood Holdings on October 1, 2008. In April 2008, JVC announced that it was closing its TV plants in East Kilbride (Scotland) and Japan. This left it with one plant in Thailand. It stated it would outsource European production to an OEM. JVC TVs for North America are now being manufactured by AmTRAN Video Corporation along with distribution, service, and warranty under license from JVCKenwood. In Europe, Currys plc, owner of Currys, has a similar arrangement with JVCKenwood. In Europe, JVC sells mainly some audio accessories, like headphones, and until recently DIN-type car audio. Also in Europe, JVC is present with camcorders, security cameras, audio systems, and with their emblematic boom box, projectors. JVC TV sets in Europe are manufactured mainly by Turkish manufacturer Vestel but are unavailable in all countries. JVC manufactures original audio equipment to vehicle manufacturers including Datsun, Nissan, Suzuki, and Honda vehicles. Sponsorship JVC is a well-known brand among English football fans due to the firm's sponsorship of Arsenal from 1981 to 1999, when Sega took over as Arsenal's sponsors. JVC's 18-year association with Arsenal is one of the longest club-sponsor associations with any professional club football. JVC also sponsored Scottish football club Aberdeen in the late-1980s and early-1990s as well as the FIFA World Cup from 1982 to 2002. JVC also sponsors the "away" shirts of the Australian A-League club, Sydney FC, and Dutch race driver Christijan Albers. JVC has also been a sponsor of a massively multiplayer online game called Rise: The Vieneo Province since 2003. Brand name Victor used in Japan (1977–2022) Nivico 7TA-4 Transistor Radio Victor GR-C1 See also: His Master's Voice, Nipper, Victor Talking Machine Company, RCA, RCA Records, and HMV Group JVC is generally known within Japan by the Victor brand, preceded by the His Master's Voice (HMV) logo featuring the dog Nipper. Because of a conflict in trademarks between HMV, RCA, and Victor, HMV and RCA are not allowed to use Nipper in Japan. At one time, the company used the Nivico name (for "Nippon Victor Company") overseas, before rebranding to JVC, which stands for Japan's Victor Company. Therefore, the Victor and JVC-Victor web sites looked quite different. Conversely, the HMV store chain exists in Japan (though no longer owned by HMV Group), but it cannot use the His Master's Voice motto or logo; its logo is a stylized image of a gramophone only. After the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), purchased the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1929 and became RCA Victor in Japan, RCA also had acquired the use of Nipper and His Master's Voice logo, but for use in the Western Hemisphere. In 2011, JVC decided to phase out the "Victor" brand for electronics in Japan, but retained its use for its premium audio products, recording studios Victor Studio, and record label JVCKenwood Victor Entertainment. Subsidiaries JVC KENWOOD Marketing India Gurgaon, Haryana, India JVC America Inc. – Tuscaloosa, Alabama, US JVC Americas Corp – Wayne, New Jersey, US JVC Canada Inc. – Mississauga, Ontario, Canada JVC Asia – Singapore JVC Australia – Australia JVC China – China JVC Europe – United Kingdom JVC Middle-East (and Africa) – Dubai, UAE JVC Latin America, S.A. – Panama JVC do Brasil Ltda. – Brazil JVC International – Austria Victor Entertainment Product gallery JVC 9F-220C radio JVC television JVC boombox JVC KD-D10E tape deck JVC QL-Y5F Direct drive turntable with electronic JVC tonearm JVC Compact system with CD player JVC camcorder KY D29 Digital-S camcorder JVC Picsio pocket camcorder See also Companies portal List of digital camera brands List of home computers Mitsubishi Electric Taiyo Yuden (partner with JVC) Video D-VHS W-VHS Videotape Video tape recorder Videocassette recorder Wondermega XRCD Notes ^ The original company was absorbed into JVCKenwood, although some products made by the company still use the JVC brand. References ^ "Annual Report 2008 Financial Section for JVC" (PDF). JVC Kenwood Holdings, Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-22. Retrieved 2012-05-22. ^ "Matsushita owned JVC 1953-2007". Retrieved 2012-10-08. ^ Sterjova, Milica (May 2017). "The 1970s JVC Videosphere: An iconic example of 'space age' design". Archived from the original on 2021-06-24. Retrieved 2021-06-21. ^ a b "Always Helpful! Full of Information on Recording Media "Made in Japan After All"". Nipponsei.jp. Archived from the original on 2011-01-11. Retrieved 2011-07-11. ^ "JVC HR-3300". Totalrewind.org. Retrieved 2011-07-11. ^ "Video / DVD - A Brief History of Home Video" (timeline), 2005, Entertainment Scene: ES-hvid-hist. ^ "JVC DD-9 Cassette Deck Review", HiFi Classic: . ^ "JVC Develops World's First Single-sided, Dual Layer DVD-RW Disc Technology" (PDF). 2005-04-04. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-12-21. Retrieved 2016-03-25. Victor Company of Japan, Ltd. (JVC) is pleased to announce that it has developed the world's first single-sided, dual layer DVD-RW disc technology with a maximum storage capacity of 8.5GB ^ "Matsushita Says No Decision on Sale of Victor Shares to Kenwood". Bloomberg. 2006-12-23. Retrieved 2012-05-22. ^ "Kenwood, JVC Take First Merger Steps". TWICE. 2007-08-06. Retrieved 2012-05-22. ^ Takenaka, Kiyoshi (2008-05-12). "JVC, Kenwood to merge under holding company". Reuters. Retrieved 2012-05-22. ^ "JAPAN NEWS: JVC reports increased losses, plans to end TV production in UK". 28 April 2008. Retrieved 22 March 2015. ^ "2010 - News Release - JVCKENWOOD Corporation". Archived from the original on 29 March 2015. Retrieved 22 March 2015. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-04-11. Retrieved 2015-03-21.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Campaign Live: JVC parts company with Arsenal". ^ "Category:Sponsorship - Rise: The Vieneo Province". ^ "why nipper is disappearing from record labels!". Retrieved 22 March 2015. ^ "HMV ONLINE - CD・DVD・ブルーレイ・本・雑誌・ゲーム・グッズも充実". Retrieved 22 March 2015. ^ vinylengine 2002-2020, JVC QL-Y5F, retrieved 16 May 2020. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to JVC. Official website vtePanasonicSubsidiariesCurrent Panasonic Avionics Corporation Panasonic Cycle Technology Panasonic Electric Works (acquired in 2012) Sanyo (acquired in 2009) Anchor Electricals (acquired in 2007) Blue Yonder (acquired in 2021) Former JVC (spun off and merged with Kenwood) MCA Inc. (sold to Seagram's) Universal Lighting Technologies (sold to Atar capital in 2021) Brands Eneloop Eluga KDK Lumix National (phased out) Panasonic Quasar Sanyo NXT Kaizen Technics Varicam ProductsConsoles 3DO Interactive Multiplayer Panasonic M2 Panasonic Q Jungle Turntables Technics SL-1200 Technics SL-10 Technics SL-J2 Other Bicycles Camcorders CD interface Hospi Lenses Lumix cameras MN103 Panapet Panasonic JR series Panasonic Toot-a-Loop Radio Toughpad Toughbook Panasonic TR-005 Venus Engine Formats and standards D5 HD M-3DI Standard Micro Four Thirds system MicroP2 MII P2 VHS Viera Cast VX People Kōnosuke Matsushita Masaharu Matsushita Masayuki Matsushita Hiro Matsushita Hirofumi Hirano Toshio Iue Kazuhiro Tsuga Other Gamba Osaka Panasonic Panthers Panasonic Wild Knights Panasonic cycling team Panasonic Toyota Racing Panasonic Gobel Awards Panasonic Impulse Category Commons vteElectronics industry in JapanCompaniesCurrent Aiwa Alaxala Networks Alinco Alps Alpine Anritsu AOR Audio-Technica Bandai Namco Brother Canon Casio CatEye Citizen Watch Cosina D+M Group Denon Marantz Daikin Denso Denso Ten DNP Eiki Eizo Elecom ESP Guitars FANUC Fostex Fuji Electric Fujifilm Business Innovation Fujitsu Funai Furuno Futaba Hamamatsu Photonics Hirose Electric Hitachi Clarion Maxell Hoya Ibanez Ibiden Icom Ikegami Tsushinki Iwatsu Japan Display JEOL JRC JR Propo JVCKenwood JVC Kenwood Kawai Keyence Kioxia Kiramek Konami Konica Minolta KO PROPO Korg Kyocera Luxman Mabuchi Motor Mamiya Maspro Melco Micron Memory Japan MinebeaMitsumi Mitsumi Mitsubishi Electric Murata Manufacturing Mutoh Nakamichi NEC Mobile Communications Nichia Nichicon Nidec Nidec Copal Corporation Nihon Dempa Kogyo Nikon Nintendo Nippon Chemi-Con Nitto Denko NKK Switches Oki Olympus Omron Onkyo Integra Home Theater Orion Electric Panasonic Sanyo Technics Pioneer Pixela Plextor Renesas Electronics Ricoh Pentax Riso Kagaku Rohm Roland Rubycon Sansui Sanwa Electronic SCREEN Sega Sammy Sega Seiko Group Pulsar Seiko Epson Orient Watch Seiko Instruments Sharp Shimadzu Shindengen Electric Manufacturing Sigma Sony SNK Square Enix Taito Stanley Electric Star Micronics Stax Sumitomo Electric Taiyo Yuden Tamron TDK TEAC Tiger TOA Corporation Tokyo Electron Topcon Toshiba Uniden Ushio Wacom Yaesu Yamaha Yaskawa Yokogawa Zojirushi Zoom Zuken Defunct Aiwa Akai Bronica Chinon Contax Konica Minolta National Norita Okaya Optical Other Electronic Industries Association INCJ Japan Electronic Industries Development Association Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries Association Yagi–Uda antenna Category Authority control databases International VIAF 2 National Israel United States Japan Artists Museum of Modern Art Other MusicBrainz label 2	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"JVC (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JVC_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"JVCKenwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JVCKenwood"},{"link_name":"televisions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television"},{"link_name":"VHS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHS"},{"link_name":"Matsushita Electric Industrial Co.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic"},{"link_name":"Kenwood Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenwood_Corporation"},{"link_name":"His Master's Voice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/His_Master%27s_Voice"},{"link_name":"name JVC or Nivico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Brand_name"},{"link_name":"Victor Talking Machine Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Talking_Machine_Company"},{"link_name":"JVCKenwood Victor Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JVCKenwood_Victor_Entertainment"}],"text":"For other uses, see JVC (disambiguation).JVC (short for Japan Victor Company) is a Japanese brand owned by JVCKenwood. Founded in 1927 as the Victor Talking Machine Company of Japan and later as Victor Company of Japan, Ltd. (日本ビクター株式会社, Nihon Bikutā kabushiki gaisha), the company was best known for introducing Japan's first televisions and for developing the Video Home System (VHS) video recorder.From 1953 to 2008, the Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. was the majority stockholder in JVC. In 2008, JVC merged with Kenwood Corporation to create JVCKenwood. JVC sold their electronic products in their home market of Japan under the \"Victor\" name with the His Master's Voice logo but used the name JVC or Nivico in the past for export due to differing ownership of the His Master's Voice logo and the ownership of the \"Victor\" name from successors of the Victor Talking Machine Company. In 2011, the Victor brand for electronics in Japan was replaced by the global JVC brand. However, the previous \"Victor\" name and logo are retained by JVCKenwood Victor Entertainment, and are used as JVCKenwood's luxury HiFi marque.","title":"JVC"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"phonograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph"},{"link_name":"record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_record"},{"link_name":"Victor Talking Machine Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Talking_Machine_Company"},{"link_name":"Camden, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camden,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Radio Corporation of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Corporation_of_America"},{"link_name":"radios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio"},{"link_name":"television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"RCA Victor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA_Victor"},{"link_name":"Victor Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Entertainment"}],"sub_title":"1927 creation to World War II","text":"JVC was founded in 1927 as the Victor Talking Machine Company of Japan, Limited, a subsidiary of the United States' leading phonograph and record company, the Victor Talking Machine Company of Camden, New Jersey. In 1929, the Radio Corporation of America purchased Victor and its foreign subsidiaries, including the Japan operations. In the late 1920s, JVC produced only phonographs and records; following the acquisition by RCA, JVC began producing radios, and in 1939, Japan's first locally-made television. In 1943, amidst the hostilities between the United States and Japan during World War II, JVC seceded from RCA Victor, retaining the 'Victor' and \"His Master's Voice\" trademarks for use in Japan only. After the war, JVC resumed distribution of RCA Victor recordings in Japan until RCA established its separate distribution in Japan during the late 1960s. Today, the record company in Japan is known as Victor Entertainment.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JVC-HR-3300U.jpg"},{"link_name":"Panasonic Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-matsushita-3"},{"link_name":"Videosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videosphere"},{"link_name":"cathode ray tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube"},{"link_name":"alarm clock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alarm_clock"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"quadraphonic sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadraphonic_sound"},{"link_name":"CD-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadraphonic_sound#CD-4_(Compact_Discrete_4)_/_Quadradisc"},{"link_name":"Quadradisc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadradisc"},{"link_name":"Radio Corporation of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"boombox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boombox"},{"link_name":"cassette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassette_player"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Victor HR-3300","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JVC_HR-3300"},{"link_name":"Okura Hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotel_Okura_Tokyo"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nipponsei-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Akihabara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akihabara"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nipponsei-5"}],"sub_title":"Post-war","text":"JVC HR-3300U VIDSTAR (1977)In 1953, JVC became majority-owned by the Panasonic Corporation. Panasonic released its ownership in 2007.[2]In the 1960s, JVC established the Nivico (Nippon Victor Corporation) brand for Delmonico's line of console televisions and stereos.In 1970, JVC marketed the Videosphere, a portable cathode ray tube (CRT) television inside a space-helmet-shaped casing with an alarm clock at the base. It was a commercial success.[3]In 1971, JVC introduced the first discrete system for four channel quadraphonic sound on vinyl records - CD-4 (Compatible Discrete Four Channel) or Quadradisc, as it was called by the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) in the United States.[citation needed]In 1973, the JVC Cutting Center opened (in the USA) to provide mastering for CD-4 discs. The Mark II 1/2 speed system was used until mid-1975 when it was replaced with the Mark III 1/2 speed system. In 1978, Mobile Fidelity began using the JVC Cutting Center to 1/2 speed master Stereo/Mono discs.In 1975, JVC introduced the first combined portable battery-operated radio with inbuilt TV, as the model 3050. The TV was a 3-inch (7.6 cm) black-and-white cathode ray tube. One year later, JVC expanded the model to add a cassette recorder, as the 3060, creating the world's first boombox with radio, cassette and TV.[citation needed]In 1976, the first VCR to use VHS was the Victor HR-3300, and was introduced by the president of JVC at the Okura Hotel in Tokyo on September 9, 1976.[4][5] JVC started selling the HR-3300 in Akihabara, Tokyo, Japan on October 31, 1976.[4] Region-specific versions of the JVC HR-3300 were also distributed later on, such as the HR-3300U in the United States, and HR-3300EK in the United Kingdom.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VHS-Video-Tape-Top-Flat.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JVC_HR-S5960E_VHS-recorder_(crop).jpg"},{"link_name":"S-VHS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-VHS"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"Betamax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betamax"},{"link_name":"videocassette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videocassette"},{"link_name":"videotape format war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videotape_format_war"},{"link_name":"home video rental market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_rental_shop"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"Cliff Michelmore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cliff_Michelmore"},{"link_name":"ITV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITV_(TV_network)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"1970s, 1980s and the VHS/Betamax format war","text":"JVC's VHS tape won over Betamax to become common home recording format.JVC HR-S5960E,S-VHS-VideorecorderIn the late 1970s, JVC developed the VHS format, introducing the first VHS recorders to the consumer market in 1976 for the equivalent of US$1,060. Sony, which had introduced the Betamax home videocassette tape a year earlier, became the main competitor for JVC's VHS format into the 1980s, creating the videotape format war. The Betamax cassette was smaller, with slightly superior picture quality to the VHS cassette, but this resulted in Betamax having less recording time. The two companies competed fiercely to encourage others to adopt their format, but by 1984 forty companies were using JVC's VHS format, while only 12 used Betamax. Sony began producing VHS recorders in 1988 and after 1993 stopped making Betamax recorders for the US market, and then completely in 2002. One reason for the market penetration of VHS in the UK were the sales of blank tapes by JVC UK Ltd to major Hollywood studios. This launched the nascent home video rental market, which was hardly touched by Sony at the time. This ability to take movies home helped the sale of the VHS hardware immensely. Added to this JVC stated in a promotional tape presented by BBC TV legend Cliff Michelmore, that \"You'll be able to buy the sort of films the BBC and ITV will never show you, for whatever reason\". The adult movie industry adopted VHS as their common format and with a certain level of software availability, hardware sales grew.[6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"video high density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_High_Density"},{"link_name":"capacitance electronic disc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitance_Electronic_Disc"},{"link_name":"turntable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Sony Walkman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Walkman"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"personal computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"Zilog Z80A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zilog"},{"link_name":"MSX Basic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSX"},{"link_name":"floppy disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk"},{"link_name":"MSX-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSX"},{"link_name":"Pioneer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Ferguson Radio Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferguson_Electronics"},{"link_name":"VHS-C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHS-C"},{"link_name":"video8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video8"},{"link_name":"Thomson SA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_SA"},{"link_name":"hard drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_drive"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Other notable achievements","text":"In 1979, JVC demonstrated a prototype of its video high density (VHD) disc system. This system was capacitance-based, like capacitance electronic disc (CED), but the discs were grooveless with the stylus being guided by servo signals in the disc surface. The VHD discs were initially handled by the operator and played on a machine that looked like an audio LP turntable, but JVC used caddy-housed discs when the system was marketed. Development suffered numerous delays, and the product was launched in 1983 in Japan, followed by the United Kingdom in 1984, to a limited industrial market.[citation needed]In 1981, JVC introduced a line of revolutionary direct-drive cassette decks, topped by the DD-9, that provided previously unattainable levels of speed stability.[7]During the 1980s JVC briefly marketed its portable audio equipment similar to the Sony Walkman on the market at the time. The JVC CQ-F2K was released in 1982 and had a detachable radio mounted to the headphones for a compact, wire-free listening experience. JVC had difficulty making the products successful, and a few years later stopped making them. In Japan, JVC marketed the products under the name \"Victor\".[citation needed]In 1986, JVC released the HC-95, a personal computer with a 3.58 MHz Zilog Z80A processor, 64 KB RAM, running on MSX Basic 2.0. It included two 3.5\" floppy disk drives and conformed to the graphics specification of the MSX-2 standard. However, like the Pioneer PX-7, it also carried a sophisticated hardware interface that handled video superimposition and various interactive video processing features. The JVC HC-95 was first sold in Japan, and then Europe, but sales were disappointing.[citation needed]JVC video recorders were marketed by the Ferguson Radio Corporation in the UK, with just cosmetic changes. However, Ferguson needed to find another supplier for its camcorders when JVC produced only the VHS-C format, rather than video8. Ferguson was later acquired by Thomson SA, which ended the relationship. JVC later invented hard drive camcorders.[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JVC_GY-HD100_in_Edmonton_20060720.jpg"},{"link_name":"ProHD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProHD"},{"link_name":"Emmy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Arsenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenal_F.C."},{"link_name":"2002 FIFA World Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002_FIFA_World_Cup"},{"link_name":"Kennedy Space Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center"},{"link_name":"ESPN Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN_Zone"},{"link_name":"High-Definition Audio-Video Network Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-Definition_Audio-Video_Network_Alliance"},{"link_name":"DVD-RW DL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD-RW_DL"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dvd_rw_dl-9"},{"link_name":"Cerberus Capital Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerberus_Capital_Management"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"East Kilbride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Kilbride"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"OEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OEM"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Currys plc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currys_plc"},{"link_name":"Currys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currys"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Vestel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestel"},{"link_name":"Datsun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datsun"},{"link_name":"Nissan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissan"},{"link_name":"Suzuki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzuki"},{"link_name":"Honda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda"}],"sub_title":"21st century","text":"JVC HD100 ProHD video camera (2006)In October 2001, the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences presented JVC an Emmy Award for \"outstanding achievement in technological advancement\" for \"Pioneering Development of Consumer Camcorders\". Annual sponsorships of the world-renowned JVC Tokyo Video Festival and the JVC Jazz Festival have helped attract the attention of more customers.[citation needed]JVC has been a worldwide football (soccer) supporter since 1982, having a former kit sponsorship with Arsenal and continuing its role as an official partner of 2002 FIFA World Cup Korea/Japan. JVC made headlines as the first-ever corporate partner of the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex. JVC has recently forged corporate partnerships with ESPN Zone and Foxploration. In 2005, JVC joined HANA, the High-Definition Audio-Video Network Alliance, to help establish standards in consumer-electronics interoperability.In 2005, JVC announced their development of the first DVD-RW DL media (the dual-layer version of the rewritable DVD-RW format).[8]In December 2006, Matsushita entered talks with Kenwood and Cerberus Capital Management to sell its stake in JVC.[9] \nIn 2007, Victor Company of Japan Ltd confirmed a strategic capital alliance with Kenwood and SPARKX Investment, resulting in Matsushita's holding being reduced to approximately 37%.[10]\nIn March 2008, Matsushita (Panasonic) agreed to spin off the company and merge it with Kenwood Electronics, creating JVCKenwood Holdings on October 1, 2008.[11]In April 2008, JVC announced that it was closing its TV plants in East Kilbride (Scotland) and Japan. This left it with one plant in Thailand. It stated it would outsource European production to an OEM.[12]JVC TVs for North America are now being manufactured by AmTRAN Video Corporation along with distribution, service, and warranty under license from JVCKenwood.[13] In Europe, Currys plc, owner of Currys, has a similar arrangement with JVCKenwood.[14]In Europe, JVC sells mainly some audio accessories, like headphones, and until recently DIN-type car audio. Also in Europe, JVC is present with camcorders, security cameras, audio systems, and with their emblematic boom box, projectors. JVC TV sets in Europe are manufactured mainly by Turkish manufacturer Vestel but are unavailable in all countries.JVC manufactures original audio equipment to vehicle manufacturers including Datsun, Nissan, Suzuki, and Honda vehicles.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arsenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenal_F.C."},{"link_name":"Sega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Aberdeen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_F.C."},{"link_name":"FIFA World Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup"},{"link_name":"A-League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-League"},{"link_name":"Sydney FC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_FC"},{"link_name":"Dutch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_people"},{"link_name":"Christijan Albers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christijan_Albers"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"massively multiplayer online game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_game"},{"link_name":"Rise: The Vieneo Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise:_The_Vieneo_Province"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"JVC is a well-known brand among English football fans due to the firm's sponsorship of Arsenal from 1981 to 1999, when Sega took over as Arsenal's sponsors. JVC's 18-year association with Arsenal is one of the longest club-sponsor associations with any professional club football.[15] JVC also sponsored Scottish football club Aberdeen in the late-1980s and early-1990s as well as the FIFA World Cup from 1982 to 2002.JVC also sponsors the \"away\" shirts of the Australian A-League club, Sydney FC, and Dutch race driver Christijan Albers.[citation needed]JVC has also been a sponsor of a massively multiplayer online game called Rise: The Vieneo Province since 2003.[16]","title":"Sponsorship"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victor-logo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vintage_Nivico_Transistor_Radio,_Model_7TA-4,_JVC_-_Victor_Company_Of_Japan,_AM_And_Shortwave_Bands,_7_Transistors,_Made_In_Japan,_Circa_1961_(8344404050).jpg"},{"link_name":"Transistor Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_Radio"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JVC_Victor_GR-C1_camcorder_front_side_view.jpg"},{"link_name":"GR-C1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JVC_GR-C1"},{"link_name":"His Master's Voice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/His_Master%27s_Voice"},{"link_name":"Nipper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nipper"},{"link_name":"Victor Talking Machine Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Talking_Machine_Company"},{"link_name":"RCA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA"},{"link_name":"RCA Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA_Records"},{"link_name":"HMV Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMV_Group"},{"link_name":"His Master's Voice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/His_Master%27s_Voice"},{"link_name":"Nipper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nipper"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Nippon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"HMV store chain exists in Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_HMV_operations#Japan"},{"link_name":"HMV Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMV_Group"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Radio Corporation of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Corporation_of_America"},{"link_name":"Western Hemisphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Hemisphere"},{"link_name":"record label","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_label"},{"link_name":"JVCKenwood Victor Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JVCKenwood_Victor_Entertainment"}],"text":"Victor used in Japan (1977–2022)Nivico 7TA-4 Transistor RadioVictor GR-C1See also: His Master's Voice, Nipper, Victor Talking Machine Company, RCA, RCA Records, and HMV GroupJVC is generally known within Japan by the Victor brand, preceded by the His Master's Voice (HMV) logo featuring the dog Nipper. Because of a conflict in trademarks between HMV, RCA, and Victor, HMV and RCA are not allowed to use Nipper in Japan.[17] At one time, the company used the Nivico name (for \"Nippon Victor Company\") overseas, before rebranding to JVC, which stands for Japan's Victor Company. Therefore, the Victor and JVC-Victor web sites looked quite different. Conversely, the HMV store chain exists in Japan (though no longer owned by HMV Group), but it cannot use the His Master's Voice motto or logo; its logo is a stylized image of a gramophone only.[18] After the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), purchased the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1929 and became RCA Victor in Japan, RCA also had acquired the use of Nipper and His Master's Voice logo, but for use in the Western Hemisphere. In 2011, JVC decided to phase out the \"Victor\" brand for electronics in Japan, but retained its use for its premium audio products, recording studios Victor Studio, and record label JVCKenwood Victor Entertainment.","title":"Brand name"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gurgaon, Haryana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurgaon,_Haryana"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Tuscaloosa, Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuscaloosa,_Alabama"},{"link_name":"US","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Wayne, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"US","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Mississauga, Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississauga,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Dubai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai"},{"link_name":"UAE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates"},{"link_name":"Panama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"}],"text":"JVC KENWOOD Marketing India Gurgaon, Haryana, India\nJVC America Inc. – Tuscaloosa, Alabama, US\nJVC Americas Corp – Wayne, New Jersey, US\nJVC Canada Inc. – Mississauga, Ontario, Canada\nJVC Asia – Singapore\nJVC Australia – Australia\nJVC China – China\nJVC Europe – United Kingdom\nJVC Middle-East (and Africa) – Dubai, UAE\nJVC Latin America, S.A. – Panama\nJVC do Brasil Ltda. – Brazil\nJVC International – Austria\nVictor Entertainment","title":"Subsidiaries"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vintage_JVC_FM-AM_9-Transistor_Radio,_Model_9F-220C_(8333901983).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JVC_K_Series_20051001.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JVC_boombox.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JVC_KD_D10E_v.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JVC_QL-Y5F_8535057066crop.jpg"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JVC_Compact-Sytem.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JVC_GR-DX57EK_20080316.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JVC_KYD292.JPG"},{"link_name":"Digital-S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital-S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JVC_Picsio_3.jpg"}],"text":"JVC 9F-220C radio\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJVC television\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJVC boombox\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJVC KD-D10E tape deck\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJVC QL-Y5F Direct drive turntable with electronic JVC tonearm[19]\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJVC Compact system with CD player\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJVC camcorder\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tKY D29 Digital-S camcorder\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJVC Picsio pocket camcorder","title":"Product gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"}],"text":"^ The original company was absorbed into JVCKenwood, although some products made by the company still use the JVC brand.","title":"Notes"}]	[{"image_text":"JVC HR-3300U VIDSTAR (1977)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/JVC-HR-3300U.jpg/220px-JVC-HR-3300U.jpg"},{"image_text":"JVC's VHS tape won over Betamax to become common home recording format.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/VHS-Video-Tape-Top-Flat.jpg/220px-VHS-Video-Tape-Top-Flat.jpg"},{"image_text":"JVC HR-S5960E,S-VHS-Videorecorder","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/JVC_HR-S5960E_VHS-recorder_%28crop%29.jpg/220px-JVC_HR-S5960E_VHS-recorder_%28crop%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"JVC HD100 ProHD video camera (2006)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/JVC_GY-HD100_in_Edmonton_20060720.jpg/220px-JVC_GY-HD100_in_Edmonton_20060720.jpg"},{"image_text":"Victor used in Japan (1977–2022)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Victor-logo.svg/220px-Victor-logo.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Nivico 7TA-4 Transistor Radio","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Vintage_Nivico_Transistor_Radio%2C_Model_7TA-4%2C_JVC_-_Victor_Company_Of_Japan%2C_AM_And_Shortwave_Bands%2C_7_Transistors%2C_Made_In_Japan%2C_Circa_1961_%288344404050%29.jpg/220px-Vintage_Nivico_Transistor_Radio%2C_Model_7TA-4%2C_JVC_-_Victor_Company_Of_Japan%2C_AM_And_Shortwave_Bands%2C_7_Transistors%2C_Made_In_Japan%2C_Circa_1961_%288344404050%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Victor GR-C1","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/JVC_Victor_GR-C1_camcorder_front_side_view.jpg/170px-JVC_Victor_GR-C1_camcorder_front_side_view.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Companies portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Companies"},{"title":"List of digital camera brands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_digital_camera_brands"},{"title":"List of home computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_home_computers"},{"title":"Mitsubishi Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitsubishi_Electric"},{"title":"Taiyo Yuden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiyo_Yuden"},{"title":"Video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video"},{"title":"D-VHS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-VHS"},{"title":"W-VHS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W-VHS"},{"title":"Videotape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videotape"},{"title":"Video tape recorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_tape_recorder"},{"title":"Videocassette recorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videocassette_recorder"},{"title":"Wondermega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wondermega"},{"title":"XRCD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XRCD"}]	[{"reference":"\"Annual Report 2008 Financial Section for JVC\" (PDF). JVC Kenwood Holdings, Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-22. Retrieved 2012-05-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110722040527/http://www.jk-holdings.com/en/ir/library/annual/data/jkh_ar_2008_en_fs_jvc.pdf","url_text":"\"Annual Report 2008 Financial Section for JVC\""},{"url":"http://www.jk-holdings.com/en/ir/library/annual/data/jkh_ar_2008_en_fs_jvc.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Matsushita owned JVC 1953-2007\". Retrieved 2012-10-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stereo80s.com/mfg.cfm?id=4","url_text":"\"Matsushita owned JVC 1953-2007\""}]},{"reference":"Sterjova, Milica (May 2017). \"The 1970s JVC Videosphere: An iconic example of 'space age' design\". Archived from the original on 2021-06-24. Retrieved 2021-06-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204149/https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/the-1970s-jvc-videosphere-an-iconic-example-of-space-age-design.html","url_text":"\"The 1970s JVC Videosphere: An iconic example of 'space age' design\""},{"url":"https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/the-1970s-jvc-videosphere-an-iconic-example-of-space-age-design.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Always Helpful! Full of Information on Recording Media \"Made in Japan After All\"\". Nipponsei.jp. Archived from the original on 2011-01-11. Retrieved 2011-07-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110111005825/http://www.nipponsei.jp/n-hajimete/n-hajimete009.html","url_text":"\"Always Helpful! Full of Information on Recording Media \"Made in Japan After All\"\""},{"url":"http://www.nipponsei.jp/n-hajimete/n-hajimete009.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"JVC HR-3300\". Totalrewind.org. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Supercomputer_Center_in_Guangzhou	National Supercomputer Center in Guangzhou	["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"]	Coordinates: 23°04′23″N 113°23′19″E / 23.07306°N 113.38861°E / 23.07306; 113.38861National Supercomputer Center in GuangzhouEstablished2014 (2014)Research typeMultiprogramBudget$400 millionDirectorLu Yutong (卢宇彤)AddressSun Yat-sen University East Campus, 132 East Outer Ring Rd., Higher Education Mega Centre.LocationGuangzhou, Guangdong, China23°04′23″N 113°23′19″E / 23.07306°N 113.38861°E / 23.07306; 113.38861Campus42,332 square metres (455,660 sq ft)Operating agencyThe government of Guangdong province and Guangzhou city, Sun Yat-sen University and National University of Defense TechnologyWebsitewww.nscc-gz.cn The National Supercomputer Center in Guangzhou houses Tianhe-2, which is currently the seventh fastest supercomputer in the world, with a measured 33.86 petaflop/s (quadrillions of calculations per second). Tianhe-2 is operated by the National University of Defence Technology, and owned by the Chinese government. See also China portal Supercomputing in China National Supercomputing Center of Tianjin National Supercomputing Center (Shenzhen) Shanghai Supercomputer Center References ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-04-19. Retrieved 2015-04-16.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "China's Tianhe-2 tops supercomputer chart again". BBC News. 23 June 2014. External links National Supercomputing Center in Guangzhou vteNational Supercomputer Center in China National Supercomputer Center in Guangzhou National Supercomputing Center (Shenzhen) National Supercomputing Center of Tianjin Shanghai Supercomputer Center This supercomputer-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte This article about a building or structure in China is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tianhe-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianhe-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"National University of Defence Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_University_of_Defence_Technology"}],"text":"The National Supercomputer Center in Guangzhou houses Tianhe-2,[1] which is currently the seventh fastest supercomputer in the world, with a measured 33.86 petaflop/s (quadrillions of calculations per second).[2] Tianhe-2 is operated by the National University of Defence Technology, and owned by the Chinese government.","title":"National Supercomputer Center in Guangzhou"}]	[]	[{"title":"China portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:China"},{"title":"Supercomputing in China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputing_in_China"},{"title":"National Supercomputing Center of Tianjin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Supercomputing_Center_of_Tianjin"},{"title":"National Supercomputing Center (Shenzhen)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Supercomputing_Center_(Shenzhen)"},{"title":"Shanghai Supercomputer Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Supercomputer_Center"}]	[{"reference":"\"Archived copy\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Green_(historian)	Peter Green (historian)	["1 Biography","2 Bibliography","2.1 Book reviews","2.2 Critical studies and reviews of Green's work","3 Notes","4 External links"]	British historian and novelist (born 1924) This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately from the article and its talk page, especially if potentially libelous.Find sources: "Peter Green" historian – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Peter Morris Green (born 22 December 1924) is a British classical scholar and novelist noted for his works on the Greco-Persian Wars, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age of ancient history, generally regarded as spanning the era from the death of Alexander in 323 BC up to either the date of the Battle of Actium or the death of Augustus in 14 AD. Green's most famous books are Alexander of Macedon, a historical biography first issued in 1970, then in a revised and expanded edition in 1974, which was first published in the United States in 1991; his Alexander to Actium, a general account of the Hellenistic Age, and other works. He is the author of a translation of the Satires of the Roman poet Juvenal, now in its third edition. He has also contributed poems to many journals, including to Arion and the Southern Humanities Review. Biography Green went to school at Charterhouse. During World War II, he served with the Royal Air Force in Burma. In Firpo's Bar in Calcutta, he met and became friendly with another future novelist, Paul Scott, who later used elements of Green's character for the figure of Sergeant Guy Perron in The Raj Quartet. After the war, Green attended Trinity College, Cambridge, where he achieved a Double First in Classics, winning the Craven Scholarship and Studentship in 1950. He subsequently wrote historical novels and worked as a journalist, in the capacity of fiction critic for the Daily Telegraph (1953–63), book columnist for the Yorkshire Post (1961–62), television critic for The Listener (1962–63), film critic for John O'London's (1961–63), as well as contributing to other journals. In 1963, he and his family moved to the Greek island of Lesbos, where he was a translator and independent scholar. In 1966 he moved to Athens, where he was recruited to teach classics for College Year in Athens, and published Armada from Athens, a study of the Sicilian Expedition of 415–3 BC (1970), and The Year of Salamis, a history of the Greco-Persian Wars (1971). In 1971 Green was invited to teach at the University of Texas at Austin, where he became Dougherty Centennial Professor of Classics in 1982, emeritus from 1997. In 1986, he held the Mellon Chair of Humanities at Tulane University in New Orleans. He is now an adjunct professor at the University of Iowa and also has held visiting appointments at Princeton University and at East Carolina University in Greenville, North Carolina. Bob Dylan used Green's translations of Ovid, found in The Erotic Poems (1982) and The Poems of Exile: Tristia and the Black Sea Letters (1994) as song lyrics on the albums "Love and Theft" (2001) and Modern Times (2006). Green is a regular contributor to the New York Review of Books. Green was married to Classicist and ancient historian Carin M. C. Green, who died in 2015. Bibliography This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (September 2018) The Expanding Eye - A First Journey To The Mediterranean (1952) Illustrated with photographs. Habeas Corpus And Other Stories (1954) (eight short stories) Achilles His Armour (1955) (historical novel about Alcibiades and the Peloponnesian War). Cat in Gloves (Under pseudonym Denis Delaney) (1956), Gryphon Books The Sword of Pleasure (1957) (fictional memoirs of Sulla) Kenneth Grahame: A Biography: The Dramatic and Human Story of the Fascinating and Complex Man Who Wrote The Wind in the Willows (1959) Writers & their Work - Sir Thomas Browne (1959), Longman for The British Council Writers & their Work - John Skelton (1960), Longman for the British Council Essays in Antiquity (1960) Destiny of Fire by Zoe Oldenbourg (translation of Les Brûlés) (1961) Massacre at Montségur by Zoe Oldenbourg (translation of Le Bûcher de Montségur) (1961) The Life of Jesus by Jean Steinmann (translation) (1963) The Laughter of Aphrodite: A Novel About Sappho of Lesbos (1965) The Sixteen Satires by Juvenal (translation) (1967) The Year of Salamis, 480-479 BC (1970) (UK) = Xerxes at Salamis (1970) (USA) Alexander the Great (1970) Armada from Athens (1970) The Shadow of the Parthenon: Studies in Ancient History and Literature (1972) The Parthenon (1973) A Concise History of Ancient Greece to the Close of the Classical Era (1973) Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.; A Historical Biography (1974; re-issue in U.S., 1991, as indicated below) Ancient Greece: An Illustrated History (1979) Ovid: The Erotic Poems (1982) Classical Bearings: Interpreting Ancient History and Culture (1989) Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990) Alexander of Macedon, 356-323 B.C.: A Historical Biography (1991) Ovid: The Poems of Exile: Tristia and the Black Sea Letters (1994) The Argonautika by Apollonios Rhodios (translation) (1997) The Greco-Persian Wars (1996) (update of The Year of Salamis) From Ikaria to the Stars: Classical Mythification, Ancient and Modern (2004) The Poems of Catullus (2005) Diodorus Siculus, Books 11–12.37.1 : Greek history 480–431 B.C.—the Alternative Version, Austin, University of Texas Press, 2006. Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age (2007) The Hellenistic Age: A Short History (2007) The Iliad by Homer (translation) (2015) The Odyssey by Homer (translation) (2018) Book reviews Year Review article Work(s) reviewed 2007 "The Women and the Gods". The New York Review of Books. 54 (11): 32–35. 28 June 2007. Connelly, Joan Breton (2007). Portrait of a Priestess: Women and Ritual in Ancient Greece. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Critical studies and reviews of Green's work The Odyssey (2018) Burrow, Colin (26 April 2018). "Light through the fog". London Review of Books. 40 (8): 3–7. Notes ^ a b "Green, Peter 1924–", Contemporary Authors, New Revision Series. Encyclopedia.com, retrieved 30 October 2017. ^ a b c "Novelist, Critic, Translator, Historian: An Interview with Peter Green", AMICI, Classical Association of Iowa. ^ Hilary Spurling, Paul Scott: A Life. London: Hutchinson, 1990, pp. 144, 148. ^ David Yaffe, "Bob Dylan and the Anglo-American tradition", in Kevin J. H. Dettmar (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Bob Dylan, Cambridge University Press, 2009, p. 27. ^ David Yaffe, Bob Dylan: Like a Complete Unknown, Yale University Press, 2011, p. 123. ^ Richard F. Thomas, "Shadows are Falling: Virgil, Radnóti, and Dylan", in Michael Paschalis (ed.), Pastoral Palimpsests: Essays in the Reception of Theocritus and Virgil, Rethymnon Classical Studies, Vol. 3, 2007, Crete University Press, p. 205. ^ Richard F. Thomas, "The Streets of Rome: The Classical Dylan" Archived 11 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Oral Tradition, 22/1 (2007; 30–56), pp. 35–37. ^ "An Interview with Richard Thomas on Bob Dylan and the Classics", Persephone: The Harvard Undergraduate Classics Journal, Spring 2017, Vol. 2, No. 1. ^ Peter Green at New York Review of Books. ^ Obituary: "Professor Carin M. Green March 30, 1948 - July 2, 2015 Iowa City, Iowa". ^ Peter Green (8 January 2013). Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-95469-4. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Peter Green. 2003 interview, with picture List of Green's contributions to The New York Review of Books List of Green's contributions to the London Review of Books Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway Spain France BnF data Catalonia Germany Israel United States Sweden Latvia Japan Czech Republic Australia Greece Croatia Netherlands Poland Academics CiNii 2 People Deutsche Biographie Trove Other SNAC IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ency-1"},{"link_name":"classical scholar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_scholar"},{"link_name":"Alexander the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_Age"},{"link_name":"Battle of Actium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Actium"},{"link_name":"Augustus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AMICI-2"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_Age"},{"link_name":"Satires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satires_of_Juvenal"},{"link_name":"Juvenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juvenal"},{"link_name":"Arion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arion_(journal)"},{"link_name":"Southern Humanities Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Humanities_Review"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AMICI-2"}],"text":"Peter Morris Green (born 22 December 1924)[1] is a British classical scholar and novelist noted for his works on the Greco-Persian Wars, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age of ancient history, generally regarded as spanning the era from the death of Alexander in 323 BC up to either the date of the Battle of Actium or the death of Augustus in 14 AD.[2] Green's most famous books are Alexander of Macedon, a historical biography first issued in 1970, then in a revised and expanded edition in 1974, which was first published in the United States in 1991; his Alexander to Actium, a general account of the Hellenistic Age, and other works. He is the author of a translation of the Satires of the Roman poet Juvenal, now in its third edition. He has also contributed poems to many journals, including to Arion and the Southern Humanities Review.[2]","title":"Peter Green (historian)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charterhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charterhouse_School"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Burma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma"},{"link_name":"Calcutta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcutta"},{"link_name":"Paul Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Mark_Scott"},{"link_name":"Raj Quartet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raj_Quartet"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Trinity College, Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"historical novels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_novel"},{"link_name":"journalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalist"},{"link_name":"Daily Telegraph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Telegraph"},{"link_name":"Yorkshire Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yorkshire_Post"},{"link_name":"The Listener","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Listener_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"John O'London's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_O%27London%27s_Weekly"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ency-1"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"Lesbos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesbos_Island"},{"link_name":"translator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translator"},{"link_name":"College Year in Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_Year_in_Athens"},{"link_name":"Sicilian Expedition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicilian_Expedition"},{"link_name":"University of Texas at Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AMICI-2"},{"link_name":"Tulane University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulane_University"},{"link_name":"University of Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Iowa"},{"link_name":"Princeton University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University"},{"link_name":"East Carolina University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Carolina_University"},{"link_name":"Greenville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenville,_North_Carolina"},{"link_name":"North Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina"},{"link_name":"Bob Dylan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Dylan"},{"link_name":"Ovid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid"},{"link_name":"\"Love and Theft\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%22Love_and_Theft%22"},{"link_name":"Modern Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Times_(Bob_Dylan_album)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"New York Review of Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Review_of_Books"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Carin M. C. Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carin_M._C._Green&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Green went to school at Charterhouse. During World War II, he served with the Royal Air Force in Burma. In Firpo's Bar in Calcutta, he met and became friendly with another future novelist, Paul Scott, who later used elements of Green's character for the figure of Sergeant Guy Perron in The Raj Quartet.[3]After the war, Green attended Trinity College, Cambridge, where he achieved a Double First in Classics, winning the Craven Scholarship and Studentship in 1950. He subsequently wrote historical novels and worked as a journalist, in the capacity of fiction critic for the Daily Telegraph (1953–63), book columnist for the Yorkshire Post (1961–62), television critic for The Listener (1962–63), film critic for John O'London's (1961–63), as well as contributing to other journals.[1]In 1963, he and his family moved to the Greek island of Lesbos, where he was a translator and independent scholar. In 1966 he moved to Athens, where he was recruited to teach classics for College Year in Athens, and published Armada from Athens, a study of the Sicilian Expedition of 415–3 BC (1970), and The Year of Salamis, a history of the Greco-Persian Wars (1971).\nIn 1971 Green was invited to teach at the University of Texas at Austin, where he became Dougherty Centennial Professor of Classics in 1982, emeritus from 1997.[2] In 1986, he held the Mellon Chair of Humanities at Tulane University in New Orleans. He is now an adjunct professor at the University of Iowa and also has held visiting appointments at Princeton University and at East Carolina University in Greenville, North Carolina.Bob Dylan used Green's translations of Ovid, found in The Erotic Poems (1982) and The Poems of Exile: Tristia and the Black Sea Letters (1994) as song lyrics on the albums \"Love and Theft\" (2001) and Modern Times (2006).[4][5][6][7][8]Green is a regular contributor to the New York Review of Books.[9]Green was married to Classicist and ancient historian Carin M. C. Green, who died in 2015.[10]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Expanding Eye - A First Journey To The Mediterranean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.scribd.com/doc/15757434/The-Expanding-Eye"},{"link_name":"Alcibiades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcibiades"},{"link_name":"Peloponnesian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peloponnesian_War"},{"link_name":"Sulla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulla"},{"link_name":"Thomas Browne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Browne"},{"link_name":"The British Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_British_Council"},{"link_name":"John Skelton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Skelton_(poet)"},{"link_name":"Zoe Oldenbourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoe_Oldenbourg"},{"link_name":"Zoe Oldenbourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoe_Oldenbourg"},{"link_name":"Jean Steinmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Steinmann&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Juvenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juvenal"},{"link_name":"Alexander the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=XH-ZHgAACAAJ"},{"link_name":"The Shadow of the Parthenon: Studies in Ancient History and Literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=HEz_AAAACAAJ"},{"link_name":"The Parthenon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=heyfAAAACAAJ"},{"link_name":"A Concise History of Ancient Greece to the Close of the Classical Era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=ZNmcAAAACAAJ"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Green2013-11"},{"link_name":"Ovid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid"},{"link_name":"Classical Bearings: Interpreting Ancient History and Culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=uXuUPPhxZIIC"},{"link_name":"Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=1QOvJ14Jxv8C"},{"link_name":"Alexander of Macedon, 356-323 B.C.: A Historical Biography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=XMZwk_I-fRMC"},{"link_name":"Ovid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid"},{"link_name":"Apollonios Rhodios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonius_of_Rhodes"},{"link_name":"The Greco-Persian Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Greco-Persian_Wars&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"From Ikaria to the Stars: Classical Mythification, Ancient and Modern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=ROX7f6UwdI8C"},{"link_name":"Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=1bUnHwAACAAJ"},{"link_name":"The Hellenistic Age: A Short History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=HPV6v52mGf0C"},{"link_name":"Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer"},{"link_name":"Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer"}],"text":"The Expanding Eye - A First Journey To The Mediterranean (1952) Illustrated with photographs.\nHabeas Corpus And Other Stories (1954) (eight short stories)\nAchilles His Armour (1955) (historical novel about Alcibiades and the Peloponnesian War).\nCat in Gloves (Under pseudonym Denis Delaney) (1956), Gryphon Books\nThe Sword of Pleasure (1957) (fictional memoirs of Sulla)\nKenneth Grahame: A Biography: The Dramatic and Human Story of the Fascinating and Complex Man Who Wrote The Wind in the Willows (1959)\nWriters & their Work - Sir Thomas Browne (1959), Longman for The British Council\nWriters & their Work - John Skelton (1960), Longman for the British Council\nEssays in Antiquity (1960)\nDestiny of Fire by Zoe Oldenbourg (translation of Les Brûlés) (1961)\nMassacre at Montségur by Zoe Oldenbourg (translation of Le Bûcher de Montségur) (1961)\nThe Life of Jesus by Jean Steinmann (translation) (1963)\nThe Laughter of Aphrodite: A Novel About Sappho of Lesbos (1965)\nThe Sixteen Satires by Juvenal (translation) (1967)\nThe Year of Salamis, 480-479 BC (1970) (UK) = Xerxes at Salamis (1970) (USA)\nAlexander the Great (1970)\nArmada from Athens (1970)\nThe Shadow of the Parthenon: Studies in Ancient History and Literature (1972)\nThe Parthenon (1973)\nA Concise History of Ancient Greece to the Close of the Classical Era (1973)\nAlexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.; A Historical Biography (1974; re-issue in U.S., 1991, as indicated below)[11]\nAncient Greece: An Illustrated History (1979)\nOvid: The Erotic Poems (1982)\nClassical Bearings: Interpreting Ancient History and Culture (1989)\nAlexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990)\nAlexander of Macedon, 356-323 B.C.: A Historical Biography (1991)\nOvid: The Poems of Exile: Tristia and the Black Sea Letters (1994)\nThe Argonautika by Apollonios Rhodios (translation) (1997)\nThe Greco-Persian Wars (1996) (update of The Year of Salamis)\nFrom Ikaria to the Stars: Classical Mythification, Ancient and Modern (2004)\nThe Poems of Catullus (2005)\nDiodorus Siculus, Books 11–12.37.1 : Greek history 480–431 B.C.—the Alternative Version, Austin, University of Texas Press, 2006.\nAlexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age (2007)\nThe Hellenistic Age: A Short History (2007)\nThe Iliad by Homer (translation) (2015)\nThe Odyssey by Homer (translation) (2018)","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Book reviews","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Light through the fog\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.lrb.co.uk/v40/n08/colin-burrow/light-through-the-fog"}],"sub_title":"Critical studies and reviews of Green's work","text":"The Odyssey (2018)Burrow, Colin (26 April 2018). \"Light through the fog\". London Review of Books. 40 (8): 3–7.","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ency_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ency_1-1"},{"link_name":"\"Green, Peter 1924–\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.encyclopedia.com/arts/educational-magazines/green-peter-1924"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-AMICI_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-AMICI_2-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-AMICI_2-2"},{"link_name":"\"Novelist, Critic, Translator, Historian: An Interview with Peter Green\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cornellcollege.edu/classical_studies/amici/classicaliowa/greeninterview.shtml"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Hilary Spurling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_Spurling"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"David Yaffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Yaffe_(music_critic)"},{"link_name":"\"Bob Dylan and the Anglo-American tradition\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=73eAjOofhCAC&dq=%22Peter+green%22+bob+dylan&pg=PA27"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Bob Dylan: Like a Complete Unknown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=2Ztkr4t-AtYC&dq=%22Peter+green%22+bob+dylan&pg=PA123"},{"link_name":"Yale University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University_Press"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"Shadows are Falling: Virgil, Radnóti, and Dylan\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=d_6-KPi4V04C&q=%22Peter+green%22&pg=PA205"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"The Streets of Rome: The Classical Dylan\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//journal.oraltradition.org/files/articles/22i/Thomas.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20120711032525/http://journal.oraltradition.org/files/articles/22i/Thomas.pdf"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"Oral Tradition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_Tradition_(journal)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"An Interview with Richard Thomas on Bob Dylan and the Classics\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//projects.iq.harvard.edu/persephone/interview-richard-thomas-bob-dylan-and-classics"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"Peter Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.nybooks.com/contributors/peter-green/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"\"Professor Carin M. Green March 30, 1948 - July 2, 2015 Iowa City, Iowa\".","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//hosting-3320.tributes.com/obituary/show/Carin-M.-Green-102628237"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Green2013_11-0"},{"link_name":"Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=SYo6c1iEL_4C"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-520-95469-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95469-4"}],"text":"^ a b \"Green, Peter 1924–\", Contemporary Authors, New Revision Series. Encyclopedia.com, retrieved 30 October 2017.\n\n^ a b c \"Novelist, Critic, Translator, Historian: An Interview with Peter Green\", AMICI, Classical Association of Iowa.\n\n^ Hilary Spurling, Paul Scott: A Life. London: Hutchinson, 1990, pp. 144, 148.\n\n^ David Yaffe, \"Bob Dylan and the Anglo-American tradition\", in Kevin J. H. Dettmar (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Bob Dylan, Cambridge University Press, 2009, p. 27.\n\n^ David Yaffe, Bob Dylan: Like a Complete Unknown, Yale University Press, 2011, p. 123.\n\n^ Richard F. Thomas, \"Shadows are Falling: Virgil, Radnóti, and Dylan\", in Michael Paschalis (ed.), Pastoral Palimpsests: Essays in the Reception of Theocritus and Virgil, Rethymnon Classical Studies, Vol. 3, 2007, Crete University Press, p. 205.\n\n^ Richard F. Thomas,\n \"The Streets of Rome: The Classical Dylan\" Archived 11 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Oral Tradition, 22/1 (2007; 30–56), pp. 35–37.\n\n^ \"An Interview with Richard Thomas on Bob Dylan and the Classics\", Persephone: The Harvard Undergraduate Classics Journal, Spring 2017, Vol. 2, No. 1.\n\n^ Peter Green at New York Review of Books.\n\n^ Obituary: \"Professor Carin M. Green March 30, 1948 - July 2, 2015 Iowa City, Iowa\".\n\n^ Peter Green (8 January 2013). Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-95469-4.","title":"Notes"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Burrow, Colin (26 April 2018). \"Light through the fog\". London Review of Books. 40 (8): 3–7.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lrb.co.uk/v40/n08/colin-burrow/light-through-the-fog","url_text":"\"Light through the fog\""}]},{"reference":"Peter Green (8 January 2013). Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography. University of California Press. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch	Enoch	["1 Book of Genesis","2 Books of Enoch (Apocryphal)","2.1 In Book of Giants","2.2 Septuagint","2.3 In Classical Rabbinism","3 In Christianity","3.1 New Testament","3.2 Influence in Christianity","3.3 In Mormonism","4 Other religions","4.1 In Islam","4.2 In Theosophy","4.3 In Samaritanism","5 In Mesopotamia","6 Genealogy","7 See also","8 References","8.1 Notes","8.2 Citations","9 External links"]	For the person in Genesis 4, see Enoch (son of Cain). For other uses, see Enoch (disambiguation). Biblical figure prior to Noah's flood Enoch the PatriarchDetail from a 17th century Polish icon.Antediluvian PatriarchBorn622 AMBabylonDied987 AM("taken up by God" as per traditions)Venerated inChristianityIslamJudaismNew religious movementsFeastSunday before the Nativity of Christ in the Eastern Orthodox Church22 January in the Coptic Church19 July (his assumption in the Coptic Church)3 January (Bollandists) Enoch (/ˈiːnək/ ⓘ) is a biblical figure and patriarch prior to Noah's flood, and the son of Jared and father of Methuselah. He was of the Antediluvian period in the Hebrew Bible. Some Muslims identify Enoch with Idris and consider him a prophet due to the Quran's recognition of Idris as a prophet. The text of the Book of Genesis says Enoch lived 365 years before he was taken by God. The text reads that Enoch "walked with God: and he was no more; for God took him" (Gen 5:21–24), which is interpreted as Enoch entering heaven alive in some Jewish and Christian traditions, and interpreted differently in others. Enoch is the subject of many Jewish and Christian traditions. He was considered the author of the Book of Enoch and also called the scribe of judgment. In the New Testament, Enoch is referenced in the Gospel of Luke, the Epistle to the Hebrews, and in the Epistle of Jude, the last of which also quotes from it. In the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Oriental Orthodoxy, he is venerated as a Saint. The name of Enoch (Hebrew: חֲנוֹךְ Ḥănōḵ) derives from the Hebrew root חנך (ḥ-n-ḵ), meaning to train, initiate, dedicate, inaugurate, with חֲנוֹךְ/חֲנֹךְ (Ḥănōḵ) being the imperative form of the verb. Book of Genesis Enoch appears in the Book of Genesis of the Pentateuch as the seventh of the ten pre-Deluge Patriarchs. Genesis recounts that each of the pre-Flood Patriarchs lived for several centuries. Genesis 5 provides a genealogy of these ten figures (from Adam to Noah), providing the age at which each fathered the next, and the age of each figure at death. Enoch is considered by many to be the exception, who is said to "not see death" (Hebrews 11:5). Furthermore, Genesis 5:22–24 states that Enoch lived for 365 years, which is shorter than other pre-Flood Patriarchs, who are all recorded as dying at over 700 years of age. The brief account of Enoch in Genesis 5 ends with the cryptic note that "he was not; for God took him". This happens 57 years after Adam's death and 69 years before Noah's birth. Books of Enoch (Apocryphal) Enoch, lithograph by William Blake, 1807. Three extensive Apocrypha are attributed to Enoch: The Book of Enoch (aka 1 Enoch), composed in Hebrew or Aramaic and preserved in Ge'ez, first brought to Europe by James Bruce from Ethiopia and translated into English by August Dillmann and Reverent Schoode – recognized by the Orthodox Tewahedo churches and usually dated between the third century BC and the first century AD. 2 Enoch (aka Book of the Secrets of Enoch), preserved in Old Church Slavonic, and first translated in English by William Morfill – usually dated to the first century AD. 3 Enoch, a Rabbinic text in Hebrew usually dated to the fifth century AD. These recount how Enoch was taken up to Heaven and was appointed guardian of all the celestial treasures, chief of the archangels, and the immediate attendant on the Throne of God. He was subsequently taught all secrets and mysteries and, with all the angels at his back, fulfills of his own accord whatever comes out of the mouth of God, executing His decrees. Some esoteric literature, such as 3 Enoch, identifies Enoch as Metatron, the angel which communicates God's word. In consequence, Enoch was seen, by this literature and the Rabbinic kabbalah of Jewish mysticism, as the one who communicated God's revelation to Moses, and, in particular, as the dictator of the Book of Jubilees. In Book of Giants The Book of Giants is a Jewish pseudepigraphal work from the third century BC and resembles the Book of Enoch. Fragments from at least six and as many as eleven copies were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls collections. Septuagint The third-century BC translators who produced the Septuagint in Koine Greek rendered the phrase "God took him" with the Greek verb metatithemi (μετατίθημι) meaning moving from one place to another. Sirach 44:16, from about the same period, states that "Enoch pleased God and was translated into paradise that he may give repentance to the nations." The Greek word used here for paradise, paradeisos (παράδεισος), was derived from an ancient Persian word meaning "enclosed garden", and was used in the Septuagint to describe the garden of Eden. Later, however, the term became synonymous for heaven, as is the case here. In Classical Rabbinism In classical Rabbinical literature, there are various views of Enoch. One view regarding Enoch that was found in the Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, which thought of Enoch as a pious man, taken to Heaven, and receiving the title of Safra rabba (Great scribe). After Christianity was completely separated from Judaism, this view became the prevailing rabbinical idea of Enoch's character and exaltation. According to Rashi ], "Enoch was a righteous man, but he could easily be swayed to return to do evil. Therefore, the Holy One, blessed be He, hastened and took him away and caused him to die before his time. For this reason, Scripture changed in his demise and wrote, 'and he was no longer' in the world to complete his years." Among the minor Midrashim, esoteric attributes of Enoch are expanded upon. In the Sefer Hekalot, Rabbi Ishmael is described as having visited the Seventh Heaven, where he met Enoch, who claims that earth had, in his time, been corrupted by the demons Shammazai, and Azazel, and so Enoch was taken to Heaven to prove that God was not cruel. Similar traditions are recorded in Sirach. Later elaborations of this interpretation treated Enoch as having been a pious ascetic, who, called to mix with others, preached repentance, and gathered (despite the small number of people on Earth) a vast collection of disciples, to the extent that he was proclaimed king. Under his wisdom, peace is said to have reigned on earth, to the extent that he is summoned to Heaven to rule over the sons of God. In Christianity Patriarch Enoch, a fresco by Theophanes the Greek, 14th century. New Testament The New Testament contains three references to Enoch. The first is a brief mention in one of the genealogies of the ancestors of Jesus in the Gospel of Luke. (Luke 3:37). The second mention is in the Epistle to the Hebrews which says, "By faith Enoch was translated that he should not see death; and was not found, because God had translated him: for before his translation he had this testimony, that he pleased God." (Hebrews 11:5 KJV). This suggests he did not experience the mortal death ascribed to Adam's other descendants, which is consistent with Genesis 5:24 KJV, which says, "And Enoch walked with God: and he not; for God took him." The third mention is in the Epistle of Jude (1:14–15) where the author attributes to "Enoch, the Seventh from Adam" a passage not found in Catholic and Protestant canons of the Old Testament. The quotation is believed by most modern scholars to be taken from 1 Enoch 1:9 which exists in Greek, in Ge'ez (as part of the Ethiopian Orthodox canon), and also in Aramaic among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Though the same scholars recognise that 1 Enoch 1:9 itself is a midrash of Deuteronomy 33:2. The introductory phrase "Enoch, the Seventh from Adam" is also found in 1 Enoch (1 En. 60:8), though not in the Old Testament. In the New Testament this Enoch prophesies "to" ungodly men, that God shall come with His holy ones to judge and convict them (Jude 1:14–15). Influence in Christianity Enoch (above right) in the ethiopic Enoch manuscript Gunda Gunde 151, depicted as scribe (Geʽez: ጸሓፊ ṣaḥāfi). On the left Elijah (above) and Elisha (bottom) are depicted, the other scribe (right bottom) is Ezra. The Book of Enoch was excluded from both the Hebrew Tanakh and the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, the Septuagint. It was not considered canon by either Jewish or early Christian readers. Church Fathers such as Justin Martyr, Athenagoras of Athens, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Tertullian, and Lactantius all speak highly of Enoch and contain many allusions to the Book of Enoch as well as in some instances advocating explicitly for the use of the Book of Enoch as Scripture. The letter of Jude's citation of the Book of Enoch as prophetic text encouraged acceptance and usage of the Book of Enoch in early Christian circles. The main themes of Enoch about the Watchers corrupting humanity were commonly mentioned in early literature. This positive treatment of the Book of Enoch was associated with millennialism which was popular in the early Church. When amillennialism began to be common in Christianity, the Book of Enoch, being incompatible with amillennialism, came to be widely rejected. After the split of the Oriental Orthodox Church from the Catholic Church in the 5th century, use of the Book of Enoch was limited primarily to the Oriental Orthodox Church. Eventually, the usage of the Book of Enoch became limited to Ethiopian circles of the Oriental Orthodox Church. Another common element that some Church Fathers, like John of Damascus, spoke of, was that they considered Enoch to be one of the two witnesses mentioned in the Book of Revelation. This view still has many supporters today in Christianity. Elijah and Enoch – seventeenth-century icon, Historic Museum in Sanok, Poland In Mormonism Among the Latter Day Saint movement and particularly in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Enoch is viewed as having founded an exceptionally righteous city, named Zion, in the midst of an otherwise wicked world. This view is encountered in the standard works, the Pearl of Great Price and the Doctrine and Covenants, which states that not only Enoch, but the entire peoples of the city of Zion, were taken off this earth without death, because of their piety. (Zion is defined as "the pure in heart" and this city of Zion will return to the earth at the Second Coming of Jesus.) The Doctrine and Covenants further states that Enoch prophesied that one of his descendants, Noah, and his family, would survive a Great Flood and thus carry on the human race and preserve the Scripture. The Book of Moses in the Pearl of Great Price includes chapters that give an account of Enoch's preaching, visions, and conversations with God. They provide details concerning the wars, violence and natural disasters in Enoch's day, but also reference the miracles performed by Enoch. The Book of Moses is itself an excerpt from Joseph Smith's translation of the Bible, which is published in full, complete with these chapters concerning Enoch, by Community of Christ, in the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible, where it appears as part of the Book of Genesis. D&C 104:24 (CofC) / 107:48–49 (LDS) states that Adam ordained Enoch to the higher priesthood (now called the priesthood of Melchizedek, after the great king and high priest) at age 25, that he was 65 when Adam blessed him, and that he lived for an additional 365 years until he and his city were blessed, making Enoch 430 years old at the time that "he was not, for God took him" (Genesis 5:24). Additionally in LDS theology, Enoch is implied to be the scribe who recorded Adam's blessings and prophecies at Adam-ondi-Ahman, as recorded in D&C 107:53–57 (LDS) / D&C 104:29b (CofC). Other religions In Islam Some Muslims identify Enoch with Idris and consider him a prophet due to the Quran's recognition of Idris as a prophet. However, some research suggests that the Greek version of the name Ezra (Esdras) is the most plausible origin for the name Idris because it is etymologically much closer to Idris. In Apocalyptic Ezra tradition, it is mentioned that Ezra was taken up to heaven, similar to Enoch. This corresponds with the information about Idris found in Muslim Israʼiliyyat traditions. It appears that later Muslims, due to the similarities between the two characters, confused Idris with Enoch. P. Casanova and C. C. Torrey also suggest that Idris originated from the biblical Ezra, who came to Muslims through the Greek version, Esdras. In Theosophy According to the theosophist Helena Blavatsky, the Jewish Enoch (or the Greek demigod Hermes) was "the first Grand Master and Founder of Masonry." In Samaritanism According to the Asatir, Enoch was buried in Mount Ebal. In Mesopotamia Enmeduranki was an ancient Sumerian pre-dynastic king who some consider to be a Mesopotamian model for Enoch. Enmeduranki appears as the seventh name on the Sumerian King List, whereas Enoch is the seventh figure on the list of patriarchs in Genesis. Both of them were also said to have been taken up into heaven. Additionally, Sippar, the city of Enmeduranki, is associated with sun worship, while the 365 years that Enoch is stated to have lived may be linked to the number of days in the solar calendar. Genealogy AdamEve CainAbelSeth EnochEnos IradKenan MehujaelMahalalel MethushaelJared AdahLamechZillahEnoch JabalJubalTubal-CainNaamahMethuselah Lamech Noah ShemHamJapheth ^ a b c Genesis 4:1 ^ Genesis 4:2 ^ Genesis 4:25; 5:3 ^ Genesis 4:17 ^ Genesis 4:26; 5:6–7 ^ a b c d Genesis 4:18 ^ Genesis 5:9–10 ^ Genesis 5:12–13 ^ Genesis 5:15–16 ^ a b Genesis 4:19 ^ Genesis 5:18–19 ^ Genesis 4:20 ^ Genesis 4:21 ^ a b Genesis 4:22 ^ Genesis 5:21–22 ^ Genesis 5:25–26 ^ Genesis 5:28–30 ^ a b c Genesis 5:32 See also Adam and Eve (LDS Church) New Adam Entering heaven alive Hermes Trismegistus Metatron References Notes ^ Hebrew: חֲנוֹךְ‎, Modern: H̱anōḵ, Tiberian: Ḥănōḵ; Greek: Ἑνώχ Henṓkh; Arabic: أَخْنُوخ ʼAkhnūkh ^ The use of dative toutois in the Greek text (προεφήτευσεν δὲ καὶ τούτοις instead of the normal genitive with προφητεύω prophēteuō peri auton, "concerning them") has occasioned discussion among commentators including: Ben Witherington, John Twycross, and Cox S. ^ Catholic ChurchOriental OrthodoxyEastern OrthodoxyEnochian Christian sects (see John Dee) ^ Medieval Rabbinical Judaism ^ Baháʼí FaithNew Age cults devoted to angelology ^ 30 July Citations ^ "Enoch the Patriarch". 27 November 2018. ^ August Dillmann and R. Charles (1893). The Book of Enoch, translation from Geez. ^ 1Enoch, chap. 12 ^ Luke 3:37, Hebrews 11:5, Jude 1:14–15 ^ "Strong's Hebrew Concordance - 2596. chanak". Bible Hub. ^ "Strong's Hebrew Concordance - 2596. ḥănōḵ". Bible Hub. ^ "Conjugation of לַחֲנוֹךְ". Pealim. ^ Genesis 5:24, KJV ^ Schodde, George H (1882). The Book of Enoch (PDF). ^ "MORFILL – The Book of the Secrets of Enoch (1896)" (PDF). ^ Eisenman, Robert; Wise, Michael (1992). The Dead Sea Scrolls Uncovered (6 ed.). Shaftesbury, Dorset: Element Books, Inc. p. 95. ISBN 1852303689. ^ 5:24 καὶ εὐηρέστησεν Ενωχ τῷ θεῷ καὶ οὐχ ηὑρίσκετο ὅτι μετέθηκεν αὐτὸν ὁ θεός ^ LSJ metatithemi ^ G3857 παράδεισος Strong's Greek Lexicon. Retrieved 2015-08-01 Strong's Greek 3857_ παράδεισος (paradeisos) – a park, a garden, a paradise Retrieved 2015-08-01 ^ a b "Jewish Encyclopedia Enoch". Jewishencyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2014-03-26. ^ Rashi's Commentary on Genesis 5:24. See also Commentary of Ibn Ezra. ^ 25:1 ^ 4Q Enoch (4Q204) COL I 16–18 ^ Clontz, T.E. and J., "The Comprehensive New Testament with complete textual variant mapping and references for the Dead Sea Scrolls, Philo, Josephus, Nag Hammadi Library, Pseudepigrapha, Apocrypha, Plato, Egyptian Book of the Dead, Talmud, Old Testament, Patristic Writings, Dhammapada, Tacitus, Epic of Gilgamesh", Cornerstone Publications, 2008, p. 711, ISBN 978-0-9778737-1-5 ^ "The initial oracle in chapters 1–5 is a paraphrase of part of Deuteronomy 33,24" George W. E. Nickelsburg, The nature and function of revelation 1 Enoch, Jubilees and some Qumranic documents, 1997 ^ Lars Hartman, Asking for a Meaning: A Study of 1 Enoch 1–5 ConBib NT Series 12 Lund Gleerup, 1979 22–26. ^ George WE Nickelsburg & James C Vanderkam, 1 Enoch, Fortress 2001 ^ R.H. Charles, The Book of Enoch, London SPCK, 1917 ^ E. Isaac, 1 Enoch, a new Translation and Introduction in Old Testament Pseudepigrapha ed. Charlesworth, Doubleday 1983–85 ^ Richard Bauckham Jude and the relatives of Jesus in the early church p206 etc. ^ Ben Witherington, Letters and Homilies for Jewish Christians: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on Hebrews, James and Jude: "who might be tempted to follow the teachers' example), nonetheless, Jude says that this prophecy refers to these (toutois) false teachers in Jude 14" p624 ^ John Twycross, The New Testament in the original Greek: with notes by C. Wordsworth His warning is addressed to them as well to those of his own and future ages. p140 ^ Cox S., Slandering Celestial Beings Hyderabad 2000 "..but instead Jude wrote proepheteusen toutois (verb + dative case pronoun plural) "prophesied TO these men".." p16 ^ "ANF01. The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus - Christian Classics Ethereal Library". www.ccel.org. ^ "ANF02. Fathers of the Second Century: Hermas, Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and Clement of Alexandria (Entire) - Christian Classics Ethereal Library". www.ccel.org. ^ "ANF01. The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus - Christian Classics Ethereal Library". www.ccel.org. ^ "0150-0215 - Clemens Alexandrinus - Eclogae propheticae - Graecum Text - Lexicum Proprium seu 'Concordance'". www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu. ^ "ANF03. Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian - Christian Classics Ethereal Library". www.ccel.org. ^ "ANF04. Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second - Christian Classics Ethereal Library". www.ccel.org. ^ Helena Blavatsky (June 1, 1885). "Lamas and Druses". Ancient Survivals and Modern Errors. Bangalore: Theosophy Company (Mysore) Private Ltd. p. 12 – via Internet Archive. ^ Helena Blavatsky (1981). "The Eight Wonder by an Unpopular Philosopher (written in 188⁹)". Ancient Science, Doctrine and Beliefs. Bangalore: Theosophy Company (Mysore) Private LTD. p. 33 – via Internet Archive. (Lucifer, October, 1791) ^ The Asatir, Moses Gaster (ed.), The Royal Asiatic Society: London 1927, p. 208 ^ John Day (2021), From Creation to Abraham: Further Studies in Genesis 1-11. Bloomsbury Publishing. p.106 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Enoch. The Descendants of Adam, The Legacy of Cain, The Souls Elijah and Enoch Catholic Encyclopedia Henoch (1914) Andrei A. Orlov essays on 2 Enoch: Enoch as the Heavenly Priest, Enoch as the Expert in Secrets, Enoch as the Scribe and Enoch as the Mediator Ed. Philip P. Wiener Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Cosmic Voyages (1973) Dr. Reed C. Durham, Jr. Comparison of Masonic legends of Enoch and Mormon scriptures description of Enoch (1974) vteExtra-Quranic prophets of IslamIn Stories of the Prophets Enoch Eber Khidr Joshua Samuel Saul Gideon Isaiah Jeremiah Ezekiel Ezra Daniel In Islamic tradition Amos Seth Shem Eli Ahijah Shemaiah Iddo Haggai Hanani Jehu Melchizedek Micaiah Nahum Eliezer Zechariah ben Jehoiada Uriah Hananiah, Mishael and Azariah Berechiah Joel Obadiah Micah Habakkuk Zephaniah Malachi Hanzalah Khaled bin Sinan In Quranic exegesis Abel People of Ya-Sin Hosea Zechariah, son of Berechiah Italics = While the figure has been revered by many Muslims as a saint, status as a prophet is not accepted by all. vteLinear genealogy of Muhammad from the first couple, according to various sourcesGenerations after Creation Adam and Hawwa Sheyth Enos Kenan Mahalalel Jared Idris Methuselah Lamik Nuh Sam Ibrahim Ibrahim Ismail Tribe of the Adnanites Adnan Ma'ad ibn Adnan Nizar Mudar Ilyas Mudrikah Khuzayma Kinanah Al-Nadr ibn Kinanah Malik Fihr al-Quraysh Quraysh tribe Ghalib Lu'ay Ka'b Murrah Kilab Qusai Abd Manaf Hashim ibn Abd Manaf The House of Hashim Abd al-Muttalib Abd-Allah Muhammad vteAdam to David according to the Hebrew BibleCreation to Flood Adam Seth Enos Kenan Mahalalel Jared Enoch Methuselah Lamech Noah Shem Patriarchs after Flood Arpachshad Cainan Shelah Eber Peleg Reu Serug Nahor Terah Abraham Isaac Jacob Tribe of Judah to Kingdom Judah Perez Hezron Ram Amminadab Nahshon Salmon Boaz Obed Jesse David Names in italics only appear in the Greek Septuagint version Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF 2 WorldCat National Germany Israel United States Czech Republic Poland People Deutsche Biographie Other IdRef İslâm Ansiklopedisi	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Enoch (son of Cain)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_(son_of_Cain)"},{"link_name":"Enoch (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"/ˈiːnək/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/ee/En-ca-Enoch.ogg/En-ca-Enoch.ogg.mp3"},{"link_name":"ⓘ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:En-ca-Enoch.ogg"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"patriarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarchs_(Bible)"},{"link_name":"Noah's flood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noah%27s_flood"},{"link_name":"Jared","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jared_(biblical_figure)"},{"link_name":"Methuselah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methuselah"},{"link_name":"Antediluvian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antediluvian"},{"link_name":"Idris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_(prophet)"},{"link_name":"Quran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran"},{"link_name":"Book of Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis"},{"link_name":"Gen 5:21–24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Genesis#5:21"},{"link_name":"entering heaven alive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entering_heaven_alive"},{"link_name":"Book of Enoch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Enoch"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Gospel of Luke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Luke"},{"link_name":"Epistle to the Hebrews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Hebrews"},{"link_name":"Epistle of Jude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_of_Jude"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Catholic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"Eastern Orthodoxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy"},{"link_name":"Oriental Orthodoxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy"},{"link_name":"Saint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint"},{"link_name":"Hebrew:","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language"},{"link_name":"root","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_root"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"imperative form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperative_form"},{"link_name":"verb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"For the person in Genesis 4, see Enoch (son of Cain). For other uses, see Enoch (disambiguation).Biblical figure prior to Noah's floodEnoch (/ˈiːnək/ ⓘ)[note 1] is a biblical figure and patriarch prior to Noah's flood, and the son of Jared and father of Methuselah. He was of the Antediluvian period in the Hebrew Bible. Some Muslims identify Enoch with Idris and consider him a prophet due to the Quran's recognition of Idris as a prophet.The text of the Book of Genesis says Enoch lived 365 years before he was taken by God. The text reads that Enoch \"walked with God: and he was no more; for God took him\" (Gen 5:21–24), which is interpreted as Enoch entering heaven alive in some Jewish and Christian traditions, and interpreted differently in others.Enoch is the subject of many Jewish and Christian traditions. He was considered the author of the Book of Enoch[2] and also called the scribe of judgment.[3] In the New Testament, Enoch is referenced in the Gospel of Luke, the Epistle to the Hebrews, and in the Epistle of Jude, the last of which also quotes from it.[4] In the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Oriental Orthodoxy, he is venerated as a Saint.The name of Enoch (Hebrew: חֲנוֹךְ Ḥănōḵ) derives from the Hebrew root חנך (ḥ-n-ḵ), meaning to train, initiate, dedicate, inaugurate,[5] with חֲנוֹךְ/חֲנֹךְ (Ḥănōḵ) being the imperative form of the verb.[6][7]","title":"Enoch"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Book of Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis"},{"link_name":"Pentateuch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentateuch"},{"link_name":"Deluge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_flood_narrative"},{"link_name":"Patriarchs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarchs_(Bible)"},{"link_name":"Hebrews 11:5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Hebrews#11:5"},{"link_name":"Genesis 5:22–24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0105.htm#22"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Enoch appears in the Book of Genesis of the Pentateuch as the seventh of the ten pre-Deluge Patriarchs. Genesis recounts that each of the pre-Flood Patriarchs lived for several centuries. Genesis 5 provides a genealogy of these ten figures (from Adam to Noah), providing the age at which each fathered the next, and the age of each figure at death. Enoch is considered by many to be the exception, who is said to \"not see death\" (Hebrews 11:5). Furthermore, Genesis 5:22–24 states that Enoch lived for 365 years, which is shorter than other pre-Flood Patriarchs, who are all recorded as dying at over 700 years of age. The brief account of Enoch in Genesis 5 ends with the cryptic note that \"he was not; for God took him\".[8] This happens 57 years after Adam's death and 69 years before Noah's birth.","title":"Book of Genesis"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Blake_Enoch_Lithograph_1807.jpg"},{"link_name":"lithograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithograph"},{"link_name":"William Blake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Blake"},{"link_name":"Apocrypha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocrypha"},{"link_name":"The Book of Enoch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Enoch"},{"link_name":"Hebrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew"},{"link_name":"Aramaic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic"},{"link_name":"Ge'ez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%27ez"},{"link_name":"James Bruce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bruce"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Orthodox Tewahedo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Tewahedo"},{"link_name":"2 Enoch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Book_of_Enoch"},{"link_name":"Old Church Slavonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"3 Enoch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3_Enoch"},{"link_name":"Heaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaven"},{"link_name":"archangels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archangel"},{"link_name":"Throne of God","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throne_of_God"},{"link_name":"Metatron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metatron"},{"link_name":"kabbalah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabbalah"},{"link_name":"Book of Jubilees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Jubilees"}],"text":"Enoch, lithograph by William Blake, 1807.Three extensive Apocrypha are attributed to Enoch:The Book of Enoch (aka 1 Enoch), composed in Hebrew or Aramaic and preserved in Ge'ez, first brought to Europe by James Bruce from Ethiopia and translated into English by August Dillmann and Reverent Schoode[9] – recognized by the Orthodox Tewahedo churches and usually dated between the third century BC and the first century AD.\n2 Enoch (aka Book of the Secrets of Enoch), preserved in Old Church Slavonic, and first translated in English by William Morfill[10] – usually dated to the first century AD.\n3 Enoch, a Rabbinic text in Hebrew usually dated to the fifth century AD.These recount how Enoch was taken up to Heaven and was appointed guardian of all the celestial treasures, chief of the archangels, and the immediate attendant on the Throne of God. He was subsequently taught all secrets and mysteries and, with all the angels at his back, fulfills of his own accord whatever comes out of the mouth of God, executing His decrees. Some esoteric literature, such as 3 Enoch, identifies Enoch as Metatron, the angel which communicates God's word. In consequence, Enoch was seen, by this literature and the Rabbinic kabbalah of Jewish mysticism, as the one who communicated God's revelation to Moses, and, in particular, as the dictator of the Book of Jubilees.","title":"Books of Enoch (Apocryphal)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Book of Giants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_Giants"},{"link_name":"pseudepigraphal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudepigrapha"},{"link_name":"Dead Sea Scrolls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"In Book of Giants","text":"The Book of Giants is a Jewish pseudepigraphal work from the third century BC and resembles the Book of Enoch. Fragments from at least six and as many as eleven copies were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls collections.[11]","title":"Books of Enoch (Apocryphal)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Septuagint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint"},{"link_name":"Koine Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koine_Greek"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Sirach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirach"},{"link_name":"paradise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradise"},{"link_name":"paradise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradise"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Septuagint","text":"The third-century BC translators who produced the Septuagint in Koine Greek rendered the phrase \"God took him\" with the Greek verb metatithemi (μετατίθημι)[12] meaning moving from one place to another.[13] Sirach 44:16, from about the same period, states that \"Enoch pleased God and was translated into paradise that he may give repentance to the nations.\" The Greek word used here for paradise, paradeisos (παράδεισος), was derived from an ancient Persian word meaning \"enclosed garden\", and was used in the Septuagint to describe the garden of Eden. Later, however, the term became synonymous for heaven, as is the case here.[14]","title":"Books of Enoch (Apocryphal)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Targum Pseudo-Jonathan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum_Pseudo-Jonathan"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-je-20"},{"link_name":"Rashi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashi"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Genesis Rabbah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_Rabbah"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Midrashim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midrash"},{"link_name":"Seventh Heaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Heavens"},{"link_name":"Azazel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azazel"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-je-20"}],"sub_title":"In Classical Rabbinism","text":"In classical Rabbinical literature, there are various views of Enoch. One view regarding Enoch that was found in the Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, which thought of Enoch as a pious man, taken to Heaven, and receiving the title of Safra rabba (Great scribe). After Christianity was completely separated from Judaism, this view became the prevailing rabbinical idea of Enoch's character and exaltation.[15]According to Rashi[16] [from Genesis Rabbah[17]], \"Enoch was a righteous man, but he could easily be swayed to return to do evil. Therefore, the Holy One, blessed be He, hastened and took him away and caused him to die before his time. For this reason, Scripture changed [the wording] in [the account of] his demise and wrote, 'and he was no longer' in the world to complete his years.\"Among the minor Midrashim, esoteric attributes of Enoch are expanded upon. In the Sefer Hekalot, Rabbi Ishmael is described as having visited the Seventh Heaven, where he met Enoch, who claims that earth had, in his time, been corrupted by the demons Shammazai, and Azazel, and so Enoch was taken to Heaven to prove that God was not cruel.[15] Similar traditions are recorded in Sirach. Later elaborations of this interpretation treated Enoch as having been a pious ascetic, who, called to mix with others, preached repentance, and gathered (despite the small number of people on Earth) a vast collection of disciples, to the extent that he was proclaimed king. Under his wisdom, peace is said to have reigned on earth, to the extent that he is summoned to Heaven to rule over the sons of God.","title":"Books of Enoch (Apocryphal)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spas_na_Ilyine_-_Patriarch_Enoch.jpg"},{"link_name":"fresco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresco"},{"link_name":"Theophanes the Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophanes_the_Greek"}],"text":"Patriarch Enoch, a fresco by Theophanes the Greek, 14th century.","title":"In Christianity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gospel of Luke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Luke"},{"link_name":"Epistle to the Hebrews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Hebrews"},{"link_name":"Epistle of Jude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_of_Jude"},{"link_name":"1 Enoch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Enoch"},{"link_name":"Dead Sea Scrolls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"midrash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midrash"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"New Testament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament"},{"link_name":"[note 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Jude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Jude"},{"link_name":"1:14–15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//bible.oremus.org/?passage=Jude%201:14%E2%80%9315&version=nrsv"}],"sub_title":"New Testament","text":"The New Testament contains three references to Enoch.The first is a brief mention in one of the genealogies of the ancestors of Jesus in the Gospel of Luke. (Luke 3:37).\nThe second mention is in the Epistle to the Hebrews which says, \"By faith Enoch was translated that he should not see death; and was not found, because God had translated him: for before his translation he had this testimony, that he pleased God.\" (Hebrews 11:5 KJV). This suggests he did not experience the mortal death ascribed to Adam's other descendants, which is consistent with Genesis 5:24 KJV, which says, \"And Enoch walked with God: and he [was] not; for God took him.\"\nThe third mention is in the Epistle of Jude (1:14–15) where the author attributes to \"Enoch, the Seventh from Adam\" a passage not found in Catholic and Protestant canons of the Old Testament. The quotation is believed by most modern scholars to be taken from 1 Enoch 1:9 which exists in Greek, in Ge'ez (as part of the Ethiopian Orthodox canon), and also in Aramaic among the Dead Sea Scrolls.[18][19] Though the same scholars recognise that 1 Enoch 1:9 itself is a midrash of Deuteronomy 33:2.[20][21][22][23][24]The introductory phrase \"Enoch, the Seventh from Adam\" is also found in 1 Enoch (1 En. 60:8), though not in the Old Testament.[25] In the New Testament this Enoch prophesies \"to\"[note 2] ungodly men, that God shall come with His holy ones to judge and convict them (Jude 1:14–15).","title":"In Christianity"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GundaGunde151Henoch1b.png"},{"link_name":"Gunda Gunde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunda_Gunde_Monastery"},{"link_name":"Geʽez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez"},{"link_name":"Elijah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elijah"},{"link_name":"Elisha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisha"},{"link_name":"Ezra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezra"},{"link_name":"Justin Martyr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Martyr"},{"link_name":"Athenagoras of Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenagoras_of_Athens"},{"link_name":"Irenaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irenaeus"},{"link_name":"Clement of Alexandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria"},{"link_name":"Origen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origen"},{"link_name":"Tertullian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian"},{"link_name":"Lactantius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactantius"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"millennialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennialism"},{"link_name":"amillennialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amillennialism"},{"link_name":"John of Damascus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Damascus"},{"link_name":"two witnesses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_witnesses"},{"link_name":"Book of Revelation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Revelation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MHS_Eliasz_i_Enoch_XVII_w_p.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Influence in Christianity","text":"Enoch (above right) in the ethiopic Enoch manuscript Gunda Gunde 151, depicted as scribe (Geʽez: ጸሓፊ ṣaḥāfi). On the left Elijah (above) and Elisha (bottom) are depicted, the other scribe (right bottom) is Ezra.The Book of Enoch was excluded from both the Hebrew Tanakh and the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, the Septuagint. It was not considered canon by either Jewish or early Christian readers. Church Fathers such as Justin Martyr, Athenagoras of Athens, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Tertullian, and Lactantius all speak highly of Enoch and contain many allusions to the Book of Enoch as well as in some instances advocating explicitly for the use of the Book of Enoch as Scripture.[29][30][31][32][33][34]The letter of Jude's citation of the Book of Enoch as prophetic text encouraged acceptance and usage of the Book of Enoch in early Christian circles. The main themes of Enoch about the Watchers corrupting humanity were commonly mentioned in early literature. This positive treatment of the Book of Enoch was associated with millennialism which was popular in the early Church. When amillennialism began to be common in Christianity, the Book of Enoch, being incompatible with amillennialism, came to be widely rejected. After the split of the Oriental Orthodox Church from the Catholic Church in the 5th century, use of the Book of Enoch was limited primarily to the Oriental Orthodox Church. Eventually, the usage of the Book of Enoch became limited to Ethiopian circles of the Oriental Orthodox Church.Another common element that some Church Fathers, like John of Damascus, spoke of, was that they considered Enoch to be one of the two witnesses mentioned in the Book of Revelation. This view still has many supporters today in Christianity.Elijah and Enoch – seventeenth-century icon, Historic Museum in Sanok, Poland","title":"In Christianity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Latter Day Saint movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement"},{"link_name":"the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints"},{"link_name":"Zion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zion_(Latter_Day_Saints)"},{"link_name":"standard works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_works"},{"link_name":"Pearl of Great Price","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_of_Great_Price_(Mormonism)"},{"link_name":"Doctrine and Covenants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrine_and_Covenants"},{"link_name":"taken off this earth without death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(Latter_Day_Saints)"},{"link_name":"Second Coming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Coming"},{"link_name":"Jesus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus"},{"link_name":"Noah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noah"},{"link_name":"Book of Moses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Moses"},{"link_name":"Joseph Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Smith"},{"link_name":"Community of Christ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_of_Christ"},{"link_name":"Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Smith_Translation_of_the_Bible"},{"link_name":"107:48–49","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Doctrine_and_Covenants/Section_107#48"},{"link_name":"priesthood of Melchizedek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priesthood_of_Melchizedek"},{"link_name":"Adam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam"},{"link_name":"Adam-ondi-Ahman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam-ondi-Ahman"},{"link_name":"107:53–57","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Doctrine_and_Covenants/Section_107#53"}],"sub_title":"In Mormonism","text":"Among the Latter Day Saint movement and particularly in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Enoch is viewed as having founded an exceptionally righteous city, named Zion, in the midst of an otherwise wicked world. This view is encountered in the standard works, the Pearl of Great Price and the Doctrine and Covenants, which states that not only Enoch, but the entire peoples of the city of Zion, were taken off this earth without death, because of their piety. (Zion is defined as \"the pure in heart\" and this city of Zion will return to the earth at the Second Coming of Jesus.) The Doctrine and Covenants further states that Enoch prophesied that one of his descendants, Noah, and his family, would survive a Great Flood and thus carry on the human race and preserve the Scripture. The Book of Moses in the Pearl of Great Price includes chapters that give an account of Enoch's preaching, visions, and conversations with God. They provide details concerning the wars, violence and natural disasters in Enoch's day, but also reference the miracles performed by Enoch.The Book of Moses is itself an excerpt from Joseph Smith's translation of the Bible, which is published in full, complete with these chapters concerning Enoch, by Community of Christ, in the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible, where it appears as part of the Book of Genesis. D&C 104:24 (CofC) / 107:48–49 (LDS) states that Adam ordained Enoch to the higher priesthood (now called the priesthood of Melchizedek, after the great king and high priest) at age 25, that he was 65 when Adam blessed him, and that he lived for an additional 365 years until he and his city were blessed, making Enoch 430 years old at the time that \"he was not, for God took him\" (Genesis 5:24).Additionally in LDS theology, Enoch is implied to be the scribe who recorded Adam's blessings and prophecies at Adam-ondi-Ahman, as recorded in D&C 107:53–57 (LDS) / D&C 104:29b (CofC).","title":"In Christianity"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Other religions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Idris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_(prophet)"}],"sub_title":"In Islam","text":"Some Muslims identify Enoch with Idris and consider him a prophet due to the Quran's recognition of Idris as a prophet. However, some research suggests that the Greek version of the name Ezra (Esdras) is the most plausible origin for the name Idris because it is etymologically much closer to Idris. In Apocalyptic Ezra tradition, it is mentioned that Ezra was taken up to heaven, similar to Enoch. This corresponds with the information about Idris found in Muslim Israʼiliyyat traditions. It appears that later Muslims, due to the similarities between the two characters, confused Idris with Enoch. P. Casanova and C. C. Torrey also suggest that Idris originated from the biblical Ezra, who came to Muslims through the Greek version, Esdras.","title":"Other religions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"theosophist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theosophy"},{"link_name":"Helena Blavatsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helena_Blavatsky"},{"link_name":"demigod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demigod"},{"link_name":"Hermes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermes"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Grand Master","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Master_(Masonic)"},{"link_name":"Masonry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masonry"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"sub_title":"In Theosophy","text":"According to the theosophist Helena Blavatsky, the Jewish Enoch (or the Greek demigod Hermes[35]) was \"the first Grand Master and Founder of Masonry.\"[36]","title":"Other religions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"the Asatir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Asatir"},{"link_name":"Mount Ebal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Ebal"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"In Samaritanism","text":"According to the Asatir, Enoch was buried in Mount Ebal.[37]","title":"Other religions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Enmeduranki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enmeduranki"},{"link_name":"Sumerian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer"},{"link_name":"Sumerian King List","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerian_King_List"},{"link_name":"Sippar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sippar"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"text":"Enmeduranki was an ancient Sumerian pre-dynastic king who some consider to be a Mesopotamian model for Enoch. Enmeduranki appears as the seventh name on the Sumerian King List, whereas Enoch is the seventh figure on the list of patriarchs in Genesis. Both of them were also said to have been taken up into heaven. Additionally, Sippar, the city of Enmeduranki, is associated with sun worship, while the 365 years that Enoch is stated to have lived may be linked to the number of days in the solar calendar.[38]","title":"In Mesopotamia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Genesis_4:1_45-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Genesis_4:1_45-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Genesis_4:1_45-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-46"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-47"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-48"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-49"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Genesis_4:18_50-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Genesis_4:18_50-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Genesis_4:18_50-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Genesis_4:18_50-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-51"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-52"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-53"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Genesis_4:19_54-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Genesis_4:19_54-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-55"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-56"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-57"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Genesis_4:22_58-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Genesis_4:22_58-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-59"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-60"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-61"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Genesis_5:32_62-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Genesis_5:32_62-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Genesis_5:32_62-2"}],"text":"^ a b c Genesis 4:1\n\n^ Genesis 4:2\n\n^ Genesis 4:25; 5:3\n\n^ Genesis 4:17\n\n^ Genesis 4:26; 5:6–7\n\n^ a b c d Genesis 4:18\n\n^ Genesis 5:9–10\n\n^ Genesis 5:12–13\n\n^ Genesis 5:15–16\n\n^ a b Genesis 4:19\n\n^ Genesis 5:18–19\n\n^ Genesis 4:20\n\n^ Genesis 4:21\n\n^ a b Genesis 4:22\n\n^ Genesis 5:21–22\n\n^ Genesis 5:25–26\n\n^ Genesis 5:28–30\n\n^ a b c Genesis 5:32","title":"Genealogy"}]	[{"image_text":"Enoch, lithograph by William Blake, 1807.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/William_Blake_Enoch_Lithograph_1807.jpg/300px-William_Blake_Enoch_Lithograph_1807.jpg"},{"image_text":"Patriarch Enoch, a fresco by Theophanes the Greek, 14th century.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Spas_na_Ilyine_-_Patriarch_Enoch.jpg/300px-Spas_na_Ilyine_-_Patriarch_Enoch.jpg"},{"image_text":"Enoch (above right) in the ethiopic Enoch manuscript Gunda Gunde 151, depicted as scribe (Geʽez: ጸሓፊ ṣaḥāfi). On the left Elijah (above) and Elisha (bottom) are depicted, the other scribe (right bottom) is Ezra.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/GundaGunde151Henoch1b.png/300px-GundaGunde151Henoch1b.png"},{"image_text":"Elijah and Enoch – seventeenth-century icon, Historic Museum in Sanok, Poland","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/MHS_Eliasz_i_Enoch_XVII_w_p.jpg/170px-MHS_Eliasz_i_Enoch_XVII_w_p.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Adam and Eve (LDS Church)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_and_Eve_(LDS_Church)"},{"title":"New Adam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Adam"},{"title":"Entering heaven alive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entering_heaven_alive"},{"title":"Hermes Trismegistus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermes_Trismegistus"},{"title":"Metatron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metatron"}]	[{"reference":"\"Enoch the Patriarch\". 27 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://catholicsaints.info/enoch-the-patriarch/","url_text":"\"Enoch the Patriarch\""}]},{"reference":"\"Strong's Hebrew Concordance - 2596. chanak\". Bible Hub.","urls":[{"url":"https://biblehub.com/hebrew/2596.htm","url_text":"\"Strong's Hebrew Concordance - 2596. chanak\""}]},{"reference":"\"Strong's Hebrew Concordance - 2596. ḥănōḵ\". Bible Hub.","urls":[{"url":"https://biblehub.com/hebrew/chanoch_2596.htm","url_text":"\"Strong's Hebrew Concordance - 2596. ḥănōḵ\""}]},{"reference":"\"Conjugation of לַחֲנוֹךְ\". Pealim.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pealim.com/dict/635-lachanoch/","url_text":"\"Conjugation of לַחֲנוֹךְ\""}]},{"reference":"Schodde, George H (1882). The Book of Enoch (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dropbox.com/s/6rbnsqkbyux8z0b/SCHODDE_The-Book-of-Enoch.pdf?dl=0","url_text":"The Book of Enoch"}]},{"reference":"\"MORFILL – The Book of the Secrets of Enoch (1896)\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dropbox.com/s/xect6zyuyhw137z/MORFILL_2Enoch_Book.of.Enoch.Secrets.pdf?dl=0","url_text":"\"MORFILL – The Book of the Secrets of Enoch (1896)\""}]},{"reference":"Eisenman, Robert; Wise, Michael (1992). The Dead Sea Scrolls Uncovered (6 ed.). Shaftesbury, Dorset: Element Books, Inc. p. 95. ISBN 1852303689.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781852303686/page/95","url_text":"The Dead Sea Scrolls Uncovered"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781852303686/page/95","url_text":"95"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1852303689","url_text":"1852303689"}]},{"reference":"\"Jewish Encyclopedia Enoch\". Jewishencyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2014-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=383&letter=E","url_text":"\"Jewish Encyclopedia Enoch\""}]},{"reference":"\"ANF01. The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus - Christian Classics Ethereal Library\". www.ccel.org.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.iii.v.html?highlight=are,called,demons#highlight","url_text":"\"ANF01. The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus - Christian Classics Ethereal Library\""}]},{"reference":"\"ANF02. Fathers of the Second Century: Hermas, Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and Clement of Alexandria (Entire) - Christian Classics Ethereal Library\". www.ccel.org.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf02.v.ii.xxiv.html","url_text":"\"ANF02. Fathers of the Second Century: Hermas, Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and Clement of Alexandria (Entire) - Christian Classics Ethereal Library\""}]},{"reference":"\"ANF01. The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus - Christian Classics Ethereal Library\". www.ccel.org.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.vi.xxxvii.html?highlight=commingled#highlight","url_text":"\"ANF01. The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus - Christian Classics Ethereal Library\""}]},{"reference":"\"0150-0215 - Clemens Alexandrinus - Eclogae propheticae - Graecum Text - Lexicum Proprium seu 'Concordance'\". www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/1004/1002/0150-0215,_Clemens_Alexandrinus,_Eclogae_propheticae,_MGR.html","url_text":"\"0150-0215 - Clemens Alexandrinus - Eclogae propheticae - Graecum Text - Lexicum Proprium seu 'Concordance'\""}]},{"reference":"\"ANF03. Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian - Christian Classics Ethereal Library\". www.ccel.org.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.iv.iii.xxii.html?highlight=angels+who+fell#highlight","url_text":"\"ANF03. Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian - Christian Classics Ethereal Library\""}]},{"reference":"\"ANF04. Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second - Christian Classics Ethereal Library\". www.ccel.org.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf04.vi.v.ii.iii.html?highlight=enoch#highlight","url_text":"\"ANF04. Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second - Christian Classics Ethereal Library\""}]},{"reference":"Helena Blavatsky (June 1, 1885). \"Lamas and Druses\". Ancient Survivals and Modern Errors. Bangalore: Theosophy Company (Mysore) Private Ltd. p. 12 – via Internet Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helena_Blavatsky","url_text":"Helena Blavatsky"},{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/hpb-articles/AncntSurModErr_djvu.txt","url_text":"Ancient Survivals and Modern Errors"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore","url_text":"Bangalore"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive","url_text":"Internet Archive"}]},{"reference":"Helena Blavatsky (1981). \"The Eight Wonder by an Unpopular Philosopher (written in 188⁹)\". Ancient Science, Doctrine and Beliefs. Bangalore: Theosophy Company (Mysore) Private LTD. p. 33 – via Internet Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helena_Blavatsky","url_text":"Helena Blavatsky"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/hpb-articles/AncientSciDocBelief/page/n33/mode/2up","url_text":"\"The Eight Wonder by an Unpopular Philosopher (written in 188⁹)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive","url_text":"Internet Archive"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0105.htm#22","external_links_name":"Genesis 5:22–24"},{"Link":"https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Jude%201:14%E2%80%9315&version=nrsv","external_links_name":"1:14–15"},{"Link":"https://catholicsaints.info/enoch-the-patriarch/","external_links_name":"\"Enoch the Patriarch\""},{"Link":"https://www.dropbox.com/s/zxr5mf6rwk1mv66/DILLMANN_Book.of.Enoch.pdf?dl=0","external_links_name":"The Book of Enoch"},{"Link":"https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Luke%203:37&version=nrsv","external_links_name":"Luke 3:37"},{"Link":"https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Hebrews%2011:5&version=nrsv","external_links_name":"Hebrews 11:5"},{"Link":"https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Jude%201:14%E2%80%9315&version=nrsv","external_links_name":"Jude 1:14–15"},{"Link":"https://biblehub.com/hebrew/2596.htm","external_links_name":"\"Strong's Hebrew Concordance - 2596. chanak\""},{"Link":"https://biblehub.com/hebrew/chanoch_2596.htm","external_links_name":"\"Strong's Hebrew Concordance - 2596. ḥănōḵ\""},{"Link":"https://www.pealim.com/dict/635-lachanoch/","external_links_name":"\"Conjugation of לַחֲנוֹךְ\""},{"Link":"https://www.dropbox.com/s/6rbnsqkbyux8z0b/SCHODDE_The-Book-of-Enoch.pdf?dl=0","external_links_name":"The Book of Enoch"},{"Link":"https://www.dropbox.com/s/xect6zyuyhw137z/MORFILL_2Enoch_Book.of.Enoch.Secrets.pdf?dl=0","external_links_name":"\"MORFILL – The Book of the Secrets of Enoch (1896)\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781852303686/page/95","external_links_name":"The Dead Sea Scrolls Uncovered"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781852303686/page/95","external_links_name":"95"},{"Link":"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%E1%BD%B3%CE%B8%CE%B7%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%BD&la=greek#lexicon","external_links_name":"metatithemi"},{"Link":"http://studybible.info/strongs/G3857","external_links_name":"G3857 παράδεισος"},{"Link":"http://biblehub.com/greek/3857.htm","external_links_name":"Strong's Greek 3857_ παράδεισος (paradeisos) – a park, a garden, a paradise"},{"Link":"http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=383&letter=E","external_links_name":"\"Jewish Encyclopedia Enoch\""},{"Link":"http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.iii.v.html?highlight=are,called,demons#highlight","external_links_name":"\"ANF01. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Trani	John Trani	["1 References"]	John M. Trani was chairman and chief executive officer of Stanley Black & Decker from 1997 until his retirement in 2003. He was also the president and CEO of General Electric Medical Systems from 1986 to 1996. He graduated from Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute with a B.S. degree in engineering and also holds an M.A. from New York University. References ^ "John M. Trani, Stanley Works Chairman & CEO, Announces Year-End Retirement -- re> NEW BRITAIN, Conn., May 20 /PRNewswire-FirstCall/ --". Archived from the original on 2015-07-07. Retrieved 2015-07-07. ^ "John M. Trani: Executive Profile & Biography - Businessweek". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2017-03-08. ^ Uyterhoeven, Hugo E. R. "John Trani's First Year". hbr.org. ^ By CLAUDIA H. DEUTSCHJAN. 4, 2007 (2007-01-04). "G.E. Magic Can Fade, After G.E. - The New York Times". The New York Times. Retrieved 2019-09-10.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ "Republic Services Inc". www.marketwatch.com.	[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"John Trani"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"John M. Trani, Stanley Works Chairman & CEO, Announces Year-End Retirement -- re> NEW BRITAIN, Conn., May 20 /PRNewswire-FirstCall/ --\". Archived from the original on 2015-07-07. Retrieved 2015-07-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150707110845/http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/john-m-trani-stanley-works-chairman--ceo-announces-year-end-retirement-55721502.html","url_text":"\"John M. Trani, Stanley Works Chairman & CEO, Announces Year-End Retirement -- re> NEW BRITAIN, Conn., May 20 /PRNewswire-FirstCall/ --\""},{"url":"http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/john-m-trani-stanley-works-chairman--ceo-announces-year-end-retirement-55721502.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"John M. Trani: Executive Profile & Biography - Businessweek\". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2017-03-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304132750/http://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId=304979&privcapId=134645232","url_text":"\"John M. Trani: Executive Profile & Biography - Businessweek\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_News","url_text":"Bloomberg News"},{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId=304979&privcapId=134645232","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Uyterhoeven, Hugo E. R. \"John Trani's First Year\". hbr.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://hbr.org/product/John-Trani-s-First-Year/an/398076-PDF-ENG","url_text":"\"John Trani's First Year\""}]},{"reference":"By CLAUDIA H. DEUTSCHJAN. 4, 2007 (2007-01-04). \"G.E. Magic Can Fade, After G.E. - The New York Times\". The New York Times. Retrieved 2019-09-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/04/business/04electric.html?_r=0","url_text":"\"G.E. Magic Can Fade, After G.E. - The New York Times\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Republic Services Inc\". www.marketwatch.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.marketwatch.com/investing/stock/rsg","url_text":"\"Republic Services Inc\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150707110845/http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/john-m-trani-stanley-works-chairman--ceo-announces-year-end-retirement-55721502.html","external_links_name":"\"John M. Trani, Stanley Works Chairman & CEO, Announces Year-End Retirement -- re> NEW BRITAIN, Conn., May 20 /PRNewswire-FirstCall/ --\""},{"Link":"http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/john-m-trani-stanley-works-chairman--ceo-announces-year-end-retirement-55721502.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304132750/http://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId=304979&privcapId=134645232","external_links_name":"\"John M. Trani: Executive Profile & Biography - Businessweek\""},{"Link":"https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId=304979&privcapId=134645232","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://hbr.org/product/John-Trani-s-First-Year/an/398076-PDF-ENG","external_links_name":"\"John Trani's First Year\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/04/business/04electric.html?_r=0","external_links_name":"\"G.E. Magic Can Fade, After G.E. - The New York Times\""},{"Link":"https://www.marketwatch.com/investing/stock/rsg","external_links_name":"\"Republic Services Inc\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_breach_notification_laws	Data breach notification laws	["1 Australia","2 China","3 European Union","4 Japan","5 New Zealand","6 United States","6.1 The 50 States","6.2 Federal Data Breach Notification Law History","6.3 Debate over federal or state data breach notification laws","7 Impact","7.1 Criminal impact","7.2 Economic impact","7.3 Victim response","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"]	This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2014) The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (June 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Security breach notification laws or data breach notification laws are laws that require individuals or entities affected by a data breach, unauthorized access to data, to notify their customers and other parties about the breach, as well as take specific steps to remedy the situation based on state legislature. Data breach notification laws have two main goals. The first goal is to allow individuals a chance to mitigate risks against data breaches. The second goal is to promote company incentive to strengthen data security.Together, these goals work to minimize consumer harm from data breaches, including impersonation, fraud, and identity theft. Such laws have been irregularly enacted in all 50 U.S. states since 2002. Currently, all 50 states have enacted forms of data breach notification laws. There is no federal data breach notification law, despite previous legislative attempts. These laws were enacted in response to an escalating number of breaches of consumer databases containing personally identifiable information. Similarly, multiple other countries, like the European Union General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and Australia's Privacy Amendment (Notifiable Data Breaches) Act 2017 (Cth), have added data breach notification laws to combat the increasing occurrences of data breaches. The rise in data breaches conducted by both countries and individuals is evident and alarming, as the number of reported data breaches has increased from 421 in 2011, to 1,091 in 2016, and 1,579 in 2017 according to the Identity Theft Resource Center (ITRC). It has also impacted millions of people and gained increasing public awareness due to large data breaches such as the October 2017 Equifax breach that exposed almost 146 million individual's personal information. Australia On 2018, Australia Privacy Amendment (Notifiable Data Breaches) Act 2017 went into effect. This amended the Privacy Act 1988 (Cth), which had established a notification system for data breaches involving personal information that lead to harm. Now, entities with existing personal information security obligations under the Australian Privacy Act are required to notify the Office of Australian Information Commissioner (OAIC) and affected individuals of all “eligible data breaches.” The amendment is coming off large data breaches experiences in Australia, such as the Yahoo hack in 2013 involving thousands of government officials and the data breach of NGO Australian Red Cross releasing 550,000 blood donor's personal information. Criticism of the data breach notification include: the unjustified exemption of certain entities such as small businesses and the Privacy Commissioner not required to post data breaches in one permanent place to be used as data for future research. In addition, notification obligations are not consistent at a state level. China In mid-2017, China adopted a new Cyber security Law, which included data breach notification requirements. European Union In 1995, the EU passed the Data Protection Directive (DPD), which has recently been replaced with the 2016 General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), a comprehensive federal data breach notification law. The GDPR offers stronger data protection laws, broader data breach notification laws, and new factors such as the right to data portability. However, certain areas of the data breach notification laws are supplemented by other data security laws. Examples of this include, the European Union implemented a breach notification law in the Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications (E-Privacy Directive) in 2009, specific to personal data held by telecoms and Internet service providers. This law contains some of the notification obligations for data breaches. The traffic data of the subscribers, who use voice and data via a network company, is saved from the company only for operational reasons. However, the traffic data must be deleted when they aren’t necessary anymore, in order to avoid the breaches. However, the traffic data is necessary for the creation and treatment of subscriber billing. The use of these data is available only up to the end of the period that the bill can be repaid based on the law of European Union (Article 6 - paragraphs 1-6 ). Regarding the marketing usage of the traffic data for the sale of additional chargeable services, they can be used from the company only if the subscriber gives his/her consent (but, the consent can be withdrawn at every time). Also, the service provider must inform the subscriber or user of the types of traffic data which are processed and of the duration of that based on the above assumptions. Processing of traffic data, in accordance with the above details, must be restricted to persons acting under the authority of providers of the public communications networks and publicly available electronic communications services handling billing or traffic management, customer enquiries, fraud detection, marketing electronic communications services or providing a value added service, and must be restricted to what is necessary for the purposes of such activities. Data breach notification obligations are included in the new Directive on security of network and information systems (NIS Directive). This creates notification requirements on essential services and digital service providers. Among these include immediately notifying the authorities or computer security incident response teams (CSIRTS) if they experience a significant data breach. Similar to US concerns for a state-by-state approach creating increased costs and difficulty complying with all the state laws, the EU's various breach notification requirements in different laws creates concern. Japan In 2015, Japan amended the Act on the Protection of Personal Information (APPI) to combat massive data leaks. Specifically, the massive Benesse Corporation data leak in 2014 where nearly 29 million pieces of private customer information was leaked and sold. This includes new penal sanctions on illegal transaction, however, there is no specific provision dealing with data breach notification in the APPI. Instead, the Policies Concerning the Protection of Personal Information, in accordance with the APPI, creates a policy that encourages business operators to disclose data breaches voluntarily. Kaori Ishii and Taro Komukai have theorized that the Japanese culture offers a potential explanation for why there is no specific data breach notification law to encourage companies to strengthen data security. The Japanese general public and mass media, in particularly, condemn leaks. Consequently, data leaks quickly result in losing customer trust, brand value, and ultimately profits. An example of this include, after a 2004 data leak, Softbank swiftly lost 107 billion yen and Benesse Corporation lost 940,000 customers after the data leak. This has resulted in compliance with disclosing data leaks in accordance with the policy. While proving the Japanese culture makes specific data breach notification laws necessary is difficult to objectively prove, what has been shown is that companies that experience data breach do experience both financial and reputation harm. New Zealand New Zealand’s Privacy Act 2020 came into force on December 1, 2020, replacing the 1993 act. The act makes notification of privacy breaches mandatory. Organisations receiving and collecting data will now have to report any privacy breach they believe has caused, or is likely to cause, serious harm. United States Data Breach Notification Laws have been enacted in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. As of August 2021, attempts to pass a federal data breach notification law have been unsuccessful. The 50 States The first such law, the California data security breach notification law, was enacted in 2002 and became effective on July 1, 2003. The bill was enacted in reaction to the fear of identity theft and fraud. As related in the bill statement, law requires "a state agency, or a person or business that conducts business in California, that owns or licenses computerized data that includes personal information, as defined, to disclose in specified ways, any breach of the security of the data, as defined, to any resident of California whose unencrypted personal information was, or is reasonably believed to have been, acquired by an unauthorized person." In addition, the law permits delayed notification "if a law enforcement agency determines that it would impede a criminal investigation." The law also requires any entity that licenses such information to notify the owner or licensee of the information of any breach of the security of the data. In general, most state laws follow the basic tenets of California's original law: Companies must immediately disclose a data breach to customers, usually in writing. California has since broadened its law to include compromised medical and health insurance information. Where bills differ most is at what level the breach must be reported to the state Attorney General (usually when it affects 500 or 1000 individuals or more). Some states like California publish these data breach notifications on their oag.gov websites. Breaches must be reported if "sensitive personally identifying information has been acquired or is reasonably believed to have been acquired by an unauthorized person, and is reasonably likely to cause substantial harm to the individuals to whom the information relates." This leaves room for some interpretation (will it cause substantial harm?); but breaches of encrypted data need not be reported. Nor must it be reported if data has been obtained or viewed by unauthorized individuals as long as there is no reason to believe they will use the data in harmful ways. The National Conference of State Legislatures maintains a list of enacted and proposed security breach notification laws. Alabama and South Dakota enacted their data breach notification laws in 2018, making them the final states to do so. Some of the state differences in data breach notification laws include thresholds of harm suffered from data breaches, the need to notify certain law enforcement or consumer credit agencies, broader definitions of personal information, and differences in penalties for non-compliance. Federal Data Breach Notification Law History As of August 2021, there is no federal data breach notification law. The first proposed federal data breach notification law was introduced to Congress in 2003, but it never exited the Judiciary Committee. Similarly, a number of bills that would establish a national standard for data security breach notification have been introduced in the U.S. Congress, but none passed in the 109th Congress. In fact, in 2007, three federal data breach notification laws were proposed, but none passed Congress. In his 2015 State of the Union speech, President Obama proposed new legislation to create a national data breach standard that would establish a 30-day notification requirement from the discovery of a breach. This led to President Obama's 2015 Personal Data Notification & Protection Act (PDNPA) proposal. This would have created federal notification guidelines and standards, but it never came out of committee. Chlotia Garrison and Clovia Hamilton theorized that a potential reason for the inability to pass a federal law on data breach notifications is states' rights. As of now, all 50 states have varying data breach notification laws. Some are restrictive, while others are broad. While there is not a comprehensive federal law on data breach notifications, some federal laws require notifications of data breaches in certain circumstances. Some notable examples include: the Federal Trade Commission Act (FTC Act), the Financial Services Modernization Act (Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act), and the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). Debate over federal or state data breach notification laws Most scholars, like Angela Daly, advocate for federal data breach notification laws emphasize the problem with having varying forms of data breach notification laws. That is, companies are forced to comply with multiple state data breach notification laws. This creates increased difficulty to comply with the laws and the costs. In addition, scholars have argued that a state-by-state approach has created the problem of uncompensated victims and inadequate incentives to persuade companies and governments to invest in data security. Advocates of a state-by-state approach to data breach notification laws emphasize increased efficiency, increased incentives to have the local governments increase data security, limited federal funding available due to multiple projects, and lastly states are able to quickly adapt and pass laws to constantly evolving data breach technologies. In 2018, a majority of state attorneys general opposed a proposed federal data breach notification law that would preempt state laws. Impact Data breaches occur because of technical issues like bad code to economic issues causing competing firm to not cooperate with each other to tackle data security. In response, data breach notification laws attempt to prevent harm to companies and the public. Criminal impact A serious harm of data breaches is identity theft. Identity theft can harm individuals when their personal data is stolen and is used by another party to create financial harm such as withdrawing their money, non financially such as fraudulently claiming their health benefits, and pretending to be them and committing crimes. Based on data collected from 2002 to 2009 from the U.S. Federal Trade Commission, the use of data breach notification has helped to decrease identity theft by 6.1 percent. Economic impact Overall, data breach notifications leads to decreasing market value, evident in publicly traded companies experiencing a decrease in market valuation. Other costs include loss of consumer confidence and trust in the company, loss of business, decreased productivity, and exposure to third-party liability. Notably, the type of data that is leaked from the breach has varying economic impact. A data breach that leaks sensitive data experiences harsher economic repercussions. Victim response Most federal data breach lawsuits share certain characteristics. These include a plaintiff seeking relief from the loss of an identity theft, emotional distress, future losses, and increased risk of future harm; the majority of litigation are private class actions; the defendants are usually large firms or businesses; a mix of common law and statutory causes of action; and lastly most cases settle or are dismissed. References ^ Sen, Ravi; Borle, Sharad (2015-04-03). "Estimating the Contextual Risk of Data Breach: An Empirical Approach". Journal of Management Information Systems. 32 (2): 314–341. doi:10.1080/07421222.2015.1063315. ISSN 0742-1222. S2CID 2311182. ^ Bisogni, Fabio (2016). "Proving Limits of State Data Breach Notification Laws: Is a Federal Law the Most Adequate Solution?". Journal of Information Policy. 6: 154–205. doi:10.5325/jinfopoli.6.2016.0154. ISSN 2158-3897. JSTOR 10.5325/jinfopoli.6.2016.0154. ^ Acquisti, Alessandro; Friedman, Allan; Telang, Rahul (2006). "Is there a cost to privacy breaches? An event study". ICIS 2006 Proceeding. ^ Murciano-Goroff, Raviv (2019). "Do Data Breach Disclosure Laws Increase Firms; Investment in Securing their Digital Infrastructure?". Workshop on the Economics of Information Security: 1–39. ^ a b c d e Garrison, Chlotia; Hamilton, Clovia (2019-01-02). "A comparative analysis of the EU GDPR to the US's breach notifications" (PDF). Information & Communications Technology Law. 28 (1): 99–114. doi:10.1080/13600834.2019.1571473. hdl:10535/10737. ISSN 1360-0834. S2CID 86668452. ^ a b c "Security Breach Notification Laws". National Conference of State Legislatures. Retrieved 27 January 2019. ^ "What is GDPR, the EU's new data protection law?". GDPR.eu. 2018-11-07. Retrieved 2021-10-25. ^ a b Bisogni, Fabio; Asghari, Hadi (2020). "More Than a Suspect: An Investigation into the Connection Between Data Breaches, Identity Theft, and Data Breach Notification Laws". Journal of Information Policy. 10: 45–82. doi:10.5325/jinfopoli.10.2020.0045. ISSN 2381-5892. JSTOR 10.5325/jinfopoli.10.2020.0045. S2CID 226623656. ^ Romanosky, Sasha; Boudreaux, Benjamin (2020-08-26). "Private-Sector Attribution of Cyber Incidents: Benefits and Risks to the U.S. Government". International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence. 34 (3): 463–493. doi:10.1080/08850607.2020.1783877. ISSN 0885-0607. S2CID 235636491. ^ a b Ronaldson, Nicholas (2019-05-01). "HACKING: THE NAKED AGE CYBERCRIME, CLAPPER & STANDING, AND THE DEBATE BETWEEN STATE AND FEDERAL DATA BREACH NOTIFICATION LAWS". Northwestern Journal of Technology and Intellectual Property. 16 (4): 305. ISSN 1549-8271. ^ AG. "Privacy Amendment (Notifiable Data Breaches) Act 2017". www.legislation.gov.au. Retrieved 2023-10-29. ^ Green, Paul. "Australia's mandatory Data Breach Notification laws: Are You Ready?". Business Aspect. Retrieved 30 November 2020. ^ a b c d e f g h Daly, Angela (2018). "The introduction of data breach notification legislation in Australia: A comparative view". Computer Law & Security Review. 34 (3): 477–495. doi:10.1016/j.clsr.2018.01.005. ISSN 0267-3649. S2CID 67358435. ^ "Amendment of Article 4 lit 3-5 of Directive 2002/58/EC (E-Privacy Directive) by Article 2 lit 4 c) of Directive 2009/136/EC". Retrieved 27 January 2019. ^ "New specific rules for consumers when telecoms personal data is lost or stolen in EU". Digital Single Market. 5 November 2016. Retrieved 11 May 2016. ^ "EUR-Lex - 32002L0058 - EN - EUR-Lex". eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 27 January 2019. ^ a b Ishii, Kaori; Komukai, Taro (2016-09-07). "A Comparative Legal Study on Data Breaches in Japan, the U.S., and the U.K.". Technology and Intimacy: Choice or Coercion. IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology. Vol. AICT-474. pp. 86–105. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-44805-3_8. ISBN 978-3-319-44804-6. S2CID 41459415. ^ Honeywill, Sean (2006-03-01). "Data Security and Data Breach Notification for Financial Institutions". North Carolina Banking Institute. 10 (1): 269. ^ Lending, Claire; Minnick, Kristina; Schorno, Patrick J. (2018-04-02). "Corporate Governance, Social Responsibility, and Data Breaches". Financial Review. 53 (2): 413–455. doi:10.1111/fire.12160. ISSN 0732-8516. ^ "Transitioning from Privacy Act 1993 to Privacy Act 2020". Retrieved 29 November 2020. ^ Voss, W. Gregory; Houser, Kimberly A. (2019-05-20). "Personal Data and the GDPR: Providing a Competitive Advantage for U.S. Companies". American Business Law Journal. 56 (2): 287–344. doi:10.1111/ablj.12139. ISSN 0002-7766. S2CID 182271514. ^ SB 1386, Cal. Civ. Code 1798.82 and 1798.29. ^ SB 1386 Senate Bill Archived 2007-06-13 at the Wayback Machine ^ Burdon, Mark; Lane, Bill; von Nessen, Paul (2010). "The mandatory notification of data breaches: Issues arising for Australian and EU legal developments". Computer Law & Security Review. 26 (2): 115–129. doi:10.1016/j.clsr.2010.01.006. ISSN 0267-3649. ^ Scott Berinato (12 February 2008). "CSO Disclosure Series - Data Breach Notification Laws, State By State". CSO Online. Retrieved 11 May 2016. ^ "AB 1298 Assembly Bill - CHAPTERED". Retrieved 11 May 2016. ^ https://www.bakerlaw.com/files/uploads/documents/data%20breach%20documents/state_data_breach_statute_form.pdf ^ "RSA Blogs". RSA.com. Retrieved 27 January 2019. ^ "The Personal Data Notification & Protection Act" (PDF). Obamawhitehouse.archives.gov. Retrieved 4 May 2018. ^ Soroka, Saranna (April 8, 2018). "Coalition of 32 State AGs Outline Opposition to Federal Preemption of State Data Breach Notification Laws". JOLT Digest. Retrieved 26 August 2021. ^ Sen, Ravi (2018). "Challenges to Cybersecurity: Current State of Affairs". Communications of the Association for Information Systems: 22–44. doi:10.17705/1cais.04302. ISSN 1529-3181. ^ White, Michael D.; Fisher, Christopher (2008). "Assessing Our Knowledge of Identity Theft". Criminal Justice Policy Review. 19 (1): 3–24. doi:10.1177/0887403407306297. ISSN 0887-4034. S2CID 144958696. ^ Romanosky, Sasha; Telang, Rahul; Acquisti, Alessandro (2011). "Do data breach disclosure laws reduce identity theft?". Journal of Policy Analysis and Management. 30 (2): 256–286. doi:10.1002/pam.20567. ISSN 0276-8739. ^ Gatzlaff, Kevin M.; McCullough, Kathleen A. (2010). "The Effect of Data Breaches on Shareholder Wealth". Risk Management and Insurance Review. 13 (1): 61–83. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6296.2010.01178.x. ISSN 1098-1616. S2CID 153592982. ^ a b Cavusoglu, Huseyin; Mishra, Birendra; Raghunathan, Srinivasan (2004). "The Effect of Internet Security Breach Announcements on Market Value: Capital Market Reactions for Breached Firms and Internet Security Developers". International Journal of Electronic Commerce. 9 (1): 70–104. doi:10.1080/10864415.2004.11044320. ISSN 1086-4415. S2CID 10753015. ^ Campbell, Katherine; Gordon, Lawrence A.; Loeb, Martin P.; Zhou, Lei (2003). "The economic cost of publicly announced information security breaches: empirical evidence from the stock market" (PDF). Journal of Computer Security. 11 (3): 431–448. doi:10.3233/JCS-2003-11308. ^ Romanosky, Sasha; Hoffman, David; Acquisti, Alessandro (2014-01-17). "Empirical Analysis of Data Breach Litigation". Journal of Empirical Legal Studies. 11 (1): 74–104. doi:10.1111/jels.12035. ISSN 1740-1453. S2CID 155714280. Further reading Solove, Daniel J.; Hartzog, Woodrow (2022). Breached!: Why Data Security Law Fails and How to Improve it. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-094057-7. External links National Conference of State Legislatures table of Security Breach Notification Laws Interactive map comparing U.S. security breach notice laws (requires subscription) EU law regarding the security of network data	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law"},{"link_name":"data breach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_breach"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"U.S. states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._states"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"consumer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer"},{"link_name":"personally identifiable information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personally_identifiable_information"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ncsl.org-6"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"General Data Protection Regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Data_Protection_Regulation"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Identity Theft Resource Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_Theft_Resource_Center"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-10"}],"text":"Security breach notification laws or data breach notification laws are laws that require individuals or entities affected by a data breach, unauthorized access to data,[1] to notify their customers and other parties about the breach, as well as take specific steps to remedy the situation based on state legislature. Data breach notification laws have two main goals. The first goal is to allow individuals a chance to mitigate risks against data breaches. The second goal is to promote company incentive to strengthen data security.[2]Together, these goals work to minimize consumer harm from data breaches, including impersonation, fraud, and identity theft.[3]Such laws have been irregularly enacted in all 50 U.S. states since 2002. Currently, all 50 states have enacted forms of data breach notification laws.[4] There is no federal data breach notification law, despite previous legislative attempts.[5] These laws were enacted in response to an escalating number of breaches of consumer databases containing personally identifiable information.[6] Similarly, multiple other countries, like the European Union General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and Australia's Privacy Amendment (Notifiable Data Breaches) Act 2017 (Cth), have added data breach notification laws to combat the increasing occurrences of data breaches.[7]The rise in data breaches conducted by both countries and individuals is evident and alarming, as the number of reported data breaches has increased from 421 in 2011, to 1,091 in 2016, and 1,579 in 2017 according to the Identity Theft Resource Center (ITRC).[8][9] It has also impacted millions of people and gained increasing public awareness due to large data breaches such as the October 2017 Equifax breach that exposed almost 146 million individual's personal information.[10]","title":"Data breach notification laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"information security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_security"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Yahoo hack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!_data_breaches"},{"link_name":"Australian Red Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Red_Cross"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-13"}],"text":"On 2018, Australia Privacy Amendment (Notifiable Data Breaches) Act 2017 went into effect.[11] This amended the Privacy Act 1988 (Cth), which had established a notification system for data breaches involving personal information that lead to harm. Now, entities with existing personal information security obligations under the Australian Privacy Act are required to notify the Office of Australian Information Commissioner (OAIC) and affected individuals of all “eligible data breaches.”[12] The amendment is coming off large data breaches experiences in Australia, such as the Yahoo hack in 2013 involving thousands of government officials and the data breach of NGO Australian Red Cross releasing 550,000 blood donor's personal information.Criticism of the data breach notification include: the unjustified exemption of certain entities such as small businesses and the Privacy Commissioner not required to post data breaches in one permanent place to be used as data for future research. In addition, notification obligations are not consistent at a state level.[13]","title":"Australia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-13"}],"text":"In mid-2017, China adopted a new Cyber security Law, which included data breach notification requirements.[13]","title":"China"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"EU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"Data Protection Directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Protection_Directive"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-13"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directive_on_Privacy_and_Electronic_Communications"},{"link_name":"personal data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_data"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-13"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-13"}],"text":"In 1995, the EU passed the Data Protection Directive (DPD), which has recently been replaced with the 2016 General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), a comprehensive federal data breach notification law. The GDPR offers stronger data protection laws, broader data breach notification laws, and new factors such as the right to data portability. However, certain areas of the data breach notification laws are supplemented by other data security laws.[13]Examples of this include, the European Union implemented a breach notification law in the Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications (E-Privacy Directive) in 2009, specific to personal data held by telecoms and Internet service providers.[14][15] This law contains some of the notification obligations for data breaches.[13]The traffic data of the subscribers, who use voice and data via a network company, is saved from the company only for operational reasons. However, the traffic data must be deleted when they aren’t necessary anymore, in order to avoid the breaches.\nHowever, the traffic data is necessary for the creation and treatment of subscriber billing. The use of these data is available only up to the end of the period that the bill can be repaid based on the law of European Union (Article 6 - paragraphs 1-6 [16]).\nRegarding the marketing usage of the traffic data for the sale of additional chargeable services, they can be used from the company only if the subscriber gives his/her consent (but, the consent can be withdrawn at every time). Also, the service provider must inform the subscriber or user of the types of traffic data which are processed and of the duration of that based on the above assumptions. Processing of traffic data, in accordance with the above details, must be restricted to persons acting under the authority of providers of the public communications networks and publicly available electronic communications services handling billing or traffic management, customer enquiries, fraud detection, marketing electronic communications services or providing a value added service, and must be restricted to what is necessary for the purposes of such activities.Data breach notification obligations are included in the new Directive on security of network and information systems (NIS Directive). This creates notification requirements on essential services and digital service providers. Among these include immediately notifying the authorities or computer security incident response teams (CSIRTS) if they experience a significant data breach.Similar to US concerns for a state-by-state approach creating increased costs and difficulty complying with all the state laws, the EU's various breach notification requirements in different laws creates concern.[13]","title":"European Union"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"In 2015, Japan amended the Act on the Protection of Personal Information (APPI) to combat massive data leaks. Specifically, the massive Benesse Corporation data leak in 2014 where nearly 29 million pieces of private customer information was leaked and sold. This includes new penal sanctions on illegal transaction, however, there is no specific provision dealing with data breach notification in the APPI. Instead, the Policies Concerning the Protection of Personal Information, in accordance with the APPI, creates a policy that encourages business operators to disclose data breaches voluntarily.[17]Kaori Ishii and Taro Komukai have theorized that the Japanese culture offers a potential explanation for why there is no specific data breach notification law to encourage companies to strengthen data security. The Japanese general public and mass media, in particularly, condemn leaks. Consequently, data leaks quickly result in losing customer trust, brand value, and ultimately profits. An example of this include, after a 2004 data leak, Softbank swiftly lost 107 billion yen and Benesse Corporation lost 940,000 customers after the data leak. This has resulted in compliance with disclosing data leaks in accordance with the policy.[17]While proving the Japanese culture makes specific data breach notification laws necessary is difficult to objectively prove, what has been shown is that companies that experience data breach do experience both financial and reputation harm.[18][19]","title":"Japan"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"New Zealand’s Privacy Act 2020 came into force on December 1, 2020, replacing the 1993 act. The act makes notification of privacy breaches mandatory.[20] Organisations receiving and collecting data will now have to report any privacy breach they believe has caused, or is likely to cause, serious harm.","title":"New Zealand"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"District of Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"Guam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guam"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"Virgin Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ncsl.org-6"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Data Breach Notification Laws have been enacted in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.[6] As of August 2021, attempts to pass a federal data breach notification law have been unsuccessful.[21]","title":"United States"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"California data security breach notification law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Senate_Bill_1386_(2002)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"identity theft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_theft"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-8"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"data breach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_breach"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"National Conference of State Legislatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Conference_of_State_Legislatures"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ncsl.org-6"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-13"}],"sub_title":"The 50 States","text":"The first such law, the California data security breach notification law,[22] was enacted in 2002 and became effective on July 1, 2003.[23] The bill was enacted in reaction to the fear of identity theft and fraud.[8][24] As related in the bill statement, law requires \"a state agency, or a person or business that conducts business in California, that owns or licenses computerized data that includes personal information, as defined, to disclose in specified ways, any breach of the security of the data, as defined, to any resident of California whose unencrypted personal information was, or is reasonably believed to have been, acquired by an unauthorized person.\" In addition, the law permits delayed notification \"if a law enforcement agency determines that it would impede a criminal investigation.\" The law also requires any entity that licenses such information to notify the owner or licensee of the information of any breach of the security of the data.In general, most state laws follow the basic tenets of California's original law: Companies must immediately disclose a data breach to customers, usually in writing.[25] California has since broadened its law to include compromised medical and health insurance information.[26] Where bills differ most is at what level the breach must be reported to the state Attorney General (usually when it affects 500 or 1000 individuals or more). Some states like California publish these data breach notifications on their oag.gov websites. Breaches must be reported if \"sensitive personally identifying information\nhas been acquired or is reasonably believed to have been acquired by an unauthorized person, and is reasonably likely to cause substantial harm to the individuals to whom the information relates.\"[27] This leaves room for some interpretation (will it cause substantial harm?); but breaches of encrypted data need not be reported. Nor must it be reported if data has been obtained or viewed by unauthorized individuals as long as there is no reason to believe they will use the data in harmful ways.The National Conference of State Legislatures maintains a list of enacted and proposed security breach notification laws.[6] Alabama and South Dakota enacted their data breach notification laws in 2018, making them the final states to do so.Some of the state differences in data breach notification laws include thresholds of harm suffered from data breaches, the need to notify certain law enforcement or consumer credit agencies, broader definitions of personal information, and differences in penalties for non-compliance.[13]","title":"United States"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"U.S. Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Congress"},{"link_name":"109th Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/109th_Congress"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"President Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"Federal Trade Commission Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission_Act_of_1914"},{"link_name":"Financial Services Modernization Act (Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramm%E2%80%93Leach%E2%80%93Bliley_Act"},{"link_name":"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-13"}],"sub_title":"Federal Data Breach Notification Law History","text":"As of August 2021, there is no federal data breach notification law. The first proposed federal data breach notification law was introduced to Congress in 2003, but it never exited the Judiciary Committee.[5] Similarly, a number of bills that would establish a national standard for data security breach notification have been introduced in the U.S. Congress, but none passed in the 109th Congress.[28] In fact, in 2007, three federal data breach notification laws were proposed, but none passed Congress.[5] In his 2015 State of the Union speech, President Obama proposed new legislation to create a national data breach standard that would establish a 30-day notification requirement from the discovery of a breach.[29] This led to President Obama's 2015 Personal Data Notification & Protection Act (PDNPA) proposal. This would have created federal notification guidelines and standards, but it never came out of committee.[5]Chlotia Garrison and Clovia Hamilton theorized that a potential reason for the inability to pass a federal law on data breach notifications is states' rights. As of now, all 50 states have varying data breach notification laws. Some are restrictive, while others are broad.[5] While there is not a comprehensive federal law on data breach notifications, some federal laws require notifications of data breaches in certain circumstances. Some notable examples include: the Federal Trade Commission Act (FTC Act), the Financial Services Modernization Act (Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act), and the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA).[13]","title":"United States"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-13"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-10"},{"link_name":"state attorneys general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_attorney_general"},{"link_name":"preempt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_preemption"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Debate over federal or state data breach notification laws","text":"Most scholars, like Angela Daly, advocate for federal data breach notification laws emphasize the problem with having varying forms of data breach notification laws. That is, companies are forced to comply with multiple state data breach notification laws. This creates increased difficulty to comply with the laws and the costs. In addition, scholars have argued that a state-by-state approach has created the problem of uncompensated victims and inadequate incentives to persuade companies and governments to invest in data security.[13]Advocates of a state-by-state approach to data breach notification laws emphasize increased efficiency, increased incentives to have the local governments increase data security, limited federal funding available due to multiple projects, and lastly states are able to quickly adapt and pass laws to constantly evolving data breach technologies.[10] In 2018, a majority of state attorneys general opposed a proposed federal data breach notification law that would preempt state laws.[30]","title":"United States"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"Data breaches occur because of technical issues like bad code to economic issues causing competing firm to not cooperate with each other to tackle data security.[31] In response, data breach notification laws attempt to prevent harm to companies and the public.","title":"Impact"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"identity theft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_theft"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"U.S. Federal Trade Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"Criminal impact","text":"A serious harm of data breaches is identity theft. Identity theft can harm individuals when their personal data is stolen and is used by another party to create financial harm such as withdrawing their money, non financially such as fraudulently claiming their health benefits, and pretending to be them and committing crimes.[32] Based on data collected from 2002 to 2009 from the U.S. Federal Trade Commission, the use of data breach notification has helped to decrease identity theft by 6.1 percent.[33]","title":"Impact"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-35"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Economic impact","text":"Overall, data breach notifications leads to decreasing market value, evident in publicly traded companies experiencing a decrease in market valuation.[34][35] Other costs include loss of consumer confidence and trust in the company, loss of business, decreased productivity, and exposure to third-party liability.[35] Notably, the type of data that is leaked from the breach has varying economic impact. A data breach that leaks sensitive data experiences harsher economic repercussions.[36]","title":"Impact"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"Victim response","text":"Most federal data breach lawsuits share certain characteristics. These include a plaintiff seeking relief from the loss of an identity theft, emotional distress, future losses, and increased risk of future harm; the majority of litigation are private class actions; the defendants are usually large firms or businesses; a mix of common law and statutory causes of action; and lastly most cases settle or are dismissed.[37]","title":"Impact"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-19-094057-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-094057-7"}],"text":"Solove, Daniel J.; Hartzog, Woodrow (2022). Breached!: Why Data Security Law Fails and How to Improve it. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-094057-7.","title":"Further reading"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Sen, Ravi; Borle, Sharad (2015-04-03). \"Estimating the Contextual Risk of Data Breach: An Empirical Approach\". Journal of Management Information Systems. 32 (2): 314–341. doi:10.1080/07421222.2015.1063315. ISSN 0742-1222. S2CID 2311182.","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07421222.2015.1063315","url_text":"\"Estimating the Contextual Risk of Data Breach: An Empirical Approach\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07421222.2015.1063315","url_text":"10.1080/07421222.2015.1063315"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0742-1222","url_text":"0742-1222"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2311182","url_text":"2311182"}]},{"reference":"Bisogni, Fabio (2016). \"Proving Limits of State Data Breach Notification Laws: Is a Federal Law the Most Adequate Solution?\". Journal of Information Policy. 6: 154–205. doi:10.5325/jinfopoli.6.2016.0154. ISSN 2158-3897. JSTOR 10.5325/jinfopoli.6.2016.0154.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5325%2Fjinfopoli.6.2016.0154","url_text":"\"Proving Limits of State Data Breach Notification Laws: Is a Federal Law the Most Adequate Solution?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5325%2Fjinfopoli.6.2016.0154","url_text":"10.5325/jinfopoli.6.2016.0154"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2158-3897","url_text":"2158-3897"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/jinfopoli.6.2016.0154","url_text":"10.5325/jinfopoli.6.2016.0154"}]},{"reference":"Acquisti, Alessandro; Friedman, Allan; Telang, Rahul (2006). \"Is there a cost to privacy breaches? An event study\". ICIS 2006 Proceeding.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/2830453","url_text":"\"Is there a cost to privacy breaches? An event study\""}]},{"reference":"Murciano-Goroff, Raviv (2019). \"Do Data Breach Disclosure Laws Increase Firms; Investment in Securing their Digital Infrastructure?\". Workshop on the Economics of Information Security: 1–39.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Garrison, Chlotia; Hamilton, Clovia (2019-01-02). \"A comparative analysis of the EU GDPR to the US's breach notifications\" (PDF). Information & Communications Technology Law. 28 (1): 99–114. doi:10.1080/13600834.2019.1571473. hdl:10535/10737. ISSN 1360-0834. S2CID 86668452.","urls":[{"url":"https://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/10737/A-comparative-analysis-of-the-EU-GDPR-to-the-US-s-breach-notifications.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y","url_text":"\"A comparative analysis of the EU GDPR to the US's breach notifications\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13600834.2019.1571473","url_text":"10.1080/13600834.2019.1571473"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/10535%2F10737","url_text":"10535/10737"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1360-0834","url_text":"1360-0834"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86668452","url_text":"86668452"}]},{"reference":"\"Security Breach Notification Laws\". National Conference of State Legislatures. Retrieved 27 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ncsl.org/research/telecommunications-and-information-technology/security-breach-notification-laws.aspx","url_text":"\"Security Breach Notification Laws\""}]},{"reference":"\"What is GDPR, the EU's new data protection law?\". GDPR.eu. 2018-11-07. Retrieved 2021-10-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://gdpr.eu/what-is-gdpr/","url_text":"\"What is GDPR, the EU's new data protection law?\""}]},{"reference":"Bisogni, Fabio; Asghari, Hadi (2020). \"More Than a Suspect: An Investigation into the Connection Between Data Breaches, Identity Theft, and Data Breach Notification Laws\". Journal of Information Policy. 10: 45–82. doi:10.5325/jinfopoli.10.2020.0045. ISSN 2381-5892. JSTOR 10.5325/jinfopoli.10.2020.0045. 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S2CID 155714280.","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jels.12035","url_text":"\"Empirical Analysis of Data Breach Litigation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjels.12035","url_text":"10.1111/jels.12035"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1740-1453","url_text":"1740-1453"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155714280","url_text":"155714280"}]},{"reference":"Solove, Daniel J.; Hartzog, Woodrow (2022). Breached!: Why Data Security Law Fails and How to Improve it. Oxford University Press. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efika	Efika	["1 EfikaPPC","2 Efika MX","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]	EFIKA 2.3 and ATI Radeon 9250 with 256 MB of 128-bit RAM in 2008 Efika is a line of power efficient ARM architecture and Power ISA based computers manufactured by Genesi. In Esperanto efika means "efficacious, effective, or efficient". EfikaPPC The EfikaPPC, sometimes also referred to as EFIKA 5200B, was based on a 400 MHz Freescale MPC5200B System-on-a-Chip and includes 44-pin 2.5" IDE, USB, serial port, stereo audio in/out, 100 Mbit/s Ethernet, 33/66 MHz PCI port and 128 MB DDR RAM. EFIKA uses an Open Firmware based CHRP compliant firmware with a special x86/BIOS emulator providing support for standard graphics cards on an AGP riser slot. The motherboard had a non-standard form factor, 118 mm × 153 mm × 38 mm small. Due to its small size, Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) compliance and energy efficient nature (drawing less than 20 Watts with a harddrive and a graphics card, typically less than 10 Watts during most usage scenarios), the Efika was marketed as environmentally friendly. An Efika computer could run a variety of operating systems including Linux (Gentoo, openSUSE, Debian and CRUX PPC), MorphOS, AROS, OpenSolaris and QNX. It was sometimes called EFIKA5K2, since it used the PowerPC e300 based MPC5200B processor. On September 10, 2007, Genesi announced it discontinued the 5200B and was developing a new product based on the Freescale MPC5121e. It would feature on-board PowerVR MBX video. Efika MX Efika MX SmartbookSmartbook running Fedora 13DeveloperGenesiManufacturerGenesiCPUFreescale i.MX515Websitegenesi-usa.com/products/smartbook In August 2009, the Efika MX Open Client was announced which used the Freescale i.MX515 ARM system-on-a-chip. The CPU core ran at 800 MHz, Wi-Fi (802.11 b/g/n) and 512 MB of DDR2 SDRAM were included. The Efika MX Smartbook (small laptop computer) was announced in August 2010. It featured a 1024×600 resolution screen, 16 GB of SSD and 512 MB of DDR2 RAM. It required a maximum operating power consumption of 12 watts (average power consumption around 6 W), and came with software based on Ubuntu 10.10 "Maverick Meerkat" release of Linux. Other Linux distributions are known to work properly on the platform. The drivers and software developed specifically for the platform is available on the company public git at GitHub The Open Client product was also renamed the Efika MX Smarttop. In Europe, the Efika MX Smartbook is marketed as Efika MX Netbook due to trademark disputes. See also Amiga portal Pegasos Open Desktop Workstation mobileGT References ^ "Le Roi est Mort. Vive le Roi!". News release. Genesi. September 10, 2007. Retrieved June 6, 2011. In French the title means "The king is dead. Long live the king." ^ "Efika MX Open Client On Sale". News release. Genesi. August 25, 2009. Retrieved June 6, 2011. ^ a b "Efika MX Open Client". official web site. Genesi USA. Retrieved June 6, 2011. ^ "Efika MX Smartbook On Sale". News release. Genesi. August 27, 2010. Retrieved June 6, 2011. ^ "Efika MX Smartbook". official website. Genesi USA. Retrieved June 6, 2011. ^ "Genesi GitHub Page". External links "Development ARM PowerPC Hardware Design, Linux driver development, OpenFirmware". Efika 52K web site. bplan GmbH. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. Retrieved June 6, 2011. "The Efika Book". Efika community web site. 2009. Archived from the original on May 26, 2007. Retrieved June 6, 2011. "EFIKA MPC5200B PowerPC". Efika software download web site. 2007. Retrieved June 6, 2011. Pegasos Support Forum & Community Archived 2006-04-28 at the Wayback Machine EFIKA: First Impressions – Pegasos.org EFIKA public presentation at EBV Tech Trends 2006 – http://www.ppcnux.de/ Gentoo's EFIKA page CRUX PPC's EFIKA HowTo openSUSE's EFIKA page vteMorphOSHardware A1200 A3000 A3000T A3000UX A4000 A4000T Efika Pegasos Mac Mini eMac Power Mac G4 PowerBook G4 iBook G4 Power Mac G5 Components AHI Ambient AmigaDOS CAMD CyberGraphX MUI PowerUP RAM disk TurboPrint WarpOS more... File systems FAT OFS FFS EXT2 HFS NTFS PFS SFS Software Blender Cubic IDE Hollywood NetSurf Origyn Web Browser YAM more... Games Aquaria The Battle for Wesnoth Knights and Merchants OpenTTD Robin Hood Quake III Stratagus more...	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ARM architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_architecture"},{"link_name":"Power ISA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_ISA"},{"link_name":"Genesi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesi"},{"link_name":"Esperanto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto"}],"text":"Efika is a line of power efficient ARM architecture and Power ISA based computers manufactured by Genesi.In Esperanto efika means \"efficacious, effective, or efficient\".","title":"Efika"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Freescale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freescale"},{"link_name":"MPC5200B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC_5000#MPC52xx"},{"link_name":"System-on-a-Chip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System-on-a-Chip"},{"link_name":"IDE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT_Attachment"},{"link_name":"USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB"},{"link_name":"serial port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-232"},{"link_name":"Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet"},{"link_name":"PCI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_Component_Interconnect"},{"link_name":"DDR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_data_rate"},{"link_name":"RAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM"},{"link_name":"Open Firmware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Firmware"},{"link_name":"CHRP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Hardware_Reference_Platform"},{"link_name":"firmware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmware"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86_architecture"},{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"},{"link_name":"emulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulator"},{"link_name":"graphics cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_card"},{"link_name":"AGP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerated_Graphics_Port"},{"link_name":"motherboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboard"},{"link_name":"form factor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_motherboard"},{"link_name":"Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restriction_of_Hazardous_Substances_Directive"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"Gentoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentoo_Linux"},{"link_name":"openSUSE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenSUSE"},{"link_name":"Debian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debian"},{"link_name":"CRUX PPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUX"},{"link_name":"MorphOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MorphOS"},{"link_name":"AROS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AROS"},{"link_name":"OpenSolaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenSolaris"},{"link_name":"QNX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QNX"},{"link_name":"PowerPC e300","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC_e300"},{"link_name":"MPC5200B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC_5000#MPC52xx"},{"link_name":"MPC5121e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC_5000#MPC51xx"},{"link_name":"PowerVR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerVR"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"The EfikaPPC, sometimes also referred to as EFIKA 5200B, was based on a 400 MHz Freescale MPC5200B System-on-a-Chip and includes 44-pin 2.5\" IDE, USB, serial port, stereo audio in/out, 100 Mbit/s Ethernet, 33/66 MHz PCI port and 128 MB DDR RAM. EFIKA uses an Open Firmware based CHRP compliant firmware with a special x86/BIOS emulator providing support for standard graphics cards on an AGP riser slot. The motherboard had a non-standard form factor, 118 mm × 153 mm × 38 mm small.Due to its small size, Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) compliance and energy efficient nature (drawing less than 20 Watts with a harddrive and a graphics card, typically less than 10 Watts during most usage scenarios), the Efika was marketed as environmentally friendly.An Efika computer could run a variety of operating systems including Linux (Gentoo, openSUSE, Debian and CRUX PPC), MorphOS, AROS, OpenSolaris and QNX. It was sometimes called EFIKA5K2, since it used the PowerPC e300 based MPC5200B processor.On September 10, 2007, Genesi announced it discontinued the 5200B and was developing a new product based on the Freescale MPC5121e.\nIt would feature on-board PowerVR MBX video.[1]","title":"EfikaPPC"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"i.MX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I.MX"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Wi-Fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi"},{"link_name":"DDR2 SDRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDR2_SDRAM"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-open-3"},{"link_name":"Smartbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartbook"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Ubuntu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuntu_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"GitHub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-open-3"}],"text":"In August 2009, the Efika MX Open Client was announced which used the Freescale i.MX515 ARM system-on-a-chip.[2] \nThe CPU core ran at 800 MHz, Wi-Fi (802.11 b/g/n) and 512 MB of DDR2 SDRAM were included.[3]\nThe Efika MX Smartbook (small laptop computer) was announced in August 2010.[4]\nIt featured a 1024×600 resolution screen, 16 GB of SSD and 512 MB of DDR2 RAM.\nIt required a maximum operating power consumption of 12 watts (average power consumption around 6 W), and came with software based on Ubuntu 10.10 \"Maverick Meerkat\" release of Linux.[5]\nOther Linux distributions are known to work properly on the platform. The drivers and software developed specifically for the platform is available on the company public git at GitHub[6]\nThe Open Client product was also renamed the Efika MX Smarttop.[3] In Europe, the Efika MX Smartbook is marketed as Efika MX Netbook due to trademark disputes.","title":"Efika MX"}]	[{"image_text":"EFIKA 2.3 and ATI Radeon 9250 with 256 MB of 128-bit RAM in 2008","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Efika_5200B_DSCF0179.JPG/260px-Efika_5200B_DSCF0179.JPG"}]	[{"title":"Amiga portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Amiga"},{"title":"Pegasos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pegasos"},{"title":"Open Desktop Workstation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Desktop_Workstation"},{"title":"mobileGT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MobileGT"}]	[{"reference":"\"Le Roi est Mort. Vive le Roi!\". News release. Genesi. September 10, 2007. Retrieved June 6, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.genesi-usa.com/press/2007/9/10/","url_text":"\"Le Roi est Mort. Vive le Roi!\""}]},{"reference":"\"Efika MX Open Client On Sale\". News release. Genesi. August 25, 2009. Retrieved June 6, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.genesi-usa.com/press/2009/8/25/","url_text":"\"Efika MX Open Client On Sale\""}]},{"reference":"\"Efika MX Open Client\". official web site. Genesi USA. Retrieved June 6, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.genesi-usa.com/products/efika","url_text":"\"Efika MX Open Client\""}]},{"reference":"\"Efika MX Smartbook On Sale\". News release. Genesi. August 27, 2010. Retrieved June 6, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.genesi-usa.com/press/2010/8/27/","url_text":"\"Efika MX Smartbook On Sale\""}]},{"reference":"\"Efika MX Smartbook\". official website. Genesi USA. Retrieved June 6, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.genesi-usa.com/products/smartbook","url_text":"\"Efika MX Smartbook\""}]},{"reference":"\"Genesi GitHub Page\".","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/genesi","url_text":"\"Genesi GitHub Page\""}]},{"reference":"\"Development ARM PowerPC Hardware Design, Linux driver development, OpenFirmware\". Efika 52K web site. bplan GmbH. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. Retrieved June 6, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110722014810/http://www.bplan-gmbh.de/output.php?PAGE_ID=124&LANG_ID=2","url_text":"\"Development ARM PowerPC Hardware Design, Linux driver development, OpenFirmware\""},{"url":"http://www.bplan-gmbh.de/output.php?PAGE_ID=124&LANG_ID=2","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Efika Book\". Efika community web site. 2009. Archived from the original on May 26, 2007. Retrieved June 6, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20070526103145/http://book.efika.org/","url_text":"\"The Efika Book\""},{"url":"http://book.efika.org/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"EFIKA MPC5200B PowerPC\". Efika software download web site. 2007. Retrieved June 6, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.efika.de/index_en.html","url_text":"\"EFIKA MPC5200B PowerPC\""}]}]	[{"Link":"http://genesi-usa.com/products/smartbook","external_links_name":"genesi-usa.com/products/smartbook"},{"Link":"http://www.genesi-usa.com/press/2007/9/10/","external_links_name":"\"Le Roi est Mort. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivy_Mike	Ivy Mike	["1 Schedule","2 Device design and preparations","3 Detonation","4 Scientific discoveries","5 Related tests","6 Gallery","7 See also","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"]	Coordinates: 11°40′0″N 162°11′13″E / 11.66667°N 162.18694°E / 11.66667; 162.186941952 American nuclear test Ivy MikeDetonation and subsequent mushroom cloud of the "Mike" shot (in fast motion).InformationCountryUnited StatesMarshall IslandsTest seriesOperation IvyTest siteEnewetak, Trust Territory of the Pacific IslandsDateNovember 1, 1952(71 years ago) (1952-11-01)Test typeAtmosphericYield10.4 megatons of TNTTest chronology← Tumbler–Snapper HowIvy King → Ivy Mike was the codename given to the first full-scale test of a thermonuclear device, in which part of the explosive yield comes from nuclear fusion. Ivy Mike was detonated on November 1, 1952, by the United States on the island of Elugelab in Enewetak Atoll, in the now independent island nation of the Marshall Islands, as part of Operation Ivy. It was the first full test of the Teller–Ulam design, a staged fusion device. Due to its physical size and fusion fuel type (cryogenic liquid deuterium), the "Mike" device was not suitable for use as a deliverable weapon. It was intended as a "technically conservative" proof of concept experiment to validate the concepts used for multi-megaton detonations. Samples from the explosion had traces of the isotopes plutonium-246, plutonium-244, and the predicted elements einsteinium and fermium. Schedule Beginning with the Teller–Ulam breakthrough in March 1951, there was steady progress made on the issues involved in a thermonuclear explosion and there were additional resources devoted to staging, and political pressure towards seeing, an actual test of a hydrogen bomb.: 137–139 A date within 1952 seemed feasible.: 556 In October 1951 physicist Edward Teller pushed for July 1952 as a target date for a first test, but project head Marshall Holloway thought October 1952, a year out, was more realistic given how much engineering and fabrication work the test would take and given the need to avoid the summer monsoon season in the Marshall Islands.: 482 On June 30, 1952, United States Atomic Energy Commission chair Gordon Dean showed President Harry S. Truman a model of what the Ivy Mike device would look like; the test was set for November 1, 1952.: 590 One attempt to significantly delay the test, or not hold it at all, was made by the State Department Panel of Consultants on Disarmament, chaired by J. Robert Oppenheimer, who felt that avoiding a test might forestall the development of a catastrophic new weapon and open the way for new arms agreements between the United States and the Soviet Union.: 139–142 The panel lacked political allies in Washington, however, and no test delay was made on this account.: 145–148 There was a separate desire voiced for a very short delay in the test, for more political reasons: it was scheduled to take place just a few days before the 1952 presidential election.: 497 Truman wanted to keep the thermonuclear test away from partisan politics but had no desire to order a postponement of it himself; however he did make it known that he would be fine if it was delayed past the election due to "technical reasons" being found.: 590–591 : 497–498 Atomic Energy Commission member Eugene M. Zuckert was sent to the Enewetak test site to see if such a reason could be found, but weather considerations – on average there were only a handful of days each month that were suitable for the test – indicated it should go ahead as planned, and in the end no schedule delay took place.: 590–592 : 498 Device design and preparations A view of the "Sausage" device casing, with its instrumentation and cryogenic equipment attached. The long pipes were for measurement purposes; their function was to transmit the first radiation from the "primary" and "secondary" stages (known as "Teller light") to instruments just as the device was detonated, before being destroyed in the explosion. Note man seated lower right for scale. The 82 short tons (74 metric tons) "Mike" device was essentially a building that resembled a factory rather than a weapon. It has been reported that Soviet engineers derisively referred to "Mike" as a "thermonuclear installation".: 391 The device was designed by Richard Garwin, a student of Enrico Fermi, on the suggestion of Edward Teller. It had been decided that nothing other than a full-scale test would validate the idea of the Teller-Ulam design. Garwin was instructed to use very conservative estimates when designing the test, and told that it need not be small and light enough to be deployed by air.: 327 Liquid deuterium was chosen as the fuel for the fusion reaction because its use simplified the experiment from a physicist's point of view, and made the results easier to analyze. From an engineering point of view, its use necessitated the development of previously unknown technologies to handle the difficult material, which had to be stored at extremely low temperatures, near absolute zero.: 41–42 A large cryogenics plant was built to produce liquid hydrogen (used for cooling the device) and deuterium (fuel for the test). A 3,000 kilowatts (4,000 hp) power plant was also constructed for the cryogenics facility.: 44 The device that was developed for testing the Teller-Ulam design became known as a "Sausage" design:: 43 At its center was a cylindrical insulated steel Dewar (vacuum flask) or cryostat. This tank, almost 7 ft (2.1 m) across and more than 20 ft (6.1 m) high,: 43 had walls almost 30 cm (0.98 ft) thick. It weighed approximately 54 short tons (49 metric tons). It was capable of holding 1,000 L (260 U.S. gal) of liquid deuterium, cooled to near-absolute zero. The cryogenic deuterium provided the fuel for the "secondary" (fusion) stage of the explosion.: 43 At one end of the cylindrical Dewar flask was a TX-5: 66 regular fission bomb (not boosted: 43 ). The TX-5 bomb was used to create the conditions needed to initiate the fusion reaction. This "primary" fission stage was nested inside the radiation case at the upper section of the device, and was not in physical contact with the "secondary" fusion stage. The TX-5 did not require refrigeration.: 43 : 43–44 Running down the center of the Dewar flask within the secondary was a cylindrical rod of plutonium within a chamber of tritium gas. This "fission sparkplug" was imploded by x-rays from the primary detonation. That provided a source of outward-moving pressure inside the deuterium and increased conditions for the fusion reaction.: 43–44 Surrounding the assembly was a 5 short tons (4.5 metric tons) natural uranium "tamper". The exterior of the tamper was lined with sheets of lead and polyethylene, forming a radiation channel to conduct X-rays from the "primary" to the "secondary" stage. As laid out in the Teller-Ulam design, the function of the X-rays was to compress the "secondary" with tamper/pusher ablation, foam plasma pressure and radiation pressure. This process increases the density and temperature of the deuterium to the level needed to sustain a thermonuclear reaction, and compress the "sparkplug" to a supercritical mass – inducing the "sparkplug" to undergo nuclear fission and to thereby start a fusion reaction in the surrounding deuterium fuel.: 43–44 The Ivy Mike shot cab and signal tower. The entire "Mike" device (including cryogenic equipment) weighed 82 short tons (74 metric tons). It was housed in a large corrugated-aluminum building, called the shot cab, which was 88 ft (27 m) long, 46 ft (14 m) wide, and 61 ft (19 m) high, with a 300 ft (91 m) signal tower. Television and radio signals were used to communicate with a control room on the USS Estes where the firing party was located.: 43–44 : 42 It was set up on the Pacific island of Elugelab, part of the Enewetak atoll. Elugelab was connected to the islands of Dridrilbwij (Teiteir), Bokaidrikdrik (Bogairikk), and Boken (Bogon) by a 9,000 ft (2.7 km) artificial causeway. Atop the causeway was an aluminum-sheathed plywood tube filled with helium ballonets, referred to as a Krause-Ogle box.: 34 This allowed gamma and neutron radiation to pass uninhibited to instruments in an unmanned detection station, Station 202, on Boken Island. From there signals were sent to recording equipment at Station 200, also housed in a bunker on Boken Island. Personnel returned to Boken Island after the test to recover the recording equipment.: 136, 138 In total, 9,350 military and 2,300 civilian personnel were involved in the "Mike" shot.: 2 The operation involved the cooperation of the United States army, navy, air force and intelligence services. The USS Curtiss brought components from the United States to Elugelab for assembly. Work was completed on October 31, at 5.00 p.m. Within an hour, personnel were evacuated in preparation for the blast.: 43–44 Detonation Ivy Mike test video. Enewetak Atoll, before "Mike" shot. Note island of Elugelab on left. Enewetak Atoll, after "Mike" shot. Note crater on left. The test was carried out on 1 November 1952 at 07:15 local time (19:15 on 31 October, Greenwich Mean Time). It produced a yield of 10.4 megatons of TNT (44 PJ). However, 77% of the final yield came from fast fission of the uranium tamper, which produced large amounts of radioactive fallout. The fireball created by the explosion had a maximum radius of 2.9 to 3.3 km (1.8 to 2.1 mi). The maximum radius was reached a number of seconds after the detonation, during which the hot fireball lifted up due to buoyancy. While still relatively close to the ground, the fireball had yet to reach its maximum dimensions and was thus approximately 5.2 km (3.2 mi) wide. The mushroom cloud rose to an altitude of 17 km (56,000 ft) in less than 90 seconds. One minute later it had reached 33 km (108,000 ft), before stabilizing at 41 km (135,000 ft) with the top eventually spreading out to a diameter of 161 km (100 mi) with a stem 32 km (20 mi) wide. The blast created a crater 1.9 km (6,230 ft) in diameter and 50 m (164 ft) deep where Elugelab had once been; the blast and water waves from the explosion (some waves up to 6 m (20 ft) high) stripped the test islands clean of vegetation, as observed by a helicopter survey within 60 minutes after the test, by which time the mushroom cloud and steam were blown away. Radioactive coral debris fell upon ships positioned 56 km (35 mi) away, and the immediate area around the atoll was heavily contaminated. Close to the fireball, lightning discharges were rapidly triggered. The entire shot was documented by the filmmakers of Lookout Mountain studios. A post-production explosion sound was overdubbed over what was a completely silent detonation from the vantage point of the camera, with the blast wave sound only arriving a number of seconds later, as akin to thunder, with the exact time depending on its distance. The film was also accompanied by powerful, Wagner-esque music featured on many test films of that period and was hosted by actor Reed Hadley. A private screening was given to President Dwight D. Eisenhower who had succeeded President Harry S. Truman in January 1953.: 80 In 1954, the film was released to the public after censoring, and was shown on commercial television channels.: 183 Edward Teller, perhaps the most ardent supporter of the development of the hydrogen bomb, was in Berkeley, California, at the time of the shot. He was able to receive first notice that the test was successful by observing a seismometer, which picked up the shock wave that traveled through the earth from the Pacific Proving Grounds.: 777–778 In his memoirs, Teller wrote that he immediately sent an unclassified telegram to Dr. Elizabeth "Diz" Graves, the head of the rump project remaining at Los Alamos during the shot. The telegram contained only the words "It's a boy," which came hours earlier than any other word from Enewetak.: 352 Scientific discoveries Mike mushroom cloud. An hour after the bomb was detonated, U.S. Air Force pilots took off from Enewetak Island to fly into the atomic cloud and take samples. Pilots had to monitor extra readouts and displays while "piloting under unusual, dangerous, and difficult conditions” including heat, radiation, unpredictable winds and flying debris. "Red Flight" Leader Virgil K. Meroney flew into the stem of the explosion first. In five minutes, he had gathered all the samples he could, and exited. Next Bob Hagan and Jimmy Robinson entered the cloud. Robinson hit an area of severe turbulence, spinning out and barely retaining consciousness. He regained control of his plane at 20,000 feet, but the electromagnetic storm had disrupted his instruments. In rain and poor visibility, without working instruments, Hagan and Robinson were unable to find the KB-29 tanker aircraft to refuel.: 96 They attempted to return to the field at Enewetak. Hagan, out of fuel, made an extraordinary successful dead-stick landing on the runway. Robinson's F-84 Thunderjet crashed and sank 3.5 miles short of the island. Robinson's body was never recovered. Fuel tanks on the airplane's wings had been modified to scoop up and filter passing debris. The filters from the surviving planes were sealed in lead and sent to Los Alamos, New Mexico for analysis. Radioactive and contaminated with calcium carbonate, the "Mike" samples were extremely difficult to handle. Scientists at Los Alamos found traces in them of isotopes plutonium-246 and plutonium-244. Al Ghiorso at the University of California, Berkeley speculated that the filters might also contain atoms that had transformed, through radioactive decay, into the predicted but undiscovered elements 99 and 100. Ghiorso, Stanley Gerald Thompson and Glenn Seaborg obtained half a filter paper from the Ivy Mike test. They were able to detect the existence of the elements einsteinium and fermium, which had been produced by intensely concentrated neutron flux about the detonation site. The discovery was kept secret for several years, but the team was eventually given credit. In 1955 the two new elements were named in honor of Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi. Related tests A simplified and lightened bomb version (the EC-16) was prepared and scheduled to be tested in operation Castle Yankee, as a backup in case the non-cryogenic "Shrimp" fusion device (tested in Castle Bravo) failed to work; that test was canceled when the Bravo device was tested successfully, making the cryogenic designs obsolete. Gallery Nuclear fallout map of Mike test. Mike fireball. Mike test crater, relative to Enewetak Atoll. Mike mushroom cloud central stem's updraft tropopause overshoots. See also History of nuclear weapons Operation Castle RDS-6s - first Soviet thermonuclear test, coming less than a year later References ^ "OPERATION GREENHOUSE - 1951". ATOMIC SHADOWS. Retrieved January 9, 2020. ^ The first small-scale thermonuclear test was the George explosion of Operation Greenhouse. ^ United States Nuclear Tests: July 1945 through September 1992 (PDF) (DOE/NV-209 REV15), Las Vegas, NV: Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, December 1, 2000, archived from the original (PDF) on June 15, 2010, retrieved December 18, 2013 ^ a b Wellerstein, Alex (January 8, 2016). "A Hydrogen Bomb by Any Other Name". The New Yorker. Retrieved January 19, 2020. ^ a b c d e Chapman, Kit (January 14, 2020). "Element Hunting in a Nuclear Storm". Distillations. Science History Institute. Retrieved January 14, 2020. ^ a b c Bernstein, Barton J. (Fall 1987). "Crossing the Rubicon: A Missed Opportunity to Stop the H-Bomb?". International Security. 14 (2): 132–160. doi:10.2307/2538857. JSTOR 2538857. S2CID 154778522. ^ a b c d Hewlett, Richard G.; Duncan, Francis (1969). Atomic Shield, 1947–1952 (PDF). A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Vol. 2. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. ^ a b c d e Rhodes, Richard (1 August 1995). Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-68-480400-2. LCCN 95011070. OCLC 456652278. OL 7720934M. Wikidata Q105755363 – via Internet Archive. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Parsons, Keith M.; Zaballa, Robert A. (July 26, 2017). Bombing the Marshall Islands: A Cold War Tragedy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–46. ISBN 9781108508742. ^ Herken, Gregg (9 September 2002). "Notes for Chapter Fourteen "A Bad Business Now Threatening"". Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence and Edward Teller (1st ed.). Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 978-0-80-506588-6. LCCN 2002017219. OCLC 890256840. OL 7932650M. Retrieved 10 November 2021 – via Internet Archive. p. 391: Mike was meant to be a proof-of-principle test of radiation implosion, and not a deliverable bomb. Housed in a six-story building, weighing more than 80 tons, the cryogenically-cooled device was later described disdainfully by the Russians as a "thermonuclear installation." ^ a b Teller, Edward; Schoolery, Judith (September 9, 2009). Memoirs: A Twentieth Century Journey In Science And Politics. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing. ISBN 9780786751709. ^ "1 November 1952 – Ivy Mike". Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization. Retrieved 10 November 2021. ^ Dillingham, Clay, ed. (1 July 2015). "Atomic Photography: Blasts From The Past" (PDF). National Security Science. 15 (5). Los Alamos National Laboratory: 16–21. Retrieved 10 November 2021. ^ "Deuterium" (PDF). p. 8. ^ Reichhardt, Tony (November 2, 2017). "The First Hydrogen Bomb". Air & Space. Retrieved January 22, 2020. ^ a b c Hansen, Chuck (2007). The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development Since 1945 (PDF) (CD-ROM & download available) (2nd ed.). Sunnyvale, California: Chukelea Publications. ISBN 978-0979191503. OCLC 231585284. ^ a b c d e Gladeck, F. R.; Hallowell, J. H.; Martin, E. J.; McMullan, F. W.; Miller, R. H.; et al. (1 December 1982). OPERATION IVY: 1952 (pdf) (Technical report). Washington, D.C.: Defense Nuclear Agency. DNA 6036F. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 August 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2021. ^ Rowberry, Ariana (February 27, 2014). "Castle Bravo: The Largest U.S. Nuclear Explosion". Brookings. Retrieved January 9, 2020. ^ Fabry, Merrill (2 November 2015). "What the First H-Bomb Test Looked Like". History. Time. Vol. 186, no. 16. ISSN 0040-781X. OCLC 1311479. Archived from the original on 4 September 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2021. At 7:15 a.m. local time on Elugelab Island, Mike was detonated from a control ship 30 m. away. The detonation resulted in a massive explosion, equivalent to 10.4 Megatons of TNT. ^ Walker, John (June 2005). "Nuclear Bomb Effects Computer". Fourmilab. Retrieved November 22, 2009. ^ Walker, John (June 2005). "Nuclear Bomb Effects Computer Revised Edition 1962, Based on Data from The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, Revised Edition "The maximum fireball radius presented on the computer is an average between that for air and surface bursts. Thus, the fireball radius for a surface burst is 13 percent larger than that indicated and for an air burst, 13 percent smaller. "". Fourmilab. Retrieved November 22, 2009. ^ "Mock up". Remm.nlm.gov. Archived from the original on June 7, 2013. Retrieved November 30, 2013. ^ Blades, David M. Blades; Siracusa, Joseph M. (May 1, 2014). A History of U.S. Nuclear Testing and Its Influence on Nuclear Thought, 1945–1963. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 54. ISBN 9781442232013. Retrieved January 21, 2020. ^ "Operation Ivy 1952 - Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands". Nuclear Weapon Archive. May 14, 1999. Retrieved January 9, 2020. ^ Froehlich, M.B.; Chan, W.Y.; Tims, S.G.; Fallon, S.J.; Fifield, L.K. (December 2016). "Time-resolved record of 236U and 239,240Pu isotopes from a coral growing during the nuclear testing program at Enewetak Atoll (Marshall Islands)". Journal of Environmental Radioactivity. 165: 197–205. doi:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2016.09.015. PMID 27764678. ^ Buesseler, Ken O.; Charette, Matthew A.; Pike, Steven M.; Henderson, Paul B.; Kipp, Lauren E. (April 2018). "Lingering radioactivity at the Bikini and Enewetak Atolls". Science of the Total Environment. 621: 1185–1198. Bibcode:2018ScTEn.621.1185B. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.109. hdl:1912/9537. PMID 29096952. ^ Hughes, Emlyn W.; Molina, Monica Rouco; Abella, Maveric K. I. L.; Nikolić-Hughes, Ivana; Ruderman, Malvin A. (July 30, 2019). "Radiation maps of ocean sediment from the Castle Bravo crater". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (31): 15420–15424. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11615420H. doi:10.1073/pnas.1903478116. PMC 6681739. PMID 31308235. ^ Colvin, J. D.; Mitchell, C. K.; Greig, J. R.; Murphy, D. P.; Pechacek, R. E.; Raleigh, M. (1987). "An empirical study of the nuclear explosion-induced lightning seen on IVY-MIKE". Journal of Geophysical Research. 92 (D5): 5696. Bibcode:1987JGR....92.5696C. doi:10.1029/JD092iD05p05696. ^ Chamberlain, Craig (January 14, 2019). "New book tells story of secret Hollywood studio that shaped the nuclear age". Illinois News Bureau. ^ "Nuclear Warfare Lecture 14 by Professor Grant J. Matthews of University of Notre Dame OpenCourseWare. Mechanical Shock velocity equation". Archived from the original on December 19, 2013. ^ a b Weart, Spencer (2012). The Rise of Nuclear Fear. Harvard University Press. p. 80. ISBN 9780674065062. ^ "THE ATOM: The Road Beyond Elugelab". Time. Vol. 63, no. 15. April 12, 1954. p. 23. Retrieved January 21, 2020. ^ Axelrod, Alan (December 10, 2009). The Real History of the Cold War: A New Look at the Past. Sterling. pp. 156. ISBN 9781402763021. Retrieved January 21, 2020. ^ Ford, Kenneth; Wheeler, John Archibald (June 18, 2010). Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam: A Life in Physics. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 227. ISBN 9780393079487. Retrieved December 21, 2013. ^ "F-84G-5-RE Thunderjet Serial Number 51-1040". Pacific Wrecks. Retrieved January 9, 2020. ^ Wolverton, Mark (2009). "Into the Mushroom Cloud Most pilots would head away from a thermonuclear explosion". Air & Space Magazine (August). Smithsonian. Retrieved January 9, 2020. ^ Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory (KAPL) (2010). Nuclides and Isotopes – Chart of the Nuclides (17th ed.). Schenectady, N.Y.: Bechtel Marine Propulsion Corporation. ^ Nagy, Sandor (2009). Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry. Vol. I. EOLSS Publications. pp. 91–92. ISBN 9781848261266. Retrieved January 21, 2020. Further reading Hansen, Chuck (20 March 1988). U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History (1st ed.). Crown. ISBN 978-0517567401. LCCN 87021995. OCLC 865554459. OL 2392513M. Retrieved 10 November 2021 – via Internet Archive. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ivy Mike. Operation IVY is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive – formerly classified. Sonicbomb.com: "Ivy Mike test" video Technical Photography on Operation Ivy by EG&G – "Full Text". (5.5 MB) 11°40′0″N 162°11′13″E / 11.66667°N 162.18694°E / 11.66667; 162.18694 vteNuclear weapons tests conducted by the United StatesOperations "Anvil" "Aqueduct" "Arbor" "Argus" "Bedrock" "Bowline" "Buster–Jangle" "Castle" "Charioteer" "Cornerstone" "Cresset" "Crossroads" "Crosstie" "Dominic" "Starfish Prime" "Emery" "Fishbowl" "Flintlock" "Fulcrum" "Fusileer" "Greenhouse" "Grenadier" "Grommet" Cannikin "Guardian" "Hardtack I" "Hardtack Teak" "Hardtack II" "Ivy" "Julin" "Latchkey" "Little Feller" "Mandrel" "Musketeer" "Niblick" "Nougat" "Phalanx" "Plumbbob" "Praetorian" Project 56 Project 57 Project 58/58A "Quicksilver" "Ranger" "Redwing" "Roller Coaster" "Sandstone" "Sculpin" "Storax" "Sunbeam" "Teapot" "Tinderbox" "Toggle" "Touchstone" "Trinity" "Tumbler–Snapper" "Upshot–Knothole" "Whetstone" "Wigwam" TestareasNew Mexico Alamogordo Carlsbad Carson National Forest Nevada Nevada Test Site Frenchman Flat Pahute Mesa Rainier Mesa Yucca Flat Central Nevada Sand Springs Range Nevada Test and Training Range Mississippi Salmon Site Alaska Amchitka Colorado Parachute Rifle Other Pacific Proving Grounds South Atlantic Relatedtopics National Atomic Testing Museum Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy Alvin C. Graves Reed Hadley Chuck Hansen Corbin Harney Desert Rock exercises Unethical human experimentation in the United States International Day against Nuclear Tests Nevada Desert Experience Nuclear weapons testing Project Plowshare Radiation Exposure Compensation Act The Atomic Cafe Radio Bikini Reactor-grade plutonium nuclear test Trinity and Beyond: The Atomic Bomb Movie Vela Uniform Louis Vitale Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"codename","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_name"},{"link_name":"thermonuclear device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon"},{"link_name":"yield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield"},{"link_name":"nuclear fusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-first-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LT_6-3"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Elugelab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elugelab"},{"link_name":"Enewetak Atoll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enewetak_Atoll"},{"link_name":"Marshall Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Islands"},{"link_name":"Operation Ivy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Ivy"},{"link_name":"Teller–Ulam design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teller%E2%80%93Ulam_design"},{"link_name":"staged","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design#Two-stage_thermonuclear_weapons"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wellerstein-4"},{"link_name":"cryogenic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryogenic"},{"link_name":"deuterium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuterium"},{"link_name":"proof of concept","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_of_concept"},{"link_name":"megaton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TNT_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wellerstein-4"},{"link_name":"plutonium-246","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium-246"},{"link_name":"plutonium-244","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium-244"},{"link_name":"einsteinium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einsteinium"},{"link_name":"fermium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermium"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Distillations-5"}],"text":"1952 American nuclear testIvy Mike was the codename given to the first full-scale test of a thermonuclear device, in which part of the explosive yield comes from nuclear fusion.[1][2][3]\nIvy Mike was detonated on November 1, 1952, by the United States on the island of Elugelab in Enewetak Atoll, in the now independent island nation of the Marshall Islands, as part of Operation Ivy. It was the first full test of the Teller–Ulam design, a staged fusion device.[4]Due to its physical size and fusion fuel type (cryogenic liquid deuterium), the \"Mike\" device was not suitable for use as a deliverable weapon. It was intended as a \"technically conservative\" proof of concept experiment to validate the concepts used for multi-megaton detonations.[4]Samples from the explosion had traces of the isotopes plutonium-246, plutonium-244, and the predicted elements einsteinium and fermium.[5]","title":"Ivy Mike"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Teller–Ulam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Teller%E2%80%93Ulam_design"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bernstein-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atomic-shield-7"},{"link_name":"Edward Teller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Teller"},{"link_name":"Marshall Holloway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Holloway"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rhodes-8"},{"link_name":"United States Atomic Energy Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission"},{"link_name":"Gordon Dean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Dean_(lawyer)"},{"link_name":"Harry S. Truman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_S._Truman"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atomic-shield-7"},{"link_name":"State Department Panel of Consultants on Disarmament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Department_Panel_of_Consultants_on_Disarmament"},{"link_name":"J. Robert Oppenheimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bernstein-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bernstein-6"},{"link_name":"1952 presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_presidential_election,_1952"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rhodes-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atomic-shield-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rhodes-8"},{"link_name":"Eugene M. Zuckert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_M._Zuckert"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atomic-shield-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rhodes-8"}],"text":"Beginning with the Teller–Ulam breakthrough in March 1951, there was steady progress made on the issues involved in a thermonuclear explosion and there were additional resources devoted to staging, and political pressure towards seeing, an actual test of a hydrogen bomb.[6]: 137–139 A date within 1952 seemed feasible.[7]: 556 In October 1951 physicist Edward Teller pushed for July 1952 as a target date for a first test, but project head Marshall Holloway thought October 1952, a year out, was more realistic given how much engineering and fabrication work the test would take and given the need to avoid the summer monsoon season in the Marshall Islands.[8]: 482 On June 30, 1952, United States Atomic Energy Commission chair Gordon Dean showed President Harry S. Truman a model of what the Ivy Mike device would look like; the test was set for November 1, 1952.[7]: 590One attempt to significantly delay the test, or not hold it at all, was made by the State Department Panel of Consultants on Disarmament, chaired by J. Robert Oppenheimer, who felt that avoiding a test might forestall the development of a catastrophic new weapon and open the way for new arms agreements between the United States and the Soviet Union.[6]: 139–142 The panel lacked political allies in Washington, however, and no test delay was made on this account.[6]: 145–148There was a separate desire voiced for a very short delay in the test, for more political reasons: it was scheduled to take place just a few days before the 1952 presidential election.[8]: 497 Truman wanted to keep the thermonuclear test away from partisan politics but had no desire to order a postponement of it himself; however he did make it known that he would be fine if it was delayed past the election due to \"technical reasons\" being found.[7]: 590–591 [8]: 497–498 Atomic Energy Commission member Eugene M. Zuckert was sent to the Enewetak test site to see if such a reason could be found, but weather considerations – on average there were only a handful of days each month that were suitable for the test – indicated it should go ahead as planned, and in the end no schedule delay took place.[7]: 590–592 [8]: 498","title":"Schedule"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ivy_Mike_Sausage_device.jpg"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parsons-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brotherhood_2002-10"},{"link_name":"Richard Garwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Garwin"},{"link_name":"Enrico Fermi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_Fermi"},{"link_name":"Edward Teller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Teller"},{"link_name":"Teller-Ulam design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teller-Ulam_design"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Teller-11"},{"link_name":"deuterium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuterium"},{"link_name":"absolute zero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_zero"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parsons-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parsons-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parsons-9"},{"link_name":"steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel"},{"link_name":"vacuum flask","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_flask"},{"link_name":"cryostat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryostat"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parsons-9"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CTBTO-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AtomicPhotography-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reichhardt-15"},{"link_name":"cryogenic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryogenic"},{"link_name":"fusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parsons-9"},{"link_name":"TX-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_5_nuclear_bomb"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-swordsoarIII-16"},{"link_name":"fission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fission"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-swordsoarIII-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-swordsoarIII-16"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parsons-9"},{"link_name":"plutonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parsons-9"},{"link_name":"uranium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium"},{"link_name":"lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead"},{"link_name":"polyethylene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene"},{"link_name":"radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation"},{"link_name":"X-rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-rays"},{"link_name":"Teller-Ulam design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teller-Ulam_design"},{"link_name":"ablation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablation"},{"link_name":"radiation pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_pressure"},{"link_name":"supercritical mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_mass_(nuclear)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parsons-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ivy_Mike_shot_cab.jpg"},{"link_name":"USS Estes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Estes"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parsons-9"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gladeck-17"},{"link_name":"Elugelab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elugelab"},{"link_name":"Enewetak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enewetak"},{"link_name":"aluminum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminum"},{"link_name":"plywood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plywood"},{"link_name":"helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium"},{"link_name":"ballonets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballonet"},{"link_name":"Krause-Ogle box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design#Light_pipes"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gladeck-17"},{"link_name":"gamma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray"},{"link_name":"neutron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gladeck-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gladeck-17"},{"link_name":"USS Curtiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Curtiss_(AV-4)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parsons-9"}],"text":"A view of the \"Sausage\" device casing, with its instrumentation and cryogenic equipment attached. The long pipes were for measurement purposes; their function was to transmit the first radiation from the \"primary\" and \"secondary\" stages (known as \"Teller light\") to instruments just as the device was detonated, before being destroyed in the explosion. Note man seated lower right for scale.The 82 short tons (74 metric tons) \"Mike\" device was essentially a building that resembled a factory rather than a weapon.[9] It has been reported that Soviet engineers derisively referred to \"Mike\" as a \"thermonuclear installation\".[10]: 391The device was designed by Richard Garwin, a student of Enrico Fermi, on the suggestion of Edward Teller. It had been decided that nothing other than a full-scale test would validate the idea of the Teller-Ulam design. Garwin was instructed to use very conservative estimates when designing the test, and told that it need not be small and light enough to be deployed by air.[11]: 327Liquid deuterium was chosen as the fuel for the fusion reaction because its use simplified the experiment from a physicist's point of view, and made the results easier to analyze. From an engineering point of view, its use necessitated the development of previously unknown technologies to handle the difficult material, which had to be stored at extremely low temperatures, near absolute zero.[9]: 41–42 A large cryogenics plant was built to produce liquid hydrogen (used for cooling the device) and deuterium (fuel for the test). A 3,000 kilowatts (4,000 hp) power plant was also constructed for the cryogenics facility.[9]: 44The device that was developed for testing the Teller-Ulam design became known as a \"Sausage\" design:[9]: 43At its center was a cylindrical insulated steel Dewar (vacuum flask) or cryostat. This tank, almost 7 ft (2.1 m) across and more than 20 ft (6.1 m) high,[9]: 43 had walls almost 30 cm (0.98 ft) thick.[12] It weighed approximately 54 short tons (49 metric tons).[13] It was capable of holding 1,000 L (260 U.S. gal) of liquid deuterium, cooled to near-absolute zero.[14][15] The cryogenic deuterium provided the fuel for the \"secondary\" (fusion) stage of the explosion.[9]: 43 \nAt one end of the cylindrical Dewar flask was a TX-5[16]: 66 regular fission bomb (not boosted[16]: 43 ). The TX-5 bomb was used to create the conditions needed to initiate the fusion reaction. This \"primary\" fission stage was nested inside the radiation case at the upper section of the device, and was not in physical contact with the \"secondary\" fusion stage. The TX-5 did not require refrigeration.[16]: 43 [9]: 43–44 \nRunning down the center of the Dewar flask within the secondary was a cylindrical rod of plutonium within a chamber of tritium gas. This \"fission sparkplug\" was imploded by x-rays from the primary detonation. That provided a source of outward-moving pressure inside the deuterium and increased conditions for the fusion reaction.[9]: 43–44 \nSurrounding the assembly was a 5 short tons (4.5 metric tons) natural uranium \"tamper\". The exterior of the tamper was lined with sheets of lead and polyethylene, forming a radiation channel to conduct X-rays from the \"primary\" to the \"secondary\" stage. As laid out in the Teller-Ulam design, the function of the X-rays was to compress the \"secondary\" with tamper/pusher ablation, foam plasma pressure and radiation pressure. This process increases the density and temperature of the deuterium to the level needed to sustain a thermonuclear reaction, and compress the \"sparkplug\" to a supercritical mass – inducing the \"sparkplug\" to undergo nuclear fission and to thereby start a fusion reaction in the surrounding deuterium fuel.[9]: 43–44The Ivy Mike shot cab and signal tower.The entire \"Mike\" device (including cryogenic equipment) weighed 82 short tons (74 metric tons). It was housed in a large corrugated-aluminum building, called the shot cab, which was 88 ft (27 m) long,\n46 ft (14 m) wide, and \n61 ft (19 m) high, with a \n300 ft (91 m) signal tower. Television and radio signals were used to communicate with a control room on the USS Estes where the firing party was located.[9]: 43–44 [17]: 42It was set up on the Pacific island of Elugelab, part of the Enewetak atoll. Elugelab was connected to the islands of Dridrilbwij (Teiteir), Bokaidrikdrik (Bogairikk), and Boken (Bogon) by a 9,000 ft (2.7 km)\nartificial causeway. Atop the causeway was an aluminum-sheathed plywood tube filled with helium ballonets, referred to as a Krause-Ogle box.[17]: 34 \nThis allowed gamma and neutron radiation to pass uninhibited to instruments in an unmanned detection station, Station 202, on Boken Island. From there signals were sent to recording equipment at Station 200, also housed in a bunker on Boken Island. Personnel returned to Boken Island after the test to recover the recording equipment.[17]: 136, 138In total, 9,350 military and 2,300 civilian personnel were involved in the \"Mike\" shot.[17]: 2 The operation involved the cooperation of the United States army, navy, air force and intelligence services. The USS Curtiss brought components from the United States to Elugelab for assembly. Work was completed on October 31, at 5.00 p.m. Within an hour, personnel were evacuated in preparation for the blast.[9]: 43–44","title":"Device design and preparations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IvyMikeGIF2.gif"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ivy_Mike_-_Elugelab_pt1.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ivy_Mike_-_Elugelab_pt2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Greenwich Mean Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich_Mean_Time"},{"link_name":"megatons of TNT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TNT_equivalent"},{"link_name":"PJ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rowberry-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fabry-19"},{"link_name":"fast fission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_fission"},{"link_name":"fallout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fallout"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Walker-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-John-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"buoyancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyancy"},{"link_name":"mushroom cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom_cloud"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blades-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Froehlich-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Buesseler-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hughes-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Colvin-28"},{"link_name":"Lookout Mountain studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lookout_Mountain_Air_Force_Station"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chamberlain-29"},{"link_name":"post-production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-production"},{"link_name":"overdubbed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdubbed"},{"link_name":"thunder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunder"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Wagner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wagner"},{"link_name":"Reed Hadley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed_Hadley"},{"link_name":"Dwight D. Eisenhower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower"},{"link_name":"Harry S. Truman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_S._Truman"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Weart-31"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Weart-31"},{"link_name":"Edward Teller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Teller"},{"link_name":"Berkeley, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley,_California"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Time-32"},{"link_name":"seismometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismometer"},{"link_name":"shock wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_wave"},{"link_name":"Pacific Proving Grounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Proving_Grounds"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Axelrod-33"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rhodes-8"},{"link_name":"Dr. Elizabeth \"Diz\" Graves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Riddle_Graves"},{"link_name":"Los Alamos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ford-34"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Teller-11"}],"text":"Ivy Mike test video.Enewetak Atoll, before \"Mike\" shot. Note island of Elugelab on left.Enewetak Atoll, after \"Mike\" shot. Note crater on left.The test was carried out on 1 November 1952 at 07:15 local time (19:15 on 31 October, Greenwich Mean Time). It produced a yield of 10.4 megatons of TNT (44 PJ).[18][19] However, 77% of the final yield came from fast fission of the uranium tamper, which produced large amounts of radioactive fallout.[citation needed]The fireball created by the explosion had a maximum radius of 2.9 to 3.3 km (1.8 to 2.1 mi).[20][21][22] The maximum radius was reached a number of seconds after the detonation, during which the hot fireball lifted up due to buoyancy. While still relatively close to the ground, the fireball had yet to reach its maximum dimensions and was thus approximately 5.2 km (3.2 mi) wide. The mushroom cloud rose to an altitude of 17 km (56,000 ft) in less than 90 seconds. One minute later it had reached 33 km (108,000 ft), before stabilizing at 41 km (135,000 ft) with the top eventually spreading out to a diameter of 161 km (100 mi) with a stem 32 km (20 mi) wide.[23]The blast created a crater 1.9 km (6,230 ft) in diameter and 50 m (164 ft) deep where Elugelab had once been;[24] the blast and water waves from the explosion (some waves up to 6 m (20 ft) high) stripped the test islands clean of vegetation, as observed by a helicopter survey within 60 minutes after the test, by which time the mushroom cloud and steam were blown away. Radioactive coral debris fell upon ships positioned 56 km (35 mi) away, and the immediate area around the atoll was heavily contaminated.[25][26][27]Close to the fireball, lightning discharges were rapidly triggered.[28]\nThe entire shot was documented by the filmmakers of Lookout Mountain studios.[29] A post-production explosion sound was overdubbed over what was a completely silent detonation from the vantage point of the camera, with the blast wave sound only arriving a number of seconds later, as akin to thunder, with the exact time depending on its distance.[30] The film was also accompanied by powerful, Wagner-esque music featured on many test films of that period and was hosted by actor Reed Hadley. A private screening was given to President Dwight D. Eisenhower who had succeeded President Harry S. Truman in January 1953.[31]: 80 In 1954, the film was released to the public after censoring, and was shown on commercial television channels.[31]: 183Edward Teller, perhaps the most ardent supporter of the development of the hydrogen bomb, was in Berkeley, California, at the time of the shot.[32] He was able to receive first notice that the test was successful by observing a seismometer, which picked up the shock wave that traveled through the earth from the Pacific Proving Grounds.[33][8]: 777–778 In his memoirs, Teller wrote that he immediately sent an unclassified telegram to Dr. Elizabeth \"Diz\" Graves, the head of the rump project remaining at Los Alamos during the shot. The telegram contained only the words \"It's a boy,\" which came hours earlier than any other word from Enewetak.[34][11]: 352","title":"Detonation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IvyMikeCloudTrinity%26Beyond.jpg"},{"link_name":"mushroom cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom_cloud"},{"link_name":"Virgil K. Meroney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil_K._Meroney"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Distillations-5"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gladeck-17"},{"link_name":"dead-stick landing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadstick_landing"},{"link_name":"F-84 Thunderjet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-84_Thunderjet"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Distillations-5"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-F-84G-5-RE-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wolverton-36"},{"link_name":"Los Alamos, New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Alamos,_New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"calcium carbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_carbonate"},{"link_name":"plutonium-246","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium-246"},{"link_name":"plutonium-244","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium-244"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Distillations-5"},{"link_name":"Al Ghiorso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Ghiorso"},{"link_name":"University of California, Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"Stanley Gerald Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Gerald_Thompson"},{"link_name":"Glenn Seaborg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_Seaborg"},{"link_name":"einsteinium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einsteinium"},{"link_name":"fermium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermium"},{"link_name":"Albert Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},{"link_name":"Enrico Fermi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_Fermi"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Distillations-5"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KAPL-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nagy-38"}],"text":"Mike mushroom cloud.An hour after the bomb was detonated, U.S. Air Force pilots took off from Enewetak Island to fly into the atomic cloud and take samples. Pilots had to monitor extra readouts and displays while \"piloting under unusual, dangerous, and difficult conditions” including heat, radiation, unpredictable winds and flying debris. \"Red Flight\" Leader Virgil K. Meroney flew into the stem of the explosion first. In five minutes, he had gathered all the samples he could, and exited. Next Bob Hagan and Jimmy Robinson entered the cloud. Robinson hit an area of severe turbulence, spinning out and barely retaining consciousness. He regained control of his plane at 20,000 feet, but the electromagnetic storm had disrupted his instruments. In rain and poor visibility, without working instruments, Hagan and Robinson were unable to find the KB-29 tanker aircraft to refuel.[5][17]: 96 They attempted to return to the field at Enewetak. Hagan, out of fuel, made an extraordinary successful dead-stick landing on the runway. Robinson's F-84 Thunderjet crashed and sank 3.5 miles short of the island. Robinson's body was never recovered.[5][35][36]Fuel tanks on the airplane's wings had been modified to scoop up and filter passing debris. The filters from the surviving planes were sealed in lead and sent to Los Alamos, New Mexico for analysis. Radioactive and contaminated with calcium carbonate, the \"Mike\" samples were extremely difficult to handle. Scientists at Los Alamos found traces in them of isotopes plutonium-246 and plutonium-244.[5]Al Ghiorso at the University of California, Berkeley speculated that the filters might also contain atoms that had transformed, through radioactive decay, into the predicted but undiscovered elements 99 and 100. Ghiorso, Stanley Gerald Thompson and Glenn Seaborg obtained half a filter paper from the Ivy Mike test. They were able to detect the existence of the elements einsteinium and fermium, which had been produced by intensely concentrated neutron flux about the detonation site. The discovery was kept secret for several years, but the team was eventually given credit. In 1955 the two new elements were named in honor of Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi.[5][37][38]","title":"Scientific discoveries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"EC-16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_16_nuclear_bomb"},{"link_name":"Castle Yankee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Yankee"},{"link_name":"Castle Bravo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Bravo"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"A simplified and lightened bomb version (the EC-16) was prepared and scheduled to be tested in operation Castle Yankee, as a backup in case the non-cryogenic \"Shrimp\" fusion device (tested in Castle Bravo) failed to work; that test was canceled when the Bravo device was tested successfully, making the cryogenic designs obsolete.[citation needed]","title":"Related tests"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ivy_Mike_002.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ivy_Mike_fallout_map.png"},{"link_name":"Nuclear fallout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fallout"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ivy_Mike_fireball.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Enewetak_Atoll_2005-09-01,_EO-1_bands_10-8-2-1.png"},{"link_name":"Enewetak Atoll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enewetak_Atoll"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ivy_Mike_overshooting_top.jpg"},{"link_name":"mushroom cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom_cloud"}],"text":"Nuclear fallout map of Mike test.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMike fireball.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMike test crater, relative to Enewetak Atoll.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMike mushroom cloud central stem's updraft tropopause overshoots.","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hansen, Chuck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Hansen"},{"link_name":"U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/usnuclearweapons0000hans"},{"link_name":"Crown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_Publishing_Group"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0517567401","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0517567401"},{"link_name":"LCCN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"87021995","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//lccn.loc.gov/87021995"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"865554459","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/865554459"},{"link_name":"OL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OL_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2392513M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//openlibrary.org/books/OL2392513M"},{"link_name":"Internet Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive"}],"text":"Hansen, Chuck (20 March 1988). U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History (1st ed.). Crown. ISBN 978-0517567401. LCCN 87021995. OCLC 865554459. OL 2392513M. Retrieved 10 November 2021 – via Internet Archive.","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"A view of the \"Sausage\" device casing, with its instrumentation and cryogenic equipment attached. The long pipes were for measurement purposes; their function was to transmit the first radiation from the \"primary\" and \"secondary\" stages (known as \"Teller light\") to instruments just as the device was detonated, before being destroyed in the explosion. Note man seated lower right for scale.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Ivy_Mike_Sausage_device.jpg/250px-Ivy_Mike_Sausage_device.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Ivy Mike shot cab and signal tower.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Ivy_Mike_shot_cab.jpg/220px-Ivy_Mike_shot_cab.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ivy Mike test video.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/IvyMikeGIF2.gif/320px-IvyMikeGIF2.gif"},{"image_text":"Enewetak Atoll, before \"Mike\" shot. Note island of Elugelab on left.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Ivy_Mike_-_Elugelab_pt1.jpg/220px-Ivy_Mike_-_Elugelab_pt1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Enewetak Atoll, after \"Mike\" shot. Note crater on left.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Ivy_Mike_-_Elugelab_pt2.jpg/220px-Ivy_Mike_-_Elugelab_pt2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mike mushroom cloud.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/IvyMikeCloudTrinity%26Beyond.jpg/220px-IvyMikeCloudTrinity%26Beyond.jpg"}]	[{"title":"History of nuclear weapons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons"},{"title":"Operation Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Castle"},{"title":"RDS-6s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RDS-6s"}]	[{"reference":"\"OPERATION GREENHOUSE - 1951\". ATOMIC SHADOWS. Retrieved January 9, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.myatomiclife.com/1951---op-greenhouse.html","url_text":"\"OPERATION GREENHOUSE - 1951\""}]},{"reference":"United States Nuclear Tests: July 1945 through September 1992 (PDF) (DOE/NV-209 REV15), Las Vegas, NV: Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, December 1, 2000, archived from the original (PDF) on June 15, 2010, retrieved December 18, 2013","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100615231826/http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/publications/historical/DOENV_209_REV15.pdf","url_text":"United States Nuclear Tests: July 1945 through September 1992"},{"url":"http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/publications/historical/DOENV_209_REV15.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Wellerstein, Alex (January 8, 2016). \"A Hydrogen Bomb by Any Other Name\". The New Yorker. Retrieved January 19, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/a-hydrogen-bomb-by-any-other-name","url_text":"\"A Hydrogen Bomb by Any Other Name\""}]},{"reference":"Chapman, Kit (January 14, 2020). \"Element Hunting in a Nuclear Storm\". Distillations. Science History Institute. Retrieved January 14, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/element-hunting-in-a-nuclear-storm","url_text":"\"Element Hunting in a Nuclear Storm\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_History_Institute","url_text":"Science History Institute"}]},{"reference":"Bernstein, Barton J. (Fall 1987). \"Crossing the Rubicon: A Missed Opportunity to Stop the H-Bomb?\". International Security. 14 (2): 132–160. doi:10.2307/2538857. JSTOR 2538857. S2CID 154778522.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2538857","url_text":"10.2307/2538857"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2538857","url_text":"2538857"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154778522","url_text":"154778522"}]},{"reference":"Hewlett, Richard G.; Duncan, Francis (1969). Atomic Shield, 1947–1952 (PDF). A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Vol. 2. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/04/f0/Hewlett%20and%20Duncan%20-%20Atomic%20Shield%20%28complete%29.pdf","url_text":"Atomic Shield, 1947–1952"}]},{"reference":"Rhodes, Richard (1 August 1995). Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-68-480400-2. LCCN 95011070. OCLC 456652278. OL 7720934M. Wikidata Q105755363 – via Internet Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Rhodes","url_text":"Rhodes, Richard"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster","url_text":"Simon & Schuster"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-68-480400-2","url_text":"978-0-68-480400-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/95011070","url_text":"95011070"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/456652278","url_text":"456652278"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OL_(identifier)","url_text":"OL"},{"url":"https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7720934M","url_text":"7720934M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)","url_text":"Wikidata"},{"url":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105755363","url_text":"Q105755363"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive","url_text":"Internet Archive"}]},{"reference":"Parsons, Keith M.; Zaballa, Robert A. (July 26, 2017). Bombing the Marshall Islands: A Cold War Tragedy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–46. ISBN 9781108508742.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mQQvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41","url_text":"Bombing the Marshall Islands: A Cold War Tragedy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108508742","url_text":"9781108508742"}]},{"reference":"Herken, Gregg (9 September 2002). \"Notes for Chapter Fourteen \"A Bad Business Now Threatening\"\". Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence and Edward Teller (1st ed.). Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 978-0-80-506588-6. LCCN 2002017219. OCLC 890256840. OL 7932650M. Retrieved 10 November 2021 – via Internet Archive. p. 391: Mike was meant to be a proof-of-principle test of radiation implosion, and not a deliverable bomb. Housed in a six-story building, weighing more than 80 tons, the cryogenically-cooled device was later described disdainfully by the Russians as a \"thermonuclear installation.\"","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregg_Herken","url_text":"Herken, Gregg"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/brotherhoodofbom0000herk_v0x5/page/391/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Notes for Chapter Fourteen \"A Bad Business Now Threatening\"\""},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/brotherhoodofbom0000herk_v0x5","url_text":"Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence and Edward Teller"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Holt_and_Company","url_text":"Henry Holt and Company"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-80-506588-6","url_text":"978-0-80-506588-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/2002017219","url_text":"2002017219"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/890256840","url_text":"890256840"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OL_(identifier)","url_text":"OL"},{"url":"https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7932650M","url_text":"7932650M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive","url_text":"Internet Archive"}]},{"reference":"Teller, Edward; Schoolery, Judith (September 9, 2009). Memoirs: A Twentieth Century Journey In Science And Politics. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing. ISBN 9780786751709.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=n82xMo-BI8QC&q=%22It%27s+a+boy%2C%22","url_text":"Memoirs: A Twentieth Century Journey In Science And Politics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780786751709","url_text":"9780786751709"}]},{"reference":"\"1 November 1952 – Ivy Mike\". Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization. Retrieved 10 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ctbto.org/specials/testing-times/1-november-1952-ivy-mike","url_text":"\"1 November 1952 – Ivy Mike\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preparatory_Commission_for_the_Comprehensive_Nuclear-Test-Ban_Treaty_Organization","url_text":"Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization"}]},{"reference":"Dillingham, Clay, ed. (1 July 2015). \"Atomic Photography: Blasts From The Past\" (PDF). National Security Science. 15 (5). Los Alamos National Laboratory: 16–21. Retrieved 10 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lanl.gov/discover/publications/national-security-science/2015-july/_assets/doc/NSS-july-2015.pdf","url_text":"\"Atomic Photography: Blasts From The Past\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory","url_text":"Los Alamos National Laboratory"}]},{"reference":"\"Deuterium\" (PDF). p. 8.","urls":[{"url":"https://cpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/wonecks.net/dist/4/1630/files/2016/03/Deuterium-Article-1aqpg12.pdf","url_text":"\"Deuterium\""}]},{"reference":"Reichhardt, Tony (November 2, 2017). \"The First Hydrogen Bomb\". Air & Space. Retrieved January 22, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.airspacemag.com/daily-planet/first-hydrogen-bomb-180967074/","url_text":"\"The First Hydrogen Bomb\""}]},{"reference":"Hansen, Chuck (2007). The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development Since 1945 (PDF) (CD-ROM & download available) (2nd ed.). Sunnyvale, California: Chukelea Publications. ISBN 978-0979191503. OCLC 231585284.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.uscoldwar.com/","url_text":"The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development Since 1945"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0979191503","url_text":"978-0979191503"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/231585284","url_text":"231585284"}]},{"reference":"Gladeck, F. R.; Hallowell, J. H.; Martin, E. J.; McMullan, F. W.; Miller, R. H.; et al. (1 December 1982). OPERATION IVY: 1952 (pdf) (Technical report). Washington, D.C.: Defense Nuclear Agency. DNA 6036F. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 August 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dtra.mil/Portals/61/Documents/NTPR/2-Hist_Rpt_Atm/1952_DNA_6036F.pdf","url_text":"OPERATION IVY: 1952"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C.","url_text":"Washington, D.C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Threat_Reduction_Agency","url_text":"Defense Nuclear Agency"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210822185725/https://www.dtra.mil/Portals/61/Documents/NTPR/2-Hist_Rpt_Atm/1952_DNA_6036F.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Rowberry, Ariana (February 27, 2014). \"Castle Bravo: The Largest U.S. Nuclear Explosion\". Brookings. Retrieved January 9, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2014/02/27/castle-bravo-the-largest-u-s-nuclear-explosion","url_text":"\"Castle Bravo: The Largest U.S. Nuclear Explosion\""}]},{"reference":"Fabry, Merrill (2 November 2015). \"What the First H-Bomb Test Looked Like\". History. Time. Vol. 186, no. 16. ISSN 0040-781X. OCLC 1311479. Archived from the original on 4 September 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2021. At 7:15 a.m. local time on Elugelab Island, Mike was detonated from a control ship 30 m. away. The detonation resulted in a massive explosion, equivalent to 10.4 Megatons of TNT.","urls":[{"url":"https://time.com/4096424/ivy-mike-history/","url_text":"\"What the First H-Bomb Test Looked Like\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)","url_text":"Time"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0040-781X","url_text":"0040-781X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1311479","url_text":"1311479"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210904052722/https://time.com/4096424/ivy-mike-history/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Walker, John (June 2005). \"Nuclear Bomb Effects Computer\". Fourmilab. Retrieved November 22, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Walker_(programmer)","url_text":"Walker, John"},{"url":"http://www.fourmilab.ch/cgi-bin/Bombcalc?yield=10400&yunit=1&range=5&runit=0.62137119&rotate=310&imsize=800","url_text":"\"Nuclear Bomb Effects Computer\""}]},{"reference":"Walker, John (June 2005). \"Nuclear Bomb Effects Computer Revised Edition 1962, Based on Data from The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, Revised Edition \"The maximum fireball radius presented on the computer is an average between that for air and surface bursts. Thus, the fireball radius for a surface burst is 13 percent larger than that indicated and for an air burst, 13 percent smaller. \"\". Fourmilab. Retrieved November 22, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Walker_(programmer)","url_text":"Walker, John"},{"url":"http://www.fourmilab.ch/bombcalc/instructions.html","url_text":"\"Nuclear Bomb Effects Computer Revised Edition 1962, Based on Data from The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, Revised Edition \"The maximum fireball radius presented on the computer is an average between that for air and surface bursts. Thus, the fireball radius for a surface burst is 13 percent larger than that indicated and for an air burst, 13 percent smaller. \"\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mock up\". Remm.nlm.gov. Archived from the original on June 7, 2013. Retrieved November 30, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130607091341/http://www.remm.nlm.gov/RemmMockup_files/radiationlethality.jpg","url_text":"\"Mock up\""},{"url":"https://www.remm.nlm.gov/RemmMockup_files/radiationlethality.jpg","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Blades, David M. Blades; Siracusa, Joseph M. (May 1, 2014). A History of U.S. Nuclear Testing and Its Influence on Nuclear Thought, 1945–1963. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 54. ISBN 9781442232013. Retrieved January 21, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tKEXBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54","url_text":"A History of U.S. Nuclear Testing and Its Influence on Nuclear Thought, 1945–1963"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442232013","url_text":"9781442232013"}]},{"reference":"\"Operation Ivy 1952 - Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands\". Nuclear Weapon Archive. May 14, 1999. Retrieved January 9, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Ivy.html","url_text":"\"Operation Ivy 1952 - Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands\""}]},{"reference":"Froehlich, M.B.; Chan, W.Y.; Tims, S.G.; Fallon, S.J.; Fifield, L.K. (December 2016). \"Time-resolved record of 236U and 239,240Pu isotopes from a coral growing during the nuclear testing program at Enewetak Atoll (Marshall Islands)\". Journal of Environmental Radioactivity. 165: 197–205. doi:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2016.09.015. PMID 27764678.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jenvrad.2016.09.015","url_text":"\"Time-resolved record of 236U and 239,240Pu isotopes from a coral growing during the nuclear testing program at Enewetak Atoll (Marshall Islands)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jenvrad.2016.09.015","url_text":"10.1016/j.jenvrad.2016.09.015"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27764678","url_text":"27764678"}]},{"reference":"Buesseler, Ken O.; Charette, Matthew A.; Pike, Steven M.; Henderson, Paul B.; Kipp, Lauren E. (April 2018). \"Lingering radioactivity at the Bikini and Enewetak Atolls\". Science of the Total Environment. 621: 1185–1198. Bibcode:2018ScTEn.621.1185B. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.109. hdl:1912/9537. PMID 29096952.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2017.10.109","url_text":"\"Lingering radioactivity at the Bikini and Enewetak Atolls\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018ScTEn.621.1185B","url_text":"2018ScTEn.621.1185B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2017.10.109","url_text":"10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.109"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/1912%2F9537","url_text":"1912/9537"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29096952","url_text":"29096952"}]},{"reference":"Hughes, Emlyn W.; Molina, Monica Rouco; Abella, Maveric K. I. L.; Nikolić-Hughes, Ivana; Ruderman, Malvin A. (July 30, 2019). \"Radiation maps of ocean sediment from the Castle Bravo crater\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (31): 15420–15424. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11615420H. doi:10.1073/pnas.1903478116. PMC 6681739. PMID 31308235.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6681739","url_text":"\"Radiation maps of ocean sediment from the Castle Bravo crater\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PNAS..11615420H","url_text":"2019PNAS..11615420H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1903478116","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.1903478116"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6681739","url_text":"6681739"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31308235","url_text":"31308235"}]},{"reference":"Colvin, J. D.; Mitchell, C. K.; Greig, J. R.; Murphy, D. P.; Pechacek, R. E.; Raleigh, M. (1987). \"An empirical study of the nuclear explosion-induced lightning seen on IVY-MIKE\". Journal of Geophysical Research. 92 (D5): 5696. Bibcode:1987JGR....92.5696C. doi:10.1029/JD092iD05p05696.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987JGR....92.5696C","url_text":"1987JGR....92.5696C"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1029%2FJD092iD05p05696","url_text":"10.1029/JD092iD05p05696"}]},{"reference":"Chamberlain, Craig (January 14, 2019). \"New book tells story of secret Hollywood studio that shaped the nuclear age\". Illinois News Bureau.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.illinois.edu/view/6367/739553","url_text":"\"New book tells story of secret Hollywood studio that shaped the nuclear age\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nuclear Warfare Lecture 14 by Professor Grant J. Matthews of University of Notre Dame OpenCourseWare. Mechanical Shock velocity equation\". Archived from the original on December 19, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131219010502/http://ocw.nd.edu/physics/nuclear-warfare/notes/lecture-14","url_text":"\"Nuclear Warfare Lecture 14 by Professor Grant J. Matthews of University of Notre Dame OpenCourseWare. Mechanical Shock velocity equation\""},{"url":"http://ocw.nd.edu/physics/nuclear-warfare/notes/lecture-14#mechanical-shock","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Weart, Spencer (2012). The Rise of Nuclear Fear. Harvard University Press. p. 80. ISBN 9780674065062.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9KBD-YrGOVkC&pg=PA80","url_text":"The Rise of Nuclear Fear"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674065062","url_text":"9780674065062"}]},{"reference":"\"THE ATOM: The Road Beyond Elugelab\". Time. Vol. 63, no. 15. April 12, 1954. p. 23. Retrieved January 21, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,823289,00.html","url_text":"\"THE ATOM: The Road Beyond Elugelab\""}]},{"reference":"Axelrod, Alan (December 10, 2009). The Real History of the Cold War: A New Look at the Past. Sterling. pp. 156. ISBN 9781402763021. Retrieved January 21, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/realhistoryofcol0000axel","url_text":"The Real History of the Cold War: A New Look at the Past"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/realhistoryofcol0000axel/page/156","url_text":"156"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781402763021","url_text":"9781402763021"}]},{"reference":"Ford, Kenneth; Wheeler, John Archibald (June 18, 2010). Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam: A Life in Physics. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 227. ISBN 9780393079487. Retrieved December 21, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zGFkK2tTXPsC&q=elizabeth+graves+physicist&pg=PA227","url_text":"Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam: A Life in Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393079487","url_text":"9780393079487"}]},{"reference":"\"F-84G-5-RE Thunderjet Serial Number 51-1040\". Pacific Wrecks. Retrieved January 9, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pacificwrecks.com/aircraft/f-84/51-1040.html","url_text":"\"F-84G-5-RE Thunderjet Serial Number 51-1040\""}]},{"reference":"Wolverton, Mark (2009). \"Into the Mushroom Cloud Most pilots would head away from a thermonuclear explosion\". Air & Space Magazine (August). Smithsonian. Retrieved January 9, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/into-the-mushroom-cloud-35152524/","url_text":"\"Into the Mushroom Cloud Most pilots would head away from a thermonuclear explosion\""}]},{"reference":"Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory (KAPL) (2010). Nuclides and Isotopes – Chart of the Nuclides (17th ed.). Schenectady, N.Y.: Bechtel Marine Propulsion Corporation.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Nagy, Sandor (2009). Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry. Vol. I. EOLSS Publications. pp. 91–92. ISBN 9781848261266. Retrieved January 21, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=VbO2CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA91","url_text":"Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781848261266","url_text":"9781848261266"}]},{"reference":"Hansen, Chuck (20 March 1988). U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History (1st ed.). Crown. ISBN 978-0517567401. LCCN 87021995. OCLC 865554459. OL 2392513M. Retrieved 10 November 2021 – via Internet Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Hansen","url_text":"Hansen, Chuck"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/usnuclearweapons0000hans","url_text":"U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_Publishing_Group","url_text":"Crown"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0517567401","url_text":"978-0517567401"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/87021995","url_text":"87021995"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/865554459","url_text":"865554459"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OL_(identifier)","url_text":"OL"},{"url":"https://openlibrary.org/books/OL2392513M","url_text":"2392513M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive","url_text":"Internet Archive"}]},{"reference":"\"Full Text\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=AD0363641","url_text":"\"Full Text\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Ivy_Mike&params=11_40_0_N_162_11_13_E_type:landmark","external_links_name":"11°40′0″N 162°11′13″E / 11.66667°N 162.18694°E / 11.66667; 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_Choice	Hot Choice	["1 History","2 See also","3 References"]	American pay-per-view service Television channel Hot ChoiceCountryUnited StatesOwnershipOwnerIn Demand Networks(Comcast/Cox Communications/Charter Communications)Sister channelsIn DemandMOJO HDHistoryLaunched1988; 36 years ago (1988)Former namesViewer's Choice II (1988-1993) Hot Choice is a pay-per-view service that mainly airs adult content. It is run by In Demand Networks and is carried on some cable television systems. History Hot Choice was launched in 1988 as Viewer's Choice II; the channel retained the "Viewer's Choice" name until February 1993, when it was rebranded as "Hot Choice". The service had initially aired a diverse mix of comedy and action/adventure movies geared towards mainly teenagers and adults (essentially, feature films with an MPAA rating of "PG-13" or higher) that were carried over from its sister network Viewer's Choice/In Demand; and adult-oriented programming at night. In late 1999, Hot Choice began leaning towards more "R"-rated films; more adult programming began being distributed throughout its daily schedule until 2000 when Hot Choice adopted a mostly adult programming format. During that period, some of the cable systems moved this channel to their digital cable tiers or removed it from their listings altogether. In September 2001, Hot Choice had changed their format to featuring only softcore adult programming. See also Playboy TV Spice Network References ^ About iNDemand ^ C Band lolistings 1988 Archived 2011-04-02 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved February 24, 2011 ^ Hot Choice Gets Off To A Sizzling Start, Multichannel News, May 10, 1993. ^ In Demand Makes Hot Choice Hotter.(erotic television channel to change format to soft-core pay-per-view services) - Multichannel News vtePremium television services in the United StatesvtePremium television services in the United States (movies, series and specials)Movies, series, and specials Home Box Office, Inc. HBO Max Cinemax Showtime Networks Paramount+ with Showtime The Movie Channel Flix Starz Inc. Starz Starz Encore MoviePlex Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer MGM+ ScreenPix Adult Playboy TV Penthouse TV Hustler TV Other Fox Soccer Plus vtePay-per-view television services in the United StatesPay-per-view In Demand (HD) TVN Entertainment AdultPlayboy TV Playboy TV Playgirl Climax Spice Networks RKTV Brazzers TV BangU. Mofos The Erotic Network Blox Blue Clips Juicy Real Xtsy Penthouse TV (HD) TEN Other Hot Choice Hustler TV In Demand Vubiquity Too Much For TV Sports packagesPro sports NHL Center Ice (HD) NFL RedZone (HD) NFL Sunday Ticket (HD) NBA League Pass (HD) MLB Extra Innings (HD) MLS Season Pass Other Cricket Ticket vteDefunct premium television services in the United StatesPremium services AMC1 Bravo1 Channel 100 Cineview Disney Channel1 Fanfare (TV channel) Front Row (TV channel) Festival Galavisión1 Home Theater Network Spotlight Starion Premiere Cinema Star Channel2 Sundance Channel1 Take Two Adult premium American Exxxtasy Escapade (TV channel) Uptown (TV channel) Pay-per-view BET Action Cable Video Store Drive-In Cinema Guest Cinema The HiLife Channel NCAA Mega March Madness Rendezvous (TV channel) Request TV Spectradyne Sports ESPN College Extra ESPN GamePlan ESPN Full Court NCAA Mega March Madness MLS Direct Kick NASCAR Hot Pass PASS Sports Subscription TV Hawkvision In-Home Theatre MovieBeam MovieVision ONTV Phonevision Preview PRISM SCORE SelecTV Showbiz Spectrum Sportsvision StarCase Star TV SuperTime Super TV Tele1st Telemeter VEU Wometco Home Theater Z Channel 1 Indicates the channel is still in existence, but currently operates as a basic cable channel.2 Star Channel was part of Warner Communications' QUBE interactive cable service, and was the precursor to present-day The Movie Channel.vteAdditional resources on North American televisionNorth America List of local television stations in North America DTV transition North American TV mini-template Canada Canadian networks List of Canadian television networks List of Canadian television channels List of Canadian specialty channels Local Canadian TV stations List of United States stations available in Canada 2001 Vancouver TV realignment 2007 Canada broadcast TV realignment Mexico Mexican networks Local Mexican TV stations United States American networks List of American cable and satellite networks List of American over-the-air networks Local American TV stations (W) Local American TV stations (K) Spanish-language TV networks 1989 South Florida television affiliation switch 1994–1996 U.S. TV realignment 2006 U.S. TV realignment List of Canadian television stations available in the United States See also U.S. movie channels Canadian movie channels Canadian premium channels This article about a television station in the United States is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pay-per-view","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay-per-view"},{"link_name":"In Demand Networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Demand"},{"link_name":"cable television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_television"}],"text":"Television channelHot Choice is a pay-per-view service that mainly airs adult content. It is run by In Demand Networks and is carried on some cable television systems.","title":"Hot Choice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"comedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy"},{"link_name":"action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_film"},{"link_name":"adventure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventure_film"},{"link_name":"movies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movie"},{"link_name":"teenagers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teenagers"},{"link_name":"MPAA rating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_Picture_Association_of_America_film_rating_system"},{"link_name":"Viewer's Choice/In Demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Demand"},{"link_name":"adult-oriented programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softcore_pornography"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Hot Choice was launched in 1988 as Viewer's Choice II; the channel retained the \"Viewer's Choice\" name until February 1993, when it was rebranded as \"Hot Choice\".[1][2][3] The service had initially aired a diverse mix of comedy and action/adventure movies geared towards mainly teenagers and adults (essentially, feature films with an MPAA rating of \"PG-13\" or higher) that were carried over from its sister network Viewer's Choice/In Demand; and adult-oriented programming at night.In late 1999, Hot Choice began leaning towards more \"R\"-rated films; more adult programming began being distributed throughout its daily schedule until 2000 when Hot Choice adopted a mostly adult programming format. During that period, some of the cable systems moved this channel to their digital cable tiers or removed it from their listings altogether. In September 2001, Hot Choice had changed their format to featuring only softcore adult programming.[4]","title":"History"}]	[]	[{"title":"Playboy TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playboy_TV"},{"title":"Spice Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice_Network"}]	[]	[{"Link":"http://www.indemand.com/business/business-overview/about/history.php","external_links_name":"About iNDemand"},{"Link":"http://www.satelliteguys.us/c-band-satellite-discussion/89343-c-ku-band-listings-1988-a.html","external_links_name":"C Band lolistings 1988"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110402060538/http://www.satelliteguys.us/c-band-satellite-discussion/89343-c-ku-band-listings-1988-a.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121105152401/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-13840590.html","external_links_name":"Hot Choice Gets Off To A Sizzling Start"},{"Link":"http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb4895/is_200108/ai_n17983384","external_links_name":"In Demand Makes Hot Choice Hotter.(erotic television channel to change format to soft-core pay-per-view services)"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hot_Choice&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_risk	Credit risk	["1 Types","2 Assessment","2.1 Sovereign risk","2.2 Counterparty risk","3 Mitigation","4 Related Initialisms","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"]	Type of financial risk Categories ofFinancial risk Credit risk Settlement risk Concentration risk Sovereign risk Default risk Market risk Interest rate risk Inflation risk Currency risk Equity risk Commodity risk Volatility risk Systemic risk Liquidity risk Refinancing risk Deposit risk Margining risk Investment risk Model risk Execution risk Valuation risk Business risk Reputational risk Operational risk Country risk Political risk Legal risk Moral hazard Profit risk Non-financial risk Stranded asset vte Basel Framework International regulatory standards for banks Basel Committee on Banking Supervision Basel Accords Basel I Basel II Basel III LCR NSFR FRTB Endgame Background Banking / Regulation Monetary policy / Central bank Risk / Risk management Pillar 1: Regulatory capital Capital requirement Capital ratio Leverage ratio Tier 1 Tier 2 Credit risk SA-CR IRB F-IRB A-IRB EAD SA-CCR IMM CCF Market risk Standardized IMA CVA vol BA-CVA SA-CVA Operational risk Basic Standardized AMA Pillar 2: Supervisory review Economic capital Liquidity risk Legal risk Pillar 3: Market disclosure Disclosure Business and Economics Portalvte Credit risk is the possibility of losing a lender holds due to a risk of default on a debt that may arise from a borrower failing to make required payments. In the first resort, the risk is that of the lender and includes lost principal and interest, disruption to cash flows, and increased collection costs. The loss may be complete or partial. In an efficient market, higher levels of credit risk will be associated with higher borrowing costs. Because of this, measures of borrowing costs such as yield spreads can be used to infer credit risk levels based on assessments by market participants. Losses can arise in a number of circumstances, for example: A consumer may fail to make a payment due on a mortgage loan, credit card, line of credit, or other loan. A company is unable to repay asset-secured fixed or floating charge debt. A business or consumer does not pay a trade invoice when due. A business does not pay an employee's earned wages when due. A business or government bond issuer does not make a payment on a coupon or principal payment when due. An insolvent insurance company does not pay a policy obligation. An insolvent bank will not return funds to a depositor. A government grants bankruptcy protection to an insolvent consumer or business. To reduce the lender's credit risk, the lender may perform a credit check on the prospective borrower, may require the borrower to take out appropriate insurance, such as mortgage insurance, or seek security over some assets of the borrower or a guarantee from a third party. The lender can also take out insurance against the risk or on-sell the debt to another company. In general, the higher the risk, the higher will be the interest rate that the debtor will be asked to pay on the debt. Credit risk mainly arises when borrowers are unable or unwilling to pay. Types A credit risk can be of the following types: Credit default risk – The risk of loss arising from a debtor being unlikely to pay its loan obligations in full or the debtor is more than 90 days past due on any material credit obligation; default risk may impact all credit-sensitive transactions, including loans, securities and derivatives. Concentration risk – The risk associated with any single exposure or group of exposures with the potential to produce large enough losses to threaten a bank's core operations. It may arise in the form of single-name concentration or industry concentration. Country risk – The risk of loss arising from a sovereign state freezing foreign currency payments (transfer/conversion risk) or when it defaults on its obligations (sovereign risk); this type of risk is prominently associated with the country's macroeconomic performance and its political stability. Assessment Main articles: Credit analysis and Consumer credit risk Significant resources and sophisticated programs are used to analyze and manage risk. Some companies run a credit risk department whose job is to assess the financial health of their customers, and extend credit (or not) accordingly. They may use in-house programs to advise on avoiding, reducing and transferring risk. They also use the third party provided intelligence. Nationally recognized statistical rating organizations provide such information for a fee. For large companies with liquidly traded corporate bonds or Credit Default Swaps, bond yield spreads and credit default swap spreads indicate market participants assessments of credit risk and may be used as a reference point to price loans or trigger collateral calls. Most lenders employ their models (credit scorecards) to rank potential and existing customers according to risk, and then apply appropriate strategies. With products such as unsecured personal loans or mortgages, lenders charge a higher price for higher-risk customers and vice versa. With revolving products such as credit cards and overdrafts, the risk is controlled through the setting of credit limits. Some products also require collateral, usually an asset that is pledged to secure the repayment of the loan. Credit scoring models also form part of the framework used by banks or lending institutions to grant credit to clients. For corporate and commercial borrowers, these models generally have qualitative and quantitative sections outlining various aspects of the risk including, but not limited to, operating experience, management expertise, asset quality, and leverage and liquidity ratios, respectively. Once this information has been fully reviewed by credit officers and credit committees, the lender provides the funds subject to the terms and conditions presented within the contract (as outlined above). Sovereign risk Sovereign credit risk is the risk of a government being unwilling or unable to meet its loan obligations, or reneging on loans it guarantees. Many countries have faced sovereign risk in the late-2000s global recession. The existence of such risk means that creditors should take a two-stage decision process when deciding to lend to a firm based in a foreign country. Firstly one should consider the sovereign risk quality of the country and then consider the firm's credit quality. Five macroeconomic variables that affect the probability of sovereign debt rescheduling are: Debt service ratio Import ratio Investment ratio Variance of export revenue Domestic money supply growth The probability of rescheduling is an increasing function of debt service ratio, import ratio, the variance of export revenue and domestic money supply growth. The likelihood of rescheduling is a decreasing function of investment ratio due to future economic productivity gains. Debt rescheduling likelihood can increase if the investment ratio rises as the foreign country could become less dependent on its external creditors and so be less concerned about receiving credit from these countries/investors. Counterparty risk A counterparty risk, also known as a settlement risk or counterparty credit risk (CCR), is a risk that a counterparty will not pay as obligated on a bond, derivative, insurance policy, or other contract. Financial institutions or other transaction counterparties may hedge or take out credit insurance or, particularly in the context of derivatives, require the posting of collateral. Offsetting counterparty risk is not always possible, e.g. because of temporary liquidity issues or longer-term systemic reasons. Further, counterparty risk increases due to positively correlated risk factors; accounting for this correlation between portfolio risk factors and counterparty default in risk management methodology is not trivial. The capital requirement here is calculated using SA-CCR, the standardized approach for counterparty credit risk. This framework replaced both non-internal model approaches - Current Exposure Method (CEM) and Standardised Method (SM). It is a "risk-sensitive methodology", i.e. conscious of asset class and hedging, that differentiates between margined and non-margined trades and recognizes netting benefits; issues insufficiently addressed under the preceding frameworks. Mitigation Lenders mitigate credit risk in a number of ways, including: Risk-based pricing – Lenders may charge a higher interest rate to borrowers who are more likely to default, a practice called risk-based pricing. Lenders consider factors relating to the loan such as loan purpose, credit rating, and loan-to-value ratio and estimates the effect on yield (credit spread). Covenants – Lenders may write stipulations on the borrower, called covenants, into loan agreements, such as: Periodically report its financial condition, Refrain from paying dividends, repurchasing shares, borrowing further, or other specific, voluntary actions that negatively affect the company's financial position, and Repay the loan in full, at the lender's request, in certain events such as changes in the borrower's debt-to-equity ratio or interest coverage ratio. Credit insurance and credit derivatives – Lenders and bond holders may hedge their credit risk by purchasing credit insurance or credit derivatives. These contracts transfer the risk from the lender to the seller (insurer) in exchange for payment. The most common credit derivative is the credit default swap. Tightening – Lenders can reduce credit risk by reducing the amount of credit extended, either in total or to certain borrowers. For example, a distributor selling its products to a troubled retailer may attempt to lessen credit risk by reducing payment terms from net 30 to net 15. Diversification – Lenders to a small number of borrowers (or kinds of borrower) face a high degree of unsystematic credit risk, called concentration risk. Lenders reduce this risk by diversifying the borrower pool. Deposit insurance – Governments may establish deposit insurance to guarantee bank deposits in the event of insolvency and to encourage consumers to hold their savings in the banking system instead of in cash. Related Initialisms ACPM Active credit portfolio management CCR Counterparty Credit Risk CE Credit Exposure CVA Credit valuation adjustment DVA Debit Valuation Adjustment – see XVA EAD Exposure at default EE Expected Exposure EL Expected loss JTD - Jump-to-default, where the reference entity suddenly defaults LGD Loss given default PD Probability of default PFE Potential future exposure SA-CCR The Standardised Approach to Counterparty Credit Risk VAR Value at risk See also Credit (finance) Credit spread curve Criticism of credit scoring systems in the United States CS01 Default (finance) Distressed securities Jarrow–Turnbull model KMV model Merton model References ^ "Principles for the Management of Credit Risk – final document". Basel Committee on Banking Supervision. BIS. September 2000. Retrieved 13 December 2013. Credit risk is most simply defined as the potential that a bank borrower or counterparty will fail to meet its obligations in accordance with agreed terms. ^ Risk Glossary: Credit Risk ^ Credit Risk Classification Archived 2013-09-27 at the Wayback Machine ^ BIS Paper:Sound credit risk assessment and valuation for loans ^ "Huang and Scott: Credit Risk Scorecard Design, Validation and User Acceptance" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-02. Retrieved 2011-09-22. ^ Investopedia: Risk-based mortgage pricing ^ "Edelman: Risk-based pricing for personal loans" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-02. Retrieved 2011-09-22. ^ Berger, Allen N., and Gregory F. Udell. "Collateral, loan quality and bank risk."Journal of Monetary Economics 25.1 (1990): 21–42. ^ Jarrow, R. A.; Lando, D.; Turnbull, S. M. (1997). "A Markov Model for the Term Structure of Credit Risk Spreads". Review of Financial Studies. 10 (2): 481–523. doi:10.1093/rfs/10.2.481. ISSN 0893-9454. S2CID 154117131. ^ Altman, Edward I., and Anthony Saunders. "Credit risk measurement: Developments over the last 20 years." Journal of Banking & Finance 21.11 (1997): 1721–1742. ^ Mester, Loretta J. "What's the point of credit scoring?." Business review 3 (1997): 3–16. ^ Cary L. Cooper; Derek F. Channon (1998). The Concise Blackwell Encyclopedia of Management. ISBN 978-0-631-20911-9. ^ a b Frenkel, Karmann and Scholtens (2004). Sovereign Risk and Financial Crises. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-22248-4. ^ Cornett, Marcia Millon; Saunders, Anthony (2006). Financial Institutions Management: A Risk Management Approach, 5th Edition. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-304667-9. ^ Investopedia. Counterparty risk. Retrieved 2008-10-06 ^ Tom Henderson. Counterparty Risk and the Subprime Fiasco. 2008-01-02. Retrieved 2008-10-06 ^ Brigo, Damiano; Andrea Pallavicini (2007). Counterparty Risk under Correlation between Default and Interest Rates. In: Miller, J., Edelman, D., and Appleby, J. (Editors), Numerical Methods for Finance. Chapman Hall. ISBN 978-1-58488-925-0.Related SSRN Research Paper ^ Orlando, Giuseppe; Bufalo, Michele; Penikas, Henry; Zurlo, Concetta (2021-10-28), "Distributions Commonly Used in Credit and Counterparty Risk Modeling", Modern Financial Engineering, Topics in Systems Engineering, vol. 2, WORLD SCIENTIFIC, pp. 3–23, doi:10.1142/9789811252365_0001, ISBN 978-981-12-5235-8, S2CID 245970287, retrieved 2022-04-10 ^ Debt covenants ^ MBA Mondays:Risk Diversification ^ Moody's Analytics (2008). A Brief History of Active Credit Portfolio Management Further reading Bluhm, Christian; Ludger Overbeck & Christoph Wagner (2002). An Introduction to Credit Risk Modeling. Chapman & Hall/CRC. ISBN 978-1-58488-326-5. Damiano Brigo and Massimo Masetti (2006). Risk Neutral Pricing of Counterparty Risk, in: Pykhtin, M. (Editor), Counterparty Credit Risk Modeling: Risk Management, Pricing and Regulation. Risk Books. ISBN 978-1-904339-76-2. Orlando, Giuseppe; Bufalo Michele; Penikas Henry; Zurlo Concetta (2022). Modern Financial Engineering: Counterparty, Credit, Portfolio and Systemic Risks. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-125-235-8. de Servigny, Arnaud; Olivier Renault (2004). The Standard & Poor's Guide to Measuring and Managing Credit Risk. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-141755-6. Darrell Duffie and Kenneth J. Singleton (2003). Credit Risk: Pricing, Measurement, and Management. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09046-7. Principles for the management of credit risk from the Bank for International Settlements External links Bank Management and Control, Springer Nature – Management for Professionals, 2020 Credit Risk Modelling, - information on credit risk modelling and decision analytics A Guide to Modeling Counterparty Credit Risk – SSRN Research Paper, July 2007 Defaultrisk.com – research and white papers on credit risk modelling The Journal of Credit Risk publishes research on credit risk theory and practice. Soft Data Modeling Via Type 2 Fuzzy Distributions for Corporate Credit Risk Assessment in Commercial Banking SSRN Research Paper, July 2018 vteFinancial risk and financial risk managementCategoriesCredit risk Consumer credit risk Sovereign credit risk Settlement risk Default risk Concentration risk Credit derivative Securitization Market risk Commodity risk (e.g. Volume risk, Basis risk, Shape risk, Holding period risk, Price area risk) Equity risk Valuation risk FX risk Margining risk Interest rate risk Inflation risk Volatility risk Liquidity risk (e.g. Refinancing risk, Deposit risk) Operational risk Operational risk management Business risk Model risk Reputational risk Country risk Political risk Legal risk Other Execution risk Profit risk Systemic risk Non-financial risk Modeling Arbitrage pricing theory Black–Scholes model Replicating portfolio Cash flow matching Conditional Value-at-Risk (CVaR) Copula Drawdown First-hitting-time model Interest rate immunization Market portfolio Modern portfolio theory Omega ratio RAROC Risk-free rate Risk parity Sharpe ratio Sortino ratio Survival analysis (Proportional hazards model) Tracking error Value-at-Risk (VaR) and extensions (Profit at risk, Margin at risk, Liquidity at risk, Cash flow at risk, Earnings at risk) Basic concepts Asset allocation Asset and liability management Asset pricing Bad debt Capital asset Capital structure Corporate finance Cost of capital Diversification Economic bubble Enterprise value ESG Exchange traded fund Expected return Financial adviser analysis analyst asset betting crime engineering law risk social work Fundamental analysis Growth investing Hazard Hedge Investment management Risk Risk pool Risk of ruin Systematic risk Mathematical finance Moral hazard Risk-return spectrum Speculation Speculative attack Statistical finance Strategic financial management Stress test (financial) Structured finance Structured product Systemic risk Toxic asset Financial economics Investment management Mathematical finance Authority control databases: National Germany Czech Republic	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"default","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Default_(finance)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bcbs-1"},{"link_name":"principal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_sum"},{"link_name":"interest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interest"},{"link_name":"cash flows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash_flow"},{"link_name":"collection costs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collection_cost"},{"link_name":"yield spreads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yield_spread"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"mortgage loan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortgage_loan"},{"link_name":"credit card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_card"},{"link_name":"line of credit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_of_credit"},{"link_name":"company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company"},{"link_name":"floating charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_charge"},{"link_name":"trade invoice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_credit"},{"link_name":"wages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage"},{"link_name":"bond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_(finance)"},{"link_name":"coupon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupon_(bond)"},{"link_name":"insurance company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance_company"},{"link_name":"bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank"},{"link_name":"bankruptcy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bankruptcy"},{"link_name":"insolvent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insolvency"},{"link_name":"credit check","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_check"},{"link_name":"mortgage insurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortgage_insurance"},{"link_name":"security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collateral_(finance)"},{"link_name":"guarantee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guarantee"},{"link_name":"interest rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interest_rate"}],"text":"Credit risk is the possibility of losing a lender holds due to a risk of default on a debt that may arise from a borrower failing to make required payments.[1] In the first resort, the risk is that of the lender and includes lost principal and interest, disruption to cash flows, and increased collection costs. The loss may be complete or partial. In an efficient market, higher levels of credit risk will be associated with higher borrowing costs. Because of this, measures of borrowing costs such as yield spreads can be used to infer credit risk levels based on assessments by market participants.Losses can arise in a number of circumstances,[2] for example:A consumer may fail to make a payment due on a mortgage loan, credit card, line of credit, or other loan.\nA company is unable to repay asset-secured fixed or floating charge debt.\nA business or consumer does not pay a trade invoice when due.\nA business does not pay an employee's earned wages when due.\nA business or government bond issuer does not make a payment on a coupon or principal payment when due.\nAn insolvent insurance company does not pay a policy obligation.\nAn insolvent bank will not return funds to a depositor.\nA government grants bankruptcy protection to an insolvent consumer or business.To reduce the lender's credit risk, the lender may perform a credit check on the prospective borrower, may require the borrower to take out appropriate insurance, such as mortgage insurance, or seek security over some assets of the borrower or a guarantee from a third party. The lender can also take out insurance against the risk or on-sell the debt to another company. In general, the higher the risk, the higher will be the interest rate that the debtor will be asked to pay on the debt.\nCredit risk mainly arises when borrowers are unable or unwilling to pay.","title":"Credit risk"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Credit default risk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.investopedia.com/terms/d/defaultrisk.asp#:~:text=Default%20risk%20is%20the%20risk,all%20forms%20of%20credit%20extensions."},{"link_name":"derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative_(finance)"},{"link_name":"Concentration risk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_risk"},{"link_name":"Country risk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_risk"},{"link_name":"sovereign risk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_credit_risk"}],"text":"A credit risk can be of the following types:[3]Credit default risk – The risk of loss arising from a debtor being unlikely to pay its loan obligations in full or the debtor is more than 90 days past due on any material credit obligation; default risk may impact all credit-sensitive transactions, including loans, securities and derivatives.\nConcentration risk – The risk associated with any single exposure or group of exposures with the potential to produce large enough losses to threaten a bank's core operations. It may arise in the form of single-name concentration or industry concentration.\nCountry risk – The risk of loss arising from a sovereign state freezing foreign currency payments (transfer/conversion risk) or when it defaults on its obligations (sovereign risk); this type of risk is prominently associated with the country's macroeconomic performance and its political stability.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"credit scorecards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_scorecards"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"collateral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collateral_(finance)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JarrowLando1997-9"},{"link_name":"liquidity ratios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting_liquidity"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Significant resources and sophisticated programs are used to analyze and manage risk.[4] Some companies run a credit risk department whose job is to assess the financial health of their customers, and extend credit (or not) accordingly. They may use in-house programs to advise on avoiding, reducing and transferring risk. They also use the third party provided intelligence. Nationally recognized statistical rating organizations provide such information for a fee.For large companies with liquidly traded corporate bonds or Credit Default Swaps, bond yield spreads and credit default swap spreads indicate market participants assessments of credit risk and may be used as a reference point to price loans or trigger collateral calls.Most lenders employ their models (credit scorecards) to rank potential and existing customers according to risk, and then apply appropriate strategies.[5] With products such as unsecured personal loans or mortgages, lenders charge a higher price for higher-risk customers and vice versa.[6][7] With revolving products such as credit cards and overdrafts, the risk is controlled through the setting of credit limits. Some products also require collateral, usually an asset that is pledged to secure the repayment of the loan.[8]Credit scoring models also form part of the framework used by banks or lending institutions to grant credit to clients.[9] For corporate and commercial borrowers, these models generally have qualitative and quantitative sections outlining various aspects of the risk including, but not limited to, operating experience, management expertise, asset quality, and leverage and liquidity ratios, respectively. Once this information has been fully reviewed by credit officers and credit committees, the lender provides the funds subject to the terms and conditions presented within the contract (as outlined above).[10][11]","title":"Assessment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sovereign credit risk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_credit_risk"},{"link_name":"late-2000s global recession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late-2000s_global_recession"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"sovereign debt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_debt"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sovrisk-13"},{"link_name":"Debt service ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debt_service_ratio"},{"link_name":"Import ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Import_ratio"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sovrisk-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Saunders-14"}],"sub_title":"Sovereign risk","text":"Sovereign credit risk is the risk of a government being unwilling or unable to meet its loan obligations, or reneging on loans it guarantees. Many countries have faced sovereign risk in the late-2000s global recession. The existence of such risk means that creditors should take a two-stage decision process when deciding to lend to a firm based in a foreign country. Firstly one should consider the sovereign risk quality of the country and then consider the firm's credit quality.[12]Five macroeconomic variables that affect the probability of sovereign debt rescheduling are:[13]Debt service ratio\nImport ratio\nInvestment ratio\nVariance of export revenue\nDomestic money supply growthThe probability of rescheduling is an increasing function of debt service ratio, import ratio, the variance of export revenue and domestic money supply growth.[13] The likelihood of rescheduling is a decreasing function of investment ratio due to future economic productivity gains. Debt rescheduling likelihood can increase if the investment ratio rises as the foreign country could become less dependent on its external creditors and so be less concerned about receiving credit from these countries/investors.[14]","title":"Assessment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"settlement risk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Settlement_risk"},{"link_name":"counterparty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterparty"},{"link_name":"bond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_(finance)"},{"link_name":"derivative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative_(finance)"},{"link_name":"insurance policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance_policy"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"hedge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedge_(finance)"},{"link_name":"credit insurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_derivative"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"capital requirement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_requirement"},{"link_name":"standardized approach for counterparty credit risk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardized_approach_(counterparty_credit_risk)"},{"link_name":"asset class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asset_class"},{"link_name":"hedging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedge_(finance)"},{"link_name":"margined","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margin_(finance)"},{"link_name":"netting benefits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISDA_Master_Agreement#Netting"}],"sub_title":"Counterparty risk","text":"A counterparty risk, also known as a settlement risk or counterparty credit risk (CCR), is a risk that a counterparty will not pay as obligated on a bond, derivative, insurance policy, or other contract.[15] \nFinancial institutions or other transaction counterparties may hedge or take out credit insurance or, particularly in the context of derivatives, require the posting of collateral. \nOffsetting counterparty risk is not always possible, e.g. because of temporary liquidity issues or longer-term systemic reasons.[16] \nFurther, counterparty risk increases due to positively correlated risk factors; accounting for this correlation between portfolio risk factors and counterparty default in risk management methodology is not trivial.[17][18]The capital requirement here is calculated using SA-CCR, the standardized approach for counterparty credit risk. This framework replaced both non-internal model approaches - Current Exposure Method (CEM) and Standardised Method (SM). It is a \"risk-sensitive methodology\", i.e. conscious of asset class and hedging, that differentiates between margined and non-margined trades and recognizes netting benefits; issues insufficiently addressed under the preceding frameworks.","title":"Assessment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"interest rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interest_rate"},{"link_name":"risk-based pricing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk-based_pricing"},{"link_name":"loan purpose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loan_purpose"},{"link_name":"credit rating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_rating"},{"link_name":"loan-to-value ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loan-to-value_ratio"},{"link_name":"credit spread","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_spread_(bond)"},{"link_name":"covenants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loan_covenant"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"dividends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dividend"},{"link_name":"repurchasing shares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Share_repurchase"},{"link_name":"debt-to-equity ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debt-to-equity_ratio"},{"link_name":"interest coverage ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times_interest_earned"},{"link_name":"bond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_(finance)"},{"link_name":"hedge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedge_(finance)#Hedging_credit_risk"},{"link_name":"credit derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_derivatives"},{"link_name":"credit default swap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_default_swap"},{"link_name":"distributor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribution_(business)"},{"link_name":"retailer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retailer"},{"link_name":"unsystematic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_risk#Unsystematic_risk"},{"link_name":"concentration risk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_risk"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"diversifying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diversification_(finance)"},{"link_name":"deposit insurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposit_insurance"}],"text":"Lenders mitigate credit risk in a number of ways, including:Risk-based pricing – Lenders may charge a higher interest rate to borrowers who are more likely to default, a practice called risk-based pricing. Lenders consider factors relating to the loan such as loan purpose, credit rating, and loan-to-value ratio and estimates the effect on yield (credit spread).\nCovenants – Lenders may write stipulations on the borrower, called covenants, into loan agreements, such as:[19]\nPeriodically report its financial condition,\nRefrain from paying dividends, repurchasing shares, borrowing further, or other specific, voluntary actions that negatively affect the company's financial position, and\nRepay the loan in full, at the lender's request, in certain events such as changes in the borrower's debt-to-equity ratio or interest coverage ratio.\nCredit insurance and credit derivatives – Lenders and bond holders may hedge their credit risk by purchasing credit insurance or credit derivatives. These contracts transfer the risk from the lender to the seller (insurer) in exchange for payment. The most common credit derivative is the credit default swap.\nTightening – Lenders can reduce credit risk by reducing the amount of credit extended, either in total or to certain borrowers. For example, a distributor selling its products to a troubled retailer may attempt to lessen credit risk by reducing payment terms from net 30 to net 15.\nDiversification – Lenders to a small number of borrowers (or kinds of borrower) face a high degree of unsystematic credit risk, called concentration risk.[20] Lenders reduce this risk by diversifying the borrower pool.\nDeposit insurance – Governments may establish deposit insurance to guarantee bank deposits in the event of insolvency and to encourage consumers to hold their savings in the banking system instead of in cash.","title":"Mitigation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Counterparty Credit Risk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterparty_credit_risk"},{"link_name":"Credit Exposure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_Exposure"},{"link_name":"Credit valuation adjustment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_valuation_adjustment"},{"link_name":"XVA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XVA"},{"link_name":"Exposure at default","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_at_default"},{"link_name":"Expected Exposure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_future_exposure#Expected_exposure"},{"link_name":"Expected loss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expected_loss"},{"link_name":"reference entity suddenly defaults","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_default_swap#Risk"},{"link_name":"Loss given default","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_given_default"},{"link_name":"Probability of default","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_of_default"},{"link_name":"Potential future exposure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_future_exposure"},{"link_name":"The Standardised Approach to Counterparty Credit Risk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardized_approach_(counterparty_credit_risk)"},{"link_name":"Value at risk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_at_risk"}],"text":"ACPM Active credit portfolio management [21]\nCCR Counterparty Credit Risk\nCE Credit Exposure\nCVA Credit valuation adjustment\nDVA Debit Valuation Adjustment – see XVA\nEAD Exposure at default\nEE Expected Exposure\nEL Expected loss\nJTD - Jump-to-default, where the reference entity suddenly defaults\nLGD Loss given default\nPD Probability of default\nPFE Potential future exposure\nSA-CCR The Standardised Approach to Counterparty Credit Risk\nVAR Value at risk","title":"Related Initialisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-58488-326-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58488-326-5"},{"link_name":"Damiano Brigo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damiano_Brigo"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-904339-76-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904339-76-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-981-125-235-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-125-235-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-07-141755-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-141755-6"},{"link_name":"Darrell Duffie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darrell_Duffie"},{"link_name":"Kenneth J. Singleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_J._Singleton"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-691-09046-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-09046-7"},{"link_name":"Principles for the management of credit risk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.bis.org/publ/bcbs75.htm"}],"text":"Bluhm, Christian; Ludger Overbeck & Christoph Wagner (2002). An Introduction to Credit Risk Modeling. Chapman & Hall/CRC. ISBN 978-1-58488-326-5.\nDamiano Brigo and Massimo Masetti (2006). Risk Neutral Pricing of Counterparty Risk, in: Pykhtin, M. (Editor), Counterparty Credit Risk Modeling: Risk Management, Pricing and Regulation. Risk Books. ISBN 978-1-904339-76-2.\nOrlando, Giuseppe; Bufalo Michele; Penikas Henry; Zurlo Concetta (2022). Modern Financial Engineering: Counterparty, Credit, Portfolio and Systemic Risks. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-125-235-8.\nde Servigny, Arnaud; Olivier Renault (2004). The Standard & Poor's Guide to Measuring and Managing Credit Risk. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-141755-6.\nDarrell Duffie and Kenneth J. Singleton (2003). Credit Risk: Pricing, Measurement, and Management. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09046-7.\nPrinciples for the management of credit risk from the Bank for International Settlements","title":"Further reading"}]	[]	[{"title":"Credit (finance)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_(finance)"},{"title":"Credit spread curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_spread_curve"},{"title":"Criticism of credit scoring systems in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_credit_scoring_systems_in_the_United_States"},{"title":"CS01","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CS01"},{"title":"Default (finance)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Default_(finance)"},{"title":"Distressed securities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distressed_securities"},{"title":"Jarrow–Turnbull model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jarrow%E2%80%93Turnbull_model"},{"title":"KMV model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KMV_model"},{"title":"Merton model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merton_model"}]	[{"reference":"\"Principles for the Management of Credit Risk – final document\". Basel Committee on Banking Supervision. BIS. September 2000. Retrieved 13 December 2013. Credit risk is most simply defined as the potential that a bank borrower or counterparty will fail to meet its obligations in accordance with agreed terms.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bis.org/publ/bcbs75.htm","url_text":"\"Principles for the Management of Credit Risk – final document\""}]},{"reference":"\"Huang and Scott: Credit Risk Scorecard Design, Validation and User Acceptance\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-02. Retrieved 2011-09-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120402191742/http://www.crc.man.ed.ac.uk/conference/archive/2007/papers/huang-and-scott.pdf","url_text":"\"Huang and Scott: Credit Risk Scorecard Design, Validation and User Acceptance\""},{"url":"http://www.crc.man.ed.ac.uk/conference/archive/2007/papers/huang-and-scott.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Edelman: Risk-based pricing for personal loans\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-02. Retrieved 2011-09-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120402191751/http://www.crc.man.ed.ac.uk/conference/archive/2003/presentations/edelman.pdf","url_text":"\"Edelman: Risk-based pricing for personal loans\""},{"url":"http://www.crc.man.ed.ac.uk/conference/archive/2003/presentations/edelman.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Jarrow, R. A.; Lando, D.; Turnbull, S. M. (1997). \"A Markov Model for the Term Structure of Credit Risk Spreads\". Review of Financial Studies. 10 (2): 481–523. doi:10.1093/rfs/10.2.481. ISSN 0893-9454. S2CID 154117131.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Frfs%2F10.2.481","url_text":"10.1093/rfs/10.2.481"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0893-9454","url_text":"0893-9454"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154117131","url_text":"154117131"}]},{"reference":"Cary L. Cooper; Derek F. Channon (1998). The Concise Blackwell Encyclopedia of Management. ISBN 978-0-631-20911-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/conciseblackwell0000unse","url_text":"The Concise Blackwell Encyclopedia of Management"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20911-9","url_text":"978-0-631-20911-9"}]},{"reference":"Frenkel, Karmann and Scholtens (2004). Sovereign Risk and Financial Crises. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-22248-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-22248-4","url_text":"978-3-540-22248-4"}]},{"reference":"Cornett, Marcia Millon; Saunders, Anthony (2006). Financial Institutions Management: A Risk Management Approach, 5th Edition. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-304667-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_management","url_text":"Financial Institutions Management: A Risk Management Approach, 5th Edition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-304667-9","url_text":"978-0-07-304667-9"}]},{"reference":"Brigo, Damiano; Andrea Pallavicini (2007). Counterparty Risk under Correlation between Default and Interest Rates. In: Miller, J., Edelman, D., and Appleby, J. (Editors), Numerical Methods for Finance. Chapman Hall. ISBN 978-1-58488-925-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58488-925-0","url_text":"978-1-58488-925-0"}]},{"reference":"Orlando, Giuseppe; Bufalo, Michele; Penikas, Henry; Zurlo, Concetta (2021-10-28), \"Distributions Commonly Used in Credit and Counterparty Risk Modeling\", Modern Financial Engineering, Topics in Systems Engineering, vol. 2, WORLD SCIENTIFIC, pp. 3–23, doi:10.1142/9789811252365_0001, ISBN 978-981-12-5235-8, S2CID 245970287, retrieved 2022-04-10","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/10.1142/9789811252365_0001","url_text":"\"Distributions Commonly Used in Credit and Counterparty Risk Modeling\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1142%2F9789811252365_0001","url_text":"10.1142/9789811252365_0001"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-12-5235-8","url_text":"978-981-12-5235-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245970287","url_text":"245970287"}]},{"reference":"Bluhm, Christian; Ludger Overbeck & Christoph Wagner (2002). An Introduction to Credit Risk Modeling. Chapman & Hall/CRC. ISBN 978-1-58488-326-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58488-326-5","url_text":"978-1-58488-326-5"}]},{"reference":"Damiano Brigo and Massimo Masetti (2006). Risk Neutral Pricing of Counterparty Risk, in: Pykhtin, M. (Editor), Counterparty Credit Risk Modeling: Risk Management, Pricing and Regulation. Risk Books. ISBN 978-1-904339-76-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damiano_Brigo","url_text":"Damiano Brigo"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904339-76-2","url_text":"978-1-904339-76-2"}]},{"reference":"Orlando, Giuseppe; Bufalo Michele; Penikas Henry; Zurlo Concetta (2022). Modern Financial Engineering: Counterparty, Credit, Portfolio and Systemic Risks. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-125-235-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-125-235-8","url_text":"978-981-125-235-8"}]},{"reference":"de Servigny, Arnaud; Olivier Renault (2004). The Standard & Poor's Guide to Measuring and Managing Credit Risk. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-141755-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-141755-6","url_text":"978-0-07-141755-6"}]},{"reference":"Darrell Duffie and Kenneth J. Singleton (2003). Credit Risk: Pricing, Measurement, and Management. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09046-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darrell_Duffie","url_text":"Darrell Duffie"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_J._Singleton","url_text":"Kenneth J. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Ultra_Path_Interconnect	Intel Ultra Path Interconnect	["1 Interconnect","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]	Processor interconnect bus The Intel Ultra Path Interconnect (UPI) is a point-to-point processor interconnect developed by Intel which replaced the Intel QuickPath Interconnect (QPI) in Xeon Skylake-SP platforms starting in 2017. Interconnect UPI is a low-latency coherent interconnect for scalable multiprocessor systems with a shared address space. It uses a directory-based home snoop coherency protocol with a transfer speed of up to 10.4 GT/s. Supporting processors typically have two or three UPI links. Comparing to QPI, it improves power efficiency with a new low-power state, improves transfer efficiency with a new packetization format, and improves scalability with protocol layer that does not require preallocation of resources. UPI only supports directory-based coherency, unlike previous QPI processors which supported multiple snoop modes (no snoop, early snoop, home snoop, and directory). A combined caching and home agent (CHA) handles resolution of coherency across multiple processors, as well as snoop requests from processor cores and local and remote agents. Separate physical CHAs are placed within each processor core and last level cache (LLC) bank to improve scalability according to the number of cores, memory controllers, or the sub-NUMA clustering mode. The address space is interleaved across different CHAs, which act like a single logical agent. See also HyperTransport Front-side bus References ^ David Mulnix (September 14, 2017). "Intel® Xeon® Processor Scalable Family Technical Overview". Intel Corporation. Retrieved September 17, 2017. ^ "The Mesh Topology & UPI - Intel Xeon Platinum 8176 Scalable Processor Review". 11 July 2017. External links Intel® Xeon® Processor Scalable Family Technical Overview vteIntel technologyPlatforms Centrino Centrino 2 Viiv MID Tablet CULV Ultrabook Skulltrail NUC Galileo Edison Curie Evo Discontinued Common Building Block MultiProcessor Specification Intel Communication Streaming Architecture Intel Inboard 386 Intel Play MMC-1 MMC-2 Current Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller CNVi Intel Turbo Boost vPro Intel Secure Key Intel Management Engine Active Management Technology AMT versions High-bandwidth Digital Content Protection High Definition Audio Hub Architecture Rapid Storage Technology SpeedStep Serial Digital Video Out Host Embedded Controller Interface Hyper-threading Omni-Path Platform Environment Control Interface QuickPath Interconnect Platform Controller Hub System Management Bus Thunderbolt Ultra Path Interconnect Upcoming Silicon Photonics Link vteTechnical and de facto standards for wired computer busesGeneral System bus Front-side bus Back-side bus Daisy chain Control bus Address bus Bus contention Bus mastering Network on a chip Plug and play List of bus bandwidths Standards SS-50 bus S-100 bus Multibus Unibus VAXBI MBus STD Bus SMBus Q-Bus Europe Card Bus ISA STEbus Zorro II Zorro III CAMAC FASTBUS LPC HP Precision Bus EISA VME VXI VXS NuBus TURBOchannel MCA SBus VLB HP GSC bus InfiniBand Ethernet UPA PCI PCI Extended (PCI-X) PXI PCI Express (PCIe) AGP Compute Express Link (CXL) Direct Media Interface (DMI) RapidIO Intel QuickPath Interconnect NVLink HyperTransport Infinity Fabric Intel Ultra Path Interconnect Coherent Accelerator Processor Interface (CAPI) SpaceWire Storage ST-506 ESDI IPI SMD Parallel ATA (PATA) Bus and Tag DSSI HIPPI Serial ATA (SATA) SCSI Parallel SAS ESCON Fibre Channel SSA SATAe PCI Express (via AHCI or NVMe logical device interface) Peripheral Apple Desktop Bus Atari SIO DCB Commodore bus HP-IL HIL MIDI RS-232 RS-422 RS-423 RS-485 Lightning DMX512-A IEEE-488 (GPIB) IEEE-1284 (parallel port) IEEE-1394 (FireWire) UNI/O 1-Wire I²C (ACCESS.bus, PMBus, SMBus) I3C SPI D²B Parallel SCSI Profibus USB Camera Link External PCIe Thunderbolt Audio ADAT Lightpipe AES3 Intel HD Audio I²S MADI McASP S/PDIF TOSLINK Portable PC Card ExpressCard Embedded Multidrop bus CoreConnect AMBA (AXI) Wishbone SLIMbus Interfaces are listed by their speed in the (roughly) ascending order, so the interface at the end of each section should be the fastest. Category	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Intel_QPI-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor"},{"link_name":"interconnect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_connection"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"Intel QuickPath Interconnect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_QuickPath_Interconnect"},{"link_name":"Xeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeon"},{"link_name":"Skylake-SP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylake-SP"}],"text":"The Intel Ultra Path Interconnect (UPI)[1][2] is a point-to-point processor interconnect developed by Intel which replaced the Intel QuickPath Interconnect (QPI) in Xeon Skylake-SP platforms starting in 2017.","title":"Intel Ultra Path Interconnect"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"low-latency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-latency"},{"link_name":"coherent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_coherence"},{"link_name":"multiprocessor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiprocessor"},{"link_name":"address space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space"},{"link_name":"directory-based","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_coherence#Directory-based"},{"link_name":"snoop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus_snooping"},{"link_name":"GT/s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GT/s"},{"link_name":"last level cache (LLC)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_cache"},{"link_name":"NUMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-uniform_memory_access"}],"text":"UPI is a low-latency coherent interconnect for scalable multiprocessor systems with a shared address space. It uses a directory-based home snoop coherency protocol with a transfer speed of up to 10.4 GT/s. Supporting processors typically have two or three UPI links.Comparing to QPI, it improves power efficiency with a new low-power state, improves transfer efficiency with a new packetization format, and improves scalability with protocol layer that does not require preallocation of resources.UPI only supports directory-based coherency, unlike previous QPI processors which supported multiple snoop modes (no snoop, early snoop, home snoop, and directory).A combined caching and home agent (CHA) handles resolution of coherency across multiple processors, as well as snoop requests from processor cores and local and remote agents. Separate physical CHAs are placed within each processor core and last level cache (LLC) bank to improve scalability according to the number of cores, memory controllers, or the sub-NUMA clustering mode. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryote	Prokaryote	["1 History","2 Structure","3 Morphology","4 Reproduction","5 DNA transfer","6 Sociality","7 Environment","8 Classification","8.1 Phylogenetic tree","9 Evolution","10 Relationship to eukaryotes","11 Prokaryotes may be split into two groups","12 See also","13 References","14 External links"]	Unicellular organism lacking a membrane-bound nucleus Diagram of a typical prokaryotic cell A prokaryote (/proʊˈkærioʊt, -ət/, less commonly spelled procaryote) is a single-cell organism whose cell lacks a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. The word prokaryote comes from the Ancient Greek πρό (pró) 'before' and κάρυον (káruon) 'nut, kernel'. In the two-empire system arising from the work of Édouard Chatton, prokaryotes were classified within the empire Prokaryota. But in the three-domain system, based upon molecular analysis, prokaryotes are divided into two domains: Bacteria (formerly Eubacteria) and Archaea (formerly Archaebacteria). Organisms with nuclei are placed in a third domain, Eukaryota. Prokaryotes evolved before eukaryotes, and lack nuclei, mitochondria or most of the other distinct organelles that characterize the eukaryotic cell. It was once thought that prokaryotic cellular components were unenclosed within the cytoplasm except for an outer cell membrane, but bacterial microcompartments, which are thought to be quasi-organelles enclosed in protein shells (such as the encapsulin protein cages), have been discovered, along with other prokaryotic organelles. While being unicellular, some prokaryotes, such as cyanobacteria, may form colonies held together by biofilms, and large colonies can create multilayered microbial mats. Others, such as myxobacteria, have multicellular stages in their life cycles. Prokaryotes are asexual, reproducing via binary fission without any fusion of gametes, although horizontal gene transfer may take place. Molecular studies have provided insight into the evolution and interrelationships of the three domains of life. The division between prokaryotes and eukaryotes reflects the existence of two very different levels of cellular organization; only eukaryotic cells have an enveloped nucleus that contains its chromosomal DNA, and other characteristic membrane-bound organelles including mitochondria. Distinctive types of prokaryotes include extremophiles and methanogens; these are common in some extreme environments. History The distinction between prokaryotes and eukaryotes was firmly established by the microbiologists Roger Stanier and C. B. van Niel in their 1962 paper The concept of a bacterium (though spelled procaryote and eucaryote there). That paper cites Édouard Chatton's 1937 book Titres et Travaux Scientifiques for using those terms and recognizing the distinction. One reason for this classification was so that what was then often called blue-green algae (now called cyanobacteria) would not be classified as plants but grouped with bacteria. Structure Further information: Bacterial cell structure and Archaea § Structure, composition development, and operation Prokaryotes have a prokaryotic cytoskeleton that is more primitive than that of the eukaryotes. Besides homologues of actin and tubulin (MreB and FtsZ), the helically arranged building-block of the flagellum, flagellin, is one of the most significant cytoskeletal proteins of bacteria, as it provides structural backgrounds of chemotaxis, the basic cell physiological response of bacteria. At least some prokaryotes also contain intracellular structures that can be seen as primitive organelles. Membranous organelles (or intracellular membranes) are known in some groups of prokaryotes, such as vacuoles or membrane systems devoted to special metabolic properties, such as photosynthesis or chemolithotrophy. In addition, some species also contain carbohydrate-enclosed microcompartments, which have distinct physiological roles (e.g. carboxysomes or gas vacuoles). Most prokaryotes are between 1 μm and 10 μm, but they can vary in size from 0.2 μm (Mycoplasma genitalium) to 750 μm (Thiomargarita namibiensis). Prokaryotic cell structure Description Flagellum (not always present) Long, whip-like protrusion that aids cellular locomotion used by both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Cell membrane Surrounds the cell's cytoplasm and regulates the flow of substances in and out of the cell. Cell wall (except genera Mycoplasma and Thermoplasma) Outer covering of most cells that protects the bacterial cell and gives it shape. Cytoplasm A gel-like substance composed mainly of water that also contains enzymes, salts, cell components, and various organic molecules. Ribosome Cell structures responsible for protein production. Nucleoid Area of the cytoplasm that contains the prokaryote's single DNA molecule. Glycocalyx (only in some types of prokaryotes) A glycoprotein-polysaccharide covering that surrounds the cell membranes. Cytoplasmic inclusions The inclusions such as ribosomes and larger masses scattered in the cytoplasmic matrix. Morphology Prokaryotic cells have various shapes; the four basic shapes of bacteria are: Cocci – A bacterium that is spherical or ovoid is called a coccus (Plural, cocci). e.g. Streptococcus, Staphylococcus. Bacilli – A bacterium with cylindrical shape called rod or a bacillus (Plural, bacilli). Spiral bacteria – Some rods twist into spiral shapes and are called spirilla (singular, spirillum). Vibrio – comma-shaped The archaeon Haloquadratum has flat square-shaped cells. Reproduction Bacteria and archaea reproduce through asexual reproduction, usually by binary fission. Genetic exchange and recombination still occur, but this is a form of horizontal gene transfer and is not a replicative process, simply involving the transference of DNA between two cells, as in bacterial conjugation. DNA transfer DNA transfer between prokaryotic cells occurs in bacteria and archaea, although it has been mainly studied in bacteria. In bacteria, gene transfer occurs by three processes. These are (1) bacterial virus (bacteriophage)-mediated transduction, (2) plasmid-mediated conjugation, and (3) natural transformation. Transduction of bacterial genes by bacteriophage appears to reflect an occasional error during intracellular assembly of virus particles, rather than an adaptation of the host bacteria. The transfer of bacterial DNA is under the control of the bacteriophage's genes rather than bacterial genes. Conjugation in the well-studied E. coli system is controlled by plasmid genes, and is an adaptation for distributing copies of a plasmid from one bacterial host to another. Infrequently during this process, a plasmid may integrate into the host bacterial chromosome, and subsequently transfer part of the host bacterial DNA to another bacterium. Plasmid mediated transfer of host bacterial DNA (conjugation) also appears to be an accidental process rather than a bacterial adaptation. 3D animation of a prokaryotic cell that shows all the elements that it is composed of Natural bacterial transformation involves the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another through the intervening medium. Unlike transduction and conjugation, transformation is clearly a bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer, because it depends on numerous bacterial gene products that specifically interact to perform this complex process. For a bacterium to bind, take up and recombine donor DNA into its own chromosome, it must first enter a special physiological state called competence. About 40 genes are required in Bacillus subtilis for the development of competence. The length of DNA transferred during B. subtilis transformation can be as much as a third to the whole chromosome. Transformation is a common mode of DNA transfer, and 67 prokaryotic species are thus far known to be naturally competent for transformation. Among archaea, Halobacterium volcanii forms cytoplasmic bridges between cells that appear to be used for transfer of DNA from one cell to another. Another archaeon, Sulfolobus solfataricus, transfers DNA between cells by direct contact. Frols et al. (2008) found that exposure of S. solfataricus to DNA damaging agents induces cellular aggregation, and suggested that cellular aggregation may enhance DNA transfer among cells to provide increased repair of damaged DNA via homologous recombination. Sociality While prokaryotes are considered strictly unicellular, most can form stable aggregate communities. When such communities are encased in a stabilizing polymer matrix ("slime"), they may be called "biofilms". Cells in biofilms often show distinct patterns of gene expression (phenotypic differentiation) in time and space. Also, as with multicellular eukaryotes, these changes in expression often appear to result from cell-to-cell signaling, a phenomenon known as quorum sensing. Biofilms may be highly heterogeneous and structurally complex and may attach to solid surfaces, or exist at liquid-air interfaces, or potentially even liquid-liquid interfaces. Bacterial biofilms are often made up of microcolonies (approximately dome-shaped masses of bacteria and matrix) separated by "voids" through which the medium (e.g., water) may flow easily. The microcolonies may join together above the substratum to form a continuous layer, closing the network of channels separating microcolonies. This structural complexity—combined with observations that oxygen limitation (a ubiquitous challenge for anything growing in size beyond the scale of diffusion) is at least partially eased by movement of medium throughout the biofilm—has led some to speculate that this may constitute a circulatory system and many researchers have started calling prokaryotic communities multicellular (for example ). Differential cell expression, collective behavior, signaling, programmed cell death, and (in some cases) discrete biological dispersal events all seem to point in this direction. However, these colonies are seldom if ever founded by a single founder (in the way that animals and plants are founded by single cells), which presents a number of theoretical issues. Most explanations of co-operation and the evolution of multicellularity have focused on high relatedness between members of a group (or colony, or whole organism). If a copy of a gene is present in all members of a group, behaviors that promote cooperation between members may permit those members to have (on average) greater fitness than a similar group of selfish individuals (see inclusive fitness and Hamilton's rule). Should these instances of prokaryotic sociality prove to be the rule rather than the exception, it would have serious implications for the way we view prokaryotes in general, and the way we deal with them in medicine. Bacterial biofilms may be 100 times more resistant to antibiotics than free-living unicells and may be nearly impossible to remove from surfaces once they have colonized them. Other aspects of bacterial cooperation—such as bacterial conjugation and quorum-sensing-mediated pathogenicity, present additional challenges to researchers and medical professionals seeking to treat the associated diseases. Environment Phylogenetic ring showing the diversity of prokaryotes, and symbiogenetic origins of eukaryotes Prokaryotes have diversified greatly throughout their long existence. The metabolism of prokaryotes is far more varied than that of eukaryotes, leading to many highly distinct prokaryotic types. For example, in addition to using photosynthesis or organic compounds for energy, as eukaryotes do, prokaryotes may obtain energy from inorganic compounds such as hydrogen sulfide. This enables prokaryotes to thrive in harsh environments as cold as the snow surface of Antarctica, studied in cryobiology, or as hot as undersea hydrothermal vents and land-based hot springs. Prokaryotes live in nearly all environments on Earth. Some archaea and bacteria are extremophiles, thriving in harsh conditions, such as high temperatures (thermophiles) or high salinity (halophiles). Many archaea grow as plankton in the oceans. Symbiotic prokaryotes live in or on the bodies of other organisms, including humans. Prokaryote have high populations in the soil - including the rhizosphere and rhizosheath. Soil prokaryotes are still heavily undercharacterized despite their easy proximity to humans and their tremendous economic importance to agriculture. Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, showing the origins of eukaryotes and prokaryotes Classification In 1977, Carl Woese proposed dividing prokaryotes into the Bacteria and Archaea (originally Eubacteria and Archaebacteria) because of the major differences in the structure and genetics between the two groups of organisms. Archaea were originally thought to be extremophiles, living only in inhospitable conditions such as extremes of temperature, pH, and radiation but have since been found in all types of habitats. The resulting arrangement of Eukaryota (also called "Eucarya"), Bacteria, and Archaea is called the three-domain system, replacing the traditional two-empire system. Phylogenetic tree According to the phylogenetic analysis of Hug (2016), the relationships could be the following: Phylogenetic tree showing the diversity of prokaryote. Evolution Main article: Molecular evolution Diagram of the origin of life with the Eukaryotes appearing early, not derived from Prokaryotes, as proposed by Richard Egel in 2012. This view, one of many on the relative positions of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes, implies that the universal common ancestor was relatively large and complex. A widespread current model of the evolution of the first living organisms is that these were some form of prokaryotes, which may have evolved out of protocells, while the eukaryotes evolved later in the history of life. Some authors have questioned this conclusion, arguing that the current set of prokaryotic species may have evolved from more complex eukaryotic ancestors through a process of simplification. Others have argued that the three domains of life arose simultaneously, from a set of varied cells that formed a single gene pool. This controversy was summarized in 2005: There is no consensus among biologists concerning the position of the eukaryotes in the overall scheme of cell evolution. Current opinions on the origin and position of eukaryotes span a broad spectrum including the views that eukaryotes arose first in evolution and that prokaryotes descend from them, that eukaryotes arose contemporaneously with eubacteria and archaebacteria and hence represent a primary line of descent of equal age and rank as the prokaryotes, that eukaryotes arose through a symbiotic event entailing an endosymbiotic origin of the nucleus, that eukaryotes arose without endosymbiosis, and that eukaryotes arose through a symbiotic event entailing a simultaneous endosymbiotic origin of the flagellum and the nucleus, in addition to many other models, which have been reviewed and summarized elsewhere. The oldest known fossilized prokaryotes were laid down approximately 3.5 billion years ago, only about 1 billion years after the formation of the Earth's crust. Eukaryotes only appear in the fossil record later, and may have formed from endosymbiosis of multiple prokaryote ancestors. The oldest known fossil eukaryotes are about 1.7 billion years old. However, some genetic evidence suggests eukaryotes appeared as early as 3 billion years ago. While Earth is the only place in the universe where life is known to exist, some have suggested that there is evidence on Mars of fossil or living prokaryotes. However, this possibility remains the subject of considerable debate and skepticism. Relationship to eukaryotes Comparison of eukaryotes vs. prokaryotes The division between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is usually considered the most important distinction or difference among organisms. The distinction is that eukaryotic cells have a "true" nucleus containing their DNA, whereas prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus. Both eukaryotes and prokaryotes contain large RNA/protein structures called ribosomes, which produce protein, but the ribosomes of prokaryotes are smaller than those of eukaryotes. Mitochondria and chloroplasts, two organelles found in many eukaryotic cells, contain ribosomes similar in size and makeup to those found in prokaryotes. This is one of many pieces of evidence that mitochondria and chloroplasts are descended from free-living bacteria. The endosymbiotic theory holds that early eukaryotic cells took in primitive prokaryotic cells by phagocytosis and adapted themselves to incorporate their structures, leading to the mitochondria and chloroplasts. The genome in a prokaryote is held within a DNA/protein complex in the cytosol called the nucleoid, which lacks a nuclear envelope. The complex contains a single, cyclic, double-stranded molecule of stable chromosomal DNA, in contrast to the multiple linear, compact, highly organized chromosomes found in eukaryotic cells. In addition, many important genes of prokaryotes are stored in separate circular DNA structures called plasmids. Like Eukaryotes, prokaryotes may partially duplicate genetic material, and can have a haploid chromosomal composition that is partially replicated, a condition known as merodiploidy. Prokaryotes lack mitochondria and chloroplasts. Instead, processes such as oxidative phosphorylation and photosynthesis take place across the prokaryotic cell membrane. However, prokaryotes do possess some internal structures, such as prokaryotic cytoskeletons. It has been suggested that the bacterial phylum Planctomycetota has a membrane around the nucleoid and contains other membrane-bound cellular structures. However, further investigation revealed that Planctomycetota cells are not compartmentalized or nucleated and, like other bacterial membrane systems, are interconnected. Prokaryotic cells are usually much smaller than eukaryotic cells. Therefore, prokaryotes have a larger surface-area-to-volume ratio, giving them a higher metabolic rate, a higher growth rate, and as a consequence, a shorter generation time than eukaryotes. Phylogenetic tree showing the diversity of prokaryotes. This 2018 proposal shows eukaryotes emerging from the archaean Asgard group which represents a modern version of the eocyte hypothesis. Unlike earlier assumptions, the division between bacteria and the rest is the most important difference between organisms. There is increasing evidence that the roots of the eukaryotes are to be found in (or at least next to) the archaean asgard group, perhaps Heimdallarchaeota (an idea which is a modern version of the 1984 eocyte hypothesis, eocytes being an old synonym for Thermoproteota, a taxon to be found nearby the then-unknown Asgard group). For example, histones which usually package DNA in eukaryotic nuclei, have also been found in several archaean groups, giving evidence for homology. This idea might clarify the mysterious predecessor of eukaryotic cells (eucytes) which engulfed an alphaproteobacterium forming the first eucyte (LECA, last eukaryotic common ancestor) according to endosymbiotic theory. There might have been some additional support by viruses, called viral eukaryogenesis. The non-bacterial group comprising archaea and eukaryota was called Neomura by Thomas Cavalier-Smith in 2002. However, in a cladistic view, eukaryota are archaea in the same sense as birds are dinosaurs because they evolved from the maniraptora dinosaur group. In contrast, archaea without eukaryota appear to be a paraphyletic group, just like dinosaurs without birds. Prokaryotes may be split into two groups Unlike the above assumption of a fundamental split between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, the most important difference between biota may be the division between bacteria and the rest (archaea and eukaryota). For instance, DNA replication differs fundamentally between bacteria and archaea (including that in eukaryotic nuclei), and it may not be homologous between these two groups. Moreover, ATP synthase, though common (homologous) in all organisms, differs greatly between bacteria (including eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts) and the archaea/eukaryote nucleus group. The last common antecessor of all life (called LUCA, last universal common ancestor) should have possessed an early version of this protein complex. As ATP synthase is obligate membrane bound, this supports the assumption that LUCA was a cellular organism. The RNA world hypothesis might clarify this scenario, as LUCA might have been a ribocyte (also called ribocell) lacking DNA, but with an RNA genome built by ribosomes as primordial self-replicating entities. A Peptide-RNA world (also called RNP world) hypothesis has been proposed based on the idea that oligopeptides may have been built together with primordial nucleic acids at the same time, which also supports the concept of a ribocyte as LUCA. The feature of DNA as the material base of the genome might have then been adopted separately in bacteria and in archaea (and later eukaryote nuclei), presumably by help of some viruses (possibly retroviruses as they could reverse transcribe RNA to DNA). As a result, prokaryota comprising bacteria and archaea may also be polyphyletic. See also Biology portal Actinonin Bacterial cell structure Combrex Evolution of cells Evolution of sexual reproduction List of sequenced archaeal genomes List of sequenced bacterial genomes Marine prokaryotes Monera, an obsolete kingdom including Archaea and Bacteria Nanobacterium Nanobe Parakaryon myojinensis ProGlycProt References ^ "Definition of PROCARYOTE". www.merriam-webster.com. 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Prokaryote versus eukaryote, BioMineWiki Archived 2012-10-25 at the Wayback Machine The Taxonomic Outline of Bacteria and Archaea The Prokaryote-Eukaryote Dichotomy: Meanings and Mythology Quiz on prokaryote anatomy TOLWEB page on Eukaryote-Prokaryote phylogeny This article incorporates public domain material from Science Primer. NCBI. Archived from the original on 2009-12-08. vteProkaryotes: Bacteria classification Domain Archaea Bacteria Eukaryota (major groups Excavata Diaphoretickes Hacrobia Rhizaria Alveolata Stramenopiles Plants Amorphea Amoebozoa Opisthokonta Animals Fungi) TerrabacteriaBV1, BV3, BV5others Actinomycetota Acidimicrobiia Actinomycetia "Aquicultoria" Coriobacteriia "Geothermincolia" "Humimicrobiia" Rubrobacteria Thermoleophilia "Bipolaricaulota" "Bipolaricaulia" Chloroflexota "Caldilineia" Chloroflexia Dehalococcoidia Ktedonobacteria "Limnocylindria" Deinococcota "Deinococcia" "Dormiibacterota" "Dormibacteria" Armatimonadota "Abditibacteriia" Armatimonadia Chthonomonadia Fimbriimonadia "Heboniibacteriia" "Zipacnadia" "Eremiobacterota" "Eudoremicrobiia" "Xenobiia" "Eremiobacteria" Cyanoprokaryota Cyanobacteriota Cyanobacteria "Sericytochromatia" "Vampirovibrionophyceae" "Margulisiibacteriota" "Marinamargulisbacteria" "Riflemargulisbacteria" "Saganbacteria" "Termititenacia" FirmicutesBV3Low GC Bacillota "Bacillia" Bacillota A "Clostridiia" "Thermoanaerobacteria" "Thermosediminibacteria" Bacillota D "Dethiobacteria" "Natranaerobiia" "Proteinivoracia" Bacillota E "Sulfobacillia" "Symbiobacteriia" "Thermaerobacteria" Bacillota G "Hydrogenisporia" Limnochordia "Desulfotomaculota" "Carboxydocellia" "Carboxydothermia" "Dehalobacteriia" "Desulfitobacteriia" "Desulfotomaculia" "Moorellia" "Peptococcia" "Syntrophomonadia" "Thermincolia" "Halanaerobiaeota" "Halanaerobiia" "Selenobacteria" "Selenomonadia" CPR group "Elulota" "Elulimicrobia" "Patescibacteria" ABY1 "Absconditabacteria" "Andersenbacteria" "Berkelbacteria" "Dojkabacteria" "Doudnabacteria" "Gracilibacteria" "Howlettbacteria" "Katanobacteria" "Kazanbacteria" "Microgenomatia" "Paceibacteria" "Saccharimonadia" "Torokbacteria" "Wirthbacteria" ThermotogidaSynergistetes Atribacterota Atribacteria Synergistota Synergistia Thermocalda Caldisericota Caldisericia Coprothermobacterota Coprothermobacteria Dictyoglomerota Dictyoglomeria "Lithacetigenota" "Lithacetigenia" "Thermodesulfobiota" "Thermodesulfobiia" Thermotogota "Thermotogia" Fusobacterida Fusobacteriota Fusobacteriia "Macinerneyibacteriota" "Macinerneyibacteriia" "Muiribacteriota" "Muiribacteriia" "Rifleibacteriota" "Ozemibacteria" "Walliibacteriota" Hydrobacteria BV2, BV4Clade 1 "Aerophobota" "Aerophobia" "Auribacterota" "Ancaeobacteria" "Auribacteria" "Erginobacteria" "Tritonobacteria" "Desantisiibacteriota" Elusimicrobiota Elusimicrobiia Endomicrobiia "Firestoneibacteriota" "Goldiibacteriota" "Omnitrophota" "Omnitrophia" "Velamenicoccia" "Ratteibacteriota" Clade 2 "Abyssubacteria" "Hinthialibacterota" "Hinthialibacteria" "Hydrogenedentota" "Hydrogenedentia" "Poribacteriota" "Saltatorellota" "Saltatorellae" "Sumerlaeota" "Sumerlaeia" Spirochaetobacteriobiontes "Babelota" "Babeliae" "Lindowiibacteriota" Spirochaetota "Brevinematia" "Brachyspirae" "Exilispiria" "Leptospiria" "Spirochaetia" PVC group(Planctobacteria) Chlamydiota Chlamydiia Planctomycetota "Brocadiia" Phycisphaeria Planctomycetia "Uabimicrobiia" Verrucomicrobiota Kiritimatiellia Lentisphaeria Verrucomicrobiia FCB group(Sphingobacteria) Bacteroidota Bacteroidia Chlorobiia "Ignavibacteriia" "Kapabacteria" "Kryptoniia" Rhodothermia Calditrichota Calditrichia "Cloacimonadota" "Cloacimonadia" "Coatesiibacteriota" "Cosmopoliota" "Cosmopolitia" "Delongiibacteriota" "Edwardsiibacteriota" "Eiseniibacteriota" "Electryoneota" "Electryoneia" "Tariuqbacteria" "Fermentibacterota" "Fermentibacteria" Fibrobacterota Chitinivibrionia Fibrobacteria "Raymondbacteriia" Gemmatimonadota Gemmatimonadia "Glassbacteria" "Heilongiota" "Heilongiia" "Hydrothermota" "Hydrothermia" "Stahlbacteria" "Krumholzibacteriota" "Krumholzibacteriia" "Latescibacterota" "Handelsmanbacteria" "Latescibacteria" "Neomarinimicrobiota" "Marinisomatota" "Marinisomatia" "Tianyaibacteriota" "Zixiibacteriota" ProteobacteriaBV2Aquificida "Acidulodesulfobacteriota" "Acidulodesulfobacteriia" Aquificota Aquificia "Desulfurobacteriia" Campylobacterota "Campylobacteria" Desulfurellia "Calescibacteriota" "Calescibacteriia" Chrysiogenota Chrysiogenia "Dadaibacteriota" "Dadabacteria" Deferribacterota "Deferribacteria" Desulfobacterota G Syntrophorhabdia "Thermosulfidibacterota" "Thermosulfidibacteria" Deltaproteobacteria Bdellovibrionota Bacteriovoracia Bdellovibrionia Oligoflexia "Binatota" "Binatia" "Deferrimicrobiota" "Anaeroferrophilia" "Deferrimicrobiia" "Deferrisomatota" Deferrisomatia "Desulfuromonadota" Desulfuromonadia "Lernaellota" "Lernaellia" "Methylomirabilota" "Methylomirabilia" "Moduliflexota" "Moduliflexia" Myxococcota Myxococcia "Bradymonadia" Polyangiia Nitrospinota Nitrospinia Nitrospirota Nitrospiria "Thermodesulfovibrionia" SAR324 "Lambdaproteobacteria" "Schekmaniibacteriota" "Tectimicrobiota" "Entotheonellia" "Thermodesulfobacteriota" others Acidobacteriota "Acidobacteriia" "Aminicenantia" Blastocatellia "Fischerbacteria" "Guanabaribacteriia" "Holophagia" "Polarisedimenticolia" Thermoanaerobaculia Vicinamibacteria "Canglongiota" "Canglongiia" "Leptospirillaeota" "Leptospirillia" Pseudomonadota "Caulobacteria" "Mariprofundia" "Magnetococcia" "Pseudomonadia" others "Qinglongiota" "Qinglongiia" "Salinosulfoleibacteria" "Teskebacteria" Source: Bergey's Manual (2001–2012) Alternative views: Wikispecies vteProkaryotes: Archaea classification Domain Archaea Bacteria Eukaryota (major groups Excavata Diaphoretickes Hacrobia Rhizaria Alveolata Stramenopiles Plants Amorphea Amoebozoa Opisthokonta Animals Fungi) EuryarchaeotaHadarchaeota "Hadarchaeia" "Hadarchaeales" "Persephonarchaeia" "Hydrothermarchaeota" "Hydrothermarchaeia" "Hydrothermarchaeles" "Methanobacteriota" Methanobacteria Methanobacteriales Methanococci Methanococcales Methanopyri Methanopyrales "Theionarchaeia" Thermococci "Methanofastidiosales" Thermococcales "Halobacteriota" Archaeoglobia Archaeoglobales "Mnemosynellales" Halobacteria Halobacteriales "Hikarchaeia" "Hikarchaeales" "Methanocellia" Methanocellales "Methanoliparia" "Methanoliparales" Methanomicrobia Methanomicrobiales Methanonatronarchaeia Methanonatronarchaeales Methanosarcinia Methanosarcinales Methanotrichales "Syntropharchaeia" "Methanophagales" "Syntropharchaeales" "Thermoplasmatota" "Izemarchaea" "Thermoprofundales" "Poseidoniia" "Poseidoniales" Thermoplasmata "Aciduliprofundales" "Gimiplasmatales" "Lunaplasmatales" Methanomassiliicoccales "Natronoplasmatales" "Sysuiplasmatales" Thermoplasmatales DPANN "Aenigmatarchaeota" "Aenigmatarchaeia" "Altarchaeota" "Altarchaeia" "Iainarchaeota" "Iainarchaeia" "Huberarchaeota" "Huberarchaeia" "Micrarchaeota" "Micrarchaeia" "Nanohalarchaeota" "Nanohalarchaeia" "Nanoarchaeota" "Nanoarchaeia" "Nanohalobiia" "Undinarchaeota" "Undinarchaeia" ProteoarchaeotaTACKThermoproteota Korarchaeia "Korarchaeales" Bathyarchaeia "Hecatellales" Nitrososphaeria "Caldarchaeales" Conexivisphaerales "Geothermarchaeales" Nitrososphaerales "Culexarchaeia" "Culexarchaeles" "Methanomethylicia" "Methanomethylicales" "Nezhaarchaeales" Thermoproteia "Gearchaeales" "Marsarchaeales" Sulfolobales Thermoproteales AsgardLokiarchaeota "Baldrarchaeia" "Freyrarchaeia" "Hermodarchaeia" "Jordarchaeia" "Lokiarchaeia" "Helarchaeales" "Lokiarchaeales" "Sigynarchaeales" Odinarchaeia Thorarchaeia Heimdallarchaeota Heimdallarchaeia "Gerdarchaeales" "Heimdallarchaeales" "Hodarchaeales" "Kariarchaeales" "Njordarchaeia" "Sifarchaeia" "Borrarchaeales" "Sifarchaeales" "Wukongarchaeia" Source: Alternative views: Wikispecies vteMicrobiology: BacteriaMedicalmicrobiology Infection Exotoxin Lysogenic cycle Pathogenic bacteria Resistance Biochemistryand ecologyOxygenpreference Aerobic Obligate Facultative Anaerobic Facultative Obligate Microaerophile Nanaerobe Aerotolerant Other Extremophile Human microbiome Gut Lung Mouth Skin Vaginal (in pregnancy) Placental Uterine Salivary Microbial metabolism Nitrogen fixation Microbial ecology Primary nutritional groups Substrate preference Lipophilic Saccharophilic Shape Bacterial cellular morphologies cell structure plasticity Cocci Bacilli Coccobacilli Spiral StructureCellenvelope Cell membrane Cell wall: Peptidoglycan NAM NAG DAP Gram-positive bacteria only: Teichoic acid Lipoteichoic acid Endospore Gram-negative bacteria only: Bacterial outer membrane Porin Lipopolysaccharide Periplasmic space Mycobacteria only: Arabinogalactan Mycolic acid Outsideenvelope Bacterial capsule Slime layer S-layer Glycocalyx Pilus Fimbria Non-motile bacteria Composite Biofilm Taxonomyand evolution Bacteria (classifications) Bacterial phyla Former groupings: Schizomycetes Monera Prokaryota Gracilicutes Firmicutes Mollicutes Mendosicutes Category Commons Authority control databases: National Spain France BnF data Germany Israel United States Latvia Czech Republic	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Prokaryote_cell.svg"},{"link_name":"/proʊˈkærioʊt, 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analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics"},{"link_name":"domains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_(biology)"},{"link_name":"Bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria"},{"link_name":"Archaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea"},{"link_name":"Eukaryota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"evolved","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution"},{"link_name":"mitochondria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondria"},{"link_name":"organelles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organelle"},{"link_name":"cytoplasm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoplasm"},{"link_name":"cell membrane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membrane"},{"link_name":"bacterial microcompartments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_microcompartment"},{"link_name":"protein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"encapsulin protein cages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encapsulin_nanocompartment"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pref-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"prokaryotic organelles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organelle#Prokaryotic_organelles"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"cyanobacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria"},{"link_name":"colonies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony_(biology)"},{"link_name":"biofilms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofilm"},{"link_name":"microbial mats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbial_mat"},{"link_name":"myxobacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myxobacteria"},{"link_name":"life cycles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_life_cycle"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"asexual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexual_reproduction"},{"link_name":"binary fission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fission_(biology)"},{"link_name":"gametes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gametes"},{"link_name":"horizontal gene transfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer"},{"link_name":"Molecular studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_evolution"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"},{"link_name":"extremophiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremophile"},{"link_name":"methanogens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanogen"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NCSU-2"}],"text":"Diagram of a typical prokaryotic cellA prokaryote (/proʊˈkærioʊt, -ət/, less commonly spelled procaryote)[1] is a single-cell organism whose cell lacks a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.[2] The word prokaryote comes from the Ancient Greek πρό (pró) 'before' and κάρυον (káruon) 'nut, kernel'.[3][4] In the two-empire system arising from the work of Édouard Chatton, prokaryotes were classified within the empire Prokaryota.[5] But in the three-domain system, based upon molecular analysis, prokaryotes are divided into two domains: Bacteria (formerly Eubacteria) and Archaea (formerly Archaebacteria). Organisms with nuclei are placed in a third domain, Eukaryota.[6]Prokaryotes evolved before eukaryotes, and lack nuclei, mitochondria or most of the other distinct organelles that characterize the eukaryotic cell. It was once thought that prokaryotic cellular components were unenclosed within the cytoplasm except for an outer cell membrane, but bacterial microcompartments, which are thought to be quasi-organelles enclosed in protein shells (such as the encapsulin protein cages), have been discovered,[7][8] along with other prokaryotic organelles.[9] While being unicellular, some prokaryotes, such as cyanobacteria, may form colonies held together by biofilms, and large colonies can create multilayered microbial mats. Others, such as myxobacteria, have multicellular stages in their life cycles.[10] Prokaryotes are asexual, reproducing via binary fission without any fusion of gametes, although horizontal gene transfer may take place.Molecular studies have provided insight into the evolution and interrelationships of the three domains of life.[11] The division between prokaryotes and eukaryotes reflects the existence of two very different levels of cellular organization; only eukaryotic cells have an enveloped nucleus that contains its chromosomal DNA, and other characteristic membrane-bound organelles including mitochondria. Distinctive types of prokaryotes include extremophiles and methanogens; these are common in some extreme environments.[2]","title":"Prokaryote"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Roger Stanier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Stanier"},{"link_name":"C. B. van Niel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._B._van_Niel"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Édouard Chatton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard_Chatton"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"cyanobacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria"}],"text":"The distinction between prokaryotes and eukaryotes was firmly established by the microbiologists Roger Stanier and C. B. van Niel in their 1962 paper The concept of a bacterium[12] (though spelled procaryote and eucaryote there). That paper cites Édouard Chatton's 1937 book Titres et Travaux Scientifiques[13] for using those terms and recognizing the distinction. One reason for this classification was so that what was then often called blue-green algae (now called cyanobacteria) would not be classified as plants but grouped with bacteria.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bacterial cell structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure"},{"link_name":"Archaea § Structure, composition development, and operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea#Structure,_composition_development,_and_operation"},{"link_name":"prokaryotic cytoskeleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryotic_cytoskeleton"},{"link_name":"homologues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homology_(biology)"},{"link_name":"MreB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MreB"},{"link_name":"FtsZ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FtsZ"},{"link_name":"flagellum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellum"},{"link_name":"flagellin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellin"},{"link_name":"chemotaxis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotaxis"},{"link_name":"photosynthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis"},{"link_name":"chemolithotrophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemolithotrophy"},{"link_name":"carboxysomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxysome"},{"link_name":"Mycoplasma genitalium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoplasma_genitalium"},{"link_name":"Thiomargarita namibiensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiomargarita_namibiensis"}],"text":"Further information: Bacterial cell structure and Archaea § Structure, composition development, and operationProkaryotes have a prokaryotic cytoskeleton that is more primitive than that of the eukaryotes. Besides homologues of actin and tubulin (MreB and FtsZ), the helically arranged building-block of the flagellum, flagellin, is one of the most significant cytoskeletal proteins of bacteria, as it provides structural backgrounds of chemotaxis, the basic cell physiological response of bacteria. At least some prokaryotes also contain intracellular structures that can be seen as primitive organelles.Membranous organelles (or intracellular membranes) are known in some groups of prokaryotes, such as vacuoles or membrane systems devoted to special metabolic properties, such as photosynthesis or chemolithotrophy. In addition, some species also contain carbohydrate-enclosed microcompartments, which have distinct physiological roles (e.g. carboxysomes or gas vacuoles).Most prokaryotes are between 1 μm and 10 μm, but they can vary in size from 0.2 μm (Mycoplasma genitalium) to 750 μm (Thiomargarita namibiensis).","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Cocci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocci"},{"link_name":"Bacilli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_(shape)"},{"link_name":"Spiral bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral_bacteria"},{"link_name":"Vibrio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrio"},{"link_name":"Haloquadratum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haloquadratum"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Prokaryotic cells have various shapes; the four basic shapes of bacteria are:[14]Cocci – A bacterium that is spherical or ovoid is called a coccus (Plural, cocci). e.g. Streptococcus, Staphylococcus.\nBacilli – A bacterium with cylindrical shape called rod or a bacillus (Plural, bacilli).\nSpiral bacteria – Some rods twist into spiral shapes and are called spirilla (singular, spirillum).\nVibrio – comma-shapedThe archaeon Haloquadratum has flat square-shaped cells.[15]","title":"Morphology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"binary fission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_fission"},{"link_name":"horizontal gene transfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer"},{"link_name":"bacterial conjugation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation"}],"text":"Bacteria and archaea reproduce through asexual reproduction, usually by binary fission. Genetic exchange and recombination still occur, but this is a form of horizontal gene transfer and is not a replicative process, simply involving the transference of DNA between two cells, as in bacterial conjugation.","title":"Reproduction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bacteriophage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriophage"},{"link_name":"transduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transduction_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"plasmid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmid"},{"link_name":"conjugation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation"},{"link_name":"natural transformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"virus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus"},{"link_name":"adaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation"},{"link_name":"E. coli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli"},{"link_name":"transformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"adaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"competence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_competence"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Halobacterium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halobacterium"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Sulfolobus solfataricus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfolobus_solfataricus"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"DNA transfer between prokaryotic cells occurs in bacteria and archaea, although it has been mainly studied in bacteria. In bacteria, gene transfer occurs by three processes. These are (1) bacterial virus (bacteriophage)-mediated transduction, (2) plasmid-mediated conjugation, and (3) natural transformation. Transduction of bacterial genes by bacteriophage appears to reflect an occasional error during intracellular assembly of virus particles, rather than an adaptation of the host bacteria. The transfer of bacterial DNA is under the control of the bacteriophage's genes rather than bacterial genes. Conjugation in the well-studied E. coli system is controlled by plasmid genes, and is an adaptation for distributing copies of a plasmid from one bacterial host to another. Infrequently during this process, a plasmid may integrate into the host bacterial chromosome, and subsequently transfer part of the host bacterial DNA to another bacterium. Plasmid mediated transfer of host bacterial DNA (conjugation) also appears to be an accidental process rather than a bacterial adaptation.3D animation of a prokaryotic cell that shows all the elements that it is composed ofNatural bacterial transformation involves the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another through the intervening medium. Unlike transduction and conjugation, transformation is clearly a bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer, because it depends on numerous bacterial gene products that specifically interact to perform this complex process.[16] For a bacterium to bind, take up and recombine donor DNA into its own chromosome, it must first enter a special physiological state called competence. About 40 genes are required in Bacillus subtilis for the development of competence.[17] The length of DNA transferred during B. subtilis transformation can be as much as a third to the whole chromosome.[18][19] Transformation is a common mode of DNA transfer, and 67 prokaryotic species are thus far known to be naturally competent for transformation.[20]Among archaea, Halobacterium volcanii forms cytoplasmic bridges between cells that appear to be used for transfer of DNA from one cell to another.[21] Another archaeon, Sulfolobus solfataricus, transfers DNA between cells by direct contact. Frols et al. (2008) found[22] that exposure of S. solfataricus to DNA damaging agents induces cellular aggregation, and suggested that cellular aggregation may enhance DNA transfer among cells to provide increased repair of damaged DNA via homologous recombination.","title":"DNA transfer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brock-23"},{"link_name":"biofilms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofilms"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-costerton2007-24"},{"link_name":"gene expression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_expression"},{"link_name":"cell-to-cell signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_signaling"},{"link_name":"quorum sensing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quorum_sensing"},{"link_name":"microcolonies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcolony"},{"link_name":"circulatory system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulatory_system"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-costerton1995-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shapiro1998-26"},{"link_name":"programmed cell death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmed_cell_death"},{"link_name":"biological dispersal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_dispersal"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"co-operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-operation_(evolution)"},{"link_name":"evolution of multicellularity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_multicellularity"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hamilton1964-28"},{"link_name":"inclusive fitness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclusive_fitness"},{"link_name":"Hamilton's rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton%27s_rule"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-balaban2008-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-costerton1999-30"},{"link_name":"bacterial conjugation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation"},{"link_name":"pathogenicity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenicity"}],"text":"While prokaryotes are considered strictly unicellular, most can form stable aggregate communities.[23] When such communities are encased in a stabilizing polymer matrix (\"slime\"), they may be called \"biofilms\".[24] Cells in biofilms often show distinct patterns of gene expression (phenotypic differentiation) in time and space. Also, as with multicellular eukaryotes, these changes in expression often appear to result from cell-to-cell signaling, a phenomenon known as quorum sensing.Biofilms may be highly heterogeneous and structurally complex and may attach to solid surfaces, or exist at liquid-air interfaces, or potentially even liquid-liquid interfaces. Bacterial biofilms are often made up of microcolonies (approximately dome-shaped masses of bacteria and matrix) separated by \"voids\" through which the medium (e.g., water) may flow easily. The microcolonies may join together above the substratum to form a continuous layer, closing the network of channels separating microcolonies. This structural complexity—combined with observations that oxygen limitation (a ubiquitous challenge for anything growing in size beyond the scale of diffusion) is at least partially eased by movement of medium throughout the biofilm—has led some to speculate that this may constitute a circulatory system[25] and many researchers have started calling prokaryotic communities multicellular (for example [26]). Differential cell expression, collective behavior, signaling, programmed cell death, and (in some cases) discrete biological dispersal[27] events all seem to point in this direction. However, these colonies are seldom if ever founded by a single founder (in the way that animals and plants are founded by single cells), which presents a number of theoretical issues. Most explanations of co-operation and the evolution of multicellularity have focused on high relatedness between members of a group (or colony, or whole organism). If a copy of a gene is present in all members of a group, behaviors that promote cooperation between members may permit those members to have (on average) greater fitness than a similar group of selfish individuals[28] (see inclusive fitness and Hamilton's rule).Should these instances of prokaryotic sociality prove to be the rule rather than the exception, it would have serious implications for the way we view prokaryotes in general, and the way we deal with them in medicine.[29] Bacterial biofilms may be 100 times more resistant to antibiotics than free-living unicells and may be nearly impossible to remove from surfaces once they have colonized them.[30] Other aspects of bacterial cooperation—such as bacterial conjugation and quorum-sensing-mediated pathogenicity, present additional challenges to researchers and medical professionals seeking to treat the associated diseases.","title":"Sociality"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anillo_de_la_vida.png"},{"link_name":"photosynthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis"},{"link_name":"organic compounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compound"},{"link_name":"inorganic compounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_compound"},{"link_name":"hydrogen sulfide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide"},{"link_name":"Antarctica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica"},{"link_name":"cryobiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryobiology"},{"link_name":"hydrothermal vents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent"},{"link_name":"hot springs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_spring"},{"link_name":"extremophiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremophile"},{"link_name":"thermophiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermophile"},{"link_name":"halophiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halophile"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"plankton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton"},{"link_name":"Symbiotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiotic"},{"link_name":"soil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil"},{"link_name":"rhizosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizosphere"},{"link_name":"rhizosheath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rhizosheath&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"economic importance to agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_microbiology"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cobian-Guemes-et-al-2016-32"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tree_of_Living_Organisms_2.png"},{"link_name":"symbiogenetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiogenesis"},{"link_name":"eukaryotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote"}],"text":"Phylogenetic ring showing the diversity of prokaryotes, and symbiogenetic origins of eukaryotesProkaryotes have diversified greatly throughout their long existence. The metabolism of prokaryotes is far more varied than that of eukaryotes, leading to many highly distinct prokaryotic types. For example, in addition to using photosynthesis or organic compounds for energy, as eukaryotes do, prokaryotes may obtain energy from inorganic compounds such as hydrogen sulfide. This enables prokaryotes to thrive in harsh environments as cold as the snow surface of Antarctica, studied in cryobiology, or as hot as undersea hydrothermal vents and land-based hot springs.Prokaryotes live in nearly all environments on Earth. Some archaea and bacteria are extremophiles, thriving in harsh conditions, such as high temperatures (thermophiles) or high salinity (halophiles).[31] Many archaea grow as plankton in the oceans. Symbiotic prokaryotes live in or on the bodies of other organisms, including humans. Prokaryote have high populations in the soil - including the rhizosphere and rhizosheath. Soil prokaryotes are still heavily undercharacterized despite their easy proximity to humans and their tremendous economic importance to agriculture.[32]Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, showing the origins of eukaryotes and prokaryotes","title":"Environment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Carl Woese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Woese"},{"link_name":"Bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria"},{"link_name":"Archaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea"},{"link_name":"temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature"},{"link_name":"pH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH"},{"link_name":"radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation"},{"link_name":"habitats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat"},{"link_name":"three-domain system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-domain_system"},{"link_name":"two-empire system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-empire_system"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"In 1977, Carl Woese proposed dividing prokaryotes into the Bacteria and Archaea (originally Eubacteria and Archaebacteria) because of the major differences in the structure and genetics between the two groups of organisms. Archaea were originally thought to be extremophiles, living only in inhospitable conditions such as extremes of temperature, pH, and radiation but have since been found in all types of habitats. The resulting arrangement of Eukaryota (also called \"Eucarya\"), Bacteria, and Archaea is called the three-domain system, replacing the traditional two-empire system.[33][34]","title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hug-35"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_Novel_Representation_Of_The_Tree_Of_Life.png"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hug-35"}],"sub_title":"Phylogenetic tree","text":"According to the phylogenetic analysis of Hug (2016), the relationships could be the following:[35]Phylogenetic tree showing the diversity of prokaryote.[35]","title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Primordial_biogenesis.svg"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Egel-36"},{"link_name":"first living organisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_life"},{"link_name":"protocells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocell"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forterre1999-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"fossilized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil"},{"link_name":"endosymbiosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"evidence on Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_on_Mars_(planet)"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-disbelief-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"text":"Diagram of the origin of life with the Eukaryotes appearing early, not derived from Prokaryotes, as proposed by Richard Egel in 2012. This view, one of many on the relative positions of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes, implies that the universal common ancestor was relatively large and complex.[36]A widespread current model of the evolution of the first living organisms is that these were some form of prokaryotes, which may have evolved out of protocells, while the eukaryotes evolved later in the history of life.[37] Some authors have questioned this conclusion, arguing that the current set of prokaryotic species may have evolved from more complex eukaryotic ancestors through a process of simplification.[38][39][40]Others have argued that the three domains of life arose simultaneously, from a set of varied cells that formed a single gene pool.[41] This controversy was summarized in 2005:[42]There is no consensus among biologists concerning the position of the eukaryotes in the overall scheme of cell evolution. Current opinions on the origin and position of eukaryotes span a broad spectrum including the views that eukaryotes arose first in evolution and that prokaryotes descend from them, that eukaryotes arose contemporaneously with eubacteria and archaebacteria and hence represent a primary line of descent of equal age and rank as the prokaryotes, that eukaryotes arose through a symbiotic event entailing an endosymbiotic origin of the nucleus, that eukaryotes arose without endosymbiosis, and that eukaryotes arose through a symbiotic event entailing a simultaneous endosymbiotic origin of the flagellum and the nucleus, in addition to many other models, which have been reviewed and summarized elsewhere.The oldest known fossilized prokaryotes were laid down approximately 3.5 billion years ago, only about 1 billion years after the formation of the Earth's crust. Eukaryotes only appear in the fossil record later, and may have formed from endosymbiosis of multiple prokaryote ancestors. The oldest known fossil eukaryotes are about 1.7 billion years old. However, some genetic evidence suggests eukaryotes appeared as early as 3 billion years ago.[43]While Earth is the only place in the universe where life is known to exist, some have suggested that there is evidence on Mars of fossil or living prokaryotes.[44][45] However, this possibility remains the subject of considerable debate and skepticism.[46][47]","title":"Evolution"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg"},{"link_name":"nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleus"},{"link_name":"DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"},{"link_name":"RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA"},{"link_name":"protein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"ribosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosome"},{"link_name":"produce protein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(biology)"},{"link_name":"ribosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosomes"},{"link_name":"Mitochondria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondria"},{"link_name":"chloroplasts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alberts-48"},{"link_name":"endosymbiotic theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory"},{"link_name":"phagocytosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phagocytosis"},{"link_name":"genome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome"},{"link_name":"cytosol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytosol"},{"link_name":"nucleoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleoid"},{"link_name":"nuclear envelope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_envelope"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"chromosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome"},{"link_name":"plasmids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmid"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bio1-3"},{"link_name":"haploid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haploid"},{"link_name":"merodiploidy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merodiploid"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"mitochondria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrion"},{"link_name":"chloroplasts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast"},{"link_name":"oxidative phosphorylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation"},{"link_name":"photosynthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis"},{"link_name":"cell membrane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membrane"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"prokaryotic cytoskeletons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryotic_cytoskeleton"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Planctomycetota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planctomycetota"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bio1-3"},{"link_name":"surface-area-to-volume ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-area-to-volume_ratio"},{"link_name":"metabolic rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_rate"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bio1-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phylogenetic_Tree_of_Prokaryota.png"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Castelle2018-56"},{"link_name":"Asgard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asgard_(archaea)"},{"link_name":"eocyte hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocyte_hypothesis"},{"link_name":"asgard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asgard_(archaea)"},{"link_name":"Heimdallarchaeota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimdallarchaeota"},{"link_name":"eocyte hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocyte_hypothesis"},{"link_name":"Thermoproteota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoproteota"},{"link_name":"taxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Castelle2018-56"},{"link_name":"histones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone#Conservation_across_species"},{"link_name":"homology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homology_(biology)"},{"link_name":"eucytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote#Cell_features"},{"link_name":"alphaproteobacterium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphaproteobacteria"},{"link_name":"LECA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes"},{"link_name":"endosymbiotic theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory"},{"link_name":"viral eukaryogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_eukaryogenesis"},{"link_name":"Neomura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neomura"},{"link_name":"Thomas Cavalier-Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Cavalier-Smith"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid11931142-57"},{"link_name":"cladistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clade"},{"link_name":"birds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds"},{"link_name":"dinosaurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaurs"},{"link_name":"maniraptora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maniraptora"},{"link_name":"paraphyletic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphyletic"}],"text":"Comparison of eukaryotes vs. prokaryotesThe division between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is usually considered the most important distinction or difference among organisms. The distinction is that eukaryotic cells have a \"true\" nucleus containing their DNA, whereas prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus.Both eukaryotes and prokaryotes contain large RNA/protein structures called ribosomes, which produce protein, but the ribosomes of prokaryotes are smaller than those of eukaryotes. Mitochondria and chloroplasts, two organelles found in many eukaryotic cells, contain ribosomes similar in size and makeup to those found in prokaryotes.[48] This is one of many pieces of evidence that mitochondria and chloroplasts are descended from free-living bacteria. The endosymbiotic theory holds that early eukaryotic cells took in primitive prokaryotic cells by phagocytosis and adapted themselves to incorporate their structures, leading to the mitochondria and chloroplasts.The genome in a prokaryote is held within a DNA/protein complex in the cytosol called the nucleoid, which lacks a nuclear envelope.[49] The complex contains a single, cyclic, double-stranded molecule of stable chromosomal DNA, in contrast to the multiple linear, compact, highly organized chromosomes found in eukaryotic cells. In addition, many important genes of prokaryotes are stored in separate circular DNA structures called plasmids.[3] Like Eukaryotes, prokaryotes may partially duplicate genetic material, and can have a haploid chromosomal composition that is partially replicated, a condition known as merodiploidy.[50]Prokaryotes lack mitochondria and chloroplasts. Instead, processes such as oxidative phosphorylation and photosynthesis take place across the prokaryotic cell membrane.[51] However, prokaryotes do possess some internal structures, such as prokaryotic cytoskeletons.[52][53] It has been suggested that the bacterial phylum Planctomycetota has a membrane around the nucleoid and contains other membrane-bound cellular structures.[54] However, further investigation revealed that Planctomycetota cells are not compartmentalized or nucleated and, like other bacterial membrane systems, are interconnected.[55]Prokaryotic cells are usually much smaller than eukaryotic cells.[3] Therefore, prokaryotes have a larger surface-area-to-volume ratio, giving them a higher metabolic rate, a higher growth rate, and as a consequence, a shorter generation time than eukaryotes.[3]Phylogenetic tree showing the diversity of prokaryotes.[56] This 2018 proposal shows eukaryotes emerging from the archaean Asgard group which represents a modern version of the eocyte hypothesis. Unlike earlier assumptions, the division between bacteria and the rest is the most important difference between organisms.There is increasing evidence that the roots of the eukaryotes are to be found in (or at least next to) the archaean asgard group, perhaps Heimdallarchaeota (an idea which is a modern version of the 1984 eocyte hypothesis, eocytes being an old synonym for Thermoproteota, a taxon to be found nearby the then-unknown Asgard group).[56] For example, histones which usually package DNA in eukaryotic nuclei, have also been found in several archaean groups, giving evidence for homology. This idea might clarify the mysterious predecessor of eukaryotic cells (eucytes) which engulfed an alphaproteobacterium forming the first eucyte (LECA, last eukaryotic common ancestor) according to endosymbiotic theory. There might have been some additional support by viruses, called viral eukaryogenesis.\nThe non-bacterial group comprising archaea and eukaryota was called Neomura by Thomas Cavalier-Smith in 2002.[57]\nHowever, in a cladistic view, eukaryota are archaea in the same sense as birds are dinosaurs because they evolved from the maniraptora dinosaur group. In contrast, archaea without eukaryota appear to be a paraphyletic group, just like dinosaurs without birds.","title":"Relationship to eukaryotes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"biota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biota_(taxonomy)"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Castelle2018-56"},{"link_name":"DNA replication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_replication"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid17158702-58"},{"link_name":"ATP synthase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_synthase"},{"link_name":"organelles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organelle"},{"link_name":"mitochondria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrion"},{"link_name":"chloroplasts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast"},{"link_name":"LUCA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LUCA#Location_of_the_root"},{"link_name":"RNA world hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_world_hypothesis"},{"link_name":"ribocyte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosome#Origin"},{"link_name":"RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA"},{"link_name":"ribosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosome"},{"link_name":"primordial self-replicating entities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woese%27s_dogma#Ribosomes_as_primordial_self-replicating_entities"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NLane_Funke-59"},{"link_name":"Peptide-RNA world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide-RNA_world"},{"link_name":"RNP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleoprotein#Ribonucleoproteins"},{"link_name":"oligopeptides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligopeptide"},{"link_name":"ribocyte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribocyte"},{"link_name":"retroviruses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retroviruses"},{"link_name":"reverse transcribe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcription"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forterre2006-60"},{"link_name":"polyphyletic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphyletic"}],"text":"Unlike the above assumption of a fundamental split between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, the most important difference between biota may be the division between bacteria and the rest (archaea and eukaryota).[56] For instance, DNA replication differs fundamentally between bacteria and archaea (including that in eukaryotic nuclei), and it may not be homologous between these two groups.[58] Moreover, ATP synthase, though common (homologous) in all organisms, differs greatly between bacteria (including eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts) and the archaea/eukaryote nucleus group. The last common antecessor of all life (called LUCA, last universal common ancestor) should have possessed an early version of this protein complex. As ATP synthase is obligate membrane bound, this supports the assumption that LUCA was a cellular organism. The RNA world hypothesis might clarify this scenario, as LUCA might have been a ribocyte (also called ribocell) lacking DNA, but with an RNA genome built by ribosomes as primordial self-replicating entities.[59] A Peptide-RNA world (also called RNP world) hypothesis has been proposed based on the idea that oligopeptides may have been built together with primordial nucleic acids at the same time, which also supports the concept of a ribocyte as LUCA. The feature of DNA as the material base of the genome might have then been adopted separately in bacteria and in archaea (and later eukaryote nuclei), presumably by help of some viruses (possibly retroviruses as they could reverse transcribe RNA to DNA).[60] As a result, prokaryota comprising bacteria and archaea may also be polyphyletic.","title":"Prokaryotes may be split into two groups"}]	[{"image_text":"Diagram of a typical prokaryotic cell","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Prokaryote_cell.svg/310px-Prokaryote_cell.svg.png"},{"image_text":"3D animation of a prokaryotic cell that shows all the elements that it is composed of"},{"image_text":"Phylogenetic ring showing the diversity of prokaryotes, and symbiogenetic origins of eukaryotes","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Anillo_de_la_vida.png/310px-Anillo_de_la_vida.png"},{"image_text":"Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, showing the origins of eukaryotes and prokaryotes","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Tree_of_Living_Organisms_2.png/220px-Tree_of_Living_Organisms_2.png"},{"image_text":"Phylogenetic tree showing the diversity of prokaryote.[35]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/A_Novel_Representation_Of_The_Tree_Of_Life.png/500px-A_Novel_Representation_Of_The_Tree_Of_Life.png"},{"image_text":"Diagram of the origin of life with the Eukaryotes appearing early, not derived from Prokaryotes, as proposed by Richard Egel in 2012. This view, one of many on the relative positions of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes, implies that the universal common ancestor was relatively large and complex.[36]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Primordial_biogenesis.svg/280px-Primordial_biogenesis.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Comparison of eukaryotes vs. prokaryotes","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Celltypes.svg/310px-Celltypes.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Phylogenetic tree showing the diversity of prokaryotes.[56] This 2018 proposal shows eukaryotes emerging from the archaean Asgard group which represents a modern version of the eocyte hypothesis. Unlike earlier assumptions, the division between bacteria and the rest is the most important difference between organisms.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Phylogenetic_Tree_of_Prokaryota.png/550px-Phylogenetic_Tree_of_Prokaryota.png"}]	[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg"},{"title":"Biology portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Biology"},{"title":"Actinonin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinonin"},{"title":"Bacterial cell structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure"},{"title":"Combrex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combrex"},{"title":"Evolution of cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_cells"},{"title":"Evolution of sexual reproduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction"},{"title":"List of sequenced archaeal genomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_archaeal_genomes"},{"title":"List of sequenced bacterial genomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_bacterial_genomes"},{"title":"Marine prokaryotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes"},{"title":"Monera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monera"},{"title":"kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)"},{"title":"Archaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea"},{"title":"Bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria"},{"title":"Nanobacterium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanobacterium"},{"title":"Nanobe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanobe"},{"title":"Parakaryon myojinensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parakaryon_myojinensis"},{"title":"ProGlycProt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProGlycProt"}]	[{"reference":"\"Definition of PROCARYOTE\". www.merriam-webster.com. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU-R_468_noise_weighting	ITU-R 468 noise weighting	["1 Explanation","2 History","2.1 Original research","2.2 Standards","3 Present usage of 468-weighting","4 Summary of specification","4.1 Weighting curve specification (weighted measurement)","4.2 Tone-burst response requirements","4.3 Repetitive tone-burst response","4.4 Unweighted measurement","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"]	Noise measurement standard ITU-R 468 (originally defined in CCIR recommendation 468-4, therefore formerly also known as CCIR weighting; sometimes referred to as CCIR-1k) is a standard relating to noise measurement, widely used when measuring noise in audio systems. The standard, now referred to as ITU-R BS.468-4, defines a weighting filter curve, together with a quasi-peak rectifier having special characteristics as defined by specified tone-burst tests. It is currently maintained by the International Telecommunication Union who took it over from the CCIR. It is used especially in the UK, Europe, and former countries of the British Empire such as Australia and South Africa. It is less well known in the USA where A-weighting has always been used. M-weighting is a closely related filter, an offset version of the same curve, without the quasi-peak detector. Explanation The A-weighting curve was based on the 40 phon equal-loudness contour derived initially by Fletcher and Munson (1933). Originally incorporated into an ANSI standard for sound level meters, A-weighting was intended for measurement of the audibility of sounds by themselves. It was never specifically intended for the measurement of the more random (near-white or pink) noise in electronic equipment, though has been used for this purpose by most microphone manufacturers since the 1970s. The human ear responds quite differently to clicks and bursts of random noise, and it is this difference that gave rise to the CCIR-468 weighting curve (now supported as an ITU standard), which together with quasi-peak measurement (rather than the rms measurement used with A-weighting) became widely used by broadcasters throughout Britain, Europe, and former British Commonwealth countries, where engineers were heavily influenced by BBC test methods. Telephone companies worldwide have also used methods similar to ITU-R 468 weighting with quasi-peak measurement to describe objectionable interference induced in one telephone circuit by switching transients in another. History Original research Developments in the 1960s, in particular the spread of FM broadcasting and the development of the compact audio cassette with Dolby-B Noise Reduction, alerted engineers to the need for a weighting curve that gave subjectively meaningful results on the typical random noise that limited the performance of broadcast circuits, equipment and radio circuits. A-weighting was not giving consistent results, especially on FM radio transmissions and Compact Cassette recording where preemphasis of high frequencies was resulting in increased noise readings that did not correlate with subjective effect. Early efforts to produce a better weighting curve led to a DIN standard that was adopted for European Hi-Fi equipment measurement for a while. Experiments in the BBC led to BBC Research Department Report EL-17, The Assessment of Noise in Audio Frequency Circuits, in which experiments on numerous test subjects were reported, using a variety of noises ranging from clicks to tone-bursts to pink noise. Subjects were asked to compare these with a 1 kHz tone, and final scores were then compared with measured noise levels using various combinations of weighting filter and quasi-peak detector then in existence (such as those defined in a now discontinued German DIN standard). This led to the CCIR-468 standard which defined a new weighting curve and quasi-peak rectifier. The origin of the current ITU-R 468 weighting curve can be traced to 1956. The 1968 BBC EL-17 report discusses several weighting curves, including one identified as D.P.B. which was chosen as superior to the alternatives: A.S.A, C.C.I.F and O.I.R.T. The report's graph of the DPB curve is identical to that of the ITU-R 468 curve, except that the latter extends to slightly lower and higher frequencies. The BBC report states that this curve was given in a "contribution by the D.B.P. (The Telephone Administration of the Federal German Republic) in the Red Book Vol. 1 1957 covering the first plenary assembly of the CCITT (Geneva 1956)". D.B.P. is Deutsche Bundespost, the German post office which provides telephone service in Germany as the GPO does in the UK. The BBC report states "this characteristic is based on subjective tests described by Belger." and cites a 1953 paper by E. Belger. Dolby Laboratories took up the new CCIR-468 weighting for use in measuring noise on their noise reduction systems, both in cinema (Dolby A) and on cassette decks (Dolby B), where other methods of measurement were failing to show up the advantage of such noise reduction. Some Hi-Fi column writers took up 468 weighting enthusiastically, observing that it reflected the roughly 10 dB improvement in noise observed subjectively on cassette recordings when using Dolby B while other methods could indicate an actual worsening in some circumstances, because they did not sufficiently attenuate noise above 10 kHz. Standards CCIR Recommendation 468-1 was published soon after this report, and appears to have been based on the BBC work. Later versions up to CCIR 468-4 differed only in minor changes to permitted tolerances. This standard was then incorporated into many other national and international standards (IEC, BSI, JIS, ITU) and adopted widely as the standard method for measuring noise, in broadcasting, professional audio, and 'Hi-Fi' specifications throughout the 1970s. When the CCIR ceased to exist, the standard was officially taken over by the ITU-R (International Telecommunication Union). Current work on this standard occurs primarily in the maintenance of IEC 60268, the international standard for sound systems. The CCIR curve differs greatly from A-weighting in the 5 to 8 kHz region where it peaks to +12.2 dB at 6.3 kHz, the region in which we appear to be extremely sensitive to noise. While it has been said (incorrectly) that the difference is due to a requirement for assessing noise intrusiveness in the presence of programme material, rather than just loudness, the BBC report makes clear the fact that this was not the basis of the experiments. The real reason for the difference probably relates to the way in which our ears analyse sounds in terms of spectral content along the cochlea. This behaves like a set of closely spaced filters with a roughly constant Q factor, that is, bandwidths proportional to their centre frequencies. High frequency hair cells would therefore be sensitive to a greater proportion of the total energy in noise than low frequency hair cells. Though hair-cell responses are not exactly constant Q, and matters are further complicated by the way in which the brain integrates adjacent hair-cell outputs, the resultant effect appears roughly as a tilt centred on 1 kHz imposed on the A-weighting. Dependent on spectral content, 468-weighted measurements of noise are generally about 11 dB higher than A-weighted, and this is probably a factor in the recent trend away from 468-weighting in equipment specifications as cassette tape use declines. It is important to realise that the 468 specification covers both weighted and 'unweighted' (using a 22 Hz to 22 kHz 18 dB/octave bandpass filter) measurement and that both use a very special quasi-peak rectifier with carefully devised dynamics (A-weighting uses RMS detection for no particular reason). Rather than having a simple 'integration time' this detector requires implementation with two cascaded 'peak followers' each with different attack time-constants carefully chosen to control the response to both single and repeating tone-bursts of various durations. This ensures that measurements on impulsive noise take proper account of our reduced hearing sensitivity to short bursts. This quasi-peak measurement is also called psophometric weighting. This was once more important because outside broadcasts were carried over 'music circuits' that used telephone lines, with clicks from Strowger and other electromechanical telephone exchanges. It now finds fresh relevance in the measurement of noise on computer 'Audio Cards' which commonly suffer clicks as drives start and stop. Present usage of 468-weighting 468-weighting is also used in weighted distortion measurement at 1 kHz. Weighting the distortion residue after removal of the fundamental emphasises high-order harmonics, but only up to 10 kHz or so where the ears response falls off. This results in a single measurement (sometimes called distortion residue measurement) which has been claimed to correspond well with subjective effect even for power amplifiers where crossover distortion is known to be far more audible than normal THD (total harmonic distortion) measurements would suggest. 468-weighting is still demanded by the BBC and many other broadcasters, with increasing awareness of its existence and the fact that it is more valid on random noise where pure tones do not exist. Often both A-weighted and 468-weighted figures are quoted for noise, especially in microphone specifications. While not intended for this application, the 468 curve has also been used (offset to place the 0 dB point at 2 kHz rather than 1 kHz) as "M weighting" in standards such as ISO 21727 intended to gauge loudness or annoyance of cinema soundtracks. This application of the weighting curve does not include the quasi-peak detector specified in the ITU standard. Summary of specification Note: this is not the full definitive standard. Weighting curve specification (weighted measurement) The weighting curve is specified by both a circuit diagram of a weighting network and a table of amplitude responses. Above is the ITU-R 468 Weighting Filter Circuit Diagram. The source and sink impedances are both 600 ohms (resistive), as shown in the diagram. The values are taken directly from the ITU-R 468 specification. Note that since this circuit is purely passive, it cannot create the additional 12 dB gain required; any results must be corrected by a factor of 8.1333, or +18.2 dB. Table of amplitude responses: Frequency (Hz) Response (dB) 31.5 -29.9 63 -23.9 100 -19.8 200 -13.8 400 -7.8 800 -1.9 1,000 0.0 2,000 +5.6 3,150 +9.0 4,000 +10.5 5,000 +11.7 6,300 +12.2 7,100 +12.0 8,000 +11.4 9,000 +10.1 10,000 +8.1 12,500 0.0 14,000 -5.3 16,000 -11.7 20,000 -22.2 31,500 -42.7 The values of the amplitude response table slightly differ from those resulting from the circuit diagram, e.g. because of the finite resolution of the numerical values. In the standard it is said that the 33.06 nF capacitor may be adjusted or an active filter may be used. Modeling at hand the circuit above and some calculus give this formula to get the amplitude response in dB for any given frequency value : R I T U ( f ) = 1.246332637532143 ⋅ 10 − 4 f ( h 1 ( f ) ) 2 + ( h 2 ( f ) ) 2 {\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {ITU} }(f)={\frac {1.246332637532143\cdot 10^{-4}\,f}{\sqrt {(h_{1}(f))^{2}+(h_{2}(f))^{2}}}}} I T U ( f ) = 18.2 + 20 log 10 ⁡ ( R I T U ( f ) ) {\displaystyle \mathrm {ITU} (f)=18.2+20\log _{10}\left(R_{\mathrm {ITU} }(f)\right)} where h 1 ( f ) = − 4.737338981378384 ⋅ 10 − 24 f 6 + 2.043828333606125 ⋅ 10 − 15 f 4 − 1.363894795463638 ⋅ 10 − 7 f 2 + 1 {\displaystyle h_{1}(f)=-4.737338981378384\cdot 10^{-24}\,f^{6}+2.043828333606125\cdot 10^{-15}\,f^{4}-1.363894795463638\cdot 10^{-7}\,f^{2}+1} h 2 ( f ) = 1.306612257412824 ⋅ 10 − 19 f 5 − 2.118150887518656 ⋅ 10 − 11 f 3 + 5.559488023498642 ⋅ 10 − 4 f {\displaystyle h_{2}(f)=1.306612257412824\cdot 10^{-19}\,f^{5}-2.118150887518656\cdot 10^{-11}\,f^{3}+5.559488023498642\cdot 10^{-4}\,f} Tone-burst response requirements 5 kHz single bursts: Burst Duration (ms) Steady Signal Reading (dB) 200 -1.9 100 -3.3 50 -4.6 20 -5.7 10 -6.4 5 -8.0 2 -11.5 1 -15.4 Repetitive tone-burst response 5 ms, 5 kHz bursts at repetition rate: Number Of Bursts per Second (s−1) Steady Signal Reading (dB) 2 -6.40 10 -2.30 100 -0.25 Unweighted measurement Uses 22 Hz HPF and 22 kHz LPF 18 dB/decade or greater. (Tables to be added) See also Noise weighting Audio system measurements References ^ "RECOMMENDATION ITU-R BS.468-4 - Measurement of audio-frequency noise voltage" (PDF). www.itu.int. International Telecommunication Union. Retrieved 18 October 2016. ^ "1910.95 - Occupational noise exposure. \| Occupational Safety and Health Administration". www.osha.gov. Retrieved 2018-10-28. ^ BBC Research Department Report - The assessment of noise in audio-frequency circuits. http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/rd/pubs/reports/1968-08.pdf ^ "468 - Weighting in Detail". Lindos. Retrieved 2011-07-12. ^ "ISO 21727:2016(en) Cinematography — Method of measurement of perceived loudness of short duration motion-picture audio material". ISO. 2016. Retrieved 2018-07-28. Further reading Audio Engineer's Reference Book, 2nd Ed 1999, edited Michael Talbot Smith, Focal Press An Introduction to the Psychology of Hearing 5th ed, Brian C. J. Moore, Elsevier Press External links AES pro audio reference definition of ITU-R 468-weighting Weighting Filter Set Circuit diagrams vteITU recommendations (standards) Lists: List of ITU-T V-series recommendations List of ITU letter codesCategories: Category:ITU-R recommendations Category:ITU-T recommendations G series (ITU-T) G.114 G.165 G.703 G.704 G.706 G.707 G.709 G.711 G.718 G.719 G.722 G.722.1 G.722.2 G.729.1 G.723 G.723.1 G.726 G.728 G.729 G.783 G.798 G.806 G.811 G.983 G.984 G.987 G.988 G.991.1 G.991.2 G.992.1 G.992.2 G.992.3 Annex J Annex L G.992.4 G.992.5 Annex M G.993.1 G.993.2 G.7041 G.7042 G.7043 G.8262 G.9700, G.9701, G.9710 and G.9711 G.9960 G.9970 G.9972 H series (ITU-T) H.222.0 H.225.0 H.235 H.239 H.241 H.245 H.248 H.261 H.262/MPEG-2 Video H.263 H.264/MPEG-4 AVC H.265/MPEG-H HEVC H.266/MPEG-I VVC H.320 H.323 H.323 Gatekeeper H.324 H.450 V series (ITU-T) V.10 V.11 V.23 V.24 V.92 ITU-R ITU-R 468 noise weighting ITU-R BS.1534-1 ITU-R BT.1304 ITU-R BT.470-6 ITU-R BT.470-7 ITU-R BT.601 ITU-R BT.709 ITU-R BT.2020 ITU-R BT.2100 See also: All articles beginning with "ITU"	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lindos3.svg"},{"link_name":"CCIR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comit%C3%A9_consultatif_international_pour_la_radio"},{"link_name":"noise measurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_measurement"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-itu-1"},{"link_name":"weighting filter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighting_filter"},{"link_name":"quasi-peak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-peak"},{"link_name":"rectifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier"},{"link_name":"tone-burst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tone-burst&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"International Telecommunication Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union"},{"link_name":"British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"A-weighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-weighting"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"M-weighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-weighting"}],"text":"ITU-R 468 (originally defined in CCIR recommendation 468-4, therefore formerly also known as CCIR weighting; sometimes referred to as CCIR-1k) is a standard relating to noise measurement, widely used when measuring noise in audio systems. The standard,[1] now referred to as ITU-R BS.468-4, defines a weighting filter curve, together with a quasi-peak rectifier having special characteristics as defined by specified tone-burst tests. It is currently maintained by the International Telecommunication Union who took it over from the CCIR.It is used especially in the UK, Europe, and former countries of the British Empire such as Australia and South Africa.[citation needed] It is less well known in the USA where A-weighting has always been used.[2]M-weighting is a closely related filter, an offset version of the same curve, without the quasi-peak detector.","title":"ITU-R 468 noise weighting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A-weighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-weighting"},{"link_name":"equal-loudness contour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal-loudness_contour"},{"link_name":"sound level meters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_level_meters"},{"link_name":"white","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_noise"},{"link_name":"pink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_noise"},{"link_name":"ITU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU"},{"link_name":"British Commonwealth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Commonwealth"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"}],"text":"The A-weighting curve was based on the 40 phon equal-loudness contour derived initially by Fletcher and Munson (1933). Originally incorporated into an ANSI standard for sound level meters, A-weighting was intended for measurement of the audibility of sounds by themselves. It was never specifically intended for the measurement of the more random (near-white or pink) noise in electronic equipment, though has been used for this purpose by most microphone manufacturers since the 1970s. The human ear responds quite differently to clicks and bursts of random noise, and it is this difference that gave rise to the CCIR-468 weighting curve (now supported as an ITU standard), which together with quasi-peak measurement (rather than the rms measurement used with A-weighting) became widely used by broadcasters throughout Britain, Europe, and former British Commonwealth countries, where engineers were heavily influenced by BBC test methods. Telephone companies worldwide have also used methods similar to ITU-R 468 weighting with quasi-peak measurement to describe objectionable interference induced in one telephone circuit by switching transients in another.","title":"Explanation"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FM broadcasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"compact audio cassette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Cassette"},{"link_name":"Dolby-B Noise Reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolby-B_Noise_Reduction"},{"link_name":"FM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"preemphasis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preemphasis"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"BBC Research Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Research_Department"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"pink noise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_noise"},{"link_name":"DIN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIN"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Bundespost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Bundespost"}],"sub_title":"Original research","text":"Developments in the 1960s, in particular the spread of FM broadcasting and the development of the compact audio cassette with Dolby-B Noise Reduction, alerted engineers to the need for a weighting curve that gave subjectively meaningful results on the typical random noise that limited the performance of broadcast circuits, equipment and radio circuits. A-weighting was not giving consistent results, especially on FM radio transmissions and Compact Cassette recording where preemphasis of high frequencies was resulting in increased noise readings that did not correlate with subjective effect. Early efforts to produce a better weighting curve led to a DIN standard that was adopted for European Hi-Fi equipment measurement for a while.Experiments in the BBC led to BBC Research Department Report EL-17, The Assessment of Noise in Audio Frequency Circuits,[3] in which experiments on numerous test subjects were reported, using a variety of noises ranging from clicks to tone-bursts to pink noise. Subjects were asked to compare these with a 1 kHz tone, and final scores were then compared with measured noise levels using various combinations of weighting filter and quasi-peak detector then in existence (such as those defined in a now discontinued German DIN standard). This led to the CCIR-468 standard which defined a new weighting curve and quasi-peak rectifier.The origin of the current ITU-R 468 weighting curve can be traced to 1956. The 1968 BBC EL-17 report discusses several weighting curves, including one identified as D.P.B. which was chosen as superior to the alternatives: A.S.A, C.C.I.F and O.I.R.T. The report's graph of the DPB curve is identical to that of the ITU-R 468 curve, except that the latter extends to slightly lower and higher frequencies. The BBC report states that this curve was given in a \"contribution by the D.B.P. (The Telephone Administration of the Federal German Republic) in the Red Book Vol. 1 1957 covering the first plenary assembly of the CCITT (Geneva 1956)\". D.B.P. is Deutsche Bundespost, the German post office which provides telephone service in Germany as the GPO does in the UK. The BBC report states \"this characteristic is based on subjective tests described by Belger.\" and cites a 1953 paper by E. Belger.Dolby Laboratories took up the new CCIR-468 weighting for use in measuring noise on their noise reduction systems, both in cinema (Dolby A) and on cassette decks (Dolby B), where other methods of measurement were failing to show up the advantage of such noise reduction. Some Hi-Fi column writers took up 468 weighting enthusiastically, observing that it reflected the roughly 10 dB improvement in noise observed subjectively on cassette recordings when using Dolby B while other methods could indicate an actual worsening in some circumstances, because they did not sufficiently attenuate noise above 10 kHz.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CCIR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comit%C3%A9_consultatif_international_pour_la_radio"},{"link_name":"Hi-Fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi-Fi"},{"link_name":"ITU-R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU-R"},{"link_name":"International Telecommunication Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union"},{"link_name":"cochlea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochlea"},{"link_name":"set of closely spaced filters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_bank"},{"link_name":"Q factor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q_factor"},{"link_name":"hair cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair_cell"},{"link_name":"RMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_mean_square"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"impulsive noise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_noise_(audio)"},{"link_name":"quasi-peak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-peak"},{"link_name":"psophometric weighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psophometric_weighting"},{"link_name":"Strowger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strowger_switch"}],"sub_title":"Standards","text":"CCIR Recommendation 468-1 was published soon after this report, and appears to have been based on the BBC work. Later versions up to CCIR 468-4 differed only in minor changes to permitted tolerances. This standard was then incorporated into many other national and international standards (IEC, BSI, JIS, ITU) and adopted widely as the standard method for measuring noise, in broadcasting, professional audio, and 'Hi-Fi' specifications throughout the 1970s. When the CCIR ceased to exist, the standard was officially taken over by the ITU-R (International Telecommunication Union). Current work on this standard occurs primarily in the maintenance of IEC 60268, the international standard for sound systems.The CCIR curve differs greatly from A-weighting in the 5 to 8 kHz region where it peaks to +12.2 dB at 6.3 kHz, the region in which we appear to be extremely sensitive to noise. While it has been said (incorrectly) that the difference is due to a requirement for assessing noise intrusiveness in the presence of programme material, rather than just loudness, the BBC report makes clear the fact that this was not the basis of the experiments. The real reason for the difference probably relates to the way in which our ears analyse sounds in terms of spectral content along the cochlea. This behaves like a set of closely spaced filters with a roughly constant Q factor, that is, bandwidths proportional to their centre frequencies. High frequency hair cells would therefore be sensitive to a greater proportion of the total energy in noise than low frequency hair cells. Though hair-cell responses are not exactly constant Q, and matters are further complicated by the way in which the brain integrates adjacent hair-cell outputs, the resultant effect appears roughly as a tilt centred on 1 kHz imposed on the A-weighting.Dependent on spectral content, 468-weighted measurements of noise are generally about 11 dB higher than A-weighted, and this is probably a factor in the recent trend away from 468-weighting in equipment specifications as cassette tape use declines.It is important to realise that the 468 specification covers both weighted and 'unweighted' (using a 22 Hz to 22 kHz 18 dB/octave bandpass filter) measurement and that both use a very special quasi-peak rectifier with carefully devised dynamics (A-weighting uses RMS detection for no particular reason[citation needed]). Rather than having a simple 'integration time' this detector requires implementation with two cascaded 'peak followers' each with different attack time-constants carefully chosen to control the response to both single and repeating tone-bursts of various durations. This ensures that measurements on impulsive noise take proper account of our reduced hearing sensitivity to short bursts. This quasi-peak measurement is also called psophometric weighting.This was once more important because outside broadcasts were carried over 'music circuits' that used telephone lines, with clicks from Strowger and other electromechanical telephone exchanges. It now finds fresh relevance in the measurement of noise on computer 'Audio Cards' which commonly suffer clicks as drives start and stop.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"distortion residue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distortion_residue&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"crossover distortion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossover_distortion"},{"link_name":"total harmonic distortion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_harmonic_distortion"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lindos-4"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"468-weighting is also used in weighted distortion measurement at 1 kHz. Weighting the distortion residue after removal of the fundamental emphasises high-order harmonics, but only up to 10 kHz or so where the ears response falls off. This results in a single measurement (sometimes called distortion residue measurement) which has been claimed to correspond well with subjective effect even for power amplifiers where crossover distortion is known to be far more audible than normal THD (total harmonic distortion) measurements would suggest.468-weighting is still demanded by the BBC and many other broadcasters,[4] with increasing awareness of its existence and the fact that it is more valid on random noise where pure tones do not exist.[citation needed]Often both A-weighted and 468-weighted figures are quoted for noise, especially in microphone specifications.While not intended for this application, the 468 curve has also been used (offset to place the 0 dB point at 2 kHz rather than 1 kHz) as \"M weighting\" in standards such as ISO 21727[5] intended to gauge loudness or annoyance of cinema soundtracks. This application of the weighting curve does not include the quasi-peak detector specified in the ITU standard.","title":"Present usage of 468-weighting"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Note: this is not the full definitive standard.","title":"Summary of specification"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Itu-r_468-circuit.png"}],"sub_title":"Weighting curve specification (weighted measurement)","text":"The weighting curve is specified by both a circuit diagram of a weighting network and a table of amplitude responses.Above is the ITU-R 468 Weighting Filter Circuit Diagram. The source and sink impedances are both 600 ohms (resistive), as shown in the diagram. The values are taken directly from the ITU-R 468 specification. Note that since this circuit is purely passive, it cannot create the additional 12 dB gain required; any results must be corrected by a factor of 8.1333, or +18.2 dB.Table of amplitude responses:The values of the amplitude response table slightly differ from those resulting from the circuit diagram, e.g. because of the finite resolution of the numerical values. In the standard it is said that the 33.06 nF capacitor may be adjusted or an active filter may be used.Modeling at hand the circuit above and some calculus give this formula to get the amplitude response in dB for any given frequency value :R\n \n \n I\n T\n U\n \n \n \n (\n f\n )\n =\n \n \n \n 1.246332637532143\n ⋅\n \n 10\n \n −\n 4\n \n \n \n f\n \n \n (\n \n h\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n f\n )\n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n (\n \n h\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n f\n )\n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{\\mathrm {ITU} }(f)={\\frac {1.246332637532143\\cdot 10^{-4}\\,f}{\\sqrt {(h_{1}(f))^{2}+(h_{2}(f))^{2}}}}}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n I\n T\n U\n \n (\n f\n )\n =\n 18.2\n +\n 20\n \n log\n \n 10\n \n \n ⁡\n \n (\n \n \n R\n \n \n I\n T\n U\n \n \n \n (\n f\n )\n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathrm {ITU} (f)=18.2+20\\log _{10}\\left(R_{\\mathrm {ITU} }(f)\\right)}whereh\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n f\n )\n =\n −\n 4.737338981378384\n ⋅\n \n 10\n \n −\n 24\n \n \n \n \n f\n \n 6\n \n \n +\n 2.043828333606125\n ⋅\n \n 10\n \n −\n 15\n \n \n \n \n f\n \n 4\n \n \n −\n 1.363894795463638\n ⋅\n \n 10\n \n −\n 7\n \n \n \n \n f\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle h_{1}(f)=-4.737338981378384\\cdot 10^{-24}\\,f^{6}+2.043828333606125\\cdot 10^{-15}\\,f^{4}-1.363894795463638\\cdot 10^{-7}\\,f^{2}+1}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n h\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n f\n )\n =\n 1.306612257412824\n ⋅\n \n 10\n \n −\n 19\n \n \n \n \n f\n \n 5\n \n \n −\n 2.118150887518656\n ⋅\n \n 10\n \n −\n 11\n \n \n \n \n f\n \n 3\n \n \n +\n 5.559488023498642\n ⋅\n \n 10\n \n −\n 4\n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle h_{2}(f)=1.306612257412824\\cdot 10^{-19}\\,f^{5}-2.118150887518656\\cdot 10^{-11}\\,f^{3}+5.559488023498642\\cdot 10^{-4}\\,f}","title":"Summary of specification"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Tone-burst response requirements","text":"5 kHz single bursts:","title":"Summary of specification"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Repetitive tone-burst response","text":"5 ms, 5 kHz bursts at repetition rate:","title":"Summary of specification"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Unweighted measurement","text":"Uses 22 Hz HPF and 22 kHz LPF 18 dB/decade or greater.(Tables to be added)","title":"Summary of specification"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Audio Engineer's Reference Book, 2nd Ed 1999, edited Michael Talbot Smith, Focal Press\nAn Introduction to the Psychology of Hearing 5th ed, Brian C. J. Moore, Elsevier Press","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c2/Lindos3.svg/400px-Lindos3.svg.png"}]	[{"title":"Noise weighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_weighting"},{"title":"Audio system measurements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_system_measurements"}]	[{"reference":"\"RECOMMENDATION ITU-R BS.468-4 - Measurement of audio-frequency noise voltage\" (PDF). www.itu.int. International Telecommunication Union. Retrieved 18 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.itu.int/dms_pubrec/itu-r/rec/bs/R-REC-BS.468-4-198607-I!!PDF-E.pdf","url_text":"\"RECOMMENDATION ITU-R BS.468-4 - Measurement of audio-frequency noise voltage\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union","url_text":"International Telecommunication Union"}]},{"reference":"\"1910.95 - Occupational noise exposure. \| Occupational Safety and Health Administration\". www.osha.gov. Retrieved 2018-10-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/regulations/standardnumber/1910/1910.95","url_text":"\"1910.95 - Occupational noise exposure. \| Occupational Safety and Health Administration\""}]},{"reference":"\"468 - Weighting in Detail\". Lindos. Retrieved 2011-07-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://lindos.co.uk/articles/itu-r-468-weighting-in-detail","url_text":"\"468 - Weighting in Detail\""}]},{"reference":"\"ISO 21727:2016(en) Cinematography — Method of measurement of perceived loudness of short duration motion-picture audio material\". ISO. 2016. Retrieved 2018-07-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:21727:ed-2:v1:en","url_text":"\"ISO 21727:2016(en) Cinematography — Method of measurement of perceived loudness of short duration motion-picture audio material\""}]}]	[{"Link":"http://www.itu.int/dms_pubrec/itu-r/rec/bs/R-REC-BS.468-4-198607-I!!PDF-E.pdf","external_links_name":"\"RECOMMENDATION ITU-R BS.468-4 - Measurement of audio-frequency noise voltage\""},{"Link":"https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/regulations/standardnumber/1910/1910.95","external_links_name":"\"1910.95 - Occupational noise exposure. \| Occupational Safety and Health Administration\""},{"Link":"http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/rd/pubs/reports/1968-08.pdf","external_links_name":"http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/rd/pubs/reports/1968-08.pdf"},{"Link":"https://lindos.co.uk/articles/itu-r-468-weighting-in-detail","external_links_name":"\"468 - Weighting in Detail\""},{"Link":"https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:21727:ed-2:v1:en","external_links_name":"\"ISO 21727:2016(en) Cinematography — Method of measurement of perceived loudness of short duration motion-picture audio material\""},{"Link":"http://www.aes.org/par/w/#ITU_R_468","external_links_name":"AES pro audio reference definition of ITU-R 468-weighting"},{"Link":"http://www.beis.de/Elektronik/AudioMeasure/WeightingFilters.html","external_links_name":"Weighting Filter Set"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:PrefixIndex&prefix=ITU&namespace=0","external_links_name":"All articles beginning with \"ITU\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wollaston_wire	Wollaston wire	["1 History","2 Uses","3 References"]	Wollaston wire is a very fine (less than 0.01 mm thick) platinum wire clad in silver and used in electrical instruments. For most uses, the silver cladding is etched away by acid to expose the platinum core. History The wire is named after its inventor, William Hyde Wollaston, who first produced it in England in the early 19th century. Platinum wire is drawn through successively smaller dies until it is about 0.003 inches (0.076 mm, 40 AWG) in diameter. It is then embedded in the middle of a silver wire having a diameter of about 0.100 inches (2.5 mm, 10 AWG). This composite wire is then drawn until the silver wire has a diameter of about 0.002 inches (0.051 mm, 44 AWG), causing the embedded platinum wire to be reduced by the same 50:1 ratio to a final diameter of 0.00006 inches (1.5 μm, 74 AWG). Removal of the silver coating with an acid bath leaves the fine platinum wire as a product of the process. Uses Wollaston wire was used in early radio detectors known as electrolytic detectors and the hot wire barretter. Other uses include suspension of delicate devices, sensing of temperature, and sensitive electrical power measurements. It continues to be used for the fastest-responding hot-wire anemometers. References ^ "William Hyde Wollaston: Research in Physics, Chemistry and Physiology". Carl Zeiss AG. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2009. ^ Lee, T. H., The design of CMOS radio-frequency integrated circuits, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press, 2004, p. 8. vteElectronic componentsSemiconductordevicesMOS transistors Transistor NMOS PMOS BiCMOS BioFET Chemical field-effect transistor (ChemFET) Complementary MOS (CMOS) Depletion-load NMOS Fin field-effect transistor (FinFET) Floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS) Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) ISFET LDMOS MOS field-effect transistor (MOSFET) Multi-gate field-effect transistor (MuGFET) Power MOSFET Thin-film transistor (TFT) VMOS UMOS Other transistors Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) Darlington transistor Diffused junction transistor Field-effect transistor (FET) Junction Gate FET (JFET) Organic FET (OFET) Light-emitting transistor (LET) Organic LET (OLET) Pentode transistor Point-contact transistor Programmable unijunction transistor (PUT) Static induction transistor (SIT) Tetrode transistor Unijunction transistor (UJT) Diodes Avalanche diode Constant-current diode (CLD, CRD) Gunn diode Laser diode (LD) Light-emitting diode (LED) Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) Photodiode PIN diode Schottky diode Step recovery diode Zener diode Other devices Printed electronics Printed circuit board DIAC Heterostructure barrier varactor Integrated circuit (IC) Hybrid integrated circuit Light emitting capacitor (LEC) Memistor Memristor Memtransistor Memory cell Metal oxide varistor (MOV) Mixed-signal integrated circuit MOS integrated circuit (MOS IC) Organic semiconductor Photodetector Quantum circuit RF CMOS Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) Solaristor Static induction thyristor (SITh) Three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D IC) Thyristor Trancitor TRIAC Varicap Voltage regulators Linear regulator Low-dropout regulator Switching regulator Buck Boost Buck–boost Split-pi Ćuk SEPIC Charge pump Switched capacitor Vacuum tubes Acorn tube Audion Beam tetrode Barretter Compactron Diode Fleming valve Neutron tube Nonode Nuvistor Pentagrid (Hexode, Heptode, Octode) Pentode Photomultiplier Phototube Tetrode Triode Vacuum tubes (RF) Backward-wave oscillator (BWO) Cavity magnetron Crossed-field amplifier (CFA) Gyrotron Inductive output tube (IOT) Klystron Maser Sutton tube Traveling-wave tube (TWT) X-ray tube Cathode-ray tubes Beam deflection tube Charactron Iconoscope Magic eye tube Monoscope Selectron tube Storage tube Trochotron Video camera tube Williams tube Gas-filled tubes Cold cathode Crossatron Dekatron Ignitron Krytron Mercury-arc valve Neon lamp Nixie tube Thyratron Trigatron Voltage-regulator tube Adjustable Potentiometer digital Variable capacitor Varicap Passive Connector audio and video electrical power RF Electrolytic detector Ferrite Antifuse Fuse resettable eFUSE Resistor Switch Thermistor Transformer Varistor Wire Wollaston wire Reactive Capacitor types Ceramic resonator Crystal oscillator Inductor Parametron Relay reed relay mercury relay	[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Wollaston wire"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William Hyde Wollaston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyde_Wollaston"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"dies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_(manufacturing)#Wire_pulling"},{"link_name":"AWG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Wire_Gauge"},{"link_name":"acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid"}],"text":"The wire is named after its inventor, William Hyde Wollaston, who first produced it in England in the early 19th century.[1] Platinum wire is drawn through successively smaller dies until it is about 0.003 inches (0.076 mm, 40 AWG) in diameter. It is then embedded in the middle of a silver wire having a diameter of about 0.100 inches (2.5 mm, 10 AWG). This composite wire is then drawn until the silver wire has a diameter of about 0.002 inches (0.051 mm, 44 AWG), causing the embedded platinum wire to be reduced by the same 50:1 ratio to a final diameter of 0.00006 inches (1.5 μm, 74 AWG). Removal of the silver coating with an acid bath leaves the fine platinum wire as a product of the process.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"detectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detector_(radio)"},{"link_name":"electrolytic detectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_detector"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"hot wire barretter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_wire_barretter"},{"link_name":"hot-wire anemometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemometer#Hot-wire_anemometers"}],"text":"Wollaston wire was used in early radio detectors known as electrolytic detectors [2] and the hot wire barretter. Other uses include suspension of delicate devices, sensing of temperature, and sensitive electrical power measurements.It continues to be used for the fastest-responding hot-wire anemometers.","title":"Uses"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"William Hyde Wollaston: Research in Physics, Chemistry and Physiology\". Carl Zeiss AG. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110727090010/http://www.zeiss.com/C12567A100537AB9/Contents-Frame/177A4B2FE53F8313C125695A0034012A","url_text":"\"William Hyde Wollaston: Research in Physics, Chemistry and Physiology\""},{"url":"http://www.zeiss.com/C12567A100537AB9/Contents-Frame/177A4B2FE53F8313C125695A0034012A","url_text":"the original"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110727090010/http://www.zeiss.com/C12567A100537AB9/Contents-Frame/177A4B2FE53F8313C125695A0034012A","external_links_name":"\"William Hyde Wollaston: Research in Physics, Chemistry and Physiology\""},{"Link":"http://www.zeiss.com/C12567A100537AB9/Contents-Frame/177A4B2FE53F8313C125695A0034012A","external_links_name":"the original"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Corporation	NEC	["1 History","1.1 NEC","1.2 1919 to 1938","1.3 1938 to 1945","1.4 1945 to 1980","1.5 1980 to 2000","1.6 2000 to present","2 Operations","3 Products","3.1 Laptops","3.2 Supercomputers","4 Achievements","5 Sponsorships","6 Sports teams","7 See also","8 Footnotes","9 References","10 External links"]	Japanese technology corporation This article is about the Japanese information technology company. For other uses, see NEC (disambiguation). Not to be confused with NEC Group. NEC CorporationLogo since 1992Headquarters at the NEC Supertower in Minato, Tokyo, JapanNative name日本電気株式会社Romanized nameNippon Denki Kabushiki gaishaFormerlyNippon Electric Company, Limited (1899-1983, in English)Company typePublic KKTraded asTYO: 6701IndustryInformation technologyElectronicsFounded17 July 1899; 124 years ago (1899-07-17) in Tokyo, JapanHeadquartersNEC Supertower, Shiba, Minato, Tokyo, JapanArea servedWorldwideKey peopleTakashi Niino (Chairman)Takayuki Morita (President)ProductsTelecommunications equipmentServersSupercomputersSoftwareArtificial satellitesConsumer electronicsMachine tools Former Domestic appliancesLightingBatteriesSemiconductorsDisplaysServicesCloud computingRevenue¥2.9 trillion (2021)Operating income¥153 billion (2021)Net income¥161 billion (2021)Total assets¥3.7 trillion (2021)Total equity¥1.5 trillion (2021)Number of employees114,714 (2021)Subsidiaries List NEC PlatformsNEC FieldingNEC Solution InnovatorsABeam ConsultingNEC Communication SystemsNEC NexsolutionsNEC FacilitiesNEC Networks & System Integration (51.4%)Japan Aviation Electronics (50.8%)NEC Corporation of AmericaNEC EuropeNEC Asia PacificNEC ChinaNEC Latin AmericaNetcracker Technology Websitenec.com NEC Corporation (日本電気株式会社, Nippon Denki Kabushiki gaisha, an acronym for the Nippon Electric Company) is a Japanese multinational information technology and electronics corporation, headquartered at the NEC Supertower in Minato, Tokyo, Japan. It provides IT and network solutions, including cloud computing, artificial intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT) platform, and telecommunications equipment and software to business enterprises, communications services providers and to government agencies, and has also been the biggest PC vendor in Japan since the 1980s when it launched the PC-8000 series. NEC was the world's fourth-largest PC manufacturer by 1990. Its semiconductors business unit was the world's largest semiconductor company by annual revenue from 1985 to 1992, the second largest in 1995, one of the top three in 2000, and one of the top 10 in 2006. NEC spun off its semiconductor business to Renesas Electronics and Elpida Memory. Once Japan's major electronics company, NEC has largely withdrawn from manufacturing since the beginning of the 21st century. NEC was #463 on the 2017 Fortune 500 list. NEC is a member of the Sumitomo Group. History NEC Kunihiko Iwadare and Takeshiro Maeda established Nippon Electric Limited Partnership on August 31, 1898, by using facilities that they had bought from Miyoshi Electrical Manufacturing Company. Iwadare acted as the representative partner; Maeda handled company sales. Western Electric, which had an interest in the Japanese phone market, was represented by Walter Tenney Carleton. Carleton was also responsible for the renovation of the Miyoshi facilities. It was agreed that the partnership would be reorganized as a joint-stock company when the treaty would allow it. On July 17, 1899, the revised treaty between Japan and the United States went into effect. Nippon Electric Company, Limited was organized the same day as Western Electric Company to become the first Japanese joint-venture with foreign capital. Iwadare was named managing director. Ernest Clement and Carleton were named as directors. Maeda and Mototeru Fujii were assigned to be auditors. Iwadare, Maeda, and Carleton handled the overall management. The company started with the production, sales, and maintenance of telephones and switches. NEC modernized the production facilities with the construction of the Mita Plant in 1901 at Mita Shikokumachi. It was completed in December 1902. The Japanese Ministry of Communications adopted a new technology in 1903: the common battery switchboard supplied by NEC. The common battery switchboards powered the subscriber phone, eliminating the need for a permanent magnet generator in each subscriber's phone. The switchboards were initially imported, but were manufactured locally by 1909. NEC started exporting telephone sets to China in 1904. In 1905, Iwadare visited Western Electric in the U.S. to see their management and production control. On his return to Japan, he discontinued the "oyakata" system of sub-contracting and replaced it with a new system where managers and employees were all direct employees of the company. Inefficiency was also removed from the production process. The company paid higher salaries with incentives for efficiency. New accounting and cost controls were put in place, and time clocks was installed. Between 1899 and 1907 the number of telephone subscribers in Japan rose from 35,000 to 95,000. NEC entered the China market in 1908 with the implementation of the telegraph treaty between Japan and China. They also entered the Korean market, setting up an office in Seoul in January 1908. During the period from 1907 to 1912 sales rose from 1.6 million yen to 2 million yen. The expansion of the Japanese phone service had been a key part of NEC's success during this period. The Ministry of Communications delayed a third expansion plan of the phone service in March 1913, despite having 120,000 potential telephone subscribers waiting for phone installations. NEC sales fell sixty percent between 1912 and 1915. During the interim, Iwadare started importing appliances, including electric fans, kitchen appliances, washing machines, and vacuum cleaners. Electric fans had never been seen in Japan before. The imports were intended to prop up company sales. In 1916, the government resumed the delayed telephone-expansion plan, adding 75,000 subscribers and 326,000 kilometers of new toll lines. Thanks to this third expansion plan, NEC expanded at a time when much of the rest of the Japanese industry contracted. 1919 to 1938 In 1919, NEC started its first association with Sumitomo, engaging Sumitomo Densen Seizosho to manufacture cables. As part of the venture, NEC provided cable manufacturing equipment to Sumitomo Densen. Rights to Western Electric's duplex cable patents were also transferred to Sumitomo Densen. The Great Kantō earthquake struck Japan in 1923. 140,000 people were killed and 3.4 million were left homeless. Four of NEC's factories were destroyed, killing 105 of NEC's engineers and workers. Thirteen of Tokyo's telephone offices were destroyed by fire. Telephone and telegraph service was interrupted by damage to telephone cables. In response, the Ministry of Communications accelerated major programs to install automatic telephone switching systems and enter radio broadcasting. The first automatic switching systems were the Strowger-type model made by Automatic Telephone Manufacturing Co. (ATM) in the United Kingdom. NEC participated in the installation of the automatic switching systems, ultimately becoming the general sales agent for ATM. NEC developed its own Strowger-type automatic switching system in 1924, the first in Japan. One of the plants almost leveled during the Kanto earthquake, the Mita Plant, was chosen to support expanding production. A new three-story steel-reinforced concrete building was built, starting in 1925. It was modeled after the Western Electric Hawthorne Works. NEC started its radio communications business in 1924. Japan's first radio broadcaster, Radio Tokyo was founded in 1924 and started broadcasting in 1925. NEC imported the broadcasting equipment from Western Electric. The expansion of radio broadcasting into Osaka and Nagoya marked the emergence of radio as an Industry. NEC established a radio research unit in 1924. NEC started developing electron tubes in 1925. By 1930, they were manufacturing their first 500 W radio transmitter. They provided the Chinese Xinjing station with a 100 kW radio broadcasting system in 1934. Photo-telegraphic equipment developed by NEC transmitted photos of the accession ceremony of Emperor Hirohito. The ceremony was held in Kyoto in 1928. The Newspapers Asahi Shimbun and Mainichi Shimbun were competing to cover the ceremony. The Asahi Shimbun was using a Siemens device. The Mainichi was planning to use French photo-telegraphic equipment. In the end, both papers acquired and used the NEC product, due to its faster transmission rate and higher picture quality. In 1929 Nippon Electric provided Japan's Ministry of Communications with the A-type switching system, the first of these systems to be developed in Japan. Nippon supplied Japan's Ministry of Communications with nonloaded line carrier equipment for long-distance telephone channels in 1937. 1938 to 1945 World War II was described by the company as being the blackest days of its history. In 1938 the Mita and Tamagawa plants were placed under military control, with direct supervision by military officers. In 1939, Nippon Electric established a research laboratory in the Tamagawa plant. It became the first Japanese company to successfully test microwave multiplex communications. On December 22, 1941, the enemy property control law was passed. NEC shares owned by International Standard Electric Corporation (ISE), an ITT subsidiary, and Western Electric affiliate were seized. Capital and technical relations were abruptly severed. The "Munitions Company Law" was passed in October 1943, placing overall control of NEC plants under military jurisdiction. The Ueno plant was leveled by the military attack in March 1945. Fire bombings in April and May heavily damaged the Tamagawa Plant, reducing its capacity by forty percent. The Okayama Plant was totally destroyed by a bombing attack in June of the same year. At the end of the war, NEC's production had been substantially reduced by damage to its facilities, and by material and personnel shortages. 1945 to 1980 After the war, production was slowly returned to civilian use. NEC re-opened its major plants by the end of January 1946. NEC began transistor research and development in 1950. It started exporting radio-broadcast equipment to Korea under the first major postwar contract in 1951. NEC received the Deming Prize for excellence in quality control in 1952. Computer research and development began in 1954. NEC produced the first crossbar switching system in Japan. It was installed at Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Public Corporation (currently Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation; NTT) in 1956. NEC began joint research and development with NTT of electronic switching systems the same year. NEC established Taiwan Telecommunication Company as their first postwar overseas joint venture in 1958. They completed the NEAC-1101 and NEAC-1102 computers in the same year. In September 1958, NEC built their first fully transistorized computer, the NEAC-2201, with parts made solely in Japan. One year later, they demonstrated it at the UNESCO AUTOMATH show in Paris. The company began integrated circuit research and development in 1960. In 1963 NEC started trading as American Depositary Receipts, with ten million shares being sold in the United States. Nippon Electric New York (now NEC America Inc.) was incorporated in the same year. The NEC logo used from 1963 to 1992 NEC supplied KDD with submarine cable systems for laying in the Pacific Ocean in 1964. They supplied short-haul 24 channel PCM carrier transmission equipment to NTT in 1965. NEC de Mexico, S. A. de C. V., NEC do Brasil, S. A., NEC Australia Pty. Ltd. were established between 1968 and 1969. NEC supplied Comsat Corporation with the SPADE satellite communications system in 1971. In 1972, Switzerland ordered a NEC satellite communications earth station. The same year, a small transportable satellite communications earth station was set up in China. Shares of NEC common stock were listed on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange in 1973. NEC also designed an automated broadcasting system for the Japan Broadcasting Corporation in the same year. NEC Electronics (Europe) GmbH was also established. In 1974, the ACOS series computer was introduced. The New Central Research Laboratories were completed in 1975. In 1977, Japan's National Space Development Agency launched the NEC geostationary meteorological satellite, named Himawari. During this period NEC introduced the concept of "C&C", the integration of computers and communications. NEC America Inc. opened a plant in Dallas, Texas to manufacture PABX and telephone systems in 1978. They also acquired Electronic Arrays, Inc. of California the same year to start semiconductor chip production in the United States. 1980 to 2000 A 1982 NEC APC microcomputer In 1980, NEC created the first digital signal processor, the NEC μPD7720. NEC Semiconductors (UK) Ltd. was established in 1981, producing VLSIs and LSIs. NEC introduced the 8-bit PC-8800 series personal computer in 1981, followed by the 16-bit PC-9800 series in 1982. In 1983 NEC stock was listed on the Basel, Geneva, and Zurich, Switzerland exchanges. NEC quickly became the dominant leader of the Japanese PC industry, holding 80% market share. NEC changed its English company name to NEC Corporation the same year. NEC Information Systems, Inc. started manufacturing computers and related products in the United States in 1984. NEC also released the V-series processor the same year. In 1986, NEC delivered its SX-2 supercomputer to the Houston Advanced Research Center, The Woodlands, Texas. In the same year, the NEAX61 digital switching system went into service. In 1987, NEC Technologies (UK) Ltd. was established in the United Kingdom to manufacture VCRs, printers, and computer monitors and mobile telephones for Europe. Also that year, NEC licensed technology from Hudson Soft, a video game manufacturer, to create a video game console called the PC-Engine (later released in 1989 as the TurboGrafx-16 in the North American market). Its prototype 3D spec successor, the Tetsujin was originally set to be released in 1992, but the lack of completed games pushed the launch date about early 1993, which was planned debut in Japan. While the PC-Engine achieved a considerable following, it has been said that NEC held a much stronger influence on the video game industry through its role as a leading semiconductor manufacturer than through any of its direct video game products. NEC USA, Inc. was established in 1989 as a holding company for North American operations. In 1983, NEC Brasil (pt), the Brazilian subsidiary of NEC, was forced to nationalize its corporate stock under orders of the Brazilian military government, whereby shareholder control of NEC Brasil was ceded to the private equity group Brasilinvest of Brazilian investment banker Mário Garnero. Since NEC Brasil's foundation in 1968, it had become the major supplier of telecommunications equipment to the Brazilian government. In 1986, the then Minister of Communications Antônio Carlos Magalhães put NEC Brasil in financial difficulties by suspending all government contract payments to the company, whose main client was the federal government. With the subsidiary in crisis, the NEC Corporation in Japan sold NEC Brasil to Organizações Globo for only one million US dollars (US$1,000,000). Shortly thereafter, Magalhães resumed the government contracts and corresponding payments, and NEC Brazil became valued at over 350 million US dollars (US$350,000,000). Suspicions regarding the NEC-Globo deal, which included among other things the unilateral breach of contract by Globo founder Roberto Marinho regarding the management of a regional television station in the Brazilian state of Bahia, took to the national stage only in 1992 during the first corruption charges against the impeached Brazilian president Fernando Collor de Mello. Organizações Globo subsequently sold their shares in NEC Brazil, which hit their all-time high during the state monopoly years, back to NEC Corporation in 1999 following the break-up and privatization of the Brazilian state-owned telephone monopoly Telebrás. In 1990, the new head office building, known as the "Super Tower", was completed in Shiba, Tokyo. Additionally, joint-venture agreements were established to manufacture and market digital electronic switching systems and LSIs in China. In 1993 NEC's asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) switching system, the NEAX61 (Nippon Electronic Automatic Exchange) ATM Service Node, went into service in the United States. NEC Europe, Ltd. was established as a holding company for European operations the same year. The NEC C&C Research Laboratories, NEC Europe, Ltd. were opened in Germany in 1994. NEC (China) Co, Ltd. was established as a holding company for Chinese operations in 1996. In 1997 NEC developed 4Gbit DRAM, and their semiconductor group was honored with one of the first Japan Quality Awards. In 1998, NEC opened the world's most advanced semiconductor R&D facility. A NEC Versa 6010H from c. 1996 NEC Mobile Gear II MC/R330 handheld computer running Windows CE 2.0 (Japanese market, 1998) NEC had been the no. 1 personal computer vendor in Japan during the 1980s, but it faced increasing competition from Fujitsu, Seiko Epson and IBM Japan. Nevertheless, by the early 1990s, NEC was still the largest, having well over 50% market share in the Japanese market. Competition heated up later as rival Fujitsu started to aggressively market its computers, which were industry standard (x86) instead of NEC's indigenous models. In June 1995, NEC purchased the California-based Packard Bell company to produce desktop PCs in a common manufacturing plant for the North American market. As a result, NEC Technologies (USA) was merged with Packard Bell to create Packard Bell NEC Inc. By 1997, NEC's share was reduced to about 35%. In decades, NEC released a new console for its predecessor SuperGrafx, the Japan-only PC-FX, a 32-bit system with a tower-like design; it enjoyed a small but steady stream of games until 1998, when NEC finally abandoned the video games industry. NEC also supplied rival Nintendo with the RISC-based CPU, V810 (same one used in the PC-FX) for the Virtual Boy and VR4300 CPU for the Nintendo 64, released in 1995–1996, and both SNK updated VR4300 CPU (64-bit MIPS III) on Hyper Neo Geo 64, as well as to former rival Sega with a version of its PowerVR 2 GPU for the Dreamcast, released in 1997–1998. After working the previous chipset on the system. NEC supplied Bandai's WonderSwan handheld console, which was originally developed by Gunpei Yokoi, with the V30 MZ CPU. In the 2000s, NEC manufactured dynamic RAM process chips and produced for the GameCube GPU, Flipper, a graphics card development by ArtX. NEC celebrated their 100th anniversary in 1999. 2000 to present Kaoru Yano, the previous chairman of NEC In 2000, NEC formed a joint-venture with Samsung SDI to manufacture OLED displays. NEC Electronics Corporation was separated from NEC in 2002 as a new semiconductor company. NEC Laboratories America, Inc. (NEC Labs) started in November 2002 as a merger of NEC Research Institute (NECI) and NEC USA's Computer and Communications Research Laboratory (CCRL). NEC built the Earth Simulator Computer (ESC), the fastest supercomputer in the world from 2002 to 2004. In 2003 NEC had a 20.8% market share in the personal computer market in Japan, slightly ahead of Fujitsu. In 2004, NEC abandoned not only the OLED business, but the display business as a whole, by selling off their plasma display business and exiting from the joint-venture with Samsung SDI. Samsung bought all of the shares and related patents owned by NEC, incorporating Samsung OLED, which subsequently merged with Samsung Display. In 2007, NEC and Nissan Co. Corp. started evaluating a joint venture to produce lithium ion batteries for hybrid and electric cars. The two companies established Automotive Energy Supply Corporation as a result. On April 23, 2009, Renesas Technology Corp and NEC Electronics Corp struck a basic agreement to merge by around April 2010. On April 1, 2010, NEC Electronics and Renesas Technology merged forming Renesas Electronics which is set to be fourth largest semiconductor company according to iSuppli published data. By Q3 2010, NEC held a 19.8% market share in the PC market in Japan. On January 27, 2011, NEC formed a joint venture with Chinese PC maker Lenovo, the fourth largest PC maker in the world. As part of the deal, the companies said in a statement they will establish a new company called Lenovo NEC Holdings B.V., which will be registered in the Netherlands. NEC will receive US$175 million from Lenovo through the issuance of Lenovo's shares. Lenovo, through a unit, will own a 51% stake in the joint venture, while NEC will hold a 49% stake. In February 2011, Bloomberg News said the joint venture would allow Lenovo to expand in the field of servers, and NEC's Masato Yamamoto said NEC would be able to grow in China. On January 26, 2012, NEC Corporation announced that it would cut 10,000 jobs globally due to a big loss on NEC's consolidated financial statement in line with the economic crisis in Europe and lagged in the development of smartphones in the domestic market compared to Apple and Samsung. Previously, in January 2009 NEC has cut about 20,000 jobs, mainly in sluggish semiconductor and liquid crystal display related businesses. In 2013 NEC was the biggest PC server manufacturer in Japan, with a 23.6% share. In August 2014, NEC Corporation was commissioned to build a super-fast undersea data transmission cable linking the United States and Japan for a consortium of international companies consisting of China Mobile International, China Telecom Global, Global Transit, Google, KDDI and SingTel. The pipeline went online June 30, 2016. It exited from the smartphone market in 2015 by dissolving NEC Mobile Communications, bailing out the other participants in the smartphone joint-venture. In April 2017, KEMET Corporation announced it would purchase a 61% controlling interest in NEC Tokin from NEC, making NEC Tokin its wholly owned subsidiary. Once the purchase is complete, the company will change its name to "Tokin Corporation". In July 2018, NEC established its subsidiary, NEC X, in Silicon Valley, to fast-track technologies and business ideas selected from inside and outside NEC. NEC X created a corporate accelerator program that works with entrepreneurs, start-ups and existing companies to help them develop new products that leverage NEC's emerging technologies. In August 2018, Envision Energy struck an agreement with Nissan and NEC to acquire their automotive battery joint venture. In December 2018, NEC announced that it would acquire KMD, the largest Danish IT company, for $1.2 billion to strengthen its digital government business. NEC has sold its sixty-year-old lighting business in April 2019. As of September 2019, NEC is the largest supplier of AI surveillance technology in the world. In the first half of 2020, NEC sold a majority stake in NEC Display Solutions, the professional display subsidiary, to Sharp Corporation and decided to gradually curtail the money-losing energy storage business throughout the decade. Upon the suggested banning of Huawei's 5G equipment led by the United States in 2020, being a diminished supplier, NEC was galvanized to ramp up its relatively small 5G network business to fill the void in the telecommunications equipment markets of the United States and the United Kingdom. NTT, the largest carrier in Japan, invested $596 million for a 4.8 percent stake in NEC to assist this move. In December 2020, NEC acquired Swiss digital banking solution developer Avaloq for US$2.2 billion. Operations As of July 2018, NEC has 6 larger business segments—Public, Enterprise, Network Services, System Platform, Global, and Others. It has renamed its Telecom Carrier business to Network Service. Principal subsidiaries of NEC include: NEC Corporation of America Netcracker Technology NEC Display Solutions of America (A Sharp-owned company as of July 2020) NEC Europe KMD Avaloq The European headquarters of Renesas Electronics Europe in Düsseldorf, Germany (formerly NEC Electronics (Europe)) Japan Ground Self-Defense Force J/TPS-102 self-propelled ground-based early warning 3D radar NEC's Kobe system center Products An NTT DoCoMo FOMA N-02C mobile phone produced by NEC NEC MobilePro – a handheld computer running Windows CE NEC Aspire hybrid small business phone system Electric vehicle batteries (Automotive Energy Supply Corporation, a joint-venture between Nissan, NEC Corporation and NEC TOKIN) NEC mobile phone (see NEC e616) NEC America MultiSync Monitors and Fax devices1 NEC digital cinema projector NEC Home Electronics (USA), Inc. / NEC MultiSpeed laptop PCs, MultiSync series PC monitors and Data Projectors NEC Home Electronics (USA), Inc. / TV, Projection TV, VCRs and Home Audio (CD, Amplifiers, Receivers) NEC Technologies, Inc. / Versa series notebook PCs NEC Information Systems, Inc. POWERMATE desktop PCs NEC Information Systems, Inc. Valuestar / NEC POWERMATE hybrid computer NEC (Division unknown) Car Stereos and Keyless Entry Systems Game consoles: PC Engine (TurboGrafx-16 in the US) and all related hardware and successors; co-produced by Hudson Soft. PC-Engine GT (TurboExpress in the US) PC-Engine Duo (TurboDuo in the US) PC-FX Personal computers: PC-6000 series PC-6600 series PC-8000 series PC-8800 series PC-9800 series, also known as PC-98 Microprocessors: NEC V20 NEC V25 Defense products include: J/TPS-102 Self-propelled ground-based early warning 3D radar (JGSDF) Broadband multipurpose radio system (JGSDF) Advanced Combat Infantry Equipment System (JSDF) – Major subcontractor Howa rifle system (JSDF) – Major subcontractor as part of ACIES Food Ren AI Pan Laptops ProSpeed Versa pro type VB December 2016 Supercomputers The Earth Simulator 1983 Announced the SX-1 and SX-2 supercomputers 1989 Introduction of SX-3 1994 First announcement of SX-4 1999 Delivery of SX-5 2002 Introduced SX-6 2002 Installation of the Earth Simulator, the world's fastest supercomputer from 2002 to 2004 reaching a speed of 35,600 gigaflops 2005 NEC SX-8 in production 2006 Announced the SX-8R 2007 Announced the SX-9 2011 First announcement of the NEC SX-9's successor 2013 Announced the SX-ACE 2017 Announced the SX-Aurora TSUBASA, computing platform that expands the horizons of supercomputing, Artificial Intelligence and Big Data analytics. Achievements Achievements of NEC include: the discovery of single-walled carbon nanotubes by Sumio Iijima the invention of the widely used MUX-scan design for test methodology (contrast with the IBM-developed level-sensitive scan design methodology) the world's first demonstration of the one-qubit rotation gate in solid state devices. As for mobile phones, NEC pioneered key technologies like color displays, 3G support, dual screens and camera modules. Developed a facial recognition system able to detect and distinguish human faces through medical masks. Released the first home console video game system to use compact discs, being the first widely available product to use compact discs as a platform for interactive video entertainment outside of home computer use. Sponsorships NEC was the main (title) sponsor of the Davis Cup competition until 2002, when BNP Paribas took over the sponsorship. NEC between 1982 and 2012 sponsored the NEC Cup, a Go tournament in Japan. NEC between 1986 and 2003 sponsored the NEC Shun-Ei, a Go tournament for young players in Japan. NEC sponsored the English football club Everton from 1985 to 1995. The 1995 FA Cup Final triumph was Everton's final game of the decade-long NEC sponsorship, and Danka took over as sponsors. NEC first time signed the deal to sponsor Sauber F1 Team from 2011 season until 2014 season. Right after Sauber, NEC continue sponsored Sahara Force India F1 Team for 2015 season until its demise during 2018 season. Since then NEC has sponsored for their last time its successor Racing Point only in 2019 season. In April 2013, NEC became the umbrella sponsor for PGA Tour Latinoamérica, a third-tier men's professional golf tour. Sports teams These started as works teams, but over the years came to include professional players: NEC Red Rockets (women's volleyball) NEC Green Rockets (men's rugby union) NEC also used to own Montedio Yamagata of the football (soccer) J. League, but as of 2009 just sponsors them along with other local companies. The following team is defunct. NEC Blue Rockets (men's volleyball) See also Portals: Tokyo Companies Telecommunication Electronics Technology List of computer system manufacturers TurboGrafx-16 Footnotes ^ "NEC Corporate profile Management". Retrieved 1 January 2024. ^ a b c d e f "Full Year Consolidated Financial Results for the Fiscal Year Ended March 31, 2021" (PDF). 1 October 2018. ^ "Corporate Profile." NEC. Retrieved on July 12, 2010. ^ "NEC IoT Network Solution: NEC Digital Network Transformation". NEC. Retrieved 16 September 2019. ^ "Accelerating DX with 5G: For Telecom Operators". NEC. Retrieved 17 September 2019. ^ Fransman, Martin (1995). Japan's Computer and Communications Industry: The Evolution of Industrial Giants and Global Competitiveness. Oxford University Press. p. 17. ISBN 9780198233336. ^ "Tracking the Top 10 Semiconductor Sales Leaders Over 26 Years". Semiconductor Market Research. IC Insights. 12 December 2011. ^ "WORLDWIDE IC MANUFACTURERS" (PDF). 14 August 2023. ^ "NEC Financials and News". fortune.com. Archived from the original on 24 June 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2018. NEC is #463 on the 2017 Fortune 500 list. ^ Mason 1987, p. 94. ^ NEC 1984, p. 6. ^ Mason 1987, p. 95. ^ NEC 1984, p. 8. ^ "history". nec. Retrieved 10 November 2015. ^ NEC 1984, p. 9 ^ NEC 1984, p. 12. ^ NEC 1984, p. 15. ^ Fitzgerald, Robert (7 January 2016). The Rise of the Global Company: Multinationals and the Making of the Modern World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-33828-5. ^ "Kanto Earthquake \| Volunteerism in Japan". Retrieved 27 August 2020. ^ "The 120-Year History of Oki Electric \| Corporate Information \| OKI Global". www.oki.com. Retrieved 27 August 2020. ^ NEC 1984, p. 20 ^ "Vendor Network Architectures - Part XIX: NEC Unified Solutions". www.enterprisenetworkingplanet.com. 4 April 2006. Retrieved 27 August 2020. ^ NEC 1984, p. 22 ^ NEC 1984, p. 31. ^ NEC 1984, p. 30 ^ NEC 1984, p. 30. ^ a b "History of NEC Corporation – FundingUniverse". www.fundinguniverse.com. Retrieved 27 August 2020. ^ "NEAC-2201-Computer Museum". museum.ipsj.or.jp. Retrieved 27 August 2020. ^ SEC. "Nec Corp 2007 Foreign Issuer Report 6-K". SEC.report. Archived from the original on 3 October 2020. Retrieved 21 August 2020. ^ NEC 1984, p. 46. ^ "GMS - eoPortal Directory - Satellite Missions". directory.eoportal.org. Retrieved 21 August 2020. ^ "NEC Corporation \| Japanese corporation". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 21 August 2020. ^ Page 211, Inventing the Electronic Century: The Epic Story of the Consumer Electronics and Computer Industries, with a new preface by Alfred Dupont CHANDLER, Takashi Hikino, Andrew Von Nordenflycht, Alfred D Chandler, ISBN 0674029399, 9780674029392 ^ "75 Power Players". Next Generation (11). Imagine Media: 56. November 1995. But NEC's influence stretches far above and beyond its immediate videogame products. As a leading semiconductor manufacturer, the company's influence is there from the cradle to the grave of every aspect of computing. ^ a b c d e Hartog, Simon (director) (September 1993). Beyond Citizen Kane. United Kingdom: Channel 4. ^ Lobato, Elvira. "Globo vende a Nec para os japoneses". Folha de S.Paulo. 31 July 1999. Page accessed 28 December 2017. ^ "NEC faces tough market in Japan". Cnet. 26 November 1997. Retrieved 14 August 2018. ^ Edwards, Benj (21 August 2015). "Unraveling The Enigma Of Nintendo's Virtual Boy, 20 Years Later". Fast Company. Retrieved 2 April 2024. ^ "The failed heir: The Hyper Neo Geo 64!". 20 March 2021. ^ "Hardware Classics: Bandai WonderSwan". 11 March 2014. ^ "Handheld Classics: Bandai WonderSwan". 18 June 2008. ^ "NEC - Guide". ^ "NEC Plant opens for Gamecube Production". 28 January 2001. ^ "NEC in volume production with GameCube graphics engine". 27 February 2001. ^ "GameCube Successor Under Development". ^ Robertson, Jack (6 December 2000). "Samsung and NEC set up joint display venture". EE Times. Retrieved 1 June 2024. ^ Hara, Yoshiko (1 November 2002). "NEC spins off semiconductor operations". EE Times. Retrieved 1 June 2024. ^ Robertson, Jack (23 September 2002). "NEC merges research laboratories". EE Times. Retrieved 1 June 2024. ^ "The Earth Simulator". TOP500. Retrieved 1 June 2024. ^ Page 110, Industrial Development in Postwar Japan by Hirohisa Kohama, ISBN 978-0415437073 ^ "NEC drops its OLED business". ^ "Samsung SDI to merge with Samsung OLED \| OLED-Info". www.oled-info.com. Retrieved 2 July 2020. ^ "Mitsubishi Heavy to make lithium ion car batteries". Archived from the original on 11 January 2008. ^ Bijoy Koyitty; Deepak Kannan (23 April 2009). "Renesas, NEC reach basic agreement to merge: Nikkei". reuters.com. Thomson Reuters. Retrieved 14 May 2009. Renesas Technology Corp and NEC Electronics Corp (6723.T) have struck a basic agreement to merge by around next April, the Nikkei business daily reported. ^ "Renesas Electronics is biggest 'non-memory' chip firm". ElectronicsWeekly.com. 2 April 2010. Retrieved 3 April 2010. ^ "Lenovo, NEC Form PC Joint Venture in Japan". PCWorld. Retrieved 14 August 2018. ^ "NEC Forms PC Joint Venture With Lenovo, Posts Wider Loss". Wall Street Journal. 27 January 2011. Retrieved 9 February 2011. ^ Ranii, David (9 February 2011). "Lenovo and NEC may team up on servers". News & Observer. Archived from the original on 10 February 2011. Retrieved 9 February 2011. ^ "Japan's electronics industry forced to eliminate tens of thousands of jobs". January 28, 2012. Archived from the original on January 30, 2012. Retrieved January 31, 2012. ^ "Lenovo hopes to dominate Japan server, PC markets". Nikkei Asian Review. Retrieved 14 August 2018. ^ "High-speed Undersea Cable to Link US, Asia". The Tokyo News.Net. 12 August 2014. Retrieved 13 August 2014. ^ "FASTER Cable System is Ready for Service, Boosts Trans-Pacific Capacity and Connectivity". NEC.com. Retrieved 20 July 2016. ^ Chin, Spencer (24 February 2017). "KEMET Acquires NEC TOKIN to Bolster Component Business". Electronics 360. Archived from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved 31 March 2017. ^ "NEC X". insideHPC. Retrieved 2 July 2020. ^ "Nissan agrees to sell car battery unit to China's Envision Group". Reuters. 3 August 2018. Retrieved 31 March 2023. ^ "Nissan To Sell Battery Division To Envision Group". Inside EVs. 3 August 2018. Retrieved 31 March 2023. ^ "After original buyer bid fails, Nissan & NEC's Li-ion battery business acquired by China's Envision". Energy Storage News. 7 August 2018. Retrieved 17 September 2019. ^ "NEC Acquires the Largest Danish IT Company, KMD". Bloomberg.com. 27 December 2018. Retrieved 16 September 2019. ^ "NEC to Sell Lighting Subsidiary in April 2019". www.ledinside.com. Retrieved 2 July 2020. ^ Feldstein, Steven. "The Global Expansion of AI Surveillance". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved 22 September 2019. ^ "NEC and Sharp Announce Joint Venture to Combine Display Solution Businesses". NEC. Retrieved 2 July 2020. ^ "NEC Pulls the Plug on Storage Integration Business". www.greentechmedia.com. Retrieved 2 July 2020. ^ "NEC sees Huawei's woes as chance to crack 5G market". The Financial Times. 1 July 2020. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. ^ "NEC acquires Switzerland's Avaloq for $2.2bn". FT. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. ^ "NEC to Revise Operating Segments" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2020. ^ "Nissan Nuvu". Retrieved 14 August 2018. ^ Toi, Saki; CNN (14 February 2024). "A Japanese bakery is using AI to produce 'romance bread' targeted at love-averse youth". CNN. Retrieved 14 February 2024. {{cite web}}: \|last2= has generic name (help) ^ NEC website (December 2016). "Business Computers" (PDF). nec.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 December 2017. ^ "NEC Developing Next Generation Vector Supercomputer(November 7, 2011): News Room \| NEC". www.nec.co.jp. ^ "NEC releases new high-end HPC product line, SX-Aurora TSUBASA". NEC. ^ "The Discovery of Carbon Nanotubes - Basle, 22.11.2007". www.balzan.org (in Italian). Retrieved 21 August 2020. ^ "NEC and the sorrow of Japan". Archived from the original on September 27, 2013. Retrieved July 18, 2013. ^ "Facial recognition identifies people wearing masks". 7 January 2021. Retrieved 7 January 2021. ^ "Davis Cup - Davis Cup History". www.daviscup.com. Retrieved 21 August 2020. ^ "Previous Everton sponsors - NSNO". Retrieved 21 August 2020. ^ "NEC joins Sauber as premium sponsor". us.motorsport.com. March 2011. Retrieved 21 August 2020. ^ "Formula One: NEC Force India extend partnership for 2016". Wilde Consulting. 18 March 2016. Retrieved 21 August 2020. ^ "NEC becomes umbrella sponsor of PGA TOUR Latinoamerica". PGATour. Retrieved 21 August 2020. References Mark Mason, Foreign Direct Investment and Japanese Economic Development, 1899–1931, Business and Economic History, Second Series, Volume Sixteen, 1987. NEC Corporation, NEC Corporation, The First 80 Years, 1984, ISBN 4-931172-01-6. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to NEC. Official website vteNECDivisions andsubsidiariesCurrent NEC Corporation of America NEC Laboratories America NEC Software Solutions UK NEC Solution Innovators NEC Unified Solutions Avaloq Netcracker Technology Avaloq KMD Defunct NEC BIGLOBE Electronic Arrays Packard Bell NEC Reveal Computer Products Zenith Data Systems Joint ventures andshareholdingsCurrent Alaxala Networks (40%) Anritsu (7%) Japan Aviation Electronics (25%) NEC BIGLOBE Renesas Electronics (34%) Sharp NEC Display Solutions (34%) Defunct NEC Mobile Communications NEC Philips Unified Systems1 Sony NEC Optiarc2 Products, servicesand standards Microprocessors 78K μCOM series µPD7220 µPD7720 R4200 V20 V25 V60 V850 Mobile phones e616 N343i Personal computers Supercomputers Video game consoles People Walter Tenney Carleton Kunihiko Iwadare Tadahiro Sekimoto Places NEC Supertower Other NEC Blue Rockets NEC Cup (China) NEC Cup (Japan) NEC Green Rockets NEC Karuizawa 72 NEC Red Rockets NEC Shun-Ei Sumitomo Group 1Now wholly owned 2Sold Category Commons Computers Video game consoles Links to related articles vteElectronics industry in JapanCompaniesCurrent Aiwa Alaxala Networks Alinco Alps Alpine Anritsu AOR Audio-Technica Bandai Namco Brother Canon Casio CatEye Citizen Watch Cosina D+M Group Denon Marantz Daikin Denso Denso Ten DNP Eiki Eizo Elecom ESP Guitars FANUC Fostex Fuji Electric Fujifilm Business Innovation Fujitsu Funai Furuno Futaba Hamamatsu Photonics Hirose Electric Hitachi Clarion Maxell Hoya Ibanez Ibiden Icom Ikegami Tsushinki Iwatsu Japan Display JEOL JRC JR Propo JVCKenwood JVC Kenwood Kawai Keyence Kioxia Kiramek Konami Konica Minolta KO PROPO Korg Kyocera Luxman Mabuchi Motor Mamiya Maspro Melco Micron Memory Japan MinebeaMitsumi Mitsumi Mitsubishi Electric Murata Manufacturing Mutoh Nakamichi NEC Mobile Communications Nichia Nichicon Nidec Nidec Copal Corporation Nihon Dempa Kogyo Nikon Nintendo Nippon Chemi-Con Nitto Denko NKK Switches Oki Olympus Omron Onkyo Integra Home Theater Orion Electric Panasonic Sanyo Technics Pioneer Pixela Plextor Renesas Electronics Ricoh Pentax Riso Kagaku Rohm Roland Rubycon Sansui Sanwa Electronic SCREEN Sega Sammy Sega Seiko Group Pulsar Seiko Epson Orient Watch Seiko Instruments Sharp Shimadzu Shindengen Electric Manufacturing Sigma Sony SNK Square Enix Taito Stanley Electric Star Micronics Stax Sumitomo Electric Taiyo Yuden Tamron TDK TEAC Tiger TOA Corporation Tokyo Electron Topcon Toshiba Uniden Ushio Wacom Yaesu Yamaha Yaskawa Yokogawa Zojirushi Zoom Zuken Defunct Aiwa Akai Bronica Chinon Contax Konica Minolta National Norita Okaya Optical Other Electronic Industries Association INCJ Japan Electronic Industries Development Association Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries Association Yagi–Uda antenna Category vte Nikkei 225 companies of Japan 7&i Advantest ÆON AGC Ajinomoto Alps ANA Amada Aozora Bank Asahi Breweries Asahi Kasei Astellas Bandai Namco Holdings Bridgestone Canon Casio Chiba Bank Chiyoda Chuden Chugai Citizen Holdings Comsys Concordia Financial Credit Saison Dai-ichi Life Daiichi Sankyo Daikin Daiwa House Daiwa Securities Denka Denso Dentsu DNP Dowa Ebara Eisai ENEOS Fanuc Fast Retailing Fuji Electric Fujifilm Fujikura Fujitsu Fukuoka Financial Furukawa Group Furukawa Electric GS Yuasa Heiwa Real Estate Hino Hitachi Hitachi Construction Machinery Hitz Hokuetsu Paper Honda IHI INPEX Isetan-Mitsukoshi Isuzu Itochu JFE J. Front Retailing JGC JR Central JR East JR West JSW JT JTEKT Kajima KEPCO Kao Kawasaki KDDI Keio Keisei Keyence Kikkoman Kirin K Line Kobelco Komatsu Konami Konica Minolta Kubota Kuraray Kyocera Kyowa Hakko Kirin Marubeni Maruha Nichiro Marui Matsui Securities Mazda Meidensha Meiji Holdings MES Minebea Mitsubishi Chemical Mitsubishi Corporation Mitsubishi Electric Mitsubishi Estate Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Mitsubishi Logistics Mitsubishi Materials Mitsubishi Motors Mitsui & Co Mitsui Chemicals Mitsui Fudosan Mitsui Kinzoku Mitsumi Electric Mizuho MOL MS&AD MUFG Murata Manufacturing NEC Nexon NEG NGK Nichirei Nikon Nintendo Nippon Express Nippon Kayaku Nippon Light Metal Nippon Ham Nippon Paper Industries Nippon Soda Nissan Motor Company Nissan Chemical Nisshin Seifun Nisshin Steel Nissui Nittobo Nitto Denko Sompo Japan Nipponkoa Holdings Nomura NSG NSK NSSMC NTN NTT NTT Data NYK Obayashi Odakyu Oji Holdings Corporation OKI Okuma Olympus Osaka Gas Pacific Metals Panasonic Pioneer Resona Ricoh Sapporo Holdings SCREEN Secom Sekisui House Sharp Shimz Shin-Etsu Shinsei Bank Shionogi Shiseido Shizuoka Bank Showa Denko Showa Shell SoftBank Sojitz Sony Subaru Corporation SUMCO Sumitomo Chemical Sumitomo Corporation Sumitomo Electric Sumitomo Heavy Industries Sumitomo Metal Mining Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Sumitomo Mitsui Trust Sumitomo Osaka Cement Sumitomo Pharma Sumitomo Realty Suzuki T&D Taiheiyo Cement Taisei Taiyo Yuden Takara Takashimaya Takeda TDK Teijin TEPCO Terumo Tobu Toho Toho Zinc Tokai Carbon Tokuyama Corporation Tokio Marine Tokyo Dome Tokyo Electron Tokyo Gas Tokyo Tatemono Tokyu Tokyu Land Toppan Toray Toshiba Tosoh Toto Toyobo Toyota Toyota Tsusho Trend Micro UBE Unitika Uny Yahoo! Japan Yamaha Yamato Transport Yasakawa Yokogawa Electric Yokohama Rubber vteSumitomo Group Public Relations CommitteeMembers of Hakusuikai are bolded. Hakusuikai is an association of the presidents of the Sumitomo companies. * Mitsui Group companiesConstruction Sumitomo Mitsui Construction Sumitomo Forestry Sumitomo Densetsu Chemicals and pharmaceuticals Sumitomo Chemical Sumitomo Bakelite Sumitomo Pharma Sumitomo Seika Chemicals Rubber, glass and ceramics Nippon Sheet Glass Sumitomo Osaka Cement Sumitomo Rubber Industries Sumitomo Riko Steel Sumitomo Metal Industries Non-ferrous metals Sumitomo Electric Industries Sumitomo Metal Mining Sumitomo Light Metal Industries -Sumitomo Wiring Systems Machinery Sumitomo Heavy Industries Sumitomo (S.H.I.) Construction Machinery Sumitomo Precision Products Electrical equipment NEC Nissin Electric Meidensha Trading Sumitomo Corporation Sumikin Bussan Corporation Finance and insurance Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation Sumitomo Trust and Banking Sumitomo Life MS&AD Insurance Group Sumitomo Mitsui Card Sumitomo Mitsui Finance and Leasing Sumitomo Mitsui Auto Service SMBC Friend Securities Real estate Sumitomo Realty & Development Transport and warehousing Sumitomo Warehouse Information and communication Sumisho Computer Systems Japan Research Institute Sumitomo zaibatsu Sumitomo family vteMajor personal computer, server, and mainframe hardware companiesCompanies with an annual revenue of over US$3 billionPersonal computersand servers Acer Apple Asus Dell Fujitsu Huawei HP Lenovo LG Microsoft MSI NEC Panasonic Razer Samsung Sharp (Dynabook) Vaio Servers only Cisco Dell EMC HPE IBM Inspur NetApp Oracle Mainframes Fujitsu HPE IBM See also Largest IT companies Computer hardware manufacturers Home computer hardware companies Server hardware Mainframe computers vteMajor information technology consulting and outsourcing companiesCompanies with an annual revenue of over US$3 billion Accenture Atos Booz Allen Hamilton BMC Software BT Global Services CACI Capgemini CGI Cognizant Computacenter Conduent Deloitte Digital China DXC Technology Fujitsu HCL Technologies Hitachi Consulting IBM Consulting Indra Sistemas Infosys Infor KPMG Leidos NEC NTT Data Orange Business Services T-Systems Tata Consultancy Services Tech Mahindra Unisys Wipro vteMajor networking hardware companiesCompanies with an annual revenue of over US$3 billion Arista Networks Avaya Cisco Dell EMC Ericsson Fujitsu Hewlett Packard Enterprise Huawei Juniper Networks Motorola Solutions NEC Nokia Qualcomm ZTE Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Japan Czech Republic Australia Artists Museum of Modern Art Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NEC (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"NEC Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Group"},{"link_name":"Kabushiki gaisha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabushiki_gaisha"},{"link_name":"acronym","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acronym"},{"link_name":"multinational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_corporation"},{"link_name":"information technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology"},{"link_name":"electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics"},{"link_name":"NEC Supertower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Supertower"},{"link_name":"Minato, Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minato,_Tokyo"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"cloud computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"Internet of Things","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_of_things"},{"link_name":"telecommunications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"PC-8000 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC-8000_series"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Renesas Electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renesas_Electronics"},{"link_name":"Elpida Memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elpida_Memory"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Sumitomo Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumitomo_Group"}],"text":"This article is about the Japanese information technology company. For other uses, see NEC (disambiguation).Not to be confused with NEC Group.NEC Corporation (日本電気株式会社, Nippon Denki Kabushiki gaisha, an acronym for the Nippon Electric Company) is a Japanese multinational information technology and electronics corporation, headquartered at the NEC Supertower in Minato, Tokyo, Japan.[3] It provides IT and network solutions, including cloud computing, artificial intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT) platform, and telecommunications equipment and software[4][5] to business enterprises, communications services providers and to government agencies, and has also been the biggest PC vendor in Japan since the 1980s when it launched the PC-8000 series.NEC was the world's fourth-largest PC manufacturer by 1990.[6] Its semiconductors business unit was the world's largest semiconductor company by annual revenue from 1985 to 1992, the second largest in 1995, one of the top three in 2000, and one of the top 10 in 2006.[7][8] NEC spun off its semiconductor business to Renesas Electronics and Elpida Memory. Once Japan's major electronics company, NEC has largely withdrawn from manufacturing since the beginning of the 21st century.NEC was #463 on the 2017 Fortune 500 list.[9] NEC is a member of the Sumitomo Group.","title":"NEC"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kunihiko Iwadare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunihiko_Iwadare"},{"link_name":"Western Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Electric"},{"link_name":"Walter Tenney Carleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Tenney_Carleton"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"joint-venture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint-venture"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"switches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_and_Communications"},{"link_name":"switchboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_switchboard"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"telephone sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_telephone"},{"link_name":"Iwadare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunihiko_Iwadare"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"NEC","text":"Kunihiko Iwadare and Takeshiro Maeda established Nippon Electric Limited Partnership on August 31, 1898, by using facilities that they had bought from Miyoshi Electrical Manufacturing Company. Iwadare acted as the representative partner; Maeda handled company sales. Western Electric, which had an interest in the Japanese phone market, was represented by Walter Tenney Carleton.[10] Carleton was also responsible for the renovation of the Miyoshi facilities.[11] It was agreed that the partnership would be reorganized as a joint-stock company when the treaty would allow it. On July 17, 1899, the revised treaty between Japan and the United States went into effect. Nippon Electric Company, Limited was organized the same day as Western Electric Company to become the first Japanese joint-venture with foreign capital.[12] Iwadare was named managing director. Ernest Clement and Carleton were named as directors. Maeda and Mototeru Fujii were assigned to be auditors. Iwadare, Maeda, and Carleton handled the overall management.[13]The company started with the production, sales, and maintenance of telephones and switches. NEC modernized the production facilities with the construction of the Mita Plant in 1901 at Mita Shikokumachi. It was completed in December 1902.The Japanese Ministry of Communications adopted a new technology in 1903: the common battery switchboard supplied by NEC. The common battery switchboards powered the subscriber phone, eliminating the need for a permanent magnet generator in each subscriber's phone. The switchboards were initially imported, but were manufactured locally by 1909.[14]NEC started exporting telephone sets to China in 1904. In 1905, Iwadare visited Western Electric in the U.S. to see their management and production control. On his return to Japan, he discontinued the \"oyakata\" system of sub-contracting and replaced it with a new system where managers and employees were all direct employees of the company. Inefficiency was also removed from the production process. The company paid higher salaries with incentives for efficiency. New accounting and cost controls were put in place, and time clocks was installed.[15]Between 1899 and 1907 the number of telephone subscribers in Japan rose from 35,000 to 95,000.[16] NEC entered the China market in 1908 with the implementation of the telegraph treaty between Japan and China. They also entered the Korean market, setting up an office in Seoul in January 1908. During the period from 1907 to 1912 sales rose from 1.6 million yen to 2 million yen. The expansion of the Japanese phone service had been a key part of NEC's success during this period.The Ministry of Communications delayed a third expansion plan of the phone service in March 1913, despite having 120,000 potential telephone subscribers waiting for phone installations. NEC sales fell sixty percent between 1912 and 1915. During the interim, Iwadare started importing appliances, including electric fans, kitchen appliances, washing machines, and vacuum cleaners. Electric fans had never been seen in Japan before. The imports were intended to prop up company sales. In 1916, the government resumed the delayed telephone-expansion plan, adding 75,000 subscribers and 326,000 kilometers of new toll lines. Thanks to this third expansion plan, NEC expanded at a time when much of the rest of the Japanese industry contracted.[17]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sumitomo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumitomo_Group"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Great Kantō earthquake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1923_Great_Kant%C5%8D_earthquake"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/pdf/1604.00148.pdf"},{"link_name":"Strowger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strowger_switch"},{"link_name":"Western Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Electric"},{"link_name":"Hawthorne Works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_Works"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Emperor Hirohito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirohito"},{"link_name":"Kyoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto"},{"link_name":"Asahi Shimbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asahi_Shimbun"},{"link_name":"Mainichi Shimbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainichi_Shimbun"},{"link_name":"Siemens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"1919 to 1938","text":"In 1919, NEC started its first association with Sumitomo, engaging Sumitomo Densen Seizosho to manufacture cables. As part of the venture, NEC provided cable manufacturing equipment to Sumitomo Densen. Rights to Western Electric's duplex cable patents were also transferred to Sumitomo Densen.[18]The Great Kantō earthquake struck Japan in 1923. 140,000 people were killed and 3.4 million were left homeless.[19] Four of NEC's factories were destroyed, killing 105 of NEC's engineers and workers. Thirteen of Tokyo's telephone offices were destroyed by fire. Telephone and telegraph service was interrupted by damage to telephone cables. In response, the Ministry of Communications accelerated major programs to install automatic telephone switching systems and enter radio broadcasting.[20][1] The first automatic switching systems were the Strowger-type model made by Automatic Telephone Manufacturing Co. (ATM) in the United Kingdom. NEC participated in the installation of the automatic switching systems, ultimately becoming the general sales agent for ATM. NEC developed its own Strowger-type automatic switching system in 1924, the first in Japan. One of the plants almost leveled during the Kanto earthquake, the Mita Plant, was chosen to support expanding production. A new three-story steel-reinforced concrete building was built, starting in 1925. It was modeled after the Western Electric Hawthorne Works.NEC started its radio communications business in 1924. Japan's first radio broadcaster, Radio Tokyo was founded in 1924 and started broadcasting in 1925. NEC imported the broadcasting equipment from Western Electric.[21] The expansion of radio broadcasting into Osaka and Nagoya marked the emergence of radio as an Industry. NEC established a radio research unit in 1924. NEC started developing electron tubes in 1925. By 1930, they were manufacturing their first 500 W radio transmitter. They provided the Chinese Xinjing station with a 100 kW radio broadcasting system in 1934.Photo-telegraphic equipment developed by NEC transmitted photos of the accession ceremony of Emperor Hirohito. The ceremony was held in Kyoto in 1928. The Newspapers Asahi Shimbun and Mainichi Shimbun were competing to cover the ceremony. The Asahi Shimbun was using a Siemens device. The Mainichi was planning to use French photo-telegraphic equipment. In the end, both papers acquired and used the NEC product, due to its faster transmission rate and higher picture quality.[22]In 1929 Nippon Electric provided Japan's Ministry of Communications with the A-type switching system, the first of these systems to be developed in Japan. Nippon supplied Japan's Ministry of Communications with nonloaded line carrier equipment for long-distance telephone channels in 1937.[23]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"ITT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITT_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"1938 to 1945","text":"World War II was described by the company as being the blackest days of its history.[24] In 1938 the Mita and Tamagawa plants were placed under military control, with direct supervision by military officers. In 1939, Nippon Electric established a research laboratory in the Tamagawa plant. It became the first Japanese company to successfully test microwave multiplex communications.[25] On December 22, 1941, the enemy property control law was passed. NEC shares owned by International Standard Electric Corporation (ISE), an ITT subsidiary, and Western Electric affiliate were seized. Capital and technical relations were abruptly severed. The \"Munitions Company Law\" was passed in October 1943, placing overall control of NEC plants under military jurisdiction.[26] The Ueno plant was leveled by the military attack in March 1945. Fire bombings in April and May heavily damaged the Tamagawa Plant, reducing its capacity by forty percent. The Okayama Plant was totally destroyed by a bombing attack in June of the same year. At the end of the war, NEC's production had been substantially reduced by damage to its facilities, and by material and personnel shortages.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fundinguniverse.com-27"},{"link_name":"Deming Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deming_Prize"},{"link_name":"crossbar switching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossbar_switch"},{"link_name":"Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nippon_Telegraph_and_Telephone"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fundinguniverse.com-27"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NEC_logo_1963.svg"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"geostationary meteorological satellite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary_meteorological_satellite"},{"link_name":"Himawari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himawari_(satellite)"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Dallas, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas,_Texas"},{"link_name":"PABX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PABX"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"1945 to 1980","text":"After the war, production was slowly returned to civilian use. NEC re-opened its major plants by the end of January 1946.[27] NEC began transistor research and development in 1950. It started exporting radio-broadcast equipment to Korea under the first major postwar contract in 1951. NEC received the Deming Prize for excellence in quality control in 1952. Computer research and development began in 1954. NEC produced the first crossbar switching system in Japan. It was installed at Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Public Corporation (currently Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation; NTT) in 1956. NEC began joint research and development with NTT of electronic switching systems the same year. NEC established Taiwan Telecommunication Company as their first postwar overseas joint venture in 1958. They completed the NEAC-1101 and NEAC-1102 computers in the same year. In September 1958, NEC built their first fully transistorized computer, the NEAC-2201, with parts made solely in Japan.[28] One year later, they demonstrated it at the UNESCO AUTOMATH show in Paris. The company began integrated circuit research and development in 1960. In 1963 NEC started trading as American Depositary Receipts, with ten million shares being sold in the United States.[29] Nippon Electric New York (now NEC America Inc.) was incorporated in the same year.[27]The NEC logo used from 1963 to 1992[30]NEC supplied KDD with submarine cable systems for laying in the Pacific Ocean in 1964. They supplied short-haul 24 channel PCM carrier transmission equipment to NTT in 1965. NEC de Mexico, S. A. de C. V., NEC do Brasil, S. A., NEC Australia Pty. Ltd. were established between 1968 and 1969. NEC supplied Comsat Corporation with the SPADE satellite communications system in 1971. In 1972, Switzerland ordered a NEC satellite communications earth station. The same year, a small transportable satellite communications earth station was set up in China. Shares of NEC common stock were listed on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange in 1973. NEC also designed an automated broadcasting system for the Japan Broadcasting Corporation in the same year. NEC Electronics (Europe) GmbH was also established. In 1974, the ACOS series computer was introduced. The New Central Research Laboratories were completed in 1975. In 1977, Japan's National Space Development Agency launched the NEC geostationary meteorological satellite, named Himawari.[31]During this period NEC introduced the concept of \"C&C\", the integration of computers and communications. NEC America Inc. opened a plant in Dallas, Texas to manufacture PABX and telephone systems in 1978. They also acquired Electronic Arrays, Inc. of California the same year to start semiconductor chip production in the United States.[32]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NEC_APC.jpg"},{"link_name":"NEC APC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APC_series"},{"link_name":"digital signal processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processor"},{"link_name":"NEC μPD7720","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_%CE%BCPD7720"},{"link_name":"VLSIs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very-large-scale_integration"},{"link_name":"PC-8800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_PC-8801"},{"link_name":"PC-9800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_PC-9801"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"V-series processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_V20"},{"link_name":"Houston Advanced Research Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston_Advanced_Research_Center"},{"link_name":"The Woodlands, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Woodlands,_Texas"},{"link_name":"VCRs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VCR"},{"link_name":"computer monitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_monitor"},{"link_name":"Hudson Soft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Soft"},{"link_name":"video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"video game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console"},{"link_name":"PC-Engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC-Engine"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"pt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Brasil"},{"link_name":"Brazilian military government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_military_government"},{"link_name":"Brasilinvest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brasilinvest"},{"link_name":"Mário Garnero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1rio_Garnero"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cidad%C3%A3oKane-35"},{"link_name":"Antônio Carlos Magalhães","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%B4nio_Carlos_Magalh%C3%A3es"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cidad%C3%A3oKane-35"},{"link_name":"Organizações Globo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organiza%C3%A7%C3%B5es_Globo"},{"link_name":"US dollars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollar"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cidad%C3%A3oKane-35"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cidad%C3%A3oKane-35"},{"link_name":"Roberto Marinho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Marinho"},{"link_name":"Bahia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahia"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cidad%C3%A3oKane-35"},{"link_name":"Fernando Collor de Mello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_Collor_de_Mello"},{"link_name":"Telebrás","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telebr%C3%A1s"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LobFSP-36"},{"link_name":"Super Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Supertower"},{"link_name":"Shiba, Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiba,_Tokyo"},{"link_name":"R&D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%26D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NEC_Versa_6O1OH.jpg"},{"link_name":"NEC Versa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Versa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NEC_Mobile_Gear_II_MCR330.jpg"},{"link_name":"handheld computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_PC"},{"link_name":"Windows CE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_CE"},{"link_name":"Fujitsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujitsu"},{"link_name":"Seiko Epson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seiko_Epson"},{"link_name":"IBM Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Japan_Ltd"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"},{"link_name":"Packard Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packard_Bell"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"SuperGrafx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Engine_SuperGrafx"},{"link_name":"PC-FX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC-FX"},{"link_name":"32-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32-bit"},{"link_name":"Nintendo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo"},{"link_name":"RISC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISC"},{"link_name":"Virtual Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Boy"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"VR4300","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R4300i"},{"link_name":"Nintendo 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_64"},{"link_name":"SNK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNK"},{"link_name":"MIPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIPS_architecture"},{"link_name":"Hyper Neo Geo 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyper_Neo_Geo_64"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"PowerVR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerVR"},{"link_name":"Dreamcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamcast"},{"link_name":"WonderSwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WonderSwan"},{"link_name":"V30 MZ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_V20#Variants_and_successors"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"GameCube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameCube"},{"link_name":"ArtX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArtX"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"1980 to 2000","text":"A 1982 NEC APC microcomputerIn 1980, NEC created the first digital signal processor, the NEC μPD7720. NEC Semiconductors (UK) Ltd. was established in 1981, producing VLSIs and LSIs. NEC introduced the 8-bit PC-8800 series personal computer in 1981, followed by the 16-bit PC-9800 series in 1982. In 1983 NEC stock was listed on the Basel, Geneva, and Zurich, Switzerland exchanges. NEC quickly became the dominant leader of the Japanese PC industry, holding 80% market share.[33] NEC changed its English company name to NEC Corporation the same year. NEC Information Systems, Inc. started manufacturing computers and related products in the United States in 1984. NEC also released the V-series processor the same year. In 1986, NEC delivered its SX-2 supercomputer to the Houston Advanced Research Center, The Woodlands, Texas. In the same year, the NEAX61 digital switching system went into service. In 1987, NEC Technologies (UK) Ltd. was established in the United Kingdom to manufacture VCRs, printers, and computer monitors and mobile telephones for Europe. Also that year, NEC licensed technology from Hudson Soft, a video game manufacturer, to create a video game console called the PC-Engine (later released in 1989 as the TurboGrafx-16 in the North American market). Its prototype 3D spec successor, the Tetsujin was originally set to be released in 1992, but the lack of completed games pushed the launch date about early 1993, which was planned debut in Japan. While the PC-Engine achieved a considerable following, it has been said that NEC held a much stronger influence on the video game industry through its role as a leading semiconductor manufacturer than through any of its direct video game products.[34] NEC USA, Inc. was established in 1989 as a holding company for North American operations.In 1983, NEC Brasil (pt), the Brazilian subsidiary of NEC, was forced to nationalize its corporate stock under orders of the Brazilian military government, whereby shareholder control of NEC Brasil was ceded to the private equity group Brasilinvest of Brazilian investment banker Mário Garnero. Since NEC Brasil's foundation in 1968, it had become the major supplier of telecommunications equipment to the Brazilian government.[35] In 1986, the then Minister of Communications Antônio Carlos Magalhães put NEC Brasil in financial difficulties by suspending all government contract payments to the company, whose main client was the federal government.[35] With the subsidiary in crisis, the NEC Corporation in Japan sold NEC Brasil to Organizações Globo for only one million US dollars (US$1,000,000).[35] Shortly thereafter, Magalhães resumed the government contracts and corresponding payments, and NEC Brazil became valued at over 350 million US dollars (US$350,000,000).[35] Suspicions regarding the NEC-Globo deal, which included among other things the unilateral breach of contract by Globo founder Roberto Marinho regarding the management of a regional television station in the Brazilian state of Bahia,[35] took to the national stage only in 1992 during the first corruption charges against the impeached Brazilian president Fernando Collor de Mello. Organizações Globo subsequently sold their shares in NEC Brazil, which hit their all-time high during the state monopoly years, back to NEC Corporation in 1999 following the break-up and privatization of the Brazilian state-owned telephone monopoly Telebrás.[36]In 1990, the new head office building, known as the \"Super Tower\", was completed in Shiba, Tokyo. Additionally, joint-venture agreements were established to manufacture and market digital electronic switching systems and LSIs in China. In 1993 NEC's asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) switching system, the NEAX61 (Nippon Electronic Automatic Exchange) ATM Service Node, went into service in the United States. NEC Europe, Ltd. was established as a holding company for European operations the same year. The NEC C&C Research Laboratories, NEC Europe, Ltd. were opened in Germany in 1994. NEC (China) Co, Ltd. was established as a holding company for Chinese operations in 1996. In 1997 NEC developed 4Gbit DRAM, and their semiconductor group was honored with one of the first Japan Quality Awards. In 1998, NEC opened the world's most advanced semiconductor R&D facility.A NEC Versa 6010H from c. 1996NEC Mobile Gear II MC/R330 handheld computer running Windows CE 2.0 (Japanese market, 1998)NEC had been the no. 1 personal computer vendor in Japan during the 1980s, but it faced increasing competition from Fujitsu, Seiko Epson and IBM Japan. Nevertheless, by the early 1990s, NEC was still the largest, having well over 50% market share in the Japanese market. Competition heated up later as rival Fujitsu started to aggressively market its computers, which were industry standard (x86) instead of NEC's indigenous models.In June 1995, NEC purchased the California-based Packard Bell company to produce desktop PCs in a common manufacturing plant for the North American market. As a result, NEC Technologies (USA) was merged with Packard Bell to create Packard Bell NEC Inc. By 1997, NEC's share was reduced to about 35%.[37]In decades, NEC released a new console for its predecessor SuperGrafx, the Japan-only PC-FX, a 32-bit system with a tower-like design; it enjoyed a small but steady stream of games until 1998, when NEC finally abandoned the video games industry.NEC also supplied rival Nintendo with the RISC-based CPU, V810 (same one used in the PC-FX) for the Virtual Boy[38] and VR4300 CPU for the Nintendo 64, released in 1995–1996, and both SNK updated VR4300 CPU (64-bit MIPS III) on Hyper Neo Geo 64,[39] as well as to former rival Sega with a version of its PowerVR 2 GPU for the Dreamcast, released in 1997–1998. After working the previous chipset on the system. NEC supplied Bandai's WonderSwan handheld console, which was originally developed by Gunpei Yokoi, with the V30 MZ CPU.[40][41] In the 2000s, NEC manufactured dynamic RAM process chips and produced for the GameCube GPU, Flipper, a graphics card development by ArtX.[42][43][44][45]NEC celebrated their 100th anniversary in 1999.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kaoru_Yano_cropped_2_Kaoru_Yano_and_Sebastian_Pinera_20101115.jpg"},{"link_name":"Samsung SDI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_SDI"},{"link_name":"OLED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eetimes2000-46"},{"link_name":"NEC Electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Electronics"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eetimes2002a-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eetimes2002b-48"},{"link_name":"Earth Simulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Simulator"},{"link_name":"supercomputer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-top500gen1-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"plasma display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_display"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Nissan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissan_Motors"},{"link_name":"lithium ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_ion"},{"link_name":"hybrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_car"},{"link_name":"electric cars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_car"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Automotive Energy Supply Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_Energy_Supply_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Renesas Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renesas_Technology"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Renesas Electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renesas_Electronics"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Lenovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenovo"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Bloomberg News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_News"},{"link_name":"servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"China Mobile International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Mobile"},{"link_name":"China Telecom Global","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Telecom"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"KDDI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDDI"},{"link_name":"SingTel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SingTel"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JapanUSA-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"NEC Mobile Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Mobile_Communications"},{"link_name":"KEMET Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KEMET_Corporation"},{"link_name":"NEC Tokin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Tokin"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-electronics_360_20170224-63"},{"link_name":"Silicon Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Valley"},{"link_name":"entrepreneurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entrepreneurship"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"Envision Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envision_Energy"},{"link_name":"Nissan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissan"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"KMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KMD_(company)"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"lighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighting"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"NEC Display Solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Display_Solutions"},{"link_name":"Sharp Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharp_Corporation"},{"link_name":"energy storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_storage"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"Huawei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huawei"},{"link_name":"5G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5G"},{"link_name":"telecommunications equipment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment"},{"link_name":"NTT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nippon_Telegraph_and_Telephone"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"Avaloq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avaloq"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"}],"sub_title":"2000 to present","text":"Kaoru Yano, the previous chairman of NECIn 2000, NEC formed a joint-venture with Samsung SDI to manufacture OLED displays.[46] NEC Electronics Corporation was separated from NEC in 2002 as a new semiconductor company.[47] NEC Laboratories America, Inc. (NEC Labs) started in November 2002 as a merger of NEC Research Institute (NECI) and NEC USA's Computer and Communications Research Laboratory (CCRL).[48] NEC built the Earth Simulator Computer (ESC), the fastest supercomputer in the world from 2002 to 2004.[49]In 2003 NEC had a 20.8% market share in the personal computer market in Japan, slightly ahead of Fujitsu.[50]In 2004, NEC abandoned not only the OLED business, but the display business as a whole, by selling off their plasma display business and exiting from the joint-venture with Samsung SDI. Samsung bought all of the shares and related patents owned by NEC, incorporating Samsung OLED, which subsequently merged with Samsung Display.[51][52]In 2007, NEC and Nissan Co. Corp. started evaluating a joint venture to produce lithium ion batteries for hybrid and electric cars.[53] The two companies established Automotive Energy Supply Corporation as a result.On April 23, 2009, Renesas Technology Corp and NEC Electronics Corp struck a basic agreement to merge by around April 2010.[54] On April 1, 2010, NEC Electronics and Renesas Technology merged forming Renesas Electronics which is set to be fourth largest semiconductor company according to iSuppli published data.[55] By Q3 2010, NEC held a 19.8% market share in the PC market in Japan.[56]On January 27, 2011, NEC formed a joint venture with Chinese PC maker Lenovo, the fourth largest PC maker in the world. As part of the deal, the companies said in a statement they will establish a new company called Lenovo NEC Holdings B.V., which will be registered in the Netherlands. NEC will receive US$175 million from Lenovo through the issuance of Lenovo's shares. Lenovo, through a unit, will own a 51% stake in the joint venture, while NEC will hold a 49% stake.[57] In February 2011, Bloomberg News said the joint venture would allow Lenovo to expand in the field of servers, and NEC's Masato Yamamoto said NEC would be able to grow in China.[58]On January 26, 2012, NEC Corporation announced that it would cut 10,000 jobs globally due to a big loss on NEC's consolidated financial statement in line with the economic crisis in Europe and lagged in the development of smartphones in the domestic market compared to Apple and Samsung. Previously, in January 2009 NEC has cut about 20,000 jobs, mainly in sluggish semiconductor and liquid crystal display related businesses.[59]In 2013 NEC was the biggest PC server manufacturer in Japan, with a 23.6% share.[60] In August 2014, NEC Corporation was commissioned to build a super-fast undersea data transmission cable linking the United States and Japan for a consortium of international companies consisting of China Mobile International, China Telecom Global, Global Transit, Google, KDDI and SingTel. The pipeline went online June 30, 2016.[61][62] It exited from the smartphone market in 2015 by dissolving NEC Mobile Communications, bailing out the other participants in the smartphone joint-venture.In April 2017, KEMET Corporation announced it would purchase a 61% controlling interest in NEC Tokin from NEC, making NEC Tokin its wholly owned subsidiary. Once the purchase is complete, the company will change its name to \"Tokin Corporation\".[63]In July 2018, NEC established its subsidiary, NEC X, in Silicon Valley, to fast-track technologies and business ideas selected from inside and outside NEC. NEC X created a corporate accelerator program that works with entrepreneurs, start-ups and existing companies to help them develop new products that leverage NEC's emerging technologies.[64]In August 2018, Envision Energy struck an agreement with Nissan and NEC to acquire their automotive battery joint venture.[65][66][67] In December 2018, NEC announced that it would acquire KMD, the largest Danish IT company, for $1.2 billion to strengthen its digital government business.[68]NEC has sold its sixty-year-old lighting business in April 2019.[69] As of September 2019, NEC is the largest supplier of AI surveillance technology in the world.[70]In the first half of 2020, NEC sold a majority stake in NEC Display Solutions, the professional display subsidiary, to Sharp Corporation and decided to gradually curtail the money-losing energy storage business throughout the decade.[71][72]Upon the suggested banning of Huawei's 5G equipment led by the United States in 2020, being a diminished supplier, NEC was galvanized to ramp up its relatively small 5G network business to fill the void in the telecommunications equipment markets of the United States and the United Kingdom. NTT, the largest carrier in Japan, invested $596 million for a 4.8 percent stake in NEC to assist this move.[73]In December 2020, NEC acquired Swiss digital banking solution developer Avaloq for US$2.2 billion.[74]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"NEC Corporation of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Corporation_of_America"},{"link_name":"Netcracker Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netcracker_Technology"},{"link_name":"NEC Display Solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Display_Solutions"},{"link_name":"Sharp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharp_Corporation"},{"link_name":"KMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KMD_(company)"},{"link_name":"Avaloq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avaloq"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NEC_D%C3%BCsseldorf_32.jpg"},{"link_name":"Düsseldorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JTPS-102.jpg"},{"link_name":"Japan Ground Self-Defense Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Ground_Self-Defense_Force"},{"link_name":"3D radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_radar"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NEC_Kobe_system_center_02.jpg"},{"link_name":"Kobe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobe"}],"text":"As of July 2018, NEC has 6 larger business segments—Public, Enterprise, Network Services, System Platform, Global, and Others.[75] It has renamed its Telecom Carrier business to Network Service.Principal subsidiaries of NEC include:NEC Corporation of America\nNetcracker Technology\nNEC Display Solutions of America (A Sharp-owned company as of July 2020)\nNEC Europe\nKMD\nAvaloqThe European headquarters of Renesas Electronics Europe in Düsseldorf, Germany (formerly NEC Electronics (Europe))\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJapan Ground Self-Defense Force J/TPS-102 self-propelled ground-based early warning 3D radar\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNEC's Kobe system center","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NTT_DoCoMo_FOMA_N-02C_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"NEC MobilePro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_MobilePro"},{"link_name":"Windows CE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_CE"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"Automotive Energy Supply Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_Energy_Supply_Corporation"},{"link_name":"NEC e616","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_e616"},{"link_name":"MultiSync","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MultiSync"},{"link_name":"Versa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Versa"},{"link_name":"hybrid computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_computer"},{"link_name":"PC Engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Engine"},{"link_name":"Hudson Soft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Soft"},{"link_name":"PC-Engine GT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TurboExpress"},{"link_name":"PC-Engine Duo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TurboDuo"},{"link_name":"PC-FX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC-FX"},{"link_name":"PC-6000 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC-6000_series"},{"link_name":"PC-6600 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC-6600_series"},{"link_name":"PC-8000 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC-8000_series"},{"link_name":"PC-8800 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC-8800_series"},{"link_name":"PC-9800 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC-98"},{"link_name":"NEC V20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_V20"},{"link_name":"NEC V25","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_V25"},{"link_name":"early warning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early-warning_radar"},{"link_name":"3D radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_radar"},{"link_name":"JGSDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Ground_Self-Defense_Force"},{"link_name":"JSDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Self-Defense_Forces"},{"link_name":"Howa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howa"},{"link_name":"rifle system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howa_Type_89#Recent_improvements"},{"link_name":"JSDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Self-Defense_Forces"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"}],"text":"An NTT DoCoMo FOMA N-02C mobile phone produced by NECNEC MobilePro – a handheld computer running Windows CE\nNEC Aspire hybrid small business phone system\nElectric vehicle batteries[76] (Automotive Energy Supply Corporation, a joint-venture between Nissan, NEC Corporation and NEC TOKIN)\nNEC mobile phone (see NEC e616)\nNEC America MultiSync Monitors and Fax devices1\nNEC digital cinema projector\nNEC Home Electronics (USA), Inc. / NEC MultiSpeed laptop PCs, MultiSync series PC monitors and Data Projectors\nNEC Home Electronics (USA), Inc. / TV, Projection TV, VCRs and Home Audio (CD, Amplifiers, Receivers)\nNEC Technologies, Inc. / Versa series notebook PCs\nNEC Information Systems, Inc. POWERMATE desktop PCs\nNEC Information Systems, Inc. Valuestar / NEC POWERMATE hybrid computer\nNEC (Division unknown) Car Stereos and Keyless Entry Systems\nGame consoles:\nPC Engine (TurboGrafx-16 in the US) and all related hardware and successors; co-produced by Hudson Soft.\nPC-Engine GT (TurboExpress in the US)\nPC-Engine Duo (TurboDuo in the US)\nPC-FX\nPersonal computers:\nPC-6000 series\nPC-6600 series\nPC-8000 series\nPC-8800 series\nPC-9800 series, also known as PC-98\nMicroprocessors:\nNEC V20\nNEC V25Defense products include:J/TPS-102 Self-propelled ground-based early warning 3D radar (JGSDF)\nBroadband multipurpose radio system (JGSDF)\nAdvanced Combat Infantry Equipment System [ACIES] (JSDF) – Major subcontractor\nHowa rifle system (JSDF) – Major subcontractor as part of ACIESFoodRen AI Pan[77]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ProSpeed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_ProSpeed"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"}],"sub_title":"Laptops","text":"ProSpeed\nVersa pro type VB December 2016[78]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Earth_simulator_ES2.jpg"},{"link_name":"SX-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_SX_architecture"},{"link_name":"SX-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_SX-6"},{"link_name":"Earth Simulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Simulator"},{"link_name":"gigaflops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLOPS"},{"link_name":"NEC SX-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_SX-8"},{"link_name":"SX-8R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_SX-8"},{"link_name":"SX-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_SX-9"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"SX-ACE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_SX-ACE"},{"link_name":"SX-Aurora TSUBASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_SX-Aurora_TSUBASA"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"}],"sub_title":"Supercomputers","text":"The Earth Simulator1983 Announced the SX-1 and SX-2 supercomputers\n1989 Introduction of SX-3\n1994 First announcement of SX-4\n1999 Delivery of SX-5\n2002 Introduced SX-6\n2002 Installation of the Earth Simulator, the world's fastest supercomputer from 2002 to 2004 reaching a speed of 35,600 gigaflops\n2005 NEC SX-8 in production\n2006 Announced the SX-8R\n2007 Announced the SX-9\n2011 First announcement of the NEC SX-9's successor[79]\n2013 Announced the SX-ACE\n2017 Announced the SX-Aurora TSUBASA, computing platform that expands the horizons of supercomputing, Artificial Intelligence and Big Data analytics.[80]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"carbon nanotubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotube"},{"link_name":"Sumio Iijima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumio_Iijima"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"design for test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_for_test"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"level-sensitive scan design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level-sensitive_scan_design"},{"link_name":"qubit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qubit"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"}],"text":"Achievements of NEC include:the discovery of single-walled carbon nanotubes by Sumio Iijima[81]\nthe invention of the widely used MUX-scan design for test methodology (contrast with the IBM-developed level-sensitive scan design methodology)\nthe world's first demonstration of the one-qubit rotation gate in solid state devices.\nAs for mobile phones, NEC pioneered key technologies like color displays, 3G support, dual screens and camera modules.[82]\nDeveloped a facial recognition system able to detect and distinguish human faces through medical masks.[83]\nReleased the first home console video game system to use compact discs, being the first widely available product to use compact discs as a platform for interactive video entertainment outside of home computer use.","title":"Achievements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Davis Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davis_Cup"},{"link_name":"BNP Paribas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BNP_Paribas"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"NEC Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Cup"},{"link_name":"Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(game)"},{"link_name":"NEC Shun-Ei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Shun-Ei"},{"link_name":"Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(game)"},{"link_name":"Everton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everton_F.C."},{"link_name":"1995 FA Cup Final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1995_FA_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Sauber F1 Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauber"},{"link_name":"2011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Formula_One_season"},{"link_name":"2014","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Formula_One_season"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Sahara Force India F1 Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force_India"},{"link_name":"2015","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Formula_One_season"},{"link_name":"2018","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Formula_One_season"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Racing Point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racing_Point_F1_Team"},{"link_name":"PGA Tour Latinoamérica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGA_Tour_Latinoam%C3%A9rica"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"}],"text":"NEC was the main (title) sponsor of the Davis Cup competition until 2002, when BNP Paribas took over the sponsorship.[84]NEC between 1982 and 2012 sponsored the NEC Cup, a Go tournament in Japan.NEC between 1986 and 2003 sponsored the NEC Shun-Ei, a Go tournament for young players in Japan.NEC sponsored the English football club Everton from 1985 to 1995. The 1995 FA Cup Final triumph was Everton's final game of the decade-long NEC sponsorship, and Danka took over as sponsors.[85]NEC first time signed the deal to sponsor Sauber F1 Team from 2011 season until 2014 season.[86]Right after Sauber, NEC continue sponsored Sahara Force India F1 Team for 2015 season until its demise during 2018 season.[87] Since then NEC has sponsored for their last time its successor Racing Point only in 2019 season.In April 2013, NEC became the umbrella sponsor for PGA Tour Latinoamérica, a third-tier men's professional golf tour.[88]","title":"Sponsorships"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"works teams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_team"},{"link_name":"NEC Red Rockets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Red_Rockets"},{"link_name":"NEC Green Rockets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Green_Rockets"},{"link_name":"rugby union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby_union"},{"link_name":"Montedio Yamagata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montedio_Yamagata"},{"link_name":"football (soccer)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football_(soccer)"},{"link_name":"J. League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._League"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NEC&action=edit"},{"link_name":"NEC Blue Rockets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Blue_Rockets"},{"link_name":"volleyball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volleyball"}],"text":"These started as works teams, but over the years came to include professional players:NEC Red Rockets (women's volleyball)\nNEC Green Rockets (men's rugby union)NEC also used to own Montedio Yamagata of the football (soccer) J. League, but as of 2009[update] just sponsors them along with other local companies.The following team is defunct.NEC Blue Rockets (men's volleyball)","title":"Sports teams"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"NEC Corporate profile Management\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nec.com/en/global/about/executives/directors.html"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FY_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FY_2-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FY_2-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FY_2-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FY_2-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FY_2-5"},{"link_name":"\"Full Year Consolidated Financial Results for the Fiscal Year Ended March 31, 2021\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nec.com/en/press/202105/images/1201-01-01.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Corporate Profile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.nec.co.jp/profile/en/corporate_profile.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"NEC IoT Network Solution: NEC Digital Network Transformation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nec.com/en/global/solutions/tcs/iot-network-solution/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"Accelerating DX with 5G: For Telecom Operators\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nec.com/en/global/solutions/nsp/5g_vision/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Japan's Computer and Communications Industry: The Evolution of Industrial Giants and Global Competitiveness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=M_F_syq_NBwC&pg=PA17"},{"link_name":"Oxford University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780198233336","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198233336"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"Tracking the Top 10 Semiconductor Sales Leaders Over 26 Years\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.icinsights.com/news/bulletins/Tracking-The-Top-10-Semiconductor-Sales-Leaders-Over-26-Years/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"WORLDWIDE IC MANUFACTURERS\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//smithsonianchips.si.edu/ice/cd/STATUS98/SEC02.PDF"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"\"NEC Financials and 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Retrieved 1 January 2024.\n\n^ a b c d e f \"Full Year Consolidated Financial Results for the Fiscal Year Ended March 31, 2021\" (PDF). 1 October 2018.\n\n^ \"Corporate Profile.\" NEC. Retrieved on July 12, 2010.\n\n^ \"NEC IoT Network Solution: NEC Digital Network Transformation\". NEC. Retrieved 16 September 2019.\n\n^ \"Accelerating DX with 5G: For Telecom Operators\". NEC. Retrieved 17 September 2019.\n\n^ Fransman, Martin (1995). Japan's Computer and Communications Industry: The Evolution of Industrial Giants and Global Competitiveness. Oxford University Press. p. 17. ISBN 9780198233336.\n\n^ \"Tracking the Top 10 Semiconductor Sales Leaders Over 26 Years\". Semiconductor Market Research. IC Insights. 12 December 2011.\n\n^ \"WORLDWIDE IC MANUFACTURERS\" (PDF). 14 August 2023.\n\n^ \"NEC Financials and News\". fortune.com. Archived from the original on 24 June 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2018. NEC is #463 on the 2017 Fortune 500 list.\n\n^ Mason 1987, p. 94.\n\n^ NEC 1984, p. 6.\n\n^ Mason 1987, p. 95.\n\n^ NEC 1984, p. 8.\n\n^ \"history\". nec. Retrieved 10 November 2015.\n\n^ NEC 1984, p. 9\n\n^ NEC 1984, p. 12.\n\n^ NEC 1984, p. 15.\n\n^ Fitzgerald, Robert (7 January 2016). The Rise of the Global Company: Multinationals and the Making of the Modern World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-33828-5.\n\n^ \"Kanto Earthquake \| Volunteerism in Japan\". Retrieved 27 August 2020.\n\n^ \"The 120-Year History of Oki Electric \| Corporate Information \| OKI Global\". www.oki.com. Retrieved 27 August 2020.\n\n^ NEC 1984, p. 20\n\n^ \"Vendor Network Architectures - Part XIX: NEC Unified Solutions\". www.enterprisenetworkingplanet.com. 4 April 2006. Retrieved 27 August 2020.\n\n^ NEC 1984, p. 22\n\n^ NEC 1984, p. 31.\n\n^ NEC 1984, p. 30\n\n^ NEC 1984, p. 30.\n\n^ a b \"History of NEC Corporation – FundingUniverse\". www.fundinguniverse.com. 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Retrieved 21 August 2020.","title":"Footnotes"}]	[{"image_text":"The NEC logo used from 1963 to 1992[30]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/NEC_logo_1963.svg/220px-NEC_logo_1963.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A 1982 NEC APC microcomputer","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/NEC_APC.jpg/220px-NEC_APC.jpg"},{"image_text":"A NEC Versa 6010H from c. 1996","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/NEC_Versa_6O1OH.jpg/220px-NEC_Versa_6O1OH.jpg"},{"image_text":"NEC Mobile Gear II MC/R330 handheld computer running Windows CE 2.0 (Japanese market, 1998)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/NEC_Mobile_Gear_II_MCR330.jpg/220px-NEC_Mobile_Gear_II_MCR330.jpg"},{"image_text":"Kaoru Yano, the previous chairman of NEC","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Kaoru_Yano_cropped_2_Kaoru_Yano_and_Sebastian_Pinera_20101115.jpg/160px-Kaoru_Yano_cropped_2_Kaoru_Yano_and_Sebastian_Pinera_20101115.jpg"},{"image_text":"An NTT DoCoMo FOMA N-02C mobile phone produced by NEC","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/NTT_DoCoMo_FOMA_N-02C_01.jpg/200px-NTT_DoCoMo_FOMA_N-02C_01.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Earth Simulator","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Earth_simulator_ES2.jpg/200px-Earth_simulator_ES2.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Portals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals"},{"title":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Tokyo"},{"title":"Companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Companies"},{"title":"Telecommunication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Telecommunication"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png"},{"title":"Electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Electronics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Noun-technology.svg"},{"title":"Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Technology"},{"title":"List of computer system manufacturers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_system_manufacturers"},{"title":"TurboGrafx-16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbografx_16"}]	[{"reference":"\"NEC Corporate profile Management\". 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United Kingdom: Channel 4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Hartog","url_text":"Hartog, Simon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Citizen_Kane","url_text":"Beyond Citizen Kane"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom","url_text":"United Kingdom"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_4","url_text":"Channel 4"}]},{"reference":"\"NEC faces tough market in Japan\". Cnet. 26 November 1997. Retrieved 14 August 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cnet.com/uk/news/nec-faces-tough-market-in-japan/","url_text":"\"NEC faces tough market in Japan\""}]},{"reference":"Edwards, Benj (21 August 2015). \"Unraveling The Enigma Of Nintendo's Virtual Boy, 20 Years Later\". Fast Company. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiesner_building	Wiesner Building	["1 See also","2 References"]	Coordinates: 42°21′39.1″N 71°5′15.8″W / 42.360861°N 71.087722°W / 42.360861; -71.087722This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Wiesner Building" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Research laboratories in Cambridge, MassachusettsWiesner Building(2017)Alternative namesBuilding E15General informationTypeResearch laboratoriesArchitectural styleModernLocation20 Ames StreetCambridge, MassachusettsCoordinates42°21′39.1″N 71°5′15.8″W / 42.360861°N 71.087722°W / 42.360861; -71.087722Current tenantsMedia LaboratoryCompleted1985Technical detailsFloor count6Design and constructionArchitect(s)I. M. Pei & Partners The Wiesner building (Building E15) houses the MIT Media Lab and the List Visual Arts Center and is named in honor of former MIT president Jerome Wiesner and his wife Laya. The building is very box-like, a motif that is consistently repeated in both the interior and exterior design evoking a sense of boxes packed within each other. The building is notable for the level of collaboration between the architect and artists. It stands apart from the surrounding neighborhood with its flat, gridded skin make of white, modular metal panels. The building's exterior was designed by Kenneth Noland is meant as a metaphor of technology through the grids of graph paper and number matrices while also quoting the corridor-like morphology of the rest of the MIT campus. Scott Burton, Alan Shields, and Richard Fleischner also collaborated extensively in the final design of the internal atria and external landscaping. The Wiesner Building in Cambridge, Massachusetts houses the MIT Media Lab, the Center for Bits and Atoms (Neil Gershenfeld's lab), the Department of Architecture's Program in Art, Culture and Technology (ACT, formerly the Visual Arts Program), the Comparative Media Studies (CMS) program and the List Visual Arts Center. It was designed by I.M. Pei & Partners. It is named in honor of former MIT president Jerome Wiesner and his wife Laya and was dedicated in 1985. The Wiesner Building is also known to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology community as Building E15. See also Architecture portal MIT Campus - Wiesner_Building References Notes ^ a b c Campbell & Cruikshank 1985, pp. 11–12 Further reading Campbell, Robert; Cruikshank, Jeffrey (1985). "Artists and Architects Collaborate: Designing the Wiesner Building". MIT Committee on the Visual Arts. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires \|journal= (help) Mitchell, William J. (2007). Imagining MIT: Designing a Campus for the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-13479-8. vteMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyAcademics School of Architecture and Planning Engineering Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences Science Sloan School of Management Schwarzman College of Computing Department of Biology Brain and Cognitive Sciences Economics Mathematics Physics Health Sciences and Technology Research Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab Broad Institute Center for Bits and Atoms Information Systems Research International Studies Theoretical Physics Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Institute for Medical Engineering and Science Koch Institute Laboratory for Electromagnetic and Electronic Systems Information and Decision Systems Lincoln Laboratory Massachusetts Green High Performance Computing Center McGovern Institute Media Lab MIT Libraries Nuclear Research Reactor Picower Institute Plasma Science and Fusion Center Research Laboratory of Electronics Senseable City Lab Whitehead Institute People Alumni Faculty Institute Professors Presidents William Barton Rogers Culture Brass Rat Caltech rivalry Hacks Lemelson–MIT Prize List Visual Arts Center MIT $100K MIT Press MIT Technology Review MIT Science Fiction Society Mystery Hunt Project Athena Smoot Student Information Processing Board Tech Model Railroad Club Tech Squares The Tech Traditions and activities Campus Building 20 Chapel Dormitories Fraternities and sororities Green Building Infinite Corridor Killian Court Kresge Auditorium Libraries MIT Museum Police Stata Center Sean Collier Memorial Wiesner Building History History of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Round Hill Athletics Engineers Tech Dinghy Notable projects MIT App Inventor MIT OpenCourseWare MITx Scratch vteI. M. PeiProjects List of projects 131 Ponce de Leon Avenue (1949) Roosevelt Field Mall (1951) William L. Slayton House (1960) Erieview Plan (1960) Town Center East (1960-61) Government Center Master Plan (1961) University Apartments (1961) Cathedral Square of Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul (1962) Hale Manoa Dormitory (1962) Waterfront Tower (1960s) Kips Bay Plaza (1963) Luce Memorial Chapel (1963) Society Hill Towers (1964) MIT Green Building (1964) S. I. Newhouse School of Public Communications (1964) Washington Plaza (1964) The Century Towers (1965) University Village (1966) Mesa Laboratory (1967) Des Moines Art Center sculpture wing (1968) Everson Museum of Art (1968) Cleo Rogers Memorial Library (1969) Columbia University Master Plan (1970) Sundrome (1970) Grave of Robert F. Kennedy (1971) I. M. Pei Building (1971) Paul Mellon Arts Center (1972) Commerce Court West (1973) Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art (1973) Lamar Building penthouse (1976) Oversea-Chinese Banking Corporation Centre (1976) Dallas City Hall (1977) National Gallery of Art East Building (1978) John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum (1979) One Dallas Center (1979) Biltmore Building (1980) Museum of Fine Arts West Wing (1981) Eskenazi Museum of Art (1982) Sunning Plaza (1982) Texas Commerce Tower (1982) 16th Street Mall, Denver (1982) Energy Plaza (1983) IBM Somers Office Complex (1984) Wiesner Building (1984) Raffles City (1986) Swissôtel The Stamford (1986) Miami Tower (1987) Bank of China Tower (Hong Kong) (1989) Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center (1989) The Gateway (1990) The Kirklin Clinic (1992) Four Seasons Hotel New York (1993) Louvre Pyramid (1993) Louvre Inverted Pyramid (1993) Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (1995) Buck Institute for Research on Aging (1996) Miho Museum (1997) Oare Pavilion (2003) Deutsches Historisches Museum Zeughaus Wing (2003) MUDAM-Musée d'Art Moderne Grand-Duc Jean (2006) Suzhou Museum New Wings (2006) Embassy of China in Washington, D.C. (2006) Museum of Islamic Art (2008) Macau Science Center (2009) Other Pei Plan (1964) Related Pei Cobb Freed & Partners PEI Architects Yann Weymouth This article about a building or structure in Massachusetts is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MIT Media Lab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Media_Lab"},{"link_name":"List Visual Arts Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_Visual_Arts_Center"},{"link_name":"Jerome Wiesner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Wiesner"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MCessay-1"},{"link_name":"Kenneth Noland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Noland"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MCessay-1"},{"link_name":"Scott Burton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Burton"},{"link_name":"Alan Shields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Shields"},{"link_name":"Richard Fleischner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Fleischner"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MCessay-1"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"MIT Media Lab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Media_Lab"},{"link_name":"Center for Bits and Atoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Bits_and_Atoms"},{"link_name":"Neil Gershenfeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Gershenfeld"},{"link_name":"Comparative Media Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//cms.mit.edu/"},{"link_name":"List Visual Arts Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_Visual_Arts_Center"},{"link_name":"I.M. 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The building's exterior was designed by Kenneth Noland is meant as a metaphor of technology through the grids of graph paper and number matrices while also quoting the corridor-like morphology of the rest of the MIT campus.[1] Scott Burton, Alan Shields, and Richard Fleischner also collaborated extensively in the final design of the internal atria and external landscaping.[1]The Wiesner Building in Cambridge, Massachusetts houses the MIT Media Lab, the Center for Bits and Atoms (Neil Gershenfeld's lab), the Department of Architecture's Program in Art, Culture and Technology (ACT, formerly the Visual Arts Program), the Comparative Media Studies (CMS) program and the List Visual Arts Center. It was designed by I.M. Pei & Partners. It is named in honor of former MIT president Jerome Wiesner and his wife Laya and was dedicated in 1985.The Wiesner Building is also known to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology community as Building E15.","title":"Wiesner Building"}]	[]	[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:P_parthenon.svg"},{"title":"Architecture portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Architecture"},{"title":"MIT Campus - Wiesner_Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campus_of_the_Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology#Wiesner_Building_(1985)"}]	[{"reference":"Campbell, Robert; Cruikshank, Jeffrey (1985). \"Artists and Architects Collaborate: Designing the Wiesner Building\". MIT Committee on the Visual Arts.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Mitchell, William J. (2007). Imagining MIT: Designing a Campus for the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_file_name	Long filename	["1 Compatibility issues","1.1 Limits","2 VFAT LFN drivers","3 Driver-less real mode DOS LFN commands","4 Other implementations","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]	Extension of the 8.3 file naming scheme This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Long filename" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Long filename (LFN) support is Microsoft's backward-compatible extension of the 8.3 filename (short filename) naming scheme used in DOS. Long filenames can be more descriptive, including longer filename extensions such as .jpeg, .tiff, .html, and .xhtml that are common on other operating systems, rather than specialized shortened names such as .jpg, .tif, .htm, or .xht. The standard has been common with File Allocation Table (FAT) filesystems since its first implementation in Windows NT 3.5 of 1994. To maintain compatibility with older operating systems, Microsoft formulated a method of generating an 8.3 filename from the long filename (for example, Microsoft.txt to MICROS~1.TXT) and associating it with the file. Further information: Design of the FAT file system § VFAT long file names Compatibility issues Microsoft implemented support for LFNs in the FAT filesystem by using hidden directory entries, of the volume label type, to store the longer names; this scheme is known as VFAT, and was chosen for compatibility, as volume labels are generally ignored by programs and operating system (OS) components. Programs running on older OSs could still access the files' short names, while newer, LFN-aware OSs and programs could use the longer ones. When LFN support was first introduced into a DOS-based operating system in the form of Windows 95, it caused some problems for older programs. For example, a DOS program performing sector-level directory operations while Windows was in DOS mode could destroy long filename information so, by default, sector-level access to hard disks was disallowed in this mode. Upon booting into plain DOS, the long filenames are not visible unless a VFAT LFN driver is installed. Microsoft did not add LFN support to many of its older programs, including File Manager, the Windows 3.1x (Windows for Workgroups) file manager that was made obsolete by the new operating system shell, Windows Explorer. Windows NT supported LFNs on NTFS file systems starting with the release of NT 3.1, and all of its utilities, including File Manager, were updated to support LFNs. NT 3.5 added FAT LFN support in preparation for Windows 95. However, the Windows 95 version of File Manager came from Windows for Workgroups 3.11. OS/2 stores LFNs for FAT filesystems in .LONGNAME extended attributes that are incompatible with Microsoft's implementation and only visible to tools supporting OS/2's standard. Many APIs providing access to files by pathname cannot see the new, longer names without a supporting driver. Limits Because the FAT LFN implementation is layered atop an older, more limited naming system, there are inevitable complications, such as if an attempt is made to create too many files with the same first six letters. Also, one is more likely to encounter issues creating files or folders in the root directory, since FAT12 and FAT16 only allocate space for 512 root directory entries on hard disks. Since long filenames use more than one directory entry, this problem may occur with fewer than 512 files or folders in the root directory. There is space only for 24 long filenames of maximum length (512/(1+20)). This problem does not exist for FAT32 volumes. The long filename system allows a maximum length of 255 UCS-2 characters including spaces and non-alphanumeric characters (excluding the following characters, which have special meaning within the COMMAND.COM command interpreter or the operating system kernel: \ / : * ? " < > \|). This is achieved by chaining up to 20 directory entries of 13 2-byte Unicode characters each. The maximum length of a pathname is 256 characters, which includes all parent directories and the filename. 255-character mixed-case long filename is possible only for files, or folders with no sub-folders, at the root folder of any drive. While long filename support allows for longer file and directory names, under DOS-based systems, the absolute file path constructed from the associated short file and directory name equivalents is still represented in an internal data structure called the Current Directory Structure (CDS), which imposes a limit of 66 characters on the (short) path name and thereby indirectly limits also the path depth to a maximum of 33 levels (counting in the root directory and assuming only single-letter names). (This design limitation was not present in older versions of DR DOS (prior to DR DOS 6.0 November 1991 updates) which still utilized a relative path representation internally, however, due to their internal differences these versions are not compatible with existing LFN add-on drivers.) Non-DOS-based operating systems without a CDS are not restricted to this path depth limitation. VFAT LFN drivers The following is a list of drivers that can be used to provide support for VFAT long file names as used in Windows 95. Although drivers such as DOSLFN can be loaded in almost any versions of DOS, it works best on DOS versions that have support for LFN themselves, such as MS-DOS 7.10 or DR-DOS 7.02, so that DOS commands such as DIR would show long file names as well. OS Driver name Provider any plain DOS DOSLFN, LFNDOS third-party DR-DOS LONGNAME included RxDOS built-in included OS/2 VFAT-OS2.IFS third-party Windows NT 4.0 NTLFN third-party Driver-less real mode DOS LFN commands Some small real mode DOS programs have also been written over the years, although many have been lost over time. One notable collection of programs that still exists is LFN Tools, which is open source and comprises seven useful LFN commands written in C++ and assembly language, with documentation included in English and German, and is available at LFNTOOLS on Sourceforge.net. Other implementations Before LFN support was implemented into the FAT family of file systems, various file managers provided their own methods to attach and maintain longer file descriptions. Among the first to do so are the alternative command line processors 4DOS and NDOS with their internal DESCRIBE command and corresponding DESCRIPT.ION files. The latter are optional hidden files located in each directory storing a line-based list of file names located in the directory together with their textual description and optional metadata entries—for example, extended attributes and configuration data for other programs. The descriptions can be up to 511 characters long and are displayed along the file names in much the same way as long file names are listed alongside their short filename aliases in DIR listings. If an entry exists for a file, it will be copied and moved with the file for as long as these command line processors are used to perform the operation. This scheme is still maintained by successors such as 4OS2, 4NT / Take Command. It was adopted also by various other programs like Volkov Commander (VC), DOS Navigator (DN), Open DOS Navigator (ODN), Necromancer's DOS Navigator (NDN), Windows Commander, Total Commander, Double Commander, 7-Zip, XnView, ACDSee, Newsbin Pro, V, FreeDOS and some CUI_LIB-based applications. Human68K, the operating system of the Sharp X68000 computers since 1986, is based on an extended FAT file system. It allows up to 18.3 characters in a filename (instead of the 8.3 in FAT) and allows also upper and lower case characters (as well as Kanji in Shift JIS code) that are all treated as distinctive. If restricted to the use of 8.3-format filenames with upper case characters only, the Human68K floppies are fully compatible with the Japanese 1232 KiB standard FAT floppy format (77 cylinders, 2 heads, 8 sectors, 1024 bytes/sector). This format is used by the NEC PC-9800, Fujitsu FMR and FM Towns series computers. Novell NetWare versions 3.x and 4.x volumes can also support Microsoft-compatible long filenames, by loading an additional NetWare Loadable Module (NLM). In order to support Java applications without implementing a VFAT-compatible scheme, the FlexOS-based IBM 4690 OS version 2 introduced its own virtual file system (VFS) architecture to store long filenames in the FAT file system in a backwards compatible fashion. If enabled, the virtual filenames (VFN) are available under separate logical drive letters, whereas the real filenames (RFN) remain available under the original drive letters. See also TRANS.TBL Rock Ridge Joliet (file system) Romeo (file system) 8.3 filename 6.3 filename Filename VFAT patent issues Design of the FAT file system File system Large file support (LFS) References ^ "MSDOSFileSystem". CocoaDev. 2005-09-12. Archived from the original on 2006-10-18. ^ "Errors Creating Files or Folders in the Root Directory". Microsoft. 120138. ^ Winnick Cluts, Nancy (August 1996) . "Making Room for Long Filenames". Files and I/0 Technical Articles. Microsoft Corporation. 810456. Archived from the original on 2008-04-23. Retrieved 2007-04-19. ^ a b Dobiash, Jack "vinDaci", ed. (1998-01-06) . "Long Filename Specification" (4 ed.). Grand Ronde, Oregon, USA. Archived from the original on 2015-10-25. Retrieved 2013-05-22. ^ Schulman, Andrew; Brown, Ralf D.; Maxey, David; Michels, Raymond J.; Kyle, Jim (1994) . Undocumented DOS: A programmer's guide to reserved MS-DOS functions and data structures - expanded to include MS-DOS 6, Novell DOS and Windows 3.1 (2 ed.). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-63287-X. ISBN 978-0-201-63287-3. (xviii+856+vi pages, 3.5-inch floppy) Errata: ^ Brown, Ralf D.; et al., eds. (2000-07-16). "Ralf Brown's Interrupt List" (61 ed.). INTER61. ^ a b Paul, Matthias R. (1997-07-30) . NWDOS-TIPs — Tips & Tricks rund um Novell DOS 7, mit Blick auf undokumentierte Details, Bugs und Workarounds. MPDOSTIP (in German) (3 ed.). Archived from the original on 2017-09-10. Retrieved 2014-08-06. (NB. NWDOSTIP.TXT is a comprehensive work on Novell DOS 7 and OpenDOS 7.01, including the description of many undocumented features and internals. It is part of the author's yet larger MPDOSTIP.ZIP collection maintained up to 2001 and distributed on many sites at the time. The provided link points to a HTML-converted older version of the NWDOSTIP.TXT file.) ^ a b Paul, Matthias R. (1997-06-07) . "Chapter 1.3.xi: Überlange Pfade". NWDOS7UN.TXT — Zusammenfassung der dokumentierten und undokumentierten Fähigkeiten von Novell DOS 7. MPDOSTIP (in German). Archived from the original on 2016-11-07. Retrieved 2016-11-07. ^ a b Brothers, Hardin; Rawson, Tom; Conn, Rex C.; Paul, Matthias R.; Dye, Charles E.; Georgiev, Luchezar I. (2002-02-27). 4DOS 8.00 online help. ^ "Technical Note -- Using DESCRIPT.ION". Chestertown, Maryland, USA: JP Software Inc. 1989. Archived from the original on 2016-03-18. (NB. Known IDs include 0x23 ('#') as used by various utilities written by Matthias R. Paul for space-separated lists of text key=value pairs holding file properties as extended attributes like CP (codepages), PC (language codes), CW (bit-width), XS (page width), YS (page length), XO (print x-offset), YO (print y-offset), CR (copyright), URL (source link), etc., 0x25 ('%') being used by programs using CUI_LIB to store pseudo-environment variables, 0xED being reserved for Digital Research/Novell/Caldera and 0xFD for FreeDOS.) ^ Davis, Jeremy. "FreeCom and 4DOS DESCRIPT.ION files" (FreeDOS tech note). FreeDOS. Archived from the original on 2016-11-11. Retrieved 2016-11-11. ^ Paul, Matthias R. (1997-05-01) . "Hinweise zu JPSofts 4DOS 5.5b/c, 5.51, 5.52a und NDOS". MPDOSTIP (in German). Archived from the original on 2016-11-04. Retrieved 2015-05-08. (NB. The provided link points to a HTML-converted version of the 4DOS5TIP.TXT file, which is part of the MPDOSTIP.ZIP collection.) ^ Novell (1999-02-11). "TID1002030 Windows NT, Long File Names on NetWare". Archived from the original on 2011-06-06. Retrieved 2007-12-03. ^ 4690 OS Programming Guide Version 5.2 (PDF). IBM. 2007-12-06. IBM document SC30-4137-01. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-01-25. Retrieved 2018-09-03. External links The filesystems howto Current version of DOSLFN Original Author of DOSLFN Archived 2013-05-28 at the Wayback Machine VFAT OS2 Provides LFN support under OS2 vteComputer filesTypes Binary file / text file Data file File format List of file formats File signatures Magic number Open file formats Proprietary file formats Metafile Sidecar file Sparse file Swap file System file Temporary file Zero-byte file Properties Filename 8.3 filename Long filename Filename mangling Filename extension List of filename extensions File attribute Extended file attributes File size Hidden file / Hidden directory Organisation Directory/folder NTFS links Temporary folder Directory structure File system Filesystem Hierarchy Standard Grid file system Semantic file system Path Operations Open Close Read Write Linking File descriptor Hard link Shortcut Alias Shadow Symbolic link Management Backup File comparison File copying Data compression File manager Comparison of file managers File system fragmentation File-system permissions File transfer File sharing File synchronization File verification	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"8.3 filename","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8.3_filename"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"filename extensions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filename_extension"},{"link_name":".jpeg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.jpeg"},{"link_name":".tiff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tiff"},{"link_name":".html","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.html"},{"link_name":".xhtml","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.xhtml"},{"link_name":"File Allocation Table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Allocation_Table"},{"link_name":"filesystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filesystem"},{"link_name":"Windows NT 3.5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT_3.5"},{"link_name":"Design of the FAT file system § VFAT long file names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VFAT_design"}],"text":"Long filename (LFN) support is Microsoft's backward-compatible extension of the 8.3 filename (short filename) naming scheme used in DOS. Long filenames can be more descriptive, including longer filename extensions such as .jpeg, .tiff, .html, and .xhtml that are common on other operating systems, rather than specialized shortened names such as .jpg, .tif, .htm, or .xht. The standard has been common with File Allocation Table (FAT) filesystems since its first implementation in Windows NT 3.5 of 1994.To maintain compatibility with older operating systems, Microsoft formulated a method of generating an 8.3 filename from the long filename (for example, Microsoft.txt to MICROS~1.TXT) and associating it with the file.Further information: Design of the FAT file system § VFAT long file names","title":"Long filename"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"VFAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VFAT"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"Windows 95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_95"},{"link_name":"File Manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Manager_(Windows)"},{"link_name":"Windows 3.1x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.1x"},{"link_name":"Windows Explorer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Explorer"},{"link_name":"Windows NT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT"},{"link_name":"OS/2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS/2"},{"link_name":"extended attributes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_attribute"}],"text":"Microsoft implemented support for LFNs in the FAT filesystem by using hidden directory entries, of the volume label type, to store the longer names; this scheme is known as VFAT, and was chosen for compatibility, as volume labels are generally ignored by programs and operating system (OS) components. Programs running on older OSs could still access the files' short names, while newer, LFN-aware OSs and programs could use the longer ones.When LFN support was first introduced into a DOS-based operating system in the form of Windows 95, it caused some problems for older programs. For example, a DOS program performing sector-level directory operations while Windows was in DOS mode could destroy long filename information so, by default, sector-level access to hard disks was disallowed in this mode.Upon booting into plain DOS, the long filenames are not visible unless a VFAT LFN driver is installed. Microsoft did not add LFN support to many of its older programs, including File Manager, the Windows 3.1x (Windows for Workgroups) file manager that was made obsolete by the new operating system shell, Windows Explorer. Windows NT supported LFNs on NTFS file systems starting with the release of NT 3.1, and all of its utilities, including File Manager, were updated to support LFNs. NT 3.5 added FAT LFN support in preparation for Windows 95. However, the Windows 95 version of File Manager came from Windows for Workgroups 3.11.OS/2 stores LFNs for FAT filesystems in .LONGNAME extended attributes that are incompatible with Microsoft's implementation and only visible to tools supporting OS/2's standard. Many APIs providing access to files by pathname cannot see the new, longer names without a supporting driver.","title":"Compatibility issues"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cocoa_2005-1"},{"link_name":"FAT12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAT12"},{"link_name":"FAT16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAT16"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_KB120138-2"},{"link_name":"FAT32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAT32"},{"link_name":"UCS-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCS-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_ms810456-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dobiash_1998-4"},{"link_name":"COMMAND.COM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COMMAND.COM"},{"link_name":"Unicode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dobiash_1998-4"},{"link_name":"Current Directory Structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_Directory_Structure"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulman_1994_Undocumented-DOS-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brown_2000_RBIL-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paul_1997_NWDOSTIP-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paul_1997_NWDOS7UN-8"},{"link_name":"DR DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DR_DOS"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paul_1997_NWDOSTIP-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paul_1997_NWDOS7UN-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4DOS_8.00_HELP-9"}],"sub_title":"Limits","text":"Because the FAT LFN implementation is layered atop an older, more limited naming system, there are inevitable complications, such as if an attempt is made to create too many files with the same first six letters.[1] Also, one is more likely to encounter issues creating files or folders in the root directory, since FAT12 and FAT16 only allocate space for 512 root directory entries on hard disks. Since long filenames use more than one directory entry, this problem may occur with fewer than 512 files or folders in the root directory.[2] There is space only for 24 long filenames of maximum length (512/(1+20)). This problem does not exist for FAT32 volumes.The long filename system allows a maximum length of 255 UCS-2 characters[3][4] including spaces and non-alphanumeric characters (excluding the following characters, which have special meaning within the COMMAND.COM command interpreter or the operating system kernel: \\ / : * ? \" < > \|). This is achieved by chaining up to 20 directory entries of 13 2-byte Unicode characters each.[4] The maximum length of a pathname is 256 characters, which includes all parent directories and the filename. 255-character mixed-case long filename is possible only for files, or folders with no sub-folders, at the root folder of any drive.While long filename support allows for longer file and directory names, under DOS-based systems, the absolute file path constructed from the associated short file and directory name equivalents is still represented in an internal data structure called the Current Directory Structure (CDS),[5][6][7][8] which imposes a limit of 66 characters on the (short) path name and thereby indirectly limits also the path depth to a maximum of 33 levels (counting in the root directory and assuming only single-letter names). (This design limitation was not present in older versions of DR DOS (prior to DR DOS 6.0 November 1991 updates) which still utilized a relative path representation internally,[7][8][9] however, due to their internal differences these versions are not compatible with existing LFN add-on drivers.) Non-DOS-based operating systems without a CDS are not restricted to this path depth limitation.","title":"Compatibility issues"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MS-DOS 7.10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS_7.10"},{"link_name":"DR-DOS 7.02","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DR-DOS_7.02"}],"text":"The following is a list of drivers that can be used to provide support for VFAT long file names as used in Windows 95. Although drivers such as DOSLFN can be loaded in almost any versions of DOS, it works best on DOS versions that have support for LFN themselves, such as MS-DOS 7.10 or DR-DOS 7.02, so that DOS commands such as DIR would show long file names as well.","title":"VFAT LFN drivers"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Some small real mode DOS programs have also been written over the years, although many have been lost over time. One notable collection of programs that still exists is LFN Tools, which is open source and comprises seven useful LFN commands written in C++ and assembly language, with documentation included in English and German, and is available at LFNTOOLS on Sourceforge.net.","title":"Driver-less real mode DOS LFN commands"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"4DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4DOS"},{"link_name":"NDOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NDOS"},{"link_name":"DESCRIPT.ION","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DESCRIPT.ION"},{"link_name":"metadata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadata"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JP_1989_DESC-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4DOS_8.00_HELP-9"},{"link_name":"4OS2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4OS2"},{"link_name":"4NT / Take Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take_Command_Console"},{"link_name":"Volkov Commander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkov_Commander"},{"link_name":"DOS Navigator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS_Navigator"},{"link_name":"Open DOS Navigator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_DOS_Navigator"},{"link_name":"Necromancer's DOS Navigator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necromancer%27s_DOS_Navigator"},{"link_name":"Windows Commander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Commander"},{"link_name":"Total Commander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Commander"},{"link_name":"Double Commander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_Commander"},{"link_name":"7-Zip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7-Zip"},{"link_name":"XnView","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XnView"},{"link_name":"ACDSee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACDSee"},{"link_name":"Newsbin Pro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsbin_Pro"},{"link_name":"FreeDOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeDOS"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FreeCom-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paul_1997_4DOSTIP-12"},{"link_name":"Human68K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human68K"},{"link_name":"Sharp X68000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharp_X68000"},{"link_name":"Kanji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanji"},{"link_name":"Shift JIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shift_JIS"},{"link_name":"floppy format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_floppy_disk_formats"},{"link_name":"NEC PC-9800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_PC-9800"},{"link_name":"Fujitsu FMR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujitsu_FMR"},{"link_name":"FM Towns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_Towns"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Novell NetWare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novell_NetWare"},{"link_name":"volumes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetWare_File_System"},{"link_name":"NetWare Loadable Module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetWare_Loadable_Module"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NetWare-13"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"VFAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VFAT"},{"link_name":"FlexOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FlexOS"},{"link_name":"IBM 4690 OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_4690_OS"},{"link_name":"virtual file system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_file_system"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IBM_4690_Programming_Guide-14"}],"text":"Before LFN support was implemented into the FAT family of file systems, various file managers provided their own methods to attach and maintain longer file descriptions. Among the first to do so are the alternative command line processors 4DOS and NDOS with their internal DESCRIBE command and corresponding DESCRIPT.ION files. The latter are optional hidden files located in each directory storing a line-based list of file names located in the directory together with their textual description and optional metadata entries—for example, extended attributes and configuration data for other programs.[10] The descriptions can be up to 511 characters long and are displayed along the file names in much the same way as long file names are listed alongside their short filename aliases in DIR listings. If an entry exists for a file, it will be copied and moved with the file for as long as these command line processors are used to perform the operation.[9] This scheme is still maintained by successors such as 4OS2, 4NT / Take Command. It was adopted also by various other programs like Volkov Commander (VC), DOS Navigator (DN), Open DOS Navigator (ODN), Necromancer's DOS Navigator (NDN), Windows Commander, Total Commander, Double Commander, 7-Zip, XnView, ACDSee, Newsbin Pro, V, FreeDOS[11] and some CUI_LIB[12]-based applications.Human68K, the operating system of the Sharp X68000 computers since 1986, is based on an extended FAT file system. It allows up to 18.3 characters in a filename (instead of the 8.3 in FAT) and allows also upper and lower case characters (as well as Kanji in Shift JIS code) that are all treated as distinctive. If restricted to the use of 8.3-format filenames with upper case characters only, the Human68K floppies are fully compatible with the Japanese 1232 KiB standard FAT floppy format (77 cylinders, 2 heads, 8 sectors, 1024 bytes/sector). This format is used by the NEC PC-9800, Fujitsu FMR and FM Towns series computers.[citation needed]Novell NetWare versions 3.x and 4.x volumes can also support Microsoft-compatible long filenames, by loading an additional NetWare Loadable Module (NLM).[13]In order to support Java applications without implementing a VFAT-compatible scheme, the FlexOS-based IBM 4690 OS version 2 introduced its own virtual file system (VFS) architecture to store long filenames in the FAT file system in a backwards compatible fashion. If enabled, the virtual filenames (VFN) are available under separate logical drive letters, whereas the real filenames (RFN) remain available under the original drive letters.[14]","title":"Other implementations"}]	[]	[{"title":"TRANS.TBL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRANS.TBL"},{"title":"Rock Ridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Ridge"},{"title":"Joliet (file system)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joliet_(file_system)"},{"title":"Romeo (file system)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeo_(file_system)"},{"title":"8.3 filename","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8.3_filename"},{"title":"6.3 filename","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6.3_filename"},{"title":"Filename","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filename"},{"title":"VFAT patent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VFAT_patent"},{"title":"Design of the FAT file system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_the_FAT_file_system"},{"title":"File system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_system"},{"title":"Large file support","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_file_support"}]	[{"reference":"\"MSDOSFileSystem\". CocoaDev. 2005-09-12. Archived from the original on 2006-10-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061018063912/http://www.cocoadev.com/index.pl?MSDOSFileSystem","url_text":"\"MSDOSFileSystem\""},{"url":"http://www.cocoadev.com/index.pl?MSDOSFileSystem","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Errors Creating Files or Folders in the Root Directory\". Microsoft. 120138.","urls":[{"url":"http://support.microsoft.com/kb/120138","url_text":"\"Errors Creating Files or Folders in the Root Directory\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"}]},{"reference":"Winnick Cluts, Nancy (August 1996) [January 1995]. \"Making Room for Long Filenames\". Files and I/0 Technical Articles. Microsoft Corporation. 810456. Archived from the original on 2008-04-23. Retrieved 2007-04-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080423090226/http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms810456.aspx","url_text":"\"Making Room for Long Filenames\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Corporation","url_text":"Microsoft Corporation"},{"url":"http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms810456.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Dobiash, Jack \"vinDaci\", ed. (1998-01-06) [1996-11-18]. \"Long Filename Specification\" (4 ed.). Grand Ronde, Oregon, USA. Archived from the original on 2015-10-25. Retrieved 2013-05-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151025195158/http://home.teleport.com/~brainy/lfn.htm","url_text":"\"Long Filename Specification\""},{"url":"http://home.teleport.com/~brainy/lfn.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Schulman, Andrew; Brown, Ralf D.; Maxey, David; Michels, Raymond J.; Kyle, Jim (1994) [November 1993]. Undocumented DOS: A programmer's guide to reserved MS-DOS functions and data structures - expanded to include MS-DOS 6, Novell DOS and Windows 3.1 (2 ed.). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-63287-X. ISBN 978-0-201-63287-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralf_D._Brown","url_text":"Brown, Ralf D."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/undocumenteddosp00andr_0","url_text":"Undocumented DOS: A programmer's guide to reserved MS-DOS functions and data structures - expanded to include MS-DOS 6, Novell DOS and Windows 3.1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison_Wesley","url_text":"Addison Wesley"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-63287-X","url_text":"0-201-63287-X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-63287-3","url_text":"978-0-201-63287-3"}]},{"reference":"Brown, Ralf D.; et al., eds. (2000-07-16). \"Ralf Brown's Interrupt List\" (61 ed.). INTER61.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralf_D._Brown","url_text":"Brown, Ralf D."},{"url":"https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~ralf/files.html","url_text":"\"Ralf Brown's Interrupt List\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INTER61","url_text":"INTER61"}]},{"reference":"Paul, Matthias R. (1997-07-30) [1994-05-01]. NWDOS-TIPs — Tips & Tricks rund um Novell DOS 7, mit Blick auf undokumentierte Details, Bugs und Workarounds. MPDOSTIP (in German) (3 ed.). Archived from the original on 2017-09-10. Retrieved 2014-08-06.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.antonis.de/dos/dos-tuts/mpdostip/html/nwdostip.htm","url_text":"NWDOS-TIPs — Tips & Tricks rund um Novell DOS 7, mit Blick auf undokumentierte Details, Bugs und Workarounds"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170910194752/http://www.antonis.de/dos/dos-tuts/mpdostip/html/nwdostip.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Paul, Matthias R. (1997-06-07) [April 1994]. \"Chapter 1.3.xi: Überlange Pfade\". NWDOS7UN.TXT — Zusammenfassung der dokumentierten und undokumentierten Fähigkeiten von Novell DOS 7. MPDOSTIP (in German). Archived from the original on 2016-11-07. Retrieved 2016-11-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.antonis.de/dos/dos-tuts/mpdostip/html/nwdos7un.htm","url_text":"NWDOS7UN.TXT — Zusammenfassung der dokumentierten und undokumentierten Fähigkeiten von Novell DOS 7"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161107122352/http://www.antonis.de/dos/dos-tuts/mpdostip/html/nwdos7un.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Brothers, Hardin; Rawson, Tom; Conn, Rex C.; Paul, Matthias R.; Dye, Charles E.; Georgiev, Luchezar I. (2002-02-27). 4DOS 8.00 online help.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Rawson","url_text":"Rawson, Tom"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rex_C._Conn","url_text":"Conn, Rex C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4DOS_8.00","url_text":"4DOS 8.00 online help"}]},{"reference":"\"Technical Note -- Using DESCRIPT.ION\". Chestertown, Maryland, USA: JP Software Inc. 1989. Archived from the original on 2016-03-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160318122322/https://jpsoft.com/ascii/descfile.txt","url_text":"\"Technical Note -- Using DESCRIPT.ION\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JP_Software_Inc.","url_text":"JP Software Inc."},{"url":"https://jpsoft.com/ascii/descfile.txt","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Davis, Jeremy. \"FreeCom and 4DOS DESCRIPT.ION files\" (FreeDOS tech note). FreeDOS. Archived from the original on 2016-11-11. Retrieved 2016-11-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://freedos.gds.tuwien.ac.at/freedos/news/technote/225.html","url_text":"\"FreeCom and 4DOS DESCRIPT.ION files\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeDOS","url_text":"FreeDOS"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161111214239/http://freedos.gds.tuwien.ac.at/freedos/news/technote/225.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Paul, Matthias R. (1997-05-01) [1995-03-01]. \"Hinweise zu JPSofts 4DOS 5.5b/c, 5.51, 5.52a und NDOS\". MPDOSTIP (in German). Archived from the original on 2016-11-04. Retrieved 2015-05-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.antonis.de/dos/dos-tuts/mpdostip/html/4dostip.htm","url_text":"\"Hinweise zu JPSofts 4DOS 5.5b/c, 5.51, 5.52a und NDOS\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161104211143/http://www.antonis.de/dos/dos-tuts/mpdostip/html/4dostip.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Novell (1999-02-11). \"TID1002030 Windows NT, Long File Names on NetWare\". Archived from the original on 2011-06-06. Retrieved 2007-12-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novell","url_text":"Novell"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110606134839/http://www.novell.com/support/search.do?cmd=displayKC&docType=kc&externalId=1002030&sliceId=&dialogID=52309057&stateId=0%200%2052303960","url_text":"\"TID1002030 Windows NT, Long File Names on NetWare\""},{"url":"http://www.novell.com/support/search.do?cmd=displayKC&docType=kc&externalId=1002030&sliceId=&dialogID=52309057&stateId=0%200%2052303960","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"4690 OS Programming Guide Version 5.2 (PDF). IBM. 2007-12-06. IBM document SC30-4137-01. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-01-25. Retrieved 2018-09-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220125063705/ftp://ftp.software.ibm.com/software/retail/pubs/sw/opsys/4690/ver5r2/bsi1_PG_mst.pdf","url_text":"4690 OS Programming Guide Version 5.2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM","url_text":"IBM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgftp//ftp.software.ibm.com/software/retail/pubs/sw/opsys/4690/ver5r2/bsi1_PG_mst.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Long+filename%22","external_links_name":"\"Long filename\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Long+filename%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Long+filename%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Long+filename%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Long+filename%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Long+filename%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061018063912/http://www.cocoadev.com/index.pl?MSDOSFileSystem","external_links_name":"\"MSDOSFileSystem\""},{"Link":"http://www.cocoadev.com/index.pl?MSDOSFileSystem","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://support.microsoft.com/kb/120138","external_links_name":"\"Errors Creating Files or Folders in the Root Directory\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080423090226/http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms810456.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Making Room for Long Filenames\""},{"Link":"http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms810456.aspx","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151025195158/http://home.teleport.com/~brainy/lfn.htm","external_links_name":"\"Long Filename Specification\""},{"Link":"http://home.teleport.com/~brainy/lfn.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/undocumenteddosp00andr_0","external_links_name":"Undocumented DOS: A programmer's guide to reserved MS-DOS functions and data structures - 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadite	List of mergers and acquisitions by Microsoft	["1 Key acquisitions","2 Acquisitions","3 Stakes","4 Divestitures","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References","8 Sources","9 External links"]	Microsoft logo Microsoft is an American public multinational corporation headquartered in Redmond, Washington, USA that develops, manufactures, licenses, and supports a wide range of products and services predominantly related to computing through its various product divisions. Established on April 4, 1975 to develop and sell BASIC interpreters for the Altair 8800, Microsoft rose to dominate the home computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems. Microsoft would also come to dominate the office suite market with Microsoft Office. The company has diversified in recent years into the video game industry with the Xbox, the Xbox 360, the Xbox One, and the Xbox Series X as well as into the consumer electronics and digital services market with Zune, MSN and the Windows Phone OS. The company's initial public offering was held on March 14, 1986. The stock, which eventually closed at $27.75 a share, peaked at $29.25 a share shortly after the market opened for trading. After the offering, Microsoft had a market capitalization of $519.777 million. Microsoft has subsequently acquired over 225 companies, purchased stakes in 64 companies, and made 25 divestments. Of the companies that Microsoft has acquired, 107 were based in the United States. Microsoft has not released financial details for most of these mergers and acquisitions. Since Microsoft's first acquisition in 1986, it has purchased an average of six companies a year. The company purchased more than ten companies a year between 2005 and 2008, and it acquired 18 firms in 2006, the most in a single year, including Onfolio, Lionhead Studios, Massive Incorporated, ProClarity, Winternals Software, and Colloquis. Microsoft has made fourteen acquisitions worth over one billion dollars: Skype (2011), aQuantive (2007), Fast Search & Transfer (2008), Navision (2002), Visio Corporation (2000), Yammer (2012), Nokia's mobile and devices division (2013), Mojang (2014), LinkedIn (2016), GitHub (2018), Affirmed Networks (2020), ZeniMax Media (2020), Nuance Communications (2021), and Activision Blizzard (2022). Microsoft has also purchased several stakes valued at more than a billion dollars. It obtained an 11.5% stake in Comcast for $1 billion, a 22.98% stake in Telewest for $2.263 billion, and a 3% stake in AT&T for $5 billion. Among Microsoft's divestments, in which parts of the company are sold to another company, only Expedia Group was sold for more than a billion dollars; USA Networks purchased the company on February 5, 2002, for $1.372 billion (~$2.22 billion in 2023). Key acquisitions One of Microsoft's first acquisitions was Forethought on July 30, 1987. Forethought was founded in 1983 and developed a presentation program that would later be known as Microsoft PowerPoint. On December 31, 1997, Microsoft acquired Hotmail.com for $500 million (~$882 million in 2023), its largest acquisition at the time, and integrated Hotmail into its MSN group of services. Hotmail, a free webmail service founded in 1996 by Jack Smith and Sabeer Bhatia, had more than 8.5 million subscribers earlier that month. In 1999, Microsoft reportedly discussed a buyout of Nintendo. However, execs failed to negotiate a deal, with Xbox co-inventor Kevin Bachus explaining "They just laughed their asses off." Microsoft acquired Seattle-based Visio Corporation on January 7, 2000, for $1.375 billion (~$2.31 billion in 2023). Visio, a software company, was founded in 1990 as Axon Corporation, and had its initial public offering in November 1995. The company developed the diagramming application software, Visio, which was integrated into Microsoft's product line as Microsoft Visio after its acquisition. On July 12, 2002, Microsoft purchased Navision for $1.33 billion (~$2.15 billion in 2023). The company, which developed the technology for the Microsoft Dynamics NAV enterprise resource planning software, was integrated into Microsoft as a new division named Microsoft Business Solutions, later renamed to Microsoft Dynamics. Microsoft purchased aQuantive, an advertising company, on August 13, 2007, for $6.333 billion (~$8.97 billion in 2023). Before the acquisition, aQuantive was ranked 14th in terms of revenue among advertising agencies worldwide. aQuantive had three subsidiaries at the time of the acquisition: Avenue A/Razorfish, one of the world's largest digital agencies, Atlas Solutions, and DRIVE Performance Solutions. Microsoft acquired the Norwegian enterprise search company Fast Search & Transfer on April 25, 2008, for $1.191 billion (~$1.66 billion in 2023) to boost its search technology. On May 10, 2011, Microsoft announced its acquisition of Skype Technologies, creator of the VoIP service Skype, for $8.5 billion (~$11.4 billion in 2023). With a value 32 times larger than Skype's operating profits, the deal was Microsoft's largest acquisition at the time. Skype would become a division within Microsoft, with Skype's former CEO Tony Bates —then the division's first president —reporting to the CEO of Microsoft. On September 2, 2013, Microsoft announced its intent to acquire the mobile hardware division of Nokia (which had established a long-term partnership with Microsoft to produce smartphones built off its Windows Phone platform) in a deal worth 3.79 billion euros, along with another 1.65 billion to license Nokia's portfolio of patents. Steve Ballmer considered the purchase to be a "bold step into the future" for both companies, primarily as a result of its recent collaborations. The acquisition, scheduled to close in early 2014 pending regulatory approval, did not include the Here mapping service or the infrastructure division Nokia Solutions and Networks, which will be retained by Nokia. While the deal went through, in May 2016 Microsoft abandoned its mobile business and sold the Nokia feature phone line. In September 2014, Microsoft purchased Mojang for $2.5 billion (~$3.17 billion in 2023). On June 13, 2016, Microsoft announced it planned to acquire the professional networking site LinkedIn for $26.2 billion, to be completed by the end of 2016. The acquisition would keep LinkedIn as a distinct brand and retain its current CEO, Jeff Weiner, who will subsequently report to Microsoft CEO Satya Nadella. The acquisition was completed on December 8, 2016. On June 4, 2018, Microsoft acquired the popular code repository site GitHub for $7.5 billion (~$8.96 billion in 2023) in Microsoft stock. On September 21, 2020, Microsoft announced its intent to acquire ZeniMax Media and all its subsidiaries for $7.5 billion (~$8.7 billion in 2023). The acquisition was completed on March 9, 2021. On January 18, 2022, Microsoft announced its intent to acquire Activision Blizzard, an American video game holding company, for $68.7 billion in cash. The deal has been approved by both companies' board of directors and was finalized on October 13, 2023, with the total cost of the acquisition amounting to $75.4 billion, following international government regulatory review of the action. Acquisitions Date Company Business Country Value (USD) References 1 June 20, 1986 Dynamical Systems Research Operating systems United States 1,500,000 2 July 30, 1987 Forethought, Inc. Computer software United States 14,000,000 3 March 31, 1991 Consumers Software Software Canada — 4 June 29, 1992 Fox Software PC database software United States 174,000,000 5 February 28, 1994 Softimage Wholesale 3-D visualization software Canada 130,000,000 6 September 27, 1994 Altamira Software Software United States — 7 November 1, 1994 NextBase Software United Kingdom — 8 November 15, 1994 One Tree Software Software United States — 9 February 23, 1995 RenderMorphics 3D graphics hardware United States — 10 July 10, 1995 Network Managers Systems design United Kingdom — 11 October 17, 1995 The Blue Ribbon SoundWorks Software United States — 12 November 6, 1995 Netwise Computer software United States — 13 December 12, 1995 Bruce Artwick Organization Programming United States — 14 January 16, 1996 Vermeer Technologies Software United States 133,000,000 15 March 6, 1996 VGA-Animation Software Div Software Germany — 16 March 12, 1996 Colusa Software Software United States — 17 April 16, 1996 Exos Video game controllers United States — 18 April 23, 1996 Aspect Software Engineering Computer software United States 14,150,000 19 June 11, 1996 eShop Inc. Software United States 50,000,000 20 June 17, 1996 Electric Gravity Electronic games United States — 21 November 1, 1996 Panorama Software Sys-On-Line Software Canada — 22 February 3, 1997 NetCarta Internet software United States 20,000,000 23 March 3, 1997 Interse Internet software United States — 24 April 30, 1997 WebTV Networks Internet service provider United States 425,000,000 25 May 7, 1997 Dimension X Java-based platforms United States — 26 June 13, 1997 Cooper & Peters Programming United States — 27 June 30, 1997 LinkAge Software Internet software development Canada — 28 August 5, 1997 VXtreme Internet video software United States — 29 December 31, 1997 Hotmail Internet software United States 500,000,000 30 February 23, 1998 Flash Communications Enterprise instant messaging software United States — 31 April 15, 1998 Firefly Relationship management software United States 40,000,000 32 April 28, 1998 MESA Group Data sharing software United States — 33 August 25, 1998 Valence Research Internet software United States — 34 November 6, 1998 LinkExchange Internet advertising network United States 265,000,000 35 January 11, 1999 FASA Interactive Video games United States — 36 March 4, 1999 CompareNet Shopping online United States — 37 March 26, 1999 Numinous Technologies Software United States — 38 April 19, 1999 Access Software Video games United States — 39 April 27, 1999 Interactive Objects-Digital Web music software United States — 40 April 30, 1999 Jump Networks Internet service provider United States — 41 June 7, 1999 ShadowFactor Software Wholesale computer software United States — 42 June 15, 1999 Omnibrowse Internet software United States — 43 June 28, 1999 Intrinsa Defect detection software United States 58,900,000 44 July 1, 1999 Sendit Application software Sweden 125,420,000 45 July 7, 1999 Zoomit Encryption software Canada — 46 July 21, 1999 STNC Community software United Kingdom — 47 September 19, 1999 Softway Systems Computer programming United States — 48 October 29, 1999 Entropic Software United States — 49 January 7, 2000 Visio Corporation Wholesale drawing software United States 1,375,000,000 50 February 29, 2000 Peach Networks Digital TV services Israel — 51 March 17, 2000 Travelscape Internet service provider United States 89,750,000 52 April 12, 2000 Titus Communications Cable television United States 944,800,000 53 June 19, 2000 Bungie Video games United States — 54 July 12, 2000 NetGames Software United States — 55 September 13, 2000 MongoMusic Online music search engine United States 65,000,000 56 September 27, 2000 Pacific Microsonics Digital audio technology United States — 57 December 5, 2000 Digital Anvil Video games United States — 58 March 17, 2001 Vacationspot Internet service provider United States 70,850,000 59 April 5, 2001 Great Plains Software Business management software United States 939,884,000 60 May 2, 2001 Intellisol International Software Canada — 61 May 3, 2001 Ensemble Studios Video games United States 100,000,000 62 May 31, 2001 NCompass Labs Internet software Canada 36,000,000 63 June 21, 2001 Maximal Innovative Intelligence Software Israel 20,000,000 64 July 1, 2001 Yupi Online Spanish portal United States — 65 March 11, 2002 Classic Custom Vacations Travel agency United States 78,000,000 66 May 22, 2002 Sales Management Systems Software United States — 67 July 12, 2002 Navision Software programming Denmark 1,330,000,000 68 July 29, 2002 Mobilocity Computer consulting United States — 69 September 10, 2002 XDegrees Security software United States — 70 September 24, 2002 Rare Video games United Kingdom 375,000,000 71 December 13, 2002 Vicinity Online enterprise location United States 95,849,000 72 February 25, 2003 Connectix Software United States — 73 March 3, 2003 DCG Internet software Australia — 74 April 30, 2003 PlaceWare Web conferencing United States 200,000,000 75 May 27, 2003 G.A. Sullivan Information technology United States — 76 June 10, 2003 GeCAD Software Antivirus technology Romania — 77 August 29, 2003 3DO Co-High Heat Baseball Software United States 450,000 78 April 22, 2004 Encore Bus Solutions-IP Asts IP assets United States — 79 April 26, 2004 ActiveViews Reporting systems United States — 80 July 16, 2004 Lookout Software Personal search tool United States — 81 December 16, 2004 GIANT Company Software Anti-spyware United States — 82 March 2, 2005 en'tegrate Software United States — 83 March 10, 2005 Groove Networks Community software United States 120,000,000 84 May 11, 2005 MessageCast Messaging United States 7,000,000 85 May 31, 2005 Tsinghua-Shenxun-Cert Asts Certain assets China 15,000,000 86 June 21, 2005 Sybari Software Software United States — 87 August 29, 2005 Teleo VoIP United States — 88 August 31, 2005 FrontBridge Technologies Email protection United States — 89 September 19, 2005 Alacris Certificate management software United States — 90 November 3, 2005 media-streams.com Software Switzerland — 91 November 17, 2005 5th Finger Mobile Australia 3,153,000 92 January 19, 2006 UMT-Software and IP Assets Software United States — 93 February 13, 2006 MotionBridge Search France 17,858,000 94 February 13, 2006 Seadragon Software Software United States — 95 March 7, 2006 Apptimum Software United States — 96 March 7, 2006 Onfolio Internet software United States — 97 April 6, 2006 Lionhead Studios Video games United Kingdom — 98 April 26, 2006 AssetMetrix Enterprise asset intelligence (SaaS) Canada 18,000,000 99 May 4, 2006 Massive Incorporated Video game advertising United States — 100 May 4, 2006 Vexcel Mapping software United States — 101 May 15, 2006 DeepMetrix Web log analysis United States — 102 June 6, 2006 ProClarity Analysis software United States — 103 June 27, 2006 iView Multimedia Digital asset management United Kingdom — 104 July 17, 2006 Softricity Application virtualization software United States — 105 July 18, 2006 Winternals Software Software United States — 106 July 26, 2006 Whale Communications Applications Israel — 107 September 26, 2006 Gteko Applications Israel — 108 October 2, 2006 DesktopStandard Applications United States — 109 October 12, 2006 Colloquis Natural language software United States — 110 March 9, 2007 Medstory Internet search engine United States — 111 March 26, 2007 devBiz Business Solutions Software tools United States — 112 May 3, 2007 ScreenTonic Advertising and marketing France — 113 May 3, 2007 Tellme Networks Mobile phone software United States — 114 May 9, 2007 SoftArtisans Business Intelligence software United States — 115 June 4, 2007 Engyro Information technology United States — 116 June 7, 2007 Stratature Master data management United States — 117 June 29, 2007 Savvis Inc-Data Centers Networking United States 200,000,000 118 August 13, 2007 AdECN Ad Exchange United States 45,000,000 119 August 13, 2007 aQuantive Digital marketing United States 6,333,000,000 120 October 2, 2007 Jellyfish.com Search engine United States — 121 October 5, 2007 Parlano Enterprise messaging software United States — 122 October 29, 2007 Global Care Solutions-Assets Assets Thailand — 123 November 1, 2007 HOB Business Solutions Information technology Denmark — 124 November 15, 2007 Musiwave Mobile music entertainment France — 125 December 12, 2007 Multimap.com Mapping United Kingdom — 126 January 22, 2008 Calista Technologies Software United States — 127 February 7, 2008 Caligari Corporation Software United States — 128 February 27, 2008 YaData Software Israel — 129 March 14, 2008 Rapt Advertising yield management software United States — 130 March 19, 2008 Komoku Rootkit security software United States 5,000,000 131 March 31, 2008 90 Degree Software Business intelligence software Canada — 132 April 14, 2008 Farecast Online search software United States 75,000,000 133 April 15, 2008 Danger Mobile Internet software United States 500,000,000 134 April 25, 2008 Fast Search & Transfer Enterprise search Norway 1,191,000,000 135 May 26, 2008 Kidaro Software United States — 136 June 4, 2008 Quadreon Software Belgium — 137 June 18, 2008 Navic Networks Management software United States — 138 June 26, 2008 Mobicomp Mobile applications Portugal — 139 August 11, 2008 Powerset Semantic Search United States — 140 September 16, 2008 DATAllegro Data software United States — 141 September 28, 2008 Greenfield Online Search and e-commerce services United States 486,000,000 142 March 1, 2009 3DV Systems Developer of ZCam, a time-of-flight camera Israel 35,000,000 143 May 7, 2009 BigPark Video games interactive online gaming Canada — 144 June 1, 2009 Rosetta Biosoftware Bioinformatics solutions for life science research United States — 145 September 22, 2009 Interactive Supercomputing Software United States — 146 December 10, 2009 Opalis Software Software Canada — 147 February 2, 2010 Sentillion, Inc. Software for the healthcare industry United States — 148 October 6, 2010 AVIcode, Inc. .Net monitoring technology United States — 149 October 29, 2010 Canesta, Inc. 3D sensing technology United States — 150 May 10, 2011 Skype Technologies Telecommunications Luxembourg 8,500,000,000 151 June 7, 2011 Prodiance Software United States — 152 October 12, 2011 Twisted Pixel Games Video games United States — 153 November 22, 2011 Videosurf Video search United States 100,000,000 154 June 5, 2012 Press Play Video games Denmark — 155 June 25, 2012 Yammer Social networking United States 1,200,000,000 156 July 9, 2012 Perceptive Pixel Multi touch hardware United States — 157 October 4, 2012 PhoneFactor Two-factor authentication system United States — 158 October 16, 2012 StorSimple Cloud-storage appliance vendor United States — 159 October 17, 2012 MarketingPilot Marketing automation firm United States — 160 January 3, 2013 id8 Group R2 Studios Home automation United States — 161 February 2, 2013 Pando Networks Peer-to-peer (P2P) media distribution United States — 162 March 4, 2013 MetricsHub Cloud monitoring United States — 163 March 19, 2013 Netbreeze Social analytics Switzerland — 164 June 3, 2013 InRelease Release management Canada — 165 September 2, 2013 Nokia mobile phones unit Mobile phones, smartphones Finland 7,200,000,000 166 October 12, 2013 HLW Software RDP applications Austria — 167 October 25, 2013 Apiphany API management United States — 168 January 7, 2014 Parature Customer service software United States 100,000,000 169 May 1, 2014 GreenButton Cloud computing New Zealand — 170 May 1, 2014 Capptain (Mobile) application development France — 171 July 2, 2014 SyntaxTree Developer tools France — 172 July 11, 2014 InMage Disaster recovery solutions India — 173 August 1, 2014 Inception Mobile Inc. Software Canada — 174 November 6, 2014 Mojang Video games Sweden 2,500,000,000 175 November 13, 2014 Aorato Enterprise security & machine learning Israel — 176 December 2, 2014 Acompli Mobile email apps United States — 177 December 11, 2014 HockeyApp Mobile beta distribution & crash analytics Germany — 178 January 20, 2015 Equivio Text analytics service Israel — 179 January 23, 2015 Revolution Analytics Statistical computing and predictive analytics United States — 180 February 4, 2015 Sunrise Atelier, Inc. Sunrise Calendar applications United States 100,000,000 181 February 12, 2015 N-trig Styli and pen input hardware and software Israel 200,000,000 182 March 26, 2015 LiveLoop PowerPoint collaboration United States — 183 April 14, 2015 Datazen Software, Inc. Mobile business intelligence & data visualization Canada — 184 June 2, 2015 6 Wunderkinder GmbH Wunderlist to-do list applications Germany — 185 June 10, 2015 BlueStripe Software Application management United States — 186 July 16, 2015 FieldOne Systems LLC Enterprise field service United States — 187 July 19, 2015 Adallom Cloud security Israel 320,000,000 188 August 3, 2015 Incent Games, LLC Sales-gamification United States — 189 September 3, 2015 VoloMetrix, Inc. Organisational analytics United States — 190 September 11, 2015 Double Labs, Inc. Mobile lock screen software United States — 191 September 28, 2015 Adxstudio Inc. Web portal and application lifecycle management solutions Canada — 192 October 2, 2015 Havok Video game physics engine Ireland — 193 November 5, 2015 Mobile Data Labs, Inc. MileIQ, a mileage tracking application United States — 194 November 9, 2015 Secure Islands Technologies Ltd. Data protection Israel — 195 December 18, 2015 Metanautix Big data analytics United States — 196 December 21, 2015 Talko, Inc. Mobile communications United States — 197 January 13, 2016 Event Zero VoIP Products Australia — 198 January 19, 2016 Teacher Gaming LLC Education software Finland — 199 February 3, 2016 SwiftKey Virtual keyboard United Kingdom 250,000,000 200 February 9, 2016 Groove Music discovery Canada — 201 February 24, 2016 Xamarin Mobile application development United States — 202 May 3, 2016 Solair Internet of Things platform Italy — 203 June 16, 2016 Wand Labs Conversation as a service United States — 204 August 8, 2016 Beam Video game streaming United States — 205 August 20, 2016 Genee AI-powered scheduling assistant service United States — 206 December 8, 2016 LinkedIn Professional social network United States 26,200,000,000 207 January 13, 2017 Maluuba Artificial intelligence Canada 140,000,000 208 January 17, 2017 Simplygon 3D graphics optimization Sweden — 209 April 10, 2017 Deis Container management United States — 210 April 18, 2017 Intentional Software Intentional programming United States — 211 June 8, 2017 Hexadite Cybersecurity Israel 100,000,000 212 June 28, 2017 Cloudyn Cloud business management Israel 50,000,000 213 August 15, 2017 Cycle Computing Cloud HPC United States — 214 October 3, 2017 AltspaceVR Virtual reality United States — 215 November 7, 2017 SWNG Cinemagraphic photo app United States — 216 January 3, 2018 Avere Systems Data management United States — 217 January 29, 2018 Playfab Gaming backend service United States — 218 May 18, 2018 Semantic Machines Conversational AI United States 400,000,000 219 June 11, 2018 Ninja Theory Video games United Kingdom 117,000,000 220 June 11, 2018 Undead Labs Video games United States — 221 June 11, 2018 Compulsion Games Video games Canada — 222 June 11, 2018 Playground Games Video games United Kingdom — 223 June 18, 2018 Flipgrid Education, video discussion platform United States — 224 June 20, 2018 Bonsai Industrial AI platform United States — 225 September 13, 2018 Lobe Artificial intelligence United States — 226 October 9, 2018 Glint Employee engagement United States 400,000,000 227 October 26, 2018 GitHub Software development and version control platform United States 7,500,000,000 228 November 10, 2018 inXile Entertainment Video games United States — 229 November 10, 2018 Obsidian Entertainment Video games United States — 230 November 14, 2018 XOXCO Conversational AI United States — 231 November 19, 2018 FSLogix Application provisioning and virtualization United States — 232 November 30, 2018 Spectrum Social networks for design and development United States — 233 January 24, 2019 Citus Data Database management United States — 234 February 4, 2019 DataSense Database management United States — 235 April 18, 2019 Express Logic Real-time operating systems United States — 236 May 23, 2019 Dependabot Open source tool United Kingdom — 237 May 28, 2019 Drawbridge AI & machine learning technology United States — 238 June 9, 2019 Double Fine Productions Video games United States — 239 June 17, 2019 Pull Panda Software United States — 240 July 29, 2019 BlueTalon Data privacy and governance service United States — 241 August 5, 2019 PromoteIQ Retail e-commerce improvement United States — 242 August 19, 2019 jClarity Java software optimization United States — 243 September 5, 2019 Movere Cloud migration United States — 244 September 18, 2019 Semmle Code analysis tool United States — 245 October 21, 2019 Mover File migration Canada — 246 March 16, 2020 npm Software and JavaScript modules United States — 247 March 26, 2020 Affirmed Networks 5G Networking United States 1,350,000,000 248 May 14, 2020 Metaswitch Networks 5G Networking United Kingdom — 249 May 19, 2020 Softomotive Robotic Process Automation United Kingdom — 250 June 18, 2020 ADRM Software Data modeling startup United States — 251 June 22, 2020 CyberX IoT/OT Security United States 165,000,000 252 July 7, 2020 Orions Systems Dynamics 365 - SMart vision United States — 253 September 21, 2020 ZeniMax Media Video games United States 8,100,000,000 254 December 2, 2020 Smash.gg Esports United States — 255 March 16, 2021 The Marsden Group Tech in complex industrial environments United States — 256 April 12, 2021 Nuance Communications Speech synthesis and speech recognition United States 19,700,000,000 257 April 29, 2021 Kinvolk Open source Kubernetes solutions and tools. Germany — 258 June 2, 2021 ReFirm Labs IoT security and embedded devices United States — 259 June 30, 2021 AT&T Technology Network Cloud 5G Networking United States — 260 July 12, 2021 RiskIQ Cybersecurity ransomware United States 500,000,000 261 July 22, 2021 CloudKnox Cloud infrastructure entitlement management security United States — 262 July 28, 2021 Suplari Software United States — 263 August 10, 2021 Peer5 Peer-to-peer network technology United States — 264 September 7, 2021 Clipchamp Video-editing software Australia — 265 September 8, 2021 TakeLessons Education United States — 266 October 7, 2021 Ally.io Productivity United States — 267 October 22, 2021 Clear Software Software United States — 268 October 29, 2021 Two Hat Content moderation Canada — 269 December 21, 2021 Xandr Digital Media United States 1,000,000,000 270 January 18, 2022 Activision Blizzard Video games United States 75,400,000,000 271 February 28, 2022 Oribi Marketing analytics Israel — 272 March 31, 2022 Minit Process mining software Netherlands — 273 June 15, 2022 Miburo Cyberthreat analysis and research specializing United States — 274 December 9, 2022 Lumenisity Optical networking United Kingdom — 275 January 9, 2023 Fungible composable infrastructure United States — 276 April 5, 2023 Nemesys Games Video games Hungary — Stakes Date Company Business Country Value (USD) References June 15, 1989 Santa Cruz Operation Wholesale computer software United States — March 18, 1991 Dorling Kindersley Reference books United Kingdom 14,340,000 June 21, 1994 Stac Electronics Data compression software United States 39,900,000 January 19, 1995 UUNet Internet service provider United States — May 30, 1995 Wang Laboratories Software consulting United States 90,000,000 October 12, 1995 Individual On-line information retrieval United States — April 1, 1996 Mobile Telecom Technologies Cellular telephones United States 25,000,000 April 22, 1996 Helicon Publishing Electronic books United States — September 9, 1996 SingleTrac Video games United States — October 1, 1996 WebTV Networks Internet service provider United States — October 28, 1996 VDOnet Internet services United States — February 3, 1997 CMGI Direct mail United States 20,000,000 February 18, 1997 Digital Anvil Video games United States — March 3, 1997 Interse Internet software United States — June 30, 1997 Comcast Cable television United States 1,000,000,000 August 6, 1997 Apple Inc. Personal computers United States 150,000,000 August 19, 1997 Progressive Networks Internet software United States 30,000,000 September 11, 1997 Lernout & Hauspie Speech Multilingual software Belgium 45,000,000 September 23, 1997 E-Stamp Internet software United States — March 4, 1998 General Magic Community software United States 6,000,000 March 6, 1998 WavePhore Radio and television equipment United States — June 18, 1998 Pluto Technologies Network and storage United States — December 14, 1998 Qwest Communications Telecommunications United States 200,000,000 January 6, 1999 SkyTel Communications Cellular telephones United States — January 31, 1999 United Pan-Europe Comm NV Broadband communities Netherlands 300,000,000 February 1, 1999 NTL Communications United Kingdom 500,000,000 February 2, 1999 Banyan Software United States 10,000,000 March 2, 1999 Dialogic Computer telephony United States 24,200,000 March 8, 1999 Reciprocal Copyright protection United States — April 1, 1999 TV Cabo Portugal SA Cable television Portugal 38,600,000 April 10, 1999 Lernout & Hauspie Speech Multilingual software Belgium 15,000,000 June 8, 1999 Inprise Computer software United States 125,000,000 June 8, 1999 NaviSite Internet service provider United States — June 19, 1999 AT&T Telecommunications United States 5,000,000,000 June 22, 1999 Concentric Network IP-based networks United States 50,000,000 July 5, 1999 WebMD Web-based health information United States 250,000,000 August 20, 1999 Tuttle Decision Systems Mortgage pricing information United States — August 25, 1999 Rogers Communications Radio and television stations Canada 405,120,000 December 3, 1999 Korea Thrunet Internet service provider South Korea 36,000,000 December 28, 1999 Globo Cabo Cable television Brazil 126,000,000 December 30, 1999 Commtouch Software Community security software Israel 20,000,000 December 31, 1999 Gigamedia Internet service provider Taiwan 31,470,000 January 24, 2000 Intertainer Interactive systems United States 56,000,000 January 24, 2000 VerticalNet Management solutions United States 100,000,000 February 23, 2000 BroadBand Office Communication United States 25,000,000 March 2, 2000 Ecoss Computer programming Japan 46,000 March 13, 2000 RealNames Internet navigation United States — March 14, 2000 MEASAT Broadcast Network Television broadcasting Malaysia 100,000,000 April 14, 2000 Best Buy Retail stores United States 200,000,000 July 7, 2000 Telewest Communications Cable television United States 2,263,000,000 July 13, 2000 Blixer Net Online telecommunications Italy — August 4, 2000 CAIS Internet Internet access United States 40,000,000 October 2, 2000 Corel Corporation Software Canada 89,370,000 November 29, 2000 Chyron Corporation Digital graphics United States 6,000,000 February 12, 2001 Audible.com Online audio retail United States 10,000,000 July 23, 2001 Sendo Mobile handset United Kingdom — February 14, 2002 USA Networks Television stations United States — November 3, 2005 ByteTaxi Software United States — October 24, 2007 Facebook Social network United States 240,000,000 April 8, 2008 OKWave On-line community site Japan 2,515,000 June 12, 2008 Zignals Online trading Ireland — April 7, 2011 Toyota Media Service Corp Web marketing services Japan — February 7, 2012 24/7 Outsourcing and call center services United States — April 30, 2012 Barnes & Noble Book retailer United States 605,000,000 October 9, 2018 Grab Ride-hailing firm Singapore — February 4, 2019 Databricks Software for processing large-scale data in public clouds United States — August 20, 2021 Oyo Rooms Hospitality India 5,000,000 October 3, 2022 WeMade Entertainment Video games and blockchain South Korea — December 12, 2022 London Stock Exchange Group Financial services United Kingdom 2,000,000,000 Divestitures This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: Microsoft has executed several substantial buy-backs, but only some are listed here. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (January 2024) Date Acquirer Target company Target business Acquirer country Value (USD) References March 31, 1989 Steve Ballmer Microsoft Wholesale computer software United States 46,200,000 June 17, 1992 Microsoft Microsoft Wholesale computer software United States 63,750,000 July 6, 1994 Microsoft Microsoft Wholesale computer software United States 348,000,000 December 22, 1994 TCI Technology Ventures MSN Internet service provider United States 125,000,000 November 15, 1996 Microsoft MSN Internet service provider United States 125,000,000 December 19, 1996 Proginet TransAccess Software United States 1,740,000 August 3, 1998 Avid Technology Softimage 3-D visualization software Canada 284,295,000 September 21, 1999 Ticketmaster Online-CitySearch MSN Sidewalk Internet city guide United States 340,000,000 February 24, 2000 Electronic Arts DreamWorks Interactive Video games United States — August 10, 2000 Envoy Communications Sage Information Consultants Consulting Canada 23,730,000 September 1, 2000 Jupiter Telecommunications Titus Communications Cable television Japan — December 31, 2000 Technology Crossover Ventures Expedia, Inc. Online travel United States 50,000,000 June 26, 2001 CNBC MSN MoneyCentral Financial information United States — February 5, 2002 USA Networks Expedia, Inc. Online travel United States 1,372,000,000 July 26, 2002 Liberty Media Chofu CATV Cable television Japan 16,000,000 August 12, 2002 Agency.com KPE Inc-Certain Assets — United States — February 22, 2003 The Reynolds and Reynolds Company MSN Autos-Dealerpoint Business Online auto retail United States — May 29, 2003 Telewest 22.98% IDT — United Kingdom 5,000,000 October 31, 2003 Perri Croshaw HWW Ltd-Women's Money Magazine Magazines Australia — November 4, 2003 Northgate Information Solutions PWA Group Software United Kingdom 7,052,000 January 14, 2005 The Washington Post Company Slate Online magazine United States — February 28, 2005 Ubisoft Entertainment Microsoft Games- Sports Games Video games United States — August 17, 2006 Microsoft Microsoft Wholesale computer software United States 20,000,000,000 May 11, 2007 MacDonald Dettwiler Vexcel Canada Mapping software United States — September 22, 2008 Microsoft Microsoft Wholesale computer software United States 36,200,000,000 May 25, 2010 Phase One Expression Media Digital media asset management software Denmark — October 16, 2011 Orion Health Asia Pacific of New Zealand Microsoft-HIS Software (Hospital Information System Software) Hospital information systems New Zealand — March 19, 2012 LeGuide.com SA Ciao GmbH Provider of online shopping services France — September 5, 2013 Ericsson Microsoft Mediaroom End-to-end video platform Sweden — December 18, 2014 Line Corporation (Naver) MixRadio Online music streaming Japan — June 30, 2015 Uber Street-mapping data Online maps United States — June 30, 2015 AOL (Verizon) Display ads Online advertising United States — See also List of largest mergers and acquisitions Lists of corporate acquisitions and mergers Notes ^ VGA-Animation Software Div was acquired from VGA. ^ Panorama Software Sys-On-Line was acquired from Panorama Software. ^ Microsoft acquired an interest representing less than 20% of Santa Cruz Operation. ^ Microsoft acquired a 26% stake in Dorling Kindersley. ^ Microsoft acquired a 2.5% stake in Mobile Telecom Technologies. ^ Microsoft acquired a 4.9% stake in CMGI. ^ Microsoft acquired an 11.5% stake in Comcast. ^ Microsoft acquired a 5% stake in Apple Inc. ^ Microsoft acquired a 10% in Progressive Networks. ^ Microsoft acquired an 8% stake in Lernout & Hauspie Speech. ^ Microsoft acquired a 10% stake in E-Stamp. ^ Microsoft acquired a 2.88% stake in WavePhore. ^ Microsoft acquired a 1.32% stake in Qwest Communications. ^ Microsoft acquired a 5.7% stake in SkyTel Communications. ^ Microsoft acquired a 7.9% stake in United Pan-Europe Comm NV. ^ Microsoft acquired a 5.25% stake in NTL. ^ Microsoft acquired a 7.5% stake in Banyan. ^ Microsoft acquired a 4.4% stake in NaviSite. ^ Microsoft acquired a 3% stake in AT&T. ^ Microsoft acquired a 6% stake in Korea Thrunet. ^ Microsoft acquired an 11.5% stake in Globo Cabo. ^ Microsoft acquired a 5.6% stake in CommTouch Software. ^ Microsoft acquired a 10% stake in Gigamedia. ^ Microsoft acquired a 1.35% stake in VerticalNet. ^ Microsoft acquired a 5% stake in Ecoss. ^ Microsoft acquired a 20% stake in RealNames. ^ Microsoft acquired a 9% stake in MEASAT Broadcast Network. ^ Microsoft acquired 22.98% of Telewest Communications. ^ Microsoft acquired 24 million preferred shares of Corel Corporation. ^ Microsoft acquired an 8.73% stake in Chyron Corporation. ^ Microsoft acquired a 10% stake in Sendo. ^ Microsoft acquired a 15.4% stake in USA Networks. ^ Microsoft acquired a 1.6% stake in Facebook. ^ Microsoft acquired a 10.52% stake in OKWave. ^ Microsoft acquired a 15% stake in Zignals. ^ Microsoft acquires minority stake in Toyota Media Service Corp ^ Microsoft acquires minority stake in 24/7 ^ Microsoft acquires a 17.6% stake in Newco ^ Microsoft acquired a 4% stake in London Stock Exchange Group ^ Steve Ballmer acquired 945,000 Microsoft shares. ^ Microsoft repurchased 1.9% of Microsoft shares. ^ Microsoft repurchased 3% of Microsoft's common stock. ^ TCI Technology Ventures acquired 20% of MSN. ^ Microsoft acquired the remaining 20% stake that it did not already own in MSN from Tele-Communications Inc. ^ Technology Crossover Ventures has acquired 6% of Expedia, Inc. ^ Microsoft acquired 7.92% of its own common stock outstanding. ^ Microsoft repurchased 7.92% of its common stock outstanding. 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Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2008. External links Microsoft official website Microsoft Investor Relations – Acquisitions Infographic of Microsoft's vast legacy of acquisition \| Techi.com Dashboard and analysis of all Microsoft acquisitions vteMicrosoft History Outline PeopleFounders Bill Gates Paul Allen Board of directors Satya Nadella (Chairman and CEO) John W. Thompson John W. Stanton Reid Hoffman Sandi Peterson Penny Pritzker Carlos A. Rodriguez Charles Scharf Emma Walmsley Padmasree Warrior Senior leadership team Satya Nadella (CEO) Chris Capossela (CMO) Scott Guthrie Amy Hood (CFO) Kevin Scott (CTO) Brad Smith (CLO) Harry Shum Phil Spencer Kathleen Hogan (CPO) Corporate VPs Joe Belfiore Richard Rashid (SVP) César Cernuda Panos Panay (CVP) Employee groups Global LGBTQIA+ Employee & Allies at Microsoft Microsoft and unions ProductsHardware Azure Kinect HoloLens LifeCam Surface Hub Go Laptop Laptop Go Pro Studio Duo Neo Xbox Software 365 Clipchamp Dynamics Havok Open source software Office Power Platform Servers Start Tay Visual Studio Visual Studio Code Windows Xbox OS Programming languages BASIC VB.NET VBA VBScript Visual Basic C# C/AL a.k.a Navision Attain F# MVPL Power Fx PowerShell Transact-SQL TypeScript Q# Visual J# Visual J++ Web properties Azure Bing Microsoft Learn Channel 9 Developer Network TechNet GitHub LinkedIn LinkedIn Learning MSN Outlook.com Store Translator CompanyConferences Build Ignite Inspire MIX PDC WinHEC Divisions Engineering groups Mobile Skype unit Digital Crimes Unit Garage Press Research Retail stores .NET Foundation Outercurve Foundation Gaming Xbox Game Studios ZeniMax Media Activision Blizzard Estates Microsoft campus Microsoft Egypt Microsoft India Microsoft Japan Campaigns "Where do you want to go today?" (1994) "Champagne" (2002) "Mojave Experiment" (2006) "I'm a PC" (2008) "Scroogled" (2012) Criticism Bundling of Microsoft Windows Clippy iLoo Internet Explorer Microsoft Bob _NSAKEY Windows XP Vista 10 Litigation Alcatel-Lucent v. Microsoft Apple v. Microsoft Microsoft v. Commission FTC v. Microsoft Microsoft v. Lindows Microsoft v. MikeRoweSoft Microsoft v. Shah United States v. Microsoft (2001 antitrust case) Microsoft v. United States (2018 data privacy case) AcquisitionsCompleted 6Wunderkinder Access Software Acompli Activision Blizzard acquisition Altamira Software AltspaceVR aQuantive Azyxxi The Blue Ribbon SoundWorks Beam Bungie Clipchamp Colloquis Compulsion Games Connectix Consumers Software Danger Double Fine Productions Farecast FASA Studio Fast Search & Transfer Firefly Forethought GIANT Company Software GitHub GreenButton Groove Networks Havok Group High Heat Major League Baseball Hotmail inXile Entertainment Jellyfish.com LinkedIn LinkExchange Lionhead Studios Maluuba Massive Incorporated Metaswitch Mobile Data Labs Mojang Studios Ninja Theory Nokia Devices and Services npm Nuance Communications Obsidian Entertainment Onfolio Pando Networks Perceptive Pixel Playground Games PlaceWare Powerset Press Play ProClarity Rare Revolution Analytics RiskIQ ScreenTonic Secure Islands Simplygon Skype Sunrise Atelier SwiftKey Winternals Software Teleo Tellme Networks Twisted Pixel Games Undead Labs Vermeer Technologies Visio Corporation Vivaty VoloMetrix VXtreme WebTV Networks Xamarin Xandr AppNexus Yammer Yupi ZeniMax Media Category vteMergers and acquisitions by company Adobe Advania Alphabet Amazon Apple BlackBerry CA Technologies Cisco Dell Disney eBay Electronic Arts Embracer Group Gen Digital GoDaddy HP IBM Intel Juniper Networks Meta Microsoft Nokia Oracle Sony Take-Two Interactive Twitter Yahoo	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Microsoft_logo_(2012).svg"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"public","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_company"},{"link_name":"multinational 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Established on April 4, 1975 to develop and sell BASIC interpreters for the Altair 8800, Microsoft rose to dominate the home computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems. Microsoft would also come to dominate the office suite market with Microsoft Office. The company has diversified in recent years into the video game industry with the Xbox, the Xbox 360, the Xbox One, and the Xbox Series X as well as into the consumer electronics and digital services market with Zune, MSN and the Windows Phone OS.The company's initial public offering was held on March 14, 1986. The stock, which eventually closed at $27.75 a share, peaked at $29.25 a share shortly after the market opened for trading. After the offering, Microsoft had a market capitalization of $519.777 million.[1] Microsoft has subsequently acquired over 225 companies, purchased stakes in 64 companies, and made 25 divestments. Of the companies that Microsoft has acquired, 107 were based in the United States. Microsoft has not released financial details for most of these mergers and acquisitions.Since Microsoft's first acquisition in 1986, it has purchased an average of six companies a year. The company purchased more than ten companies a year between 2005 and 2008, and it acquired 18 firms in 2006, the most in a single year, including Onfolio, Lionhead Studios, Massive Incorporated, ProClarity, Winternals Software, and Colloquis. Microsoft has made fourteen acquisitions worth over one billion dollars: Skype (2011), aQuantive (2007), Fast Search & Transfer (2008), Navision (2002), Visio Corporation (2000), Yammer (2012), Nokia's mobile and devices division (2013), Mojang (2014), LinkedIn (2016), GitHub (2018), Affirmed Networks (2020), ZeniMax Media (2020), Nuance Communications (2021), and Activision Blizzard (2022).Microsoft has also purchased several stakes valued at more than a billion dollars. It obtained an 11.5% stake in Comcast for $1 billion, a 22.98% stake in Telewest for $2.263 billion, and a 3% stake in AT&T for $5 billion. Among Microsoft's divestments, in which parts of the company are sold to another company, only Expedia Group was sold for more than a billion dollars; USA Networks purchased the company on February 5, 2002, for $1.372 billion (~$2.22 billion in 2023).","title":"List of mergers and acquisitions by Microsoft"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Forethought","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forethought_(company)"},{"link_name":"presentation program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presentation_program"},{"link_name":"Microsoft PowerPoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_PowerPoint"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Hotmail.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotmail.com"},{"link_name":"MSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSN"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"webmail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webmail"},{"link_name":"Jack 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A/Razorfish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avenue_A/Razorfish"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Norwegian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway"},{"link_name":"enterprise search","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_search"},{"link_name":"Fast Search & Transfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Search_%26_Transfer"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Skype Technologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype_Technologies"},{"link_name":"VoIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_over_IP"},{"link_name":"Skype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FT-buyout-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Nokia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia"},{"link_name":"smartphones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"Windows Phone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Phone"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Steve Ballmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Ballmer"},{"link_name":"Here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Here_(Nokia)"},{"link_name":"Nokia Solutions and Networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia_Solutions_and_Networks"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ms-nokia-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge-msnokia-21"},{"link_name":"Microsoft purchased Mojang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acquisition_of_Mojang_by_Microsoft"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"LinkedIn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LinkedIn"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsj_ms-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"GitHub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"ZeniMax Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZeniMax_Media"},{"link_name":"Activision Blizzard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activision_Blizzard"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-28"}],"text":"One of Microsoft's first acquisitions was Forethought on July 30, 1987. Forethought was founded in 1983 and developed a presentation program that would later be known as Microsoft PowerPoint.[2]On December 31, 1997, Microsoft acquired Hotmail.com for $500 million (~$882 million in 2023), its largest acquisition at the time, and integrated Hotmail into its MSN group of services.[3] Hotmail, a free webmail service founded in 1996 by Jack Smith and Sabeer Bhatia,[4] had more than 8.5 million subscribers earlier that month.[5]In 1999, Microsoft reportedly discussed a buyout of Nintendo. However, execs failed to negotiate a deal, with Xbox co-inventor Kevin Bachus explaining \"They just laughed their asses off.\"[6][7][8]Microsoft acquired Seattle-based Visio Corporation on January 7, 2000, for $1.375 billion (~$2.31 billion in 2023). Visio, a software company, was founded in 1990 as Axon Corporation, and had its initial public offering in November 1995.[9] The company developed the diagramming application software, Visio, which was integrated into Microsoft's product line as Microsoft Visio after its acquisition.On July 12, 2002, Microsoft purchased Navision for $1.33 billion (~$2.15 billion in 2023). The company, which developed the technology for the Microsoft Dynamics NAV enterprise resource planning software, was integrated into Microsoft as a new division named Microsoft Business Solutions,[10] later renamed to Microsoft Dynamics.[11]Microsoft purchased aQuantive, an advertising company, on August 13, 2007, for $6.333 billion (~$8.97 billion in 2023). Before the acquisition, aQuantive was ranked 14th in terms of revenue among advertising agencies worldwide. aQuantive had three subsidiaries at the time of the acquisition: Avenue A/Razorfish, one of the world's largest digital agencies,[12] Atlas Solutions, and DRIVE Performance Solutions.[13]Microsoft acquired the Norwegian enterprise search company Fast Search & Transfer on April 25, 2008, for $1.191 billion (~$1.66 billion in 2023) to boost its search technology.[14]On May 10, 2011, Microsoft announced its acquisition of Skype Technologies, creator of the VoIP service Skype, for $8.5 billion (~$11.4 billion in 2023).[15] With a value 32 times larger than Skype's operating profits, the deal was Microsoft's largest acquisition at the time.[16][17] Skype would become a division within Microsoft, with Skype's former CEO Tony Bates —then the division's first president —reporting to the CEO of Microsoft.[18]On September 2, 2013, Microsoft announced its intent to acquire the mobile hardware division of Nokia (which had established a long-term partnership with Microsoft to produce smartphones built off its Windows Phone platform)[19] in a deal worth 3.79 billion euros, along with another 1.65 billion to license Nokia's portfolio of patents. Steve Ballmer considered the purchase to be a \"bold step into the future\" for both companies, primarily as a result of its recent collaborations. The acquisition, scheduled to close in early 2014 pending regulatory approval, did not include the Here mapping service or the infrastructure division Nokia Solutions and Networks, which will be retained by Nokia.[20][21] While the deal went through, in May 2016 Microsoft abandoned its mobile business and sold the Nokia feature phone line.In September 2014, Microsoft purchased Mojang for $2.5 billion (~$3.17 billion in 2023).[22]On June 13, 2016, Microsoft announced it planned to acquire the professional networking site LinkedIn for $26.2 billion, to be completed by the end of 2016. The acquisition would keep LinkedIn as a distinct brand and retain its current CEO, Jeff Weiner, who will subsequently report to Microsoft CEO Satya Nadella.[23] The acquisition was completed on December 8, 2016.[24]On June 4, 2018, Microsoft acquired the popular code repository site GitHub for $7.5 billion (~$8.96 billion in 2023) in Microsoft stock.[25]On September 21, 2020, Microsoft announced its intent to acquire ZeniMax Media and all its subsidiaries for $7.5 billion (~$8.7 billion in 2023).\nThe acquisition was completed on March 9, 2021.On January 18, 2022, Microsoft announced its intent to acquire Activision Blizzard, an American video game holding company, for $68.7 billion in cash.[26] The deal has been approved by both companies' board of directors and was finalized on October 13, 2023, with the total cost of the acquisition amounting to $75.4 billion, following international government regulatory review of the action.[27][28]","title":"Key acquisitions"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Acquisitions"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Stakes"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Divestitures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-45"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-52"},{"link_name":"Panorama Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panorama_Software"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-324"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-326"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-332"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-338"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-342"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-344"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-346"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-348"},{"link_name":"Lernout & Hauspie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lernout_%26_Hauspie"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-350"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-353"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-356"},{"link_name":"Qwest Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qwest_Communications"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-358"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-360"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-362"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-364"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-371"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-373"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-379"},{"link_name":"Korea Thrunet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_Thrunet"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-381"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-383"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-385"},{"link_name":"Gigamedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gigamedia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-388"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-391"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-393"},{"link_name":"RealNames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RealNames"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-395"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-398"},{"link_name":"Telewest Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telewest_Communications"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-402"},{"link_name":"Corel Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corel_Corporation"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-404"},{"link_name":"Chyron Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chyron_Corporation"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-407"},{"link_name":"Sendo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sendo"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-409"},{"link_name":"USA Networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Networks"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-412"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-414"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-416"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-418"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-420"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-422"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-428"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-430"},{"link_name":"Steve Ballmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Ballmer"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-432"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-434"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-436"},{"link_name":"MSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSN"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-438"},{"link_name":"MSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSN"},{"link_name":"Tele-Communications Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tele-Communications_Inc."},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-446"},{"link_name":"Expedia, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedia,_Inc."},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-458"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-461"}],"text":"^ VGA-Animation Software Div was acquired from VGA.\n\n^ Panorama Software Sys-On-Line was acquired from Panorama Software.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired an interest representing less than 20% of Santa Cruz Operation.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 26% stake in Dorling Kindersley.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 2.5% stake in Mobile Telecom Technologies.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 4.9% stake in CMGI.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired an 11.5% stake in Comcast.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 5% stake in Apple Inc.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 10% in Progressive Networks.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired an 8% stake in Lernout & Hauspie Speech.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 10% stake in E-Stamp.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 2.88% stake in WavePhore.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 1.32% stake in Qwest Communications.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 5.7% stake in SkyTel Communications.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 7.9% stake in United Pan-Europe Comm NV.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 5.25% stake in NTL.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 7.5% stake in Banyan.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 4.4% stake in NaviSite.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 3% stake in AT&T.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 6% stake in Korea Thrunet.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired an 11.5% stake in Globo Cabo.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 5.6% stake in CommTouch Software.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 10% stake in Gigamedia.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 1.35% stake in VerticalNet.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 5% stake in Ecoss.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 20% stake in RealNames.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 9% stake in MEASAT Broadcast Network.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired 22.98% of Telewest Communications.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired 24 million preferred shares of Corel Corporation.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired an 8.73% stake in Chyron Corporation.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 10% stake in Sendo.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 15.4% stake in USA Networks.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 1.6% stake in Facebook.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 10.52% stake in OKWave.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 15% stake in Zignals.\n\n^ Microsoft acquires minority stake in Toyota Media Service Corp\n\n^ Microsoft acquires minority stake in 24/7\n\n^ Microsoft acquires a 17.6% stake in Newco\n\n^ Microsoft acquired a 4% stake in London Stock Exchange Group\n\n^ Steve Ballmer acquired 945,000 Microsoft shares.\n\n^ Microsoft repurchased 1.9% of Microsoft shares.\n\n^ Microsoft repurchased 3% of Microsoft's common stock.\n\n^ TCI Technology Ventures acquired 20% of MSN.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired the remaining 20% stake that it did not already own in MSN from Tele-Communications Inc.\n\n^ Technology Crossover Ventures has acquired 6% of Expedia, Inc.\n\n^ Microsoft acquired 7.92% of its own common stock outstanding.\n\n^ Microsoft repurchased 7.92% of its common stock outstanding.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Microsoft Corporation Mergers and Acquisitions\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20090803102825/http://www.alacrastore.com/mergers-acquisitions/Microsoft_Corporation-1011097"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.alacrastore.com/mergers-acquisitions/Microsoft_Corporation-1011097"}],"text":"\"Microsoft Corporation Mergers and Acquisitions\". Thomson Financial. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2008.","title":"Sources"}]	[{"image_text":"Microsoft logo","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Microsoft_logo_%282012%29.svg/220px-Microsoft_logo_%282012%29.svg.png"}]	[{"title":"List of largest mergers and acquisitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_mergers_and_acquisitions"},{"title":"Lists of corporate acquisitions and mergers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_corporate_acquisitions_and_mergers"}]	[{"reference":"Monkman, Carol Smith (March 14, 1986). \"Microsoft1 Stock is Red Hot on First Trading Day\". Seattle Post-Intelligencer.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Cochrane, Nathan (May 11, 2004). \"Vision of the future\". The Age. Melbourne. 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Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803090439/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Numinous_Technologies_Inc-869178020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Numinous Technologies Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Numinous_Technologies_Inc-869178020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Buys Access\". IGN. April 19, 1999. Retrieved July 13, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ign.com/articles/1999/04/20/microsoft-buys-access","url_text":"\"Microsoft Buys Access\""}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Interactive Objects-Digital from Asia Pacific Chem Engineering\". Thomson Financial. April 27, 1999. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803111558/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Interactive_Objects_Digital_from_Asia_Pacific_Chem_Engineering-876323020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Interactive Objects-Digital from Asia Pacific Chem Engineering\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Interactive_Objects_Digital_from_Asia_Pacific_Chem_Engineering-876323020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Jump Networks Inc\". Thomson Financial. April 30, 1999. Archived from the original on August 4, 2009. 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Retrieved June 27, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121106054752/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-64104923.html","url_text":"\"Microsoft buys Intrinsa, a test-tool developer\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle_Post-Intelligencer","url_text":"Seattle Post-Intelligencer"},{"url":"http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-64104923.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp launches a tender offer for Sendit AB\". Thomson Financial. July 1, 1999. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. 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Thomson Financial. May 31, 2001. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803090436/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_NCompass_Labs_Inc-1179630040","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires NCompass Labs Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_NCompass_Labs_Inc-1179630040","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Maximal Intelligence\". Thomson Financial. June 21, 2001. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. 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Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803093802/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_3DO_Co_High_Heat_Baseball_from_3DO_Co-1463132020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires 3DO Co-High Heat Baseball from 3DO Co\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_3DO_Co_High_Heat_Baseball_from_3DO_Co-1463132020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Business Solutions acquires Encore Bus Solutions-IP Asts from Encore Business Solutions Inc\". Encore Business Solutions. April 22, 2004. Retrieved May 9, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.encorebusiness.com/press/view/encores-not-for-profit-series-acquired-by-microsoft-business-solutions/","url_text":"\"Microsoft Business Solutions acquires Encore Bus Solutions-IP Asts from Encore Business Solutions Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encore_Business_Solutions","url_text":"Encore Business Solutions"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires ActiveViews Inc\". Thomson Financial. April 26, 2004. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803093809/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_ActiveViews_Inc-1522970020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires ActiveViews Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_ActiveViews_Inc-1522970020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"MSN acquires Lookout Software LLC\". Thomson Financial. July 16, 2004. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. 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Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803101143/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_GIANT_Co_Software_Inc-1625428020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires GIANT Co Software Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_GIANT_Co_Software_Inc-1625428020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Avanade Inc acquires en'tegrate\". Thomson Financial. March 2, 2005. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803083041/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Avanade_Inc_acquires_en_tegrate-1643212020","url_text":"\"Avanade Inc acquires en'tegrate\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Avanade_Inc_acquires_en_tegrate-1643212020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Groove Networks Inc\". Thomson Financial. April 9, 2005. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. 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Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803093757/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/MSN_acquires_MessageCast_Inc-1664370020","url_text":"\"MSN acquires MessageCast Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/MSN_acquires_MessageCast_Inc-1664370020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Tsinghua-Shenxun-Cert Asts from Tsinghua-Shenxun Science\". Thomson Financial. May 31, 2005. Archived from the original on August 5, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090805084520/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Tsinghua_Shenxun_Cert_Asts_from_Tsinghua_Shenxun_Science-1666859040","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Tsinghua-Shenxun-Cert Asts from Tsinghua-Shenxun Science\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Tsinghua_Shenxun_Cert_Asts_from_Tsinghua_Shenxun_Science-1666859040","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Sybari Software Inc\". Thomson Financial. June 21, 2005. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803103208/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Sybari_Software_Inc-1638069020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Sybari Software Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Sybari_Software_Inc-1638069020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Teleo Inc\". Thomson Financial. August 29, 2005. Archived from the original on August 4, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090804193124/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Teleo_Inc-1689842020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Teleo Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Teleo_Inc-1689842020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires FrontBridge Technologies Inc\". Thomson Financial. August 31, 2005. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. 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Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803101122/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Alacris_Inc-1694694040","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Alacris Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Alacris_Inc-1694694040","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires media-streams.com AG\". Thomson Financial. November 3, 2005. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803083255/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_media_streams_com_AG-1708989040","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires media-streams.com AG\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_media_streams_com_AG-1708989040","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"ninemsn Pty Ltd acquires 5th Finger\". Thomson Financial. November 17, 2005. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803094014/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/ninemsn_Pty_Ltd_acquires_5th_Finger-1712770040","url_text":"\"ninemsn Pty Ltd acquires 5th Finger\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/ninemsn_Pty_Ltd_acquires_5th_Finger-1712770040","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires UMT-Software and IP Assets from UMT\". Thomson Financial. January 19, 2006. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. 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Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090804194532/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Seadragon_Software-1732059020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Seadragon Software\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Seadragon_Software-1732059020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Apptimum Inc\". Thomson Financial. March 7, 2006. Archived from the original on August 4, 2009. 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Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803111613/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Onfolio_Inc-1741219020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Onfolio Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Onfolio_Inc-1741219020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Game Studios acquires Lionhead Studios\". Thomson Financial. April 6, 2006. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803112225/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Game_Studios_acquires_Lionhead_Studios-1749705040","url_text":"\"Microsoft Game Studios acquires Lionhead Studios\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Game_Studios_acquires_Lionhead_Studios-1749705040","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires AssetMetrix Corp\". Thomson Financial. April 26, 2006. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. 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Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803105602/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_DesktopStandard_Corp-1798596020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires DesktopStandard Corp\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_DesktopStandard_Corp-1798596020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Colloquis Inc\". Thomson Financial. October 12, 2006. Archived from the original on June 9, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090609064900/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Colloquis_Inc-1801372020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Colloquis Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Colloquis_Inc-1801372020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Medstory Inc\". Thomson Financial. March 9, 2007. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. 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Retrieved December 8, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121026054611/http://news.cnet.com/8301-10784_3-9717521-7.html","url_text":"\"Microsoft to Acquire OfficeWriter\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNET","url_text":"CNET"},{"url":"http://news.cnet.com/8301-10784_3-9717521-7.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Engyro Corp\". Thomson Financial. June 4, 2007. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. 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Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803090516/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_SingleTrac_Entertainment-582697020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in SingleTrac Entertainment\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_SingleTrac_Entertainment-582697020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in WebTV Networks Inc\". Thomson Financial. October 1, 1996. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. 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Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090804191150/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_VDOnet_Corp_Ltd-600046020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in VDOnet Corp Ltd\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_VDOnet_Corp_Ltd-600046020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in CMG Information Services Inc\". Thomson Financial. February 3, 1997. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803105649/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_CMG_Information_Services_Inc-635472020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in CMG Information Services Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_CMG_Information_Services_Inc-635472020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in Digital Anvil\". Thomson Financial. February 18, 1997. Archived from the original on August 4, 2009. 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Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090511212140/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_Apple_Computer_Inc-692221020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in Apple Computer Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_Apple_Computer_Inc-692221020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in Progressive Networks Inc from RealNetworks Inc\". Thomson Financial. August 19, 1997. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. 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Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803111645/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_General_Magic_Inc-737396020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in General Magic Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_General_Magic_Inc-737396020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in WavePhore Inc\". Thomson Financial. March 6, 1998. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803105735/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_WavePhore_Inc-738310020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in WavePhore Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_WavePhore_Inc-738310020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Pluto Technologies Intl Inc\". Thomson Financial. June 18, 1998. Archived from the original on August 4, 2009. Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090804183413/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Pluto_Technologies_Intl_Inc-859822020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires Pluto Technologies Intl Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_Pluto_Technologies_Intl_Inc-859822020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in Qwest Communications Corp from Anschutz Corp\". Thomson Financial. December 14, 1998. Archived from the original on August 4, 2009. Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090804191145/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_Qwest_Communications_Corp_from_Anschutz_Corp-822010020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in Qwest Communications Corp from Anschutz Corp\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_Qwest_Communications_Corp_from_Anschutz_Corp-822010020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in SkyTel Communications Inc\". Thomson Financial. January 6, 1999. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803105726/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_SkyTel_Communications_Inc-831228020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in SkyTel Communications Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_SkyTel_Communications_Inc-831228020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in United Pan-Europe Comm NV from UnitedGlobalCom Inc\". Thomson Financial. January 31, 1999. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. 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Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803083239/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_NTL_Inc-848446020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in NTL Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_NTL_Inc-848446020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in Banyan Systems Inc from ePresence Inc\". Thomson Financial. February 2, 1999. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. 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Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803105700/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_Dialogic_Corp-896405020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in Dialogic Corp\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_Dialogic_Corp-896405020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in Reciprocal Inc\". Thomson Financial. March 8, 1999. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803083244/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_Reciprocal_Inc-858981020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in Reciprocal Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_Reciprocal_Inc-858981020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in TV Cabo Portugal SA from PT Multimedia Servicos de\". Thomson Financial. April 1, 1999. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. 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Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803083234/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_Lernout_Hauspie_Speech-863647040","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in Lernout & Hauspie Speech\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_Lernout_Hauspie_Speech-863647040","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in Inprise Corp from Borland Software Corp\". Thomson Financial. June 8, 1999. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803101401/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_Inprise_Corp_from_Borland_Software_Corp-891420020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in Inprise Corp from Borland Software Corp\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_Inprise_Corp_from_Borland_Software_Corp-891420020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in NaviSite Inc from CMGI Inc\". Thomson Financial. June 8, 1999. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803101410/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_NaviSite_Inc_from_CMGI_Inc-896450020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in NaviSite Inc from CMGI Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_NaviSite_Inc_from_CMGI_Inc-896450020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in AT&T Corp\". Thomson Financial. June 16, 1999. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803093902/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_AT_T_Corp-878594020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in AT&T Corp\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_AT_T_Corp-878594020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in Concentric Network Corp\". Thomson Financial. June 22, 1999. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803105654/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_Concentric_Network_Corp-896432020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in Concentric Network Corp\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_Concentric_Network_Corp-896432020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in WebMD Inc from Healtheon Corp\". Thomson Financial. July 5, 1999. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved October 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090803093944/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M%26A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_WebMD_Inc_from_Healtheon_Corp-886068020","url_text":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in WebMD Inc from Healtheon Corp\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Financial","url_text":"Thomson Financial"},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Microsoft_Corp_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_WebMD_Inc_from_Healtheon_Corp-886068020","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Corp acquires a minority stake in Tuttle Decision Systems Inc\". Thomson Financial. August 20, 1999. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. 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Archived from the original on January 12, 2022 – via www.telegraph.co.uk.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/2853305/Microsoft-reaches-end-of-cable-with-stake-sale.html","url_text":"\"Microsoft reaches end of cable with stake sale\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/2853305/Microsoft-reaches-end-of-cable-with-stake-sale.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Perri Croshaw acquires HWW Ltd-Women's Money Magazine from Microsoft Corp\". Thomson Financial. October 31, 2003. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyloid	Amyloid	["1 Definition","2 Proteins forming amyloids in diseases","3 Non-disease and functional amyloids","4 Structure","5 Formation","6 Amino acid sequence and amyloid formation","7 Amyloid toxicity","8 Histological staining","9 See also","10 References","11 External links"]	Insoluble protein aggregate with a fibrillar morphology For other uses, see Amyloid (disambiguation). Micrograph showing amyloid deposits (pink) in small bowel. Duodenum with amyloid deposition in lamina propria. Amyloid shows up as homogeneous pink material in lamina propria and around blood vessels. 20× magnification. Amyloids are aggregates of proteins characterised by a fibrillar morphology of typically 7–13 nm in diameter, a β-sheet secondary structure (known as cross-β) and ability to be stained by particular dyes, such as Congo red. In the human body, amyloids have been linked to the development of various diseases. Pathogenic amyloids form when previously healthy proteins lose their normal structure and physiological functions (misfolding) and form fibrous deposits within and around cells. These protein misfolding and deposition processes disrupt the healthy function of tissues and organs. Such amyloids have been associated with (but not necessarily as the cause of) more than 50 human diseases, known as amyloidosis, and may play a role in some neurodegenerative diseases. Some of these diseases are mainly sporadic and only a few cases are familial. Others are only familial. Some result from medical treatment. Prions are an infectious form of amyloids that can act as a template to convert other non-infectious forms. Amyloids may also have normal biological functions; for example, in the formation of fimbriae in some genera of bacteria, transmission of epigenetic traits in fungi, as well as pigment deposition and hormone release in humans. Amyloids have been known to arise from many different proteins. These polypeptide chains generally form β-sheet structures that aggregate into long fibers; however, identical polypeptides can fold into multiple distinct amyloid conformations. The diversity of the conformations may have led to different forms of the prion diseases. An unusual secondary structure named α sheet has been proposed as the toxic constituent of amyloid precursor proteins, but this idea is not widely accepted at present. Amyloid of HET-s(218-289) prion pentamer, Podospora anserina (PDB: 2rnm) Definition The name amyloid comes from the early mistaken identification by Rudolf Virchow of the substance as starch (amylum in Latin, from Ancient Greek: ἄμυλον, romanized: amylon), based on crude iodine-staining techniques. For a period, the scientific community debated whether or not amyloid deposits are fatty deposits or carbohydrate deposits until it was finally found (in 1859) that they are, in fact, deposits of albumoid proteinaceous material. The classical, histopathological definition of amyloid is an extracellular, proteinaceous fibrillar deposit exhibiting β-sheet secondary structure and identified by apple-green birefringence when stained with congo red under polarized light. These deposits often recruit various sugars and other components such as serum amyloid P component, resulting in complex, and sometimes inhomogeneous structures. Recently this definition has come into question as some classic, amyloid species have been observed in distinctly intracellular locations. A more recent, biophysical definition is broader, including any polypeptide that polymerizes to form a cross-β structure, in vivo or in vitro, inside or outside cells. Microbiologists, biochemists, biophysicists, chemists and physicists have largely adopted this definition, leading to some conflict in the biological community over an issue of language. Proteins forming amyloids in diseases To date, 37 human proteins have been found to form amyloid in pathology and be associated with well-defined diseases. The International Society of Amyloidosis classifies amyloid fibrils and their associated diseases based upon associated proteins (for example ATTR is the group of diseases and associated fibrils formed by TTR). A table is included below. Protein Diseases Official abbreviation β amyloid peptide (Aβ) from Amyloid precursor protein Alzheimer's disease, Hereditary cerebral haemorrhage with amyloidosis Aβ α-synuclein Parkinson's disease, Parkinson's disease dementia, Dementia with Lewy bodies, Multiple system atrophy AαSyn PrPSc Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (e.g. Fatal familial insomnia, Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker disease, Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease, New variant Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease) APrP Microtubule-associated protein tau Various forms of tauopathies (e.g. Pick's disease, Progressive supranuclear palsy, Corticobasal degeneration, Frontotemporal dementia with parkinsonism linked to chromosome 17, Argyrophilic grain disease) ATau Huntingtin exon 1 Huntington's disease HTTex1 ABri peptide Familial British dementia ABri ADan peptide Familial Danish dementia ADan Fragments of immunoglobulin light chains Light chain amyloidosis AL Fragments of immunoglobulin heavy chains Heavy chain amyloidosis AH full length of N-terminal fragments of Serum amyloid A protein AA amyloidosis AA Transthyretin Senile systemic amyloidosis, Familial amyloid polyneuropathy, Familial amyloid cardiomyopathy, Leptomeningeal amyloidosis ATTR β-2 microglobulin Dialysis related amyloidosis, Hereditary visceral amyloidosis (familial) Aβ2M N-terminal fragments of Apolipoprotein AI ApoAI amyloidosis AApoAI C-terminally extended Apolipoprotein AII ApoAII amyloidosis AApoAII N-terminal fragments of Apolipoprotein AIV ApoAIV amyloidosis AApoAIV Apolipoprotein C-II ApoCII amyloidosis AApoCII Apolipoprotein C-III ApoCIII amyloidosis AApoCIII fragments of Gelsolin Familial amyloidosis, Finnish type AGel Lysozyme Hereditary non-neuropathic systemic amyloidosis ALys fragments of Fibrinogen α chain Fibrinogen amyloidosis AFib N-terminally truncated Cystatin C Hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis, Icelandic type ACys IAPP (Amylin) Diabetes mellitus type 2, Insulinoma AIAPP Calcitonin Medullary carcinoma of the thyroid ACal Atrial natriuretic factor Cardiac arrhythmias, Isolated atrial amyloidosis AANF Prolactin Pituitary prolactinoma APro Insulin Injection-localized amyloidosis AIns Lactadherin / Medin Aortic medial amyloidosis AMed Lactotransferrin / Lactoferrin Gelatinous drop-like corneal dystrophy ALac Odontogenic ameloblast-associated protein Calcifying epithelial odontogenic tumors AOAAP Pulmonary surfactant-associated protein C (SP-C) Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis ASPC Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 (LECT-2) Renal LECT2 amyloidosis ALECT2 Galectin-7 Lichen amyloidosis, Macular amyloidosis AGal7 Corneodesmosin Hypotrichosis simplex of the scalp ACor C-terminal fragments of TGFBI/Keratoepithelin Lattice corneal dystrophy type I, Lattice corneal dystrophy type 3A, Lattice corneal dystrophy Avellino type AKer Semenogelin-1 (SGI) Seminal vesicle amyloidosis ASem1 Proteins S100A8/A9 Prostate cancer none Enfuvirtide Injection-localized amyloidosis AEnf Non-disease and functional amyloids Many examples of non-pathological amyloid with a well-defined physiological role have been identified in various organisms, including human. These may be termed as functional or physiological or native amyloid. Functional amyloid in Homo sapiens: Intralumenal domain of melanocyte protein PMEL Peptide/protein hormones stored as amyloids within endocrine secretory granules Receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1/3 (RIP1/RIP3) Fragments of prostatic acid phosphatase and semenogelins Functional amyloid in other organisms: Curli fibrils produced by E. coli, Salmonella, and a few other members of the Enterobacteriales (Csg). The genetic elements (operons) encoding the curli system are phylogenetic widespread and can be found in at least four bacterial phyla. This suggest that many more bacteria may express curli fibrils. GvpA, forming the walls of particular Gas vesicles, i.e. the buoyancy organelles of aquatic archaea and eubacteria Fap fibrils in various species of Pseudomonas Chaplins from Streptomyces coelicolor Spidroin from Trichonephila edulis (spider) (Spider silk) Hydrophobins from Neurospora crassa and other fungi Fungal cell adhesion proteins forming cell surface amyloid regions with greatly increased binding strength Environmental biofilms according to staining with amyloid specific dyes and antibodies. Tubular sheaths encasing Methanosaeta thermophila filaments Functional amyloid acting as prions Several yeast prions are based on an infectious amyloid, e.g. (Sup35p); (Ure2p); or (Rnq1p); (Swi1p) and (Cyc8p) Prion HET-s from Podospora anserina Neuron-specific isoform of CPEB from Aplysia californica (marine snail) Structure Structure of a fibril, consisting of one single protofilament, of the amyloid β peptide viewed down the long axis of the fibril (PDB: 2mlq) Amyloids are formed of long unbranched fibers that are characterized by an extended β-sheet secondary structure in which individual β strands (β-strands) (coloured arrows in the adjacent figure) are arranged in an orientation perpendicular to the long axis of the fiber. Such a structure is known as cross-β structure. Each individual fiber may be 7–13 nanometres in width and a few micrometres in length. The main hallmarks recognised by different disciplines to classify protein aggregates as amyloid is the presence of a fibrillar morphology with the expected diameter, detected using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) or atomic force microscopy (AFM), the presence of a cross-β secondary structure, determined with circular dichroism, FTIR, solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR), X-ray crystallography, or X-ray fiber diffraction (often considered the "gold-standard" test to see whether a structure contains cross-β fibres), and an ability to stain with specific dyes, such as Congo red, thioflavin T or thioflavin S. The term "cross-β" was based on the observation of two sets of diffraction lines, one longitudinal and one transverse, that form a characteristic "cross" pattern. There are two characteristic scattering diffraction signals produced at 4.7 and 10 Å (0.47 nm and 1.0 nm), corresponding to the interstrand and stacking distances in β sheets. The "stacks" of β sheet are short and traverse the breadth of the amyloid fibril; the length of the amyloid fibril is built by aligned β-strands. The cross-β pattern is considered a diagnostic hallmark of amyloid structure. Amyloid fibrils are generally composed of 1–8 protofilaments (one protofilament also corresponding to a fibril is shown in the figure), each 2–7 nm in diameter, that interact laterally as flat ribbons that maintain the height of 2–7 nm (that of a single protofilament) and are up to 30 nm wide; more often protofilaments twist around each other to form the typically 7–13 nm wide fibrils. Each protofilament possesses the typical cross-β structure and may be formed by 1–6 β-sheets (six are shown in the figure) stacked on each other. Each individual protein molecule can contribute one to several β-strands in each protofilament and the strands can be arranged in antiparallel β-sheets, but more often in parallel β-sheets. Only a fraction of the polypeptide chain is in a β-strand conformation in the fibrils, the remainder forms structured or unstructured loops or tails. For a long time our knowledge of the atomic-level structure of amyloid fibrils was limited by the fact that they are unsuitable for the most traditional methods for studying protein structures. Recent years have seen progress in experimental methods, including solid-state NMR spectroscopy and Cryo-Electron Microscopy. Combined, these methods have provided 3D atomic structures of amyloid fibrils formed by amyloid β peptides, α-synuclein, tau, and the FUS protein, associated with various neurodegenerative diseases. X-ray diffraction studies of microcrystals revealed atomistic details of core region of amyloid, although only for simplified peptides having a length remarkably shorter than that of peptides or proteins involved in disease. The crystallographic structures show that short stretches from amyloid-prone regions of amyloidogenic proteins run perpendicular to the filament axis, consistent with the "cross-β" feature of amyloid structure. They also reveal a number of characteristics of amyloid structures – neighboring β-sheets are tightly packed together via an interface devoid of water (therefore referred to as dry interface), with the opposing β-strands slightly offset from each other such that their side-chains interdigitate. This compact dehydrated interface created was termed a steric-zipper interface. There are eight theoretical classes of steric-zipper interfaces, dictated by the directionality of the β-sheets (parallel and anti-parallel) and symmetry between adjacent β-sheets. A limitation of X-ray crystallography for solving amyloid structure is represented by the need to form microcrystals, which can be achieved only with peptides shorter than those associated with disease. Although bona fide amyloid structures always are based on intermolecular β-sheets, different types of "higher order" tertiary folds have been observed or proposed. The β-sheets may form a β-sandwich, or a β-solenoid which may be either β-helix or β-roll. Native-like amyloid fibrils in which native β-sheet containing proteins maintain their native-like structure in the fibrils have also been proposed. There are few developed ideas on how the complex backbone topologies of disulfide-constrained proteins, which are prone to form amyloid fibrils (such as insulin and lysozyme), adopt the amyloid β-sheet motif. The presence of multiple constraints significantly reduces the accessible conformational space, making computational simulations of amyloid structures more feasible. One complicating factor in studies of amyloidogenic polypeptides is that identical polypeptides can fold into multiple distinct amyloid conformations. This phenomenon is typically described as amyloid polymorphism. It has notable biological consequences given that it is thought to explain the prion strain phenomenon. Formation Three phases of amyloid fibril formation: lag phase, exponential phase and plateau phase Amyloid is formed through the polymerization of hundreds to thousands of monomeric peptides or proteins into long fibers. Amyloid formation involves a lag phase (also called nucleation phase), an exponential phase (also called growth phase) and a plateau phase (also called saturation phase), as shown in the figure. Indeed, when the quantity of fibrils is plotted versus time, a sigmoidal time course is observed reflecting the three distinct phases. In the simplest model of 'nucleated polymerization' (marked by red arrows in the figure below), individual unfolded or partially unfolded polypeptide chains (monomers) convert into a nucleus (monomer or oligomer) via a thermodynamically unfavourable process that occurs early in the lag phase. Fibrils grow subsequently from these nuclei through the addition of monomers in the exponential phase. A different model, called 'nucleated conformational conversion' and marked by blue arrows in the figure below, was introduced later on to fit some experimental observations: monomers have often been found to convert rapidly into misfolded and highly disorganized oligomers distinct from nuclei. Only later on, will these aggregates reorganise structurally into nuclei, on which other disorganised oligomers will add and reorganise through a templating or induced-fit mechanism (this 'nucleated conformational conversion' model), eventually forming fibrils. Normally folded proteins have to unfold partially before aggregation can take place through one of these mechanisms. In some cases, however, folded proteins can aggregate without crossing the major energy barrier for unfolding, by populating native-like conformations as a consequence of thermal fluctuations, ligand release or local unfolding occurring in particular circumstances. In these native-like conformations, segments that are normally buried or structured in the fully folded and possessing a high propensity to aggregate become exposed to the solvent or flexible, allowing the formation of native-like aggregates, which convert subsequently into nuclei and fibrils. This process is called 'native-like aggregation' (green arrows in the figure) and is similar to the 'nucleated conformational conversion' model. A more recent, modern and thorough model of amyloid fibril formation involves the intervention of secondary events, such as 'fragmentation', in which a fibril breaks into two or more shorter fibrils, and 'secondary nucleation', in which fibril surfaces (not fibril ends) catalyze the formation of new nuclei. Both secondary events increase the number of fibril ends able to recruit new monomers or oligomers, therefore accelerating fibril formation through a positive feedback mechanism. These events add to the well recognised steps of primary nucleation (formation of the nucleus from the monomers through one of models described above), fibril elongation (addition of monomers or oligomers to growing fibril ends) and dissociation (opposite process). Such a new model is described in the figure on the right and involves the utilization of a master equation that includes all steps of amyloid fibril formation, i.e. primary nucleation, fibril elongation, secondary nucleation and fibril fragmentation. The rate constants of the various steps can be determined from a global fit of a number of time courses of aggregation (for example ThT fluorescence emission versus time) recorded at different protein concentrations. The general master equation approach to amyloid fibril formation with secondary pathways has been developed by Knowles, Vendruscolo, Cohen, Michaels and coworkers and considers the time evolution of the concentration f ( t , j ) {\displaystyle f(t,j)} of fibrils of length j {\displaystyle j} (here j {\displaystyle j} represents the number of monomers in an aggregate). ∂ f ( t , j ) ∂ t = 2 k + m ( t ) f ( t , j − 1 ) − 2 k + m ( t ) f ( t , j ) + 2 k o f f f ( t , j + 1 ) − 2 k o f f f ( t , j ) + k − ∑ i = j + 1 ∞ f ( t , i ) − k − ( j − 1 ) f ( t , j ) + k 1 m ( t ) n 1 δ j , n 1 + k 2 m ( t ) n 2 M ( t ) δ j , n 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {\partial f(t,j)}{\partial t}}&=2k_{+}m(t)f(t,j-1)-2k_{+}m(t)f(t,j)\\&+2k_{\rm {off}}f(t,j+1)-2k_{\rm {off}}f(t,j)\\&+k_{-}\sum _{i=j+1}^{\infty }f(t,i)-k_{-}(j-1)f(t,j)\\&+k_{1}m(t)^{n_{1}}\delta _{j,n_{1}}+k_{2}m(t)^{n_{2}}M(t)\delta _{j,n_{2}}\\\\\end{aligned}}} where δ i , j {\displaystyle \delta _{i,j}} denotes the Kronecker delta. The physical interpretation of the various terms in the above master equation is straight forward: the terms on the first line describe the growth of fibrils via monomer addition with rate constant k + {\displaystyle k_{+}} (elongation). The terms on the second line describe monomer dissociation, i.e. the inverse process of elongation. k o f f {\displaystyle k_{\rm {off}}} is the rate constant of monomer dissociation. The terms on the third line describe the effect of fragmentation, which is assumed to occur homogeneously along fibrils with rate constant k − {\displaystyle k_{-}} . Finally, the terms on the last line describe primary and secondary nucleation respectively. Note that the rate of secondary nucleation is proportional to the mass of aggregates, defined as M ( t ) = ∑ j = n 1 ∞ j f ( t , j ) {\displaystyle M(t)=\sum _{j=n_{1}}^{\infty }jf(t,j)} . Following this analytical approach, it has become apparent that the lag phase does not correspond necessarily to only nucleus formation, but rather results from a combination of various steps. Similarly, the exponential phase is not only fibril elongation, but results from a combination of various steps, involving primary nucleation, fibril elongation, but also secondary events. A significant quantity of fibrils resulting from primary nucleation and fibril elongation may be formed during the lag phase and secondary steps, rather than only fibril elongation, can be the dominant processes contributing to fibril growth during the exponential phase. With this new model, any perturbing agents of amyloid fibril formation, such as putative drugs, metabolites, mutations, chaperones, etc., can be assigned to a specific step of fibril formation. Amino acid sequence and amyloid formation In general, amyloid polymerization (aggregation or non-covalent polymerization) is sequence-sensitive, that is mutations in the sequence can induce or prevent self-assembly. For example, humans produce amylin, an amyloidogenic peptide associated with type II diabetes, but in rats and mice prolines are substituted in critical locations and amyloidogenesis does not occur. Studies comparing synthetic to recombinant β amyloid peptide in assays measuring rate of fibrillation, fibril homogeneity, and cellular toxicity showed that recombinant β amyloid peptide has a faster fibrillation rate and greater toxicity than synthetic β amyloid peptide. There are multiple classes of amyloid-forming polypeptide sequences. Glutamine-rich polypeptides are important in the amyloidogenesis of Yeast and mammalian prions, as well as trinucleotide repeat disorders including Huntington's disease. When glutamine-rich polypeptides are in a β-sheet conformation, glutamines can brace the structure by forming inter-strand hydrogen bonding between its amide carbonyls and nitrogens of both the backbone and side chains. The onset age for Huntington's disease shows an inverse correlation with the length of the polyglutamine sequence, with analogous findings in a C. elegans model system with engineered polyglutamine peptides. Other polypeptides and proteins such as amylin and the β amyloid peptide do not have a simple consensus sequence and are thought to aggregate through the sequence segments enriched with hydrophobic residues, or residues with high propensity to form β-sheet structure. Among the hydrophobic residues, aromatic amino-acids are found to have the highest amyloidogenic propensity. Cross-polymerization (fibrils of one polypeptide sequence causing other fibrils of another sequence to form) is observed in vitro and possibly in vivo. This phenomenon is important, since it would explain interspecies prion propagation and differential rates of prion propagation, as well as a statistical link between Alzheimer's and type 2 diabetes. In general, the more similar the peptide sequence the more efficient cross-polymerization is, though entirely dissimilar sequences can cross-polymerize and highly similar sequences can even be "blockers" that prevent polymerization. Amyloid toxicity The reasons why amyloid cause diseases are unclear. In some cases, the deposits physically disrupt tissue architecture, suggesting disruption of function by some bulk process. An emerging consensus implicates prefibrillar intermediates, rather than mature amyloid fibers, in causing cell death, particularly in neurodegenerative diseases. The fibrils are, however, far from innocuous, as they keep the protein homeostasis network engaged, release oligomers, cause the formation of toxic oligomers via secondary nucleation, grow indefinitely spreading from district to district and, in some cases, may be toxic themselves. Calcium dysregulation has been observed to occur early in cells exposed to protein oligomers. These small aggregates can form ion channels through lipid bilayer membranes and activate NMDA and AMPA receptors. Channel formation has been hypothesized to account for calcium dysregulation and mitochondrial dysfunction by allowing indiscriminate leakage of ions across cell membranes. Studies have shown that amyloid deposition is associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and a resulting generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can initiate a signalling pathway leading to apoptosis. There are reports that indicate amyloid polymers (such as those of huntingtin, associated with Huntington's disease) can induce the polymerization of essential amyloidogenic proteins, which should be deleterious to cells. Also, interaction partners of these essential proteins can also be sequestered. All these mechanisms of toxicity are likely to play a role. In fact, the aggregation of a protein generates a variety of aggregates, all of which are likely to be toxic to some degree. A wide variety of biochemical, physiological and cytological perturbations has been identified following the exposure of cells and animals to such species, independently of their identity. The oligomers have also been reported to interact with a variety of molecular targets. Hence, it is unlikely that there is a unique mechanism of toxicity or a unique cascade of cellular events. The misfolded nature of protein aggregates causes a multitude of aberrant interactions with a multitude of cellular components, including membranes, protein receptors, soluble proteins, RNAs, small metabolites, etc. Histological staining In the clinical setting, amyloid diseases are typically identified by a change in the spectroscopic properties of planar aromatic dyes such as thioflavin T, congo red or NIAD-4. In general, this is attributed to the environmental change, as these dyes intercalate between β-strands to confine their structure. Congo Red positivity remains the gold standard for diagnosis of amyloidosis. In general, binding of Congo Red to amyloid plaques produces a typical apple-green birefringence when viewed under cross-polarized light. Recently, significant enhancement of fluorescence quantum yield of NIAD-4 was exploited to super-resolution fluorescence imaging of amyloid fibrils and oligomers. 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Bibcode:2017CPL...690...62H. doi:10.1016/j.cplett.2017.10.034. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amyloid. Bacterial Inclusion Bodies Contain Amyloid-Like Structure at SciVee Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis Amyloid: Journal of Protein Folding Disorders web page Role of anesthetics in Alzheimer's disease: Molecular details revealed vteAmyloidosisCommon amyloid forming proteins AA ATTR Aβ2M AL Aβ/APP AIAPP ACal APro AANF ACys ABri Systemic amyloidosis AL amyloidosis AA amyloidosis Aβ2M/Haemodialysis-associated AGel/Finnish type AA/Familial Mediterranean fever ATTR/Transthyretin-related hereditary Organ-limited amyloidosisHeartAANF/Isolated atrialBrain Familial amyloid neuropathy ACys+ABri/Cerebral amyloid angiopathy Aβ/Alzheimer's disease Kidney AApoA1+AFib+ALys/Familial renal Skin Primary cutaneous amyloidosis Amyloid purpura Endocrine Thyroid ACal/Medullary thyroid cancer Pituitary APro/Prolactinoma Pancreas AIAPP/Insulinoma Type 2 diabetes	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Amyloid (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyloid_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Small_bowel_duodenum_with_amyloid_deposition_20X.jpg"},{"link_name":"Micrograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrograph"},{"link_name":"small bowel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_bowel"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"fibrillar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibril"},{"link_name":"nm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanometer"},{"link_name":"diameter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diameter"},{"link_name":"β-sheet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_sheet"},{"link_name":"secondary structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_structure_of_proteins"},{"link_name":"stained","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staining"},{"link_name":"Congo red","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congo_red"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid9356260-1"},{"link_name":"human body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body"},{"link_name":"diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid28498720-2"},{"link_name":"structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_structure"},{"link_name":"physiological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology"},{"link_name":"misfolding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_misfolding"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid28498720-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid30614283-3"},{"link_name":"amyloidosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyloidosis"},{"link_name":"neurodegenerative diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurodegenerative_diseases"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid28498720-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"familial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_disorder"},{"link_name":"familial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_disorder"},{"link_name":"result from medical treatment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iatrogenic"},{"link_name":"Prions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prion"},{"link_name":"infectious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"fimbriae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fimbria_(bacteriology)"},{"link_name":"genera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus"},{"link_name":"bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ann_rev_biochem_2011-6"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid28498720-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"β-sheet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_sheet"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pm11076514-8"},{"link_name":"prion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prion"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ann_rev_biochem_2011-6"},{"link_name":"α sheet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_sheet"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-alphasheet-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2rnm.jpg"},{"link_name":"PDB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank"},{"link_name":"2rnm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.rcsb.org/structure/2rnm"}],"text":"For other uses, see Amyloid (disambiguation).Micrograph showing amyloid deposits (pink) in small bowel. Duodenum with amyloid deposition in lamina propria. Amyloid shows up as homogeneous pink material in lamina propria and around blood vessels. 20× magnification.Amyloids are aggregates of proteins characterised by a fibrillar morphology of typically 7–13 nm in diameter, a β-sheet secondary structure (known as cross-β) and ability to be stained by particular dyes, such as Congo red.[1] In the human body, amyloids have been linked to the development of various diseases.[2] Pathogenic amyloids form when previously healthy proteins lose their normal structure and physiological functions (misfolding) and form fibrous deposits within and around cells. These protein misfolding and deposition processes disrupt the healthy function of tissues and organs.Such amyloids have been associated with (but not necessarily as the cause of) more than 50[2][3] human diseases, known as amyloidosis, and may play a role in some neurodegenerative diseases.[2][4] Some of these diseases are mainly sporadic and only a few cases are familial. Others are only familial. Some result from medical treatment. Prions are an infectious form of amyloids that can act as a template to convert other non-infectious forms.[5] Amyloids may also have normal biological functions; for example, in the formation of fimbriae in some genera of bacteria, transmission of epigenetic traits in fungi, as well as pigment deposition and hormone release in humans.[6]Amyloids have been known to arise from many different proteins.[2][7] These polypeptide chains generally form β-sheet structures that aggregate into long fibers; however, identical polypeptides can fold into multiple distinct amyloid conformations.[8] The diversity of the conformations may have led to different forms of the prion diseases.[6]An unusual secondary structure named α sheet has been proposed as the toxic constituent of amyloid precursor proteins,[9] but this idea is not widely accepted at present.Amyloid of HET-s(218-289) prion pentamer, Podospora anserina (PDB: 2rnm)","title":"Amyloid"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rudolf Virchow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Virchow"},{"link_name":"starch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starch"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"fatty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid"},{"link_name":"carbohydrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate"},{"link_name":"albumoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albumin"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"histopathological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histopathology"},{"link_name":"fibrillar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrillar"},{"link_name":"β-sheet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92-sheet"},{"link_name":"secondary structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_structure_of_proteins"},{"link_name":"birefringence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birefringence"},{"link_name":"congo red","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congo_red"},{"link_name":"polarized light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarization_(waves)"},{"link_name":"serum amyloid P component","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serum_amyloid_P_component"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid17353506-12"},{"link_name":"biophysical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophysics"},{"link_name":"cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)"},{"link_name":"Microbiologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiologists"},{"link_name":"biochemists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemists"},{"link_name":"biophysicists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophysicists"},{"link_name":"chemists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemists"},{"link_name":"physicists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicists"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid15283924-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid17530168-14"},{"link_name":"issue of language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_prescription"}],"text":"The name amyloid comes from the early mistaken identification by Rudolf Virchow of the substance as starch (amylum in Latin, from Ancient Greek: ἄμυλον, romanized: amylon), based on crude iodine-staining techniques. For a period, the scientific community debated whether or not amyloid deposits are fatty deposits or carbohydrate deposits until it was finally found (in 1859) that they are, in fact, deposits of albumoid proteinaceous material.[10]The classical, histopathological definition of amyloid is an extracellular, proteinaceous fibrillar deposit exhibiting β-sheet secondary structure and identified by apple-green birefringence when stained with congo red under polarized light. These deposits often recruit various sugars and other components such as serum amyloid P component, resulting in complex, and sometimes inhomogeneous structures.[11] Recently this definition has come into question as some classic, amyloid species have been observed in distinctly intracellular locations.[12]\nA more recent, biophysical definition is broader, including any polypeptide that polymerizes to form a cross-β structure, in vivo or in vitro, inside or outside cells. Microbiologists, biochemists, biophysicists, chemists and physicists have largely adopted this definition,[13][14] leading to some conflict in the biological community over an issue of language.","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteins"},{"link_name":"pathology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathology"},{"link_name":"diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseases"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid28498720-2"},{"link_name":"TTR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transthyretin"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid30614283-3"}],"text":"To date, 37 human proteins have been found to form amyloid in pathology and be associated with well-defined diseases.[2] The International Society of Amyloidosis classifies amyloid fibrils and their associated diseases based upon associated proteins (for example ATTR is the group of diseases and associated fibrils formed by TTR).[3] A table is included below.","title":"Proteins forming amyloids in diseases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"human","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_sapiens"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid18487849-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid17412596-26"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid28498720-2"},{"link_name":"Homo sapiens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_sapiens"},{"link_name":"PMEL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMEL_(gene)"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid16300414-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"RIP1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RIP1_(protein)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"RIP3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RIP3&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid22817896-29"},{"link_name":"prostatic acid phosphatase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostatic_acid_phosphatase"},{"link_name":"semenogelins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semenogelin"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid24691351-30"},{"link_name":"Curli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilus#Curli"},{"link_name":"fibrils","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fimbria_(bacteriology)"},{"link_name":"E. coli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._coli"},{"link_name":"Salmonella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella"},{"link_name":"Enterobacteriales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterobacteriales"},{"link_name":"operons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operons"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Gas vesicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_vesicle"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Pseudomonas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomonas"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Streptomyces coelicolor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptomyces_coelicolor"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid12832396-35"},{"link_name":"Spidroin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spidroin"},{"link_name":"Trichonephila edulis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichonephila_edulis"},{"link_name":"spider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider"},{"link_name":"Spider silk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider_silk"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid12180993-36"},{"link_name":"Hydrophobins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobin"},{"link_name":"Neurospora crassa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurospora_crassa"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid11250193-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"biofilms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofilm"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Methanosaeta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanosaeta"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"yeast prions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_prions"},{"link_name":"Sup35p","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sup35p"},{"link_name":"Ure2p","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ure2p"},{"link_name":"Podospora anserina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podospora_anserina"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid9275200-42"},{"link_name":"Aplysia californica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aplysia_californica"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid14697205-43"}],"text":"Many examples of non-pathological amyloid with a well-defined physiological role have been identified in various organisms, including human. These may be termed as functional or physiological or native amyloid.[25][26][2]Functional amyloid in Homo sapiens:\nIntralumenal domain of melanocyte protein PMEL[27]\nPeptide/protein hormones stored as amyloids within endocrine secretory granules[28]\nReceptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1/3 (RIP1/RIP3)[29]\nFragments of prostatic acid phosphatase and semenogelins[30]\nFunctional amyloid in other organisms:\nCurli fibrils produced by E. coli, Salmonella, and a few other members of the Enterobacteriales (Csg). The genetic elements (operons) encoding the curli system are phylogenetic widespread and can be found in at least four bacterial phyla.[31] This suggest that many more bacteria may express curli fibrils.\nGvpA, forming the walls of particular Gas vesicles, i.e. the buoyancy organelles of aquatic archaea and eubacteria[32]\nFap fibrils in various species of Pseudomonas[33][34]\nChaplins from Streptomyces coelicolor[35]\nSpidroin from Trichonephila edulis (spider) (Spider silk)[36]\nHydrophobins from Neurospora crassa and other fungi[37]\nFungal cell adhesion proteins forming cell surface amyloid regions with greatly increased binding strength[38][39]\nEnvironmental biofilms according to staining with amyloid specific dyes and antibodies.[40]\nTubular sheaths encasing Methanosaeta thermophila filaments[41]\nFunctional amyloid acting as prions\nSeveral yeast prions are based on an infectious amyloid, e.g. [PSI+] (Sup35p); [URE3] (Ure2p); [PIN+] or [RNQ+] (Rnq1p); [SWI1+] (Swi1p) and [OCT8+] (Cyc8p)\nPrion HET-s from Podospora anserina[42]\nNeuron-specific isoform of CPEB from Aplysia californica (marine snail)[43]","title":"Non-disease and functional amyloids"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Protofilament_of_Beta_Amyloid.jpg"},{"link_name":"PDB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank"},{"link_name":"2mlq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.rcsb.org/structure/2mlq"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid19015532-44"},{"link_name":"β-sheet secondary structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92_sheet"},{"link_name":"β strands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_strand"},{"link_name":"nanometres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanometre"},{"link_name":"micrometres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrometre"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ann_rev_biochem_2011-6"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid28498720-2"},{"link_name":"transmission electron microscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy"},{"link_name":"atomic force microscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_force_microscopy"},{"link_name":"circular dichroism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_dichroism"},{"link_name":"FTIR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_transform_infrared_spectroscopy"},{"link_name":"solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_nuclear_magnetic_resonance"},{"link_name":"X-ray crystallography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystallography"},{"link_name":"X-ray fiber diffraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_diffraction"},{"link_name":"Congo red","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congo_red"},{"link_name":"thioflavin T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thioflavin_T"},{"link_name":"thioflavin S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thioflavin_S"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid28498720-2"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Å","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85ngstrom"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid9356260-1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ann_rev_biochem_2011-6"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid28498720-2"},{"link_name":"solid-state NMR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_NMR"},{"link_name":"Cryo-Electron Microscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryo-Electron_Microscopy"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"X-ray diffraction studies of microcrystals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystallography"},{"link_name":"atomistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomistics"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nelson2005-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sawaya2007-49"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ann_rev_biochem_2011-6"},{"link_name":"β-sandwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-sandwich"},{"link_name":"β-helix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_helix"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PMID12219081-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ann_rev_biochem_2011-6"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pm11076514-8"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pm17056725-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pm12023906-53"},{"link_name":"prion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prion"}],"text":"Structure of a fibril, consisting of one single protofilament, of the amyloid β peptide viewed down the long axis of the fibril (PDB: 2mlq)[44]Amyloids are formed of long unbranched fibers that are characterized by an extended β-sheet secondary structure in which individual β strands (β-strands) (coloured arrows in the adjacent figure) are arranged in an orientation perpendicular to the long axis of the fiber. Such a structure is known as cross-β structure. Each individual fiber may be 7–13 nanometres in width and a few micrometres in length.[6][2] The main hallmarks recognised by different disciplines to classify protein aggregates as amyloid is the presence of a fibrillar morphology with the expected diameter, detected using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) or atomic force microscopy (AFM), the presence of a cross-β secondary structure, determined with circular dichroism, FTIR, solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR), X-ray crystallography, or X-ray fiber diffraction (often considered the \"gold-standard\" test to see whether a structure contains cross-β fibres), and an ability to stain with specific dyes, such as Congo red, thioflavin T or thioflavin S.[2]The term \"cross-β\" was based on the observation of two sets of diffraction lines, one longitudinal and one transverse, that form a characteristic \"cross\" pattern.[45] There are two characteristic scattering diffraction signals produced at 4.7 and 10 Å (0.47 nm and 1.0 nm), corresponding to the interstrand and stacking distances in β sheets.[1] The \"stacks\" of β sheet are short and traverse the breadth of the amyloid fibril; the length of the amyloid fibril is built by aligned β-strands. The cross-β pattern is considered a diagnostic hallmark of amyloid structure.[6]Amyloid fibrils are generally composed of 1–8 protofilaments (one protofilament also corresponding to a fibril is shown in the figure), each 2–7 nm in diameter, that interact laterally as flat ribbons that maintain the height of 2–7 nm (that of a single protofilament) and are up to 30 nm wide; more often protofilaments twist around each other to form the typically 7–13 nm wide fibrils.[2] Each protofilament possesses the typical cross-β structure and may be formed by 1–6 β-sheets (six are shown in the figure) stacked on each other. Each individual protein molecule can contribute one to several β-strands in each protofilament and the strands can be arranged in antiparallel β-sheets, but more often in parallel β-sheets. Only a fraction of the polypeptide chain is in a β-strand conformation in the fibrils, the remainder forms structured or unstructured loops or tails.For a long time our knowledge of the atomic-level structure of amyloid fibrils was limited by the fact that they are unsuitable for the most traditional methods for studying protein structures. Recent years have seen progress in experimental methods, including solid-state NMR spectroscopy and Cryo-Electron Microscopy. Combined, these methods have provided 3D atomic structures of amyloid fibrils formed by amyloid β peptides, α-synuclein, tau, and the FUS protein, associated with various neurodegenerative diseases.[46][47]X-ray diffraction studies of microcrystals revealed atomistic details of core region of amyloid, although only for simplified peptides having a length remarkably shorter than that of peptides or proteins involved in disease.[48][49] The crystallographic structures show that short stretches from amyloid-prone regions of amyloidogenic proteins run perpendicular to the filament axis, consistent with the \"cross-β\" feature of amyloid structure. They also reveal a number of characteristics of amyloid structures – neighboring β-sheets are tightly packed together via an interface devoid of water (therefore referred to as dry interface), with the opposing β-strands slightly offset from each other such that their side-chains interdigitate. This compact dehydrated interface created was termed a steric-zipper interface.[6] There are eight theoretical classes of steric-zipper interfaces, dictated by the directionality of the β-sheets (parallel and anti-parallel) and symmetry between adjacent β-sheets. A limitation of X-ray crystallography for solving amyloid structure is represented by the need to form microcrystals, which can be achieved only with peptides shorter than those associated with disease.Although bona fide amyloid structures always are based on intermolecular β-sheets, different types of \"higher order\" tertiary folds have been observed or proposed. The β-sheets may form a β-sandwich, or a β-solenoid which may be either β-helix or β-roll. Native-like amyloid fibrils in which native β-sheet containing proteins maintain their native-like structure in the fibrils have also been proposed.[50] There are few developed ideas on how the complex backbone topologies of disulfide-constrained proteins, which are prone to form amyloid fibrils (such as insulin and lysozyme), adopt the amyloid β-sheet motif. The presence of multiple constraints significantly reduces the accessible conformational space, making computational simulations of amyloid structures more feasible. [51]One complicating factor in studies of amyloidogenic polypeptides is that identical polypeptides can fold into multiple distinct amyloid conformations.[6] This phenomenon is typically described as amyloid polymorphism.[8][52]\n[53] It has notable biological consequences given that it is thought to explain the prion strain phenomenon.","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Three_phases_of_amyloid_fibril_formation.tif"},{"link_name":"lag phase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incubation_period"},{"link_name":"exponential phase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_function"},{"link_name":"plateau phase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plateau_effect"},{"link_name":"polymerization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerization"},{"link_name":"peptides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptides"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteins"},{"link_name":"lag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incubation_period"},{"link_name":"nucleation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleation"},{"link_name":"exponential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_growth"},{"link_name":"plateau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plateau_effect"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid8490014-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid10507029-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid19071235-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid20007899-57"},{"link_name":"sigmoidal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmoid_function"},{"link_name":"polypeptide chains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypeptide_chains"},{"link_name":"nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleus"},{"link_name":"monomer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomer"},{"link_name":"oligomer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligomer"},{"link_name":"thermodynamically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamics"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid19071235-56"},{"link_name":"nuclei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleation"},{"link_name":"monomers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomer"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid19071235-56"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid10958771-58"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid10958771-58"},{"link_name":"folded proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folded_proteins"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid19088715-59"},{"link_name":"energy barrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_barrier"},{"link_name":"thermal fluctuations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_fluctuations"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid19088715-59"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid20007899-57"},{"link_name":"master equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_equation"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid20007899-57"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-60"},{"link_name":"rate constants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_constant"},{"link_name":"ThT fluorescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thioflavin"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid20007899-57"},{"link_name":"Knowles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuomas_Knowles"},{"link_name":"Vendruscolo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michele_Vendruscolo"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-60"},{"link_name":"drugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drugs"},{"link_name":"metabolites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolites"},{"link_name":"mutations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid_replacement"},{"link_name":"chaperones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_chaperones"}],"text":"Three phases of amyloid fibril formation: lag phase, exponential phase and plateau phaseAmyloid is formed through the polymerization of hundreds to thousands of monomeric peptides or proteins into long fibers. Amyloid formation involves a lag phase (also called nucleation phase), an exponential phase (also called growth phase) and a plateau phase (also called saturation phase), as shown in the figure.[54][55][56][57] Indeed, when the quantity of fibrils is plotted versus time, a sigmoidal time course is observed reflecting the three distinct phases.In the simplest model of 'nucleated polymerization' (marked by red arrows in the figure below), individual unfolded or partially unfolded polypeptide chains (monomers) convert into a nucleus (monomer or oligomer) via a thermodynamically unfavourable process that occurs early in the lag phase.[56] Fibrils grow subsequently from these nuclei through the addition of monomers in the exponential phase.[56]A different model, called 'nucleated conformational conversion' and marked by blue arrows in the figure below, was introduced later on to fit some experimental observations: monomers have often been found to convert rapidly into misfolded and highly disorganized oligomers distinct from nuclei.[58] Only later on, will these aggregates reorganise structurally into nuclei, on which other disorganised oligomers will add and reorganise through a templating or induced-fit mechanism (this 'nucleated conformational conversion' model), eventually forming fibrils.[58]Normally folded proteins have to unfold partially before aggregation can take place through one of these mechanisms.[59] In some cases, however, folded proteins can aggregate without crossing the major energy barrier for unfolding, by populating native-like conformations as a consequence of thermal fluctuations, ligand release or local unfolding occurring in particular circumstances.[59] In these native-like conformations, segments that are normally buried or structured in the fully folded and possessing a high propensity to aggregate become exposed to the solvent or flexible, allowing the formation of native-like aggregates, which convert subsequently into nuclei and fibrils. This process is called 'native-like aggregation' (green arrows in the figure) and is similar to the 'nucleated conformational conversion' model.A more recent, modern and thorough model of amyloid fibril formation involves the intervention of secondary events, such as 'fragmentation', in which a fibril breaks into two or more shorter fibrils, and 'secondary nucleation', in which fibril surfaces (not fibril ends) catalyze the formation of new nuclei.[57] Both secondary events increase the number of fibril ends able to recruit new monomers or oligomers, therefore accelerating fibril formation through a positive feedback mechanism. These events add to the well recognised steps of primary nucleation (formation of the nucleus from the monomers through one of models described above), fibril elongation (addition of monomers or oligomers to growing fibril ends) and dissociation (opposite process).Such a new model is described in the figure on the right and involves the utilization of a master equation that includes all steps of amyloid fibril formation, i.e. primary nucleation, fibril elongation, secondary nucleation and fibril fragmentation.[57][60] The rate constants of the various steps can be determined from a global fit of a number of time courses of aggregation (for example ThT fluorescence emission versus time) recorded at different protein concentrations.[57] The general master equation approach to amyloid fibril formation with secondary pathways has been developed by Knowles, Vendruscolo, Cohen, Michaels and coworkers and considers the time evolution of the concentration \n \n \n \n f\n (\n t\n ,\n j\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(t,j)}\n \n of fibrils of length \n \n \n \n j\n \n \n {\\displaystyle j}\n \n (here \n \n \n \n j\n \n \n {\\displaystyle j}\n \n represents the number of monomers in an aggregate).[60]∂\n f\n (\n t\n ,\n j\n )\n \n \n ∂\n t\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n 2\n \n k\n \n +\n \n \n m\n (\n t\n )\n f\n (\n t\n ,\n j\n −\n 1\n )\n −\n 2\n \n k\n \n +\n \n \n m\n (\n t\n )\n f\n (\n t\n ,\n j\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n 2\n \n k\n \n \n o\n f\n f\n \n \n \n f\n (\n t\n ,\n j\n +\n 1\n )\n −\n 2\n \n k\n \n \n o\n f\n f\n \n \n \n f\n (\n t\n ,\n j\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n k\n \n −\n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n j\n +\n 1\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n f\n (\n t\n ,\n i\n )\n −\n \n k\n \n −\n \n \n (\n j\n −\n 1\n )\n f\n (\n t\n ,\n j\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n k\n \n 1\n \n \n m\n (\n t\n \n )\n \n \n n\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n δ\n \n j\n ,\n \n n\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n +\n \n k\n \n 2\n \n \n m\n (\n t\n \n )\n \n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n M\n (\n t\n )\n \n δ\n \n j\n ,\n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}{\\frac {\\partial f(t,j)}{\\partial t}}&=2k_{+}m(t)f(t,j-1)-2k_{+}m(t)f(t,j)\\\\&+2k_{\\rm {off}}f(t,j+1)-2k_{\\rm {off}}f(t,j)\\\\&+k_{-}\\sum _{i=j+1}^{\\infty }f(t,i)-k_{-}(j-1)f(t,j)\\\\&+k_{1}m(t)^{n_{1}}\\delta _{j,n_{1}}+k_{2}m(t)^{n_{2}}M(t)\\delta _{j,n_{2}}\\\\\\\\\\end{aligned}}}δ\n \n i\n ,\n j\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\delta _{i,j}}Kronecker deltak\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle k_{+}}k\n \n \n o\n f\n f\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle k_{\\rm {off}}}k\n \n −\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle k_{-}}M\n (\n t\n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n j\n =\n \n n\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n ∞\n \n \n j\n f\n (\n t\n ,\n j\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M(t)=\\sum _{j=n_{1}}^{\\infty }jf(t,j)}Following this analytical approach, it has become apparent that the lag phase does not correspond necessarily to only nucleus formation, but rather results from a combination of various steps. Similarly, the exponential phase is not only fibril elongation, but results from a combination of various steps, involving primary nucleation, fibril elongation, but also secondary events. A significant quantity of fibrils resulting from primary nucleation and fibril elongation may be formed during the lag phase and secondary steps, rather than only fibril elongation, can be the dominant processes contributing to fibril growth during the exponential phase. With this new model, any perturbing agents of amyloid fibril formation, such as putative drugs, metabolites, mutations, chaperones, etc., can be assigned to a specific step of fibril formation.","title":"Formation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"polymerization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid12917692-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"amylin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amylin"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"β amyloid peptide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92_amyloid"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pm11076514-8"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pm17056725-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pm12023906-53"},{"link_name":"prions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prions"},{"link_name":"trinucleotide repeat disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinucleotide_repeat_disorders"},{"link_name":"Huntington's disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntington%27s_disease"},{"link_name":"polyglutamine sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyglutamine_tract"},{"link_name":"C. elegans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"amylin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amylin"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid12917692-61"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PMID15925383-66"},{"link_name":"prion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prion"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid23794448-67"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"In general, amyloid polymerization (aggregation or non-covalent polymerization) is sequence-sensitive, that is mutations in the sequence can induce or prevent self-assembly.[61][62] For example, humans produce amylin, an amyloidogenic peptide associated with type II diabetes, but in rats and mice prolines are substituted in critical locations and amyloidogenesis does not occur.[citation needed] Studies comparing synthetic to recombinant β amyloid peptide in assays measuring rate of fibrillation, fibril homogeneity, and cellular toxicity showed that recombinant β amyloid peptide has a faster fibrillation rate and greater toxicity than synthetic β amyloid peptide.[63]There are multiple classes of amyloid-forming polypeptide sequences.[8][52][53] Glutamine-rich polypeptides are important in the amyloidogenesis of Yeast and mammalian prions, as well as trinucleotide repeat disorders including Huntington's disease. When glutamine-rich polypeptides are in a β-sheet conformation, glutamines can brace the structure by forming inter-strand hydrogen bonding between its amide carbonyls and nitrogens of both the backbone and side chains. The onset age for Huntington's disease shows an inverse correlation with the length of the polyglutamine sequence, with analogous findings in a C. elegans model system with engineered polyglutamine peptides.[64]Other polypeptides and proteins such as amylin and the β amyloid peptide do not have a simple consensus sequence and are thought to aggregate through the sequence segments enriched with hydrophobic residues, or residues with high propensity to form β-sheet structure.[61] Among the hydrophobic residues, aromatic amino-acids are found to have the highest amyloidogenic propensity.[65][66]Cross-polymerization (fibrils of one polypeptide sequence causing other fibrils of another sequence to form) is observed in vitro and possibly in vivo. This phenomenon is important, since it would explain interspecies prion propagation and differential rates of prion propagation, as well as a statistical link between Alzheimer's and type 2 diabetes.[67] In general, the more similar the peptide sequence the more efficient cross-polymerization is, though entirely dissimilar sequences can cross-polymerize and highly similar sequences can even be \"blockers\" that prevent polymerization.[citation needed]","title":"Amino acid sequence and amyloid formation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid17505973-17"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid28498720-2"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"reactive oxygen species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species"},{"link_name":"apoptosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apoptosis"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"}],"text":"The reasons why amyloid cause diseases are unclear. In some cases, the deposits physically disrupt tissue architecture, suggesting disruption of function by some bulk process. An emerging consensus implicates prefibrillar intermediates, rather than mature amyloid fibers, in causing cell death, particularly in neurodegenerative diseases.[17][68] The fibrils are, however, far from innocuous, as they keep the protein homeostasis network engaged, release oligomers, cause the formation of toxic oligomers via secondary nucleation, grow indefinitely spreading from district to district[2] and, in some cases, may be toxic themselves.[69]Calcium dysregulation has been observed to occur early in cells exposed to protein oligomers. These small aggregates can form ion channels through lipid bilayer membranes and activate NMDA and AMPA receptors. Channel formation has been hypothesized to account for calcium dysregulation and mitochondrial dysfunction by allowing indiscriminate leakage of ions across cell membranes.[70] Studies have shown that amyloid deposition is associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and a resulting generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can initiate a signalling pathway leading to apoptosis.[71] There are reports that indicate amyloid polymers (such as those of huntingtin, associated with Huntington's disease) can induce the polymerization of essential amyloidogenic proteins, which should be deleterious to cells. Also, interaction partners of these essential proteins can also be sequestered.[72]All these mechanisms of toxicity are likely to play a role. In fact, the aggregation of a protein generates a variety of aggregates, all of which are likely to be toxic to some degree. A wide variety of biochemical, physiological and cytological perturbations has been identified following the exposure of cells and animals to such species, independently of their identity. The oligomers have also been reported to interact with a variety of molecular targets. Hence, it is unlikely that there is a unique mechanism of toxicity or a unique cascade of cellular events. The misfolded nature of protein aggregates causes a multitude of aberrant interactions with a multitude of cellular components, including membranes, protein receptors, soluble proteins, RNAs, small metabolites, etc.","title":"Amyloid toxicity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"aromatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromatic"},{"link_name":"dyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dye"},{"link_name":"thioflavin T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thioflavin_T"},{"link_name":"congo red","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congo_red"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"intercalate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercalation_(biochemistry)"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"amyloidosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyloidosis"},{"link_name":"birefringence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birefringence"},{"link_name":"super-resolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super-resolution"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"histology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histology"},{"link_name":"hematoxylin and eosin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%26E_stain"},{"link_name":"immunohistochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunohistochemistry"}],"text":"In the clinical setting, amyloid diseases are typically identified by a change in the spectroscopic properties of planar aromatic dyes such as thioflavin T, congo red or NIAD-4.[73] In general, this is attributed to the environmental change, as these dyes intercalate between β-strands to confine their structure.[74]Congo Red positivity remains the gold standard for diagnosis of amyloidosis. In general, binding of Congo Red to amyloid plaques produces a typical apple-green birefringence when viewed under cross-polarized light. Recently, significant enhancement of fluorescence quantum yield of NIAD-4 was exploited to super-resolution fluorescence imaging of amyloid fibrils[75] and oligomers.[76] To avoid nonspecific staining, other histology stains, such as the hematoxylin and eosin stain, are used to quench the dyes' activity in other places such as the nucleus, where the dye might bind. Modern antibody technology and immunohistochemistry has made specific staining easier, but often this can cause trouble because epitopes can be concealed in the amyloid fold; in general, an amyloid protein structure is a different conformation from the one that the antibody recognizes.","title":"Histological staining"}]	[{"image_text":"Micrograph showing amyloid deposits (pink) in small bowel. Duodenum with amyloid deposition in lamina propria. Amyloid shows up as homogeneous pink material in lamina propria and around blood vessels. 20× magnification.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Small_bowel_duodenum_with_amyloid_deposition_20X.jpg/220px-Small_bowel_duodenum_with_amyloid_deposition_20X.jpg"},{"image_text":"Amyloid of HET-s(218-289) prion pentamer, Podospora anserina (PDB: 2rnm)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/2rnm.jpg/240px-2rnm.jpg"},{"image_text":"Structure of a fibril, consisting of one single protofilament, of the amyloid β peptide viewed down the long axis of the fibril (PDB: 2mlq)[44]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Protofilament_of_Beta_Amyloid.jpg/220px-Protofilament_of_Beta_Amyloid.jpg"},{"image_text":"Three phases of amyloid fibril formation: lag phase, exponential phase and plateau phase","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Three_phases_of_amyloid_fibril_formation.tif/lossless-page1-300px-Three_phases_of_amyloid_fibril_formation.tif.png"}]	[{"title":"JUNQ and IPOD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JUNQ_and_IPOD"},{"title":"Proteopathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteopathy"},{"title":"Protein aggregation predictors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_aggregation_predictors"}]	[{"reference":"Sunde M, Serpell LC, Bartlam M, Fraser PE, Pepys MB, Blake CC (October 1997). \"Common core structure of amyloid fibrils by synchrotron X-ray diffraction\". 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yeast\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PLoSO...729832K","external_links_name":"2012PLoSO...729832K"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0029832","external_links_name":"10.1371/journal.pone.0029832"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3256205","external_links_name":"3256205"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22253794","external_links_name":"22253794"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.200500845","external_links_name":"10.1002/anie.200500845"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16059955","external_links_name":"16059955"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42217289","external_links_name":"42217289"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015CPL...633..109B","external_links_name":"2015CPL...633..109B"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cplett.2015.05.010","external_links_name":"10.1016/j.cplett.2015.05.010"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3715833","external_links_name":"\"Superresolution imaging of amyloid fibrils with binding-activated probes\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fcn400091m","external_links_name":"10.1021/cn400091m"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3715833","external_links_name":"3715833"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23594172","external_links_name":"23594172"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017CPL...690...62H","external_links_name":"2017CPL...690...62H"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cplett.2017.10.034","external_links_name":"10.1016/j.cplett.2017.10.034"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081210070634/http://scivee.tv/node/7266","external_links_name":"Bacterial Inclusion Bodies Contain Amyloid-Like Structure"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090219204637/http://wiki.iop.kcl.ac.uk/default.aspx/Neurodegeneration/Amyloid%20Cascade%20Hypothesis.html","external_links_name":"Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis"},{"Link":"https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/iamy20","external_links_name":"Amyloid: Journal of Protein Folding Disorders web page"},{"Link":"https://medicalxpress.com/news/2007-01-role-anesthetics-alzheimer-disease-molecular.html","external_links_name":"Role of anesthetics in Alzheimer's disease: Molecular details revealed"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_geography	Integrated geography	["1 Origins","2 Focus","3 References"]	Intersection of human and physical geography Rice terraces located in Mù Cang Chải district, Yên Bái province, Vietnam Integrated geography (also referred to as integrative geography, environmental geography or human–environment geography) is where the branches of human geography and physical geography overlap to describe and explain the spatial aspects of interactions between human individuals or societies and their natural environment, these interactions being called coupled human–environment system. Origins It requires an understanding of the dynamics of physical geography, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the environment (human geography). Thus, to a certain degree, it may be seen as a successor of Physische Anthropogeographie (English: "physical anthropogeography")—a term coined by University of Vienna geographer Albrecht Penck in 1924—and geographical cultural or human ecology (Harlan H. Barrows 1923). Integrated geography in the United States is principally influenced by the schools of Carl O. Sauer (Berkeley), whose perspective was rather historical, and Gilbert F. White (Chicago), who developed a more applied view. Integrated geography (also, integrative geography, environmental geography or human–environment geography) is the branch of geography that describes and explains the spatial aspects of interactions between human individuals or societies and their natural environment, called coupled human–environment systems. Focus Wildlife refuge located in Oregon, United States. The links between human and physical geography were once more apparent than they are today. As human experience of the world is increasingly mediated by technology, the relationships between humans and the environment have often become obscured. Thereby, integrated geography represents a critically important set of analytical tools for assessing the impact of human presence on the environment. This is done by measuring the result of human activity on natural landforms and cycles. Methods for which this information is gained include remote sensing, and geographic information systems. Integrated geography helps us to ponder the environment in terms of its relationship to people. With integrated geography we can analyze different social science and humanities perspectives and their use in understanding people environment processes. Hence, it is considered the third branch of geography, the other branches being physical and human geography. References ^ Nicolaas A. Rupke (2008): Alexander Von Humboldt: A Metabiography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226731490 ^ Noel Castree et al. (2009): A Companion to Environmental Geography. London: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9781444305739 ^ Karlheinz Paffen (1959): Stellung und Bedeutung der Physischen Anthropogeographie. In: Erdkunde 13 (4), pp. 354–372. DOI: 10.3112/erdkunde.1959.04.08 ^ Garcia, Hector (2010). Environmental Geography. Apple Academic Press, Inc. ISBN 978-1926686684. ^ G., Moseley, William (2014-01-01). An introduction to human-environment geography : local dynamics and global processes. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9781405189316. OCLC 921583361.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Moseley, William G.; Perramond, Eric; Hapke, Holly M.; Laris, Paul (2014). An Introduction to Human-Environment Geography. Wiley Blackwell. pp. 26–27. ^ David Demeritt (2009): From externality to inputs and interference: framing environmental research in geography. In: Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 34 (1), pp. 3–11, DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-5661.2008.00333.x. ^ Arild Holt-Jensen (1999): Geography - History and Concepts: A Student's Guide. London: SAGE. ISBN 9780761961802 vteGeography topics Glossary History Index Outline BranchesHuman Agricultural Behavioral Cultural Development Economic Health Historical Internet Military Political Population Settlement Regional Urban Transportation Physical Biogeography Ecology Phytogeography Zoogeography Coastal / Oceanography Earth science Atmospheric science / Meteorology Environmental science Climatology / Paleoclimatology / Palaeogeography Geobiology Geophysics / Geodesy Earth system science Geomorphology / Geology Glaciology Hydrology / Limnology Pedology (Edaphology/Soil science) Quaternary science Technical Geodesign Geodesy Geoinformatics Geographic information science Geomatics Statistical geography Spatial analysis Integrated Integrated / Environmental Environmental social science Environmental studies Landscape architecture Landscape ecology Time geography Techniques and toolsQuantitative Cartography Computer cartography Web mapping Geomathematics Geovisualization Geologic modelling Geographic information system Distributed GIS Internet GIS Web GIS Geochronology Geostatistics Hydrography Photogrammetry Remote sensing Surveying Land change modeling Qualitative Ethnography Geopoetics Interview (research) Survey (human research) Institutions Geographic data and information organizations Geographical societies Geoscience societies National mapping agency Education Geography education Geo-literacy Geographers on Film International Geography Olympiad National Council for Geographic Education Spatial citizenship Category Portal Commons WikiProject vteSub-fields of and approaches to human geographySub-fields Behavioral Cognitive Cultural Development Economic Health Historical Integrated Language Marketing Military Political Population Religion Social Strategic Tourism Transport Urban Approaches Critical Culture theory Feminist Marxist Modernism Structuralism Semiotics Non-representational theory Postmodernism Post-structuralism Deconstruction Scientific method Sexuality and space Time Category Portal Commons vteEnvironmental social scienceFields Ecological anthropology Ecological economics Environmental anthropology Environmental crime Environmental economics Environmental communication Environmental history Environmental politics Environmental psychology Environmental sociology Human ecology Human geography Political ecology Regional science Related Agroecology Anthrozoology Behavioral geography Community studies Demography Design ecological environmental Ecological humanities Economics energy thermo Environmental education ethics law science studies justice racism Ethnobiology botany ecology zoology Forestry Industrial ecology Integrated geography Permaculture Rural sociology Sexecology Science, technology and society science studies Sustainability science studies Systems ecology Urban ecology geography metabolism studies Applied Architecture landscape sustainable Ecopsychology Engineering ecological environmental Green criminology Health environmental epidemiology occupational public Management environmental fisheries forest natural resource waste Planning environmental land use regional spatial urban Policy energy environmental Environment portal Category Concepts Degrees Journals Research institutes Scholars vteSocial sciences Outline History Index Primary Anthropology archaeology cultural social physical Economics microeconomics macroeconomics econometrics mathematical Geography physical human technical integrated History cultural auxiliary sciences economic human military political social Law jurisprudence legal history legal systems public law private law Linguistics semiotics Political science international relations comparative philosophy public policy public administration Psychology abnormal cognitive developmental personality social Sociology criminology demography internet rural urban Interdisciplinary Administration business public Anthrozoology Area studies Business studies Cognitive science Communication studies Community studies Criminology Cultural studies Development studies Education Environmental social science studies Food studies Gender studies Global studies Historical sociology History of technology Human ecology Information science International studies Linguistics Management Media studies Philosophies science economics history psychology social science Planning land use regional urban Political ecology Political economy Political sociology Public health Regional science Science and technology studies Science studies historical Quantum social science Social work Vegan studies List List of social science journals Other categorizations Behavioral sciences Geisteswissenschaft Human science Humanities Category Commons Society portal Wikiversity	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rice_terrace.png"},{"link_name":"Yên Bái province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C3%AAn_B%C3%A1i_province"},{"link_name":"Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"human geography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_geography"},{"link_name":"physical geography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_geography"},{"link_name":"spatial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_analysis"},{"link_name":"natural environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environment"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"coupled human–environment system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupled_human%E2%80%93environment_system"}],"text":"Rice terraces located in Mù Cang Chải district, Yên Bái province, VietnamIntegrated geography (also referred to as integrative geography,[1] environmental geography or human–environment geography) is where the branches of human geography and physical geography overlap to describe and explain the spatial aspects of interactions between human individuals or societies and their natural environment,[2] these interactions being called coupled human–environment system.","title":"Integrated geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"physical geography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_geography"},{"link_name":"human geography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_geography"},{"link_name":"University of Vienna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Vienna"},{"link_name":"Albrecht Penck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Penck"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"cultural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_ecology"},{"link_name":"human ecology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_ecology"},{"link_name":"Harlan H. Barrows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlan_H._Barrows"},{"link_name":"Carl O. Sauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_O._Sauer"},{"link_name":"Gilbert F. White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_F._White"},{"link_name":"coupled human–environment systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupled_human%E2%80%93environment_system"}],"text":"It requires an understanding of the dynamics of physical geography, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the environment (human geography). Thus, to a certain degree, it may be seen as a successor of Physische Anthropogeographie (English: \"physical anthropogeography\")—a term coined by University of Vienna geographer Albrecht Penck in 1924[3]—and geographical cultural or human ecology (Harlan H. Barrows 1923). Integrated geography in the United States is principally influenced by the schools of Carl O. Sauer (Berkeley), whose perspective was rather historical, and Gilbert F. White (Chicago), who developed a more applied view.\nIntegrated geography (also, integrative geography, environmental geography or human–environment geography) is the branch of geography that describes and explains the spatial aspects of interactions between human individuals or societies and their natural environment, called coupled human–environment systems.","title":"Origins"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Finley_wildlife_refuge.jpg"},{"link_name":"environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"remote sensing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_sensing"},{"link_name":"geographic information systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Wildlife refuge located in Oregon, United States.The links between human and physical geography were once more apparent than they are today. As human experience of the world is increasingly mediated by technology, the relationships between humans and the environment have often become obscured. Thereby, integrated geography represents a critically important set of analytical tools for assessing the impact of human presence on the environment. This is done by measuring the result of human activity on natural landforms and cycles.[4] Methods for which this information is gained include remote sensing, and geographic information systems.[5] Integrated geography helps us to ponder the environment in terms of its relationship to people. With integrated geography we can analyze different social science and humanities perspectives and their use in understanding people environment processes.[6] Hence, it is considered the third branch of geography,[7] the other branches being physical and human geography.[8]","title":"Focus"}]	[{"image_text":"Rice terraces located in Mù Cang Chải district, Yên Bái province, Vietnam","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Rice_terrace.png/250px-Rice_terrace.png"},{"image_text":"Wildlife refuge located in Oregon, United States.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Finley_wildlife_refuge.jpg/220px-Finley_wildlife_refuge.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"Garcia, Hector (2010). Environmental Geography. Apple Academic Press, Inc. 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Wiley Blackwell. pp. 26–27.","urls":[]}]	[{"Link":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3112/erdkunde.1959.04.08","external_links_name":"DOI: 10.3112/erdkunde.1959.04.08"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/921583361","external_links_name":"921583361"},{"Link":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5661.2008.00333.x","external_links_name":"DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-5661.2008.00333.x."}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_privilege_level	Protection ring	["1 Implementations","2 Modes","2.1 Supervisor mode","2.2 Hypervisor mode","3 Privilege level","3.1 IOPL","3.2 Miscellaneous","4 Use of hardware features","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References","8 Further reading"]	Layer of protection in computer systems Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Ring (disambiguation) and Ring 0 (disambiguation). This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Privilege rings for the x86 available in protected mode In computer science, hierarchical protection domains, often called protection rings, are mechanisms to protect data and functionality from faults (by improving fault tolerance) and malicious behavior (by providing computer security). Computer operating systems provide different levels of access to resources. A protection ring is one of two or more hierarchical levels or layers of privilege within the architecture of a computer system. This is generally hardware-enforced by some CPU architectures that provide different CPU modes at the hardware or microcode level. Rings are arranged in a hierarchy from most privileged (most trusted, usually numbered zero) to least privileged (least trusted, usually with the highest ring number). On most operating systems, Ring 0 is the level with the most privileges and interacts most directly with the physical hardware such as certain CPU functionality (e.g. the control registers) and I/O controllers. Special mechanisms are provided to allow an outer ring to access an inner ring's resources in a predefined manner, as opposed to allowing arbitrary usage. Correctly gating access between rings can improve security by preventing programs from one ring or privilege level from misusing resources intended for programs in another. For example, spyware running as a user program in Ring 3 should be prevented from turning on a web camera without informing the user, since hardware access should be a Ring 1 function reserved for device drivers. Programs such as web browsers running in higher numbered rings must request access to the network, a resource restricted to a lower numbered ring. X86S, a recently published Intel architecture, has only ring 0 and ring 3. Ring 1 and 2 will be removed under X86S since modern OSes never utilize them. Implementations Multiple rings of protection were among the most revolutionary concepts introduced by the Multics operating system, a highly secure predecessor of today's Unix family of operating systems. The GE 645 mainframe computer did have some hardware access control, including the same two modes that the other GE-600 series machines had, and segment-level permissions in its memory management unit ("Appending Unit"), but that was not sufficient to provide full support for rings in hardware, so Multics supported them by trapping ring transitions in software; its successor, the Honeywell 6180, implemented them in hardware, with support for eight rings; Protection rings in Multics were separate from CPU modes; code in all rings other than ring 0, and some ring 0 code, ran in slave mode. However, most general-purpose systems use only two rings, even if the hardware they run on provides more CPU modes than that. For example, Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 (and their predecessors) use only two rings, with ring 0 corresponding to kernel mode and ring 3 to user mode, because earlier versions of Windows NT ran on processors that supported only two protection levels. Many modern CPU architectures (including the popular Intel x86 architecture) include some form of ring protection, although the Windows NT operating system, like Unix, does not fully utilize this feature. OS/2 does to some extent, using three rings: ring 0 for kernel code and device drivers, ring 2 for privileged code (user programs with I/O access permissions), and ring 3 for unprivileged code (nearly all user programs). Under DOS, the kernel, drivers and applications typically run on ring 3 (however, this is exclusive to the case where protected-mode drivers or DOS extenders are used; as a real-mode OS, the system runs with effectively no protection), whereas 386 memory managers such as EMM386 run at ring 0. In addition to this, DR-DOS' EMM386 3.xx can optionally run some modules (such as DPMS) on ring 1 instead. OpenVMS uses four modes called (in order of decreasing privileges) Kernel, Executive, Supervisor and User. While x86 has 4 protection rings, it is more common for architectures to only have two. Even on x86, most operating systems only use ring 0 and 3. A renewed interest in this design structure came with the proliferation of the Xen VMM software, ongoing discussion on monolithic vs. micro-kernels (particularly in Usenet newsgroups and Web forums), Microsoft's Ring-1 design structure as part of their NGSCB initiative, and hypervisors based on x86 virtualization such as Intel VT-x (formerly Vanderpool). The original Multics system had eight rings, but many modern systems have fewer. The hardware remains aware of the current ring of the executing instruction thread at all times, with the help of a special machine register. In some systems, areas of virtual memory are instead assigned ring numbers in hardware. One example is the Data General Eclipse MV/8000, in which the top three bits of the program counter (PC) served as the ring register. Thus code executing with the virtual PC set to 0xE200000, for example, would automatically be in ring 7, and calling a subroutine in a different section of memory would automatically cause a ring transfer. The hardware severely restricts the ways in which control can be passed from one ring to another, and also enforces restrictions on the types of memory access that can be performed across rings. Using x86 as an example, there is a special gate structure which is referenced by the call instruction that transfers control in a secure way towards predefined entry points in lower-level (more trusted) rings; this functions as a supervisor call in many operating systems that use the ring architecture. The hardware restrictions are designed to limit opportunities for accidental or malicious breaches of security. In addition, the most privileged ring may be given special capabilities (such as real memory addressing that bypasses the virtual memory hardware). ARM version 7 architecture implements three privilege levels: application (PL0), operating system (PL1), and hypervisor (PL2). Unusually, level 0 (PL0) is the least-privileged level, while level 2 is the most-privileged level. ARM version 8 implements four exception levels: application (EL0), operating system (EL1), hypervisor (EL2), and secure monitor / firmware (EL3), for AArch64: D1-2454 and AArch32.: G1-6013 Ring protection can be combined with processor modes (master/kernel/privileged/supervisor mode versus slave/unprivileged/user mode) in some systems. Operating systems running on hardware supporting both may use both forms of protection or only one. Effective use of ring architecture requires close cooperation between hardware and the operating system. Operating systems designed to work on multiple hardware platforms may make only limited use of rings if they are not present on every supported platform. Often the security model is simplified to "kernel" and "user" even if hardware provides finer granularity through rings. Modes See also: Real mode and Protected mode Supervisor mode In computer terms, supervisor mode is a hardware-mediated flag that can be changed by code running in system-level software. System-level tasks or threads may have this flag set while they are running, whereas user-level applications will not. This flag determines whether it would be possible to execute machine code operations such as modifying registers for various descriptor tables, or performing operations such as disabling interrupts. The idea of having two different modes to operate in comes from "with more power comes more responsibility" – a program in supervisor mode is trusted never to fail, since a failure may cause the whole computer system to crash. Supervisor mode is "an execution mode on some processors which enables execution of all instructions, including privileged instructions. It may also give access to a different address space, to memory management hardware and to other peripherals. This is the mode in which the operating system usually runs." In a monolithic kernel, the operating system runs in supervisor mode and the applications run in user mode. Other types of operating systems, like those with an exokernel or microkernel, do not necessarily share this behavior. Some examples from the PC world: Linux, macOS and Windows are three operating systems that use supervisor/user mode. To perform specialized functions, user mode code must perform a system call into supervisor mode or even to the kernel space where trusted code of the operating system will perform the needed task and return the execution back to the userspace. Additional code can be added into kernel space through the use of loadable kernel modules, but only by a user with the requisite permissions, as this code is not subject to the access control and safety limitations of user mode. DOS (for as long as no 386 memory manager such as EMM386 is loaded), as well as other simple operating systems and many embedded devices run in supervisor mode permanently, meaning that drivers can be written directly as user programs. Most processors have at least two different modes. The x86-processors have four different modes divided into four different rings. Programs that run in Ring 0 can do anything with the system, and code that runs in Ring 3 should be able to fail at any time without impact to the rest of the computer system. Ring 1 and Ring 2 are rarely used, but could be configured with different levels of access. In most existing systems, switching from user mode to kernel mode has an associated high cost in performance. It has been measured, on the basic request getpid, to cost 1000–1500 cycles on most machines. Of these just around 100 are for the actual switch (70 from user to kernel space, and 40 back), the rest is "kernel overhead". In the L3 microkernel, the minimization of this overhead reduced the overall cost to around 150 cycles. Maurice Wilkes wrote: ... it eventually became clear that the hierarchical protection that rings provided did not closely match the requirements of the system programmer and gave little or no improvement on the simple system of having two modes only. Rings of protection lent themselves to efficient implementation in hardware, but there was little else to be said for them. The attractiveness of fine-grained protection remained, even after it was seen that rings of protection did not provide the answer... This again proved a blind alley... To gain performance and determinism, some systems place functions that would likely be viewed as application logic, rather than as device drivers, in kernel mode; security applications (access control, firewalls, etc.) and operating system monitors are cited as examples. At least one embedded database management system, eXtremeDB Kernel Mode, has been developed specifically for kernel mode deployment, to provide a local database for kernel-based application functions, and to eliminate the context switches that would otherwise occur when kernel functions interact with a database system running in user mode. Functions are also sometimes moved across rings in the other direction. The Linux kernel, for instance, injects into processes a vDSO section which contains functions that would normally require a system call, i.e. a ring transition. Instead of doing a syscall these functions use static data provided by the kernel. This avoids the need for a ring transition and so is more lightweight than a syscall. The function gettimeofday can be provided this way. Hypervisor mode Recent CPUs from Intel and AMD offer x86 virtualization instructions for a hypervisor to control Ring 0 hardware access. Although they are mutually incompatible, both Intel VT-x (codenamed "Vanderpool") and AMD-V (codenamed "Pacifica") allow a guest operating system to run Ring 0 operations natively without affecting other guests or the host OS. Before hardware-assisted virtualization, guest operating systems run under ring 1. Any attempt that requires a higher privilege level to perform (ring 0) will produces an interrupt and then handled using software, so called "Trap and Emulate". To assist virtualization and reduce overhead caused by the reason above, VT-x and SVM allows the guest to run under Ring 0. VT-x introduces VMX Root/Non-root Operation: The hypervisor runs in VMX Root Operation mode, possessing the highest privilege. Guest OS runs in VMX Non-Root Operation mode, which allows them to operate at ring 0 without having actual hardware privileges. VMX non-root operation and VMX transitions are controlled by a data structure called a virtual-machine control. VT-x allows the hypervisor and guest OS both run under ring 0, rendering "Trap and Emulate" obsolete, improving virtualization performance. Privilege level Main article: Privilege (computing) A privilege level in the x86 instruction set controls the access of the program currently running on the processor to resources such as memory regions, I/O ports, and special instructions. There are 4 privilege levels ranging from 0 which is the most privileged, to 3 which is least privileged. Most modern operating systems use level 0 for the kernel/executive, and use level 3 for application programs. Any resource available to level n is also available to levels 0 to n, so the privilege levels are rings. When a lesser privileged process tries to access a higher privileged process, a general protection fault exception is reported to the OS. It is not necessary to use all four privilege levels. Current operating systems with wide market share including Microsoft Windows, macOS, Linux, iOS and Android mostly use a paging mechanism with only one bit to specify the privilege level as either Supervisor or User (U/S Bit). Windows NT uses the two-level system. The real mode programs in 8086 are executed at level 0 (highest privilege level) whereas virtual mode in 8086 executes all programs at level 3. Potential future uses for the multiple privilege levels supported by the x86 ISA family include containerization and virtual machines. A host operating system kernel could use instructions with full privilege access (kernel mode), whereas applications running on the guest OS in a virtual machine or container could use the lowest level of privileges in user mode. The virtual machine and guest OS kernel could themselves use an intermediate level of instruction privilege to invoke and virtualize kernel-mode operations such as system calls from the point of view of the guest operating system. IOPL The IOPL (I/O Privilege level) flag is a flag found on all IA-32 compatible x86 CPUs. It occupies bits 12 and 13 in the FLAGS register. In protected mode and long mode, it shows the I/O privilege level of the current program or task. The Current Privilege Level (CPL) (CPL0, CPL1, CPL2, CPL3) of the task or program must be less than or equal to the IOPL in order for the task or program to access I/O ports. The IOPL can be changed using POPF(D) and IRET(D) only when the current privilege level is Ring 0. Besides IOPL, the I/O Port Permissions in the TSS also take part in determining the ability of a task to access an I/O port. Miscellaneous In x86 systems, the x86 hardware virtualization (VT-x and SVM) is referred as "ring −1", the System Management Mode is referred as "ring −2", the Intel Management Engine and AMD Platform Security Processor are sometimes referred as "ring −3". Use of hardware features Many CPU hardware architectures provide far more flexibility than is exploited by the operating systems that they normally run. Proper use of complex CPU modes requires very close cooperation between the operating system and the CPU, and thus tends to tie the OS to the CPU architecture. When the OS and the CPU are specifically designed for each other, this is not a problem (although some hardware features may still be left unexploited), but when the OS is designed to be compatible with multiple, different CPU architectures, a large part of the CPU mode features may be ignored by the OS. For example, the reason Windows uses only two levels (ring 0 and ring 3) is that some hardware architectures that were supported in the past (such as PowerPC or MIPS) implemented only two privilege levels. Multics was an operating system designed specifically for a special CPU architecture (which in turn was designed specifically for Multics), and it took full advantage of the CPU modes available to it. However, it was an exception to the rule. Today, this high degree of interoperation between the OS and the hardware is not often cost-effective, despite the potential advantages for security and stability. Ultimately, the purpose of distinct operating modes for the CPU is to provide hardware protection against accidental or deliberate corruption of the system environment (and corresponding breaches of system security) by software. Only "trusted" portions of system software are allowed to execute in the unrestricted environment of kernel mode, and then, in paradigmatic designs, only when absolutely necessary. All other software executes in one or more user modes. If a processor generates a fault or exception condition in a user mode, in most cases system stability is unaffected; if a processor generates a fault or exception condition in kernel mode, most operating systems will halt the system with an unrecoverable error. When a hierarchy of modes exists (ring-based security), faults and exceptions at one privilege level may destabilize only the higher-numbered privilege levels. Thus, a fault in Ring 0 (the kernel mode with the highest privilege) will crash the entire system, but a fault in Ring 2 will only affect Rings 3 and beyond and Ring 2 itself, at most. Transitions between modes are at the discretion of the executing thread when the transition is from a level of high privilege to one of low privilege (as from kernel to user modes), but transitions from lower to higher levels of privilege can take place only through secure, hardware-controlled "gates" that are traversed by executing special instructions or when external interrupts are received. Microkernel operating systems attempt to minimize the amount of code running in privileged mode, for purposes of security and elegance, but ultimately sacrificing performance. See also Call gate (Intel) Memory segmentation Protected mode – available on x86-compatible 80286 CPUs and newer IOPL (CONFIG.SYS directive) – an OS/2 directive to run DLL code at ring 2 instead of at ring 3 Segment descriptor Supervisor Call instruction System Management Mode (SMM) Principle of least privilege Notes ^ E.g., In IBM OS/360 through z/OS, some system tasks run in problem state key 0. References ^ Karger, Paul A.; Herbert, Andrew J. (1984). An Augmented Capability Architecture to Support Lattice Security and Traceability of Access. 1984 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. p. 2. doi:10.1109/SP.1984.10001. ISBN 0-8186-0532-4. S2CID 14788823. ^ Binder, W. (2001). "Design and implementation of the J-SEAL2 mobile agent kernel". Proceedings 2001 Symposium on Applications and the Internet. pp. 35–42. doi:10.1109/SAINT.2001.905166. ISBN 0-7695-0942-8. S2CID 11066378. ^ "Envisioning a Simplified Intel Architecture for the Future". Intel. Retrieved 28 May 2024. ^ "A Hardware Architecture for Implementing Protection Rings". Communications of the ACM. 15 (3). March 1972. Retrieved 27 September 2012. ^ "Multics Glossary - ring". Retrieved 27 September 2012. ^ The Multics Virtual Memory, part 2 (PDF). Honeywell Information Systems. June 1972. pp. 160–161. ^ a b Russinovich, Mark E.; David A. Solomon (2005). Microsoft Windows Internals (4 ed.). Microsoft Press. pp. 16. ISBN 978-0-7356-1917-3. ^ Russinovich, Mark (2012). Windows Internals Part 1 (6th ed.). Redmond, Washington: Microsoft Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-7356-4873-9. The reason Windows uses only two levels is that some hardware architectures that were supported in the past (such as Compaq Alpha and Silicon Graphics MIPS) implemented only two privilege levels. ^ "Presentation Device Driver Reference for OS/2 – 5. Introduction to OS/2 Presentation Drivers". Archived from the original on 15 June 2015. Retrieved 13 June 2015. ^ ARM Architecture Reference Manual ARMv7-A and ARMv7-R edition. Arm Ltd. p. B1-1136. ^ a b Arm Architecture Reference Manual Armv8, for A-profile architecture. Arm Ltd. ^ "supervisor mode". FOLDOC. 15 February 1995. ^ a b Jochen Liedtke (December 1995). "On µ-Kernel Construction". Proc. 15th ACM Symposium on Operating System Principles (SOSP). ^ Ousterhout, J. K. (1990). Why aren't operating systems getting faster as fast as hardware?. Usenix Summer Conference A. naheim, CA. pp. 247–256. ^ Maurice Wilkes (April 1994). "Operating systems in a changing world". ACM SIGOPS Operating Systems Review. 28 (2): 9–21. doi:10.1145/198153.198154. ISSN 0163-5980. S2CID 254134. ^ Gorine, Andrei; Krivolapov, Alexander (May 2008). "Kernel Mode Databases: A DBMS Technology For High-Performance Applications". Dr. Dobb's Journal. ^ Intel® 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer’s Manual, Volume 3C (PDF). Intel Cooperation (published September 2016). 2016. pp. 1–3. ^ Russinovich, Mark E.; Solomon, David A. (2005). Microsoft Windows Internals (4th ed.). Microsoft Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-7356-1917-3. ^ Sunil Mathur. Microprocessor 8086: Architecture, Programming and Interfacing (Eastern Economy ed.). PHI Learning. ^ Anderson, Thomas; Dahlin, Michael (21 August 2014). "2.2". Operating Systems: Principles and Practice (2nd ed.). Recursive Books. ISBN 978-0985673529. ^ De Gelas, Johan. "Hardware Virtualization: the Nuts and Bolts". AnandTech. Retrieved 13 March 2021. Intel 80386 Programmer's Reference Further reading David T. Rogers (June 2003). A framework for dynamic subversion (PDF) (MSc). Naval Postgraduate School. hdl:10945/919. William J. Caelli (2002). "Relearning "Trusted Systems" in an Age of NIIP: Lessons from the Past for the Future". Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 April 2015. Haruna R. Isa; William R. Shockley; Cynthia E. Irvine (May 1999). "A Multi-threading Architecture for Multilevel Secure Transaction Processing" (PDF). Proceedings of the 1999 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. Oakland, CA. pp. 166–179. hdl:10945/7198. Ivan Kelly (8 May 2006). "Porting MINIX to Xen" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 August 2006. Paul Barham; Boris Dragovic; Keir Fraser; Steven Hand; Tim Harris; Alex Ho; Rolf Neugebauer; Ian Pratt; Andrew Warfield (2003). "Xen and the Art of Virtualization" (PDF). Marcus Peinado; Yuqun Chen; Paul England; John Manferdelli. "NGSCB: A Trusted Open System" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2005. Michael D. Schroeder; Jerome H. Saltzer (1972). "A Hardware Architecture for Implementing Protection Rings". "Intel Architecture Software Developer's Manual Volume 3: System Programming (Order Number 243192)" (PDF). Chapter 4 "Protection"; section 4.5 "Privilege levels". Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 February 2009. Tzi-cker Chiueh; Ganesh Venkitachalam; Prashant Pradhan (December 1999). "Integrating segmentation and paging protection for safe, efficient and transparent software extensions". Proceedings of the seventeenth ACM symposium on Operating systems principles. Section 3: Protection hardware features in Intel X86 architecture; subsection 3.1 Protection checks. doi:10.1145/319151.319161. ISBN 1581131402. S2CID 9456119. Takahiro Shinagawa; Kenji Kono; Takashi Masuda (17 May 2000). "Exploiting Segmentation Mechanism for Protecting Against Malicious Mobile Code" (PDF). Chapter 3 Implementation; section 3.2.1 Ring Protection. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 2 April 2018. Boebert, William Earl; R. Kain (1985). A Practical Alternative to Hierarchical Integrity Policies. 8th National Computer Security Conference. Gorine, Andrei; Krivolapov, Alexander (May 2008). "Kernel Mode Databases: A DBMS technology for high-performance applications". Dr. Dobb's Journal. vteOperating systemsGeneral Comparison Forensic engineering History List Timeline Usage share User features comparison Variants Disk operating system Distributed operating system Embedded operating system Hobbyist operating system Just enough operating system Mobile operating system Network operating system Object-oriented operating system Real-time operating system Supercomputer operating system KernelArchitectures Exokernel Hybrid Microkernel Monolithic Multikernel vkernel Rump kernel Unikernel Components Device driver Loadable kernel module User space and kernel space Process managementConcepts Computer multitasking (Cooperative, Preemptive) Context switch Interrupt IPC Process Process control block Real-time Thread Time-sharing Schedulingalgorithms Fixed-priority preemptive Multilevel feedback queue Round-robin Shortest job next Memory management,resource protection Bus error General protection fault Memory paging Memory protection Protection ring Segmentation fault Virtual memory Storage access,file systems Boot loader Defragmentation Device file File attribute Inode Journal Partition Virtual file system Virtual tape library Supporting concepts API Computer network HAL Live CD Live USB Shell CLI User interface PXE	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ring (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Ring 0 (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_0_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Priv_rings.svg"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"},{"link_name":"protected mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode"},{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"fault tolerance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_tolerance"},{"link_name":"computer security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security"},{"link_name":"privilege","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privilege_(computing)"},{"link_name":"computer system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_system"},{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"architectures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_architecture"},{"link_name":"CPU modes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_modes"},{"link_name":"microcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcode"},{"link_name":"level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraction_layer"},{"link_name":"spyware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spyware"},{"link_name":"device drivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_driver"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Ring (disambiguation) and Ring 0 (disambiguation).Privilege rings for the x86 available in protected modeIn computer science, hierarchical protection domains,[1][2] often called protection rings, are mechanisms to protect data and functionality from faults (by improving fault tolerance) and malicious behavior (by providing computer security).Computer operating systems provide different levels of access to resources. A protection ring is one of two or more hierarchical levels or layers of privilege within the architecture of a computer system. This is generally hardware-enforced by some CPU architectures that provide different CPU modes at the hardware or microcode level. Rings are arranged in a hierarchy from most privileged (most trusted, usually numbered zero) to least privileged (least trusted, usually with the highest ring number). On most operating systems, Ring 0 is the level with the most privileges and interacts most directly with the physical hardware such as certain CPU functionality (e.g. the control registers) and I/O controllers.Special mechanisms are provided to allow an outer ring to access an inner ring's resources in a predefined manner, as opposed to allowing arbitrary usage. Correctly gating access between rings can improve security by preventing programs from one ring or privilege level from misusing resources intended for programs in another. For example, spyware running as a user program in Ring 3 should be prevented from turning on a web camera without informing the user, since hardware access should be a Ring 1 function reserved for device drivers. Programs such as web browsers running in higher numbered rings must request access to the network, a resource restricted to a lower numbered ring.X86S, a recently published Intel architecture, has only ring 0 and ring 3. Ring 1 and 2 will be removed under X86S since modern OSes never utilize them.[3]","title":"Protection ring"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Multics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multics"},{"link_name":"Unix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix"},{"link_name":"GE 645","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GE_645"},{"link_name":"memory management unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_management_unit"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Honeywell 6180","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeywell_6180"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"CPU modes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_modes"},{"link_name":"kernel mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#SUPERVISOR-MODE"},{"link_name":"user mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_space"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-russinovich-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"},{"link_name":"Windows NT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT"},{"link_name":"OS/2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS/2"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"EMM386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMM386"},{"link_name":"DR-DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DR-DOS"},{"link_name":"DPMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS_Protected_Mode_Services"},{"link_name":"OpenVMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenVMS"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Most_common_protection_rings.svg"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_systems"},{"link_name":"Xen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen"},{"link_name":"VMM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervisor"},{"link_name":"ongoing discussion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanenbaum%E2%80%93Torvalds_debate"},{"link_name":"monolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolithic_kernel"},{"link_name":"micro-kernels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microkernel"},{"link_name":"Usenet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usenet"},{"link_name":"Web forums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_forum"},{"link_name":"NGSCB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next-Generation_Secure_Computing_Base"},{"link_name":"hypervisors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervisor"},{"link_name":"x86 virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86_virtualization"},{"link_name":"Intel VT-x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_VT-x"},{"link_name":"thread","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread_(computing)"},{"link_name":"virtual memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_memory"},{"link_name":"Data General Eclipse MV/8000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_General_Eclipse_MV/8000"},{"link_name":"program counter (PC)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_counter"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"supervisor call","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervisor_call"},{"link_name":"ARM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_architecture"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-armv8-a-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-armv8-a-11"},{"link_name":"processor modes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processor_modes"},{"link_name":"supervisor mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#SUPERVISOR-MODE"},{"link_name":"why?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"}],"text":"Multiple rings of protection were among the most revolutionary concepts introduced by the Multics operating system, a highly secure predecessor of today's Unix family of operating systems. The GE 645 mainframe computer did have some hardware access control, including the same two modes that the other GE-600 series machines had, and segment-level permissions in its memory management unit (\"Appending Unit\"), but that was not sufficient to provide full support for rings in hardware, so Multics supported them by trapping ring transitions in software;[4] its successor, the Honeywell 6180, implemented them in hardware, with support for eight rings;[5] Protection rings in Multics were separate from CPU modes; code in all rings other than ring 0, and some ring 0 code, ran in slave mode.[6]However, most general-purpose systems use only two rings, even if the hardware they run on provides more CPU modes than that. For example, Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 (and their predecessors) use only two rings, with ring 0 corresponding to kernel mode and ring 3 to user mode,[7] because earlier versions of Windows NT ran on processors that supported only two protection levels.[8]Many modern CPU architectures (including the popular Intel x86 architecture) include some form of ring protection, although the Windows NT operating system, like Unix, does not fully utilize this feature. OS/2 does to some extent, using three rings:[9] ring 0 for kernel code and device drivers, ring 2 for privileged code (user programs with I/O access permissions), and ring 3 for unprivileged code (nearly all user programs). Under DOS, the kernel, drivers and applications typically run on ring 3 (however, this is exclusive to the case where protected-mode drivers or DOS extenders are used; as a real-mode OS, the system runs with effectively no protection), whereas 386 memory managers such as EMM386 run at ring 0. In addition to this, DR-DOS' EMM386 3.xx can optionally run some modules (such as DPMS) on ring 1 instead. OpenVMS uses four modes called (in order of decreasing privileges) Kernel, Executive, Supervisor and User.While x86 has 4 protection rings, it is more common for architectures to only have two. Even on x86, most operating systems only use ring 0 and 3.A renewed interest in this design structure came with the proliferation of the Xen VMM software, ongoing discussion on monolithic vs. micro-kernels (particularly in Usenet newsgroups and Web forums), Microsoft's Ring-1 design structure as part of their NGSCB initiative, and hypervisors based on x86 virtualization such as Intel VT-x (formerly Vanderpool).The original Multics system had eight rings, but many modern systems have fewer. The hardware remains aware of the current ring of the executing instruction thread at all times, with the help of a special machine register. In some systems, areas of virtual memory are instead assigned ring numbers in hardware. One example is the Data General Eclipse MV/8000, in which the top three bits of the program counter (PC) served as the ring register. Thus code executing with the virtual PC set to 0xE200000, for example, would automatically be in ring 7, and calling a subroutine in a different section of memory would automatically cause a ring transfer.The hardware severely restricts the ways in which control can be passed from one ring to another, and also enforces restrictions on the types of memory access that can be performed across rings. Using x86 as an example, there is a special[clarification needed] gate structure which is referenced by the call instruction that transfers control in a secure way[clarification needed] towards predefined entry points in lower-level (more trusted) rings; this functions as a supervisor call in many operating systems that use the ring architecture. The hardware restrictions are designed to limit opportunities for accidental or malicious breaches of security. In addition, the most privileged ring may be given special capabilities (such as real memory addressing that bypasses the virtual memory hardware).ARM version 7 architecture implements three privilege levels: application (PL0), operating system (PL1), and hypervisor (PL2). Unusually, level 0 (PL0) is the least-privileged level, while level 2 is the most-privileged level.[10] ARM version 8 implements four exception levels: application (EL0), operating system (EL1), hypervisor (EL2), and secure monitor / firmware (EL3), for AArch64[11]: D1-2454 and AArch32.[11]: G1-6013Ring protection can be combined with processor modes (master/kernel/privileged/supervisor mode versus slave/unprivileged/user mode) in some systems. Operating systems running on hardware supporting both may use both forms of protection or only one.Effective use of ring architecture requires close cooperation between hardware and the operating system.[why?] Operating systems designed to work on multiple hardware platforms may make only limited use of rings if they are not present on every supported platform. Often the security model is simplified to \"kernel\" and \"user\" even if hardware provides finer granularity through rings.","title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Real mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode"},{"link_name":"Protected mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode"}],"text":"See also: Real mode and Protected mode","title":"Modes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"kernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"exokernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exokernel"},{"link_name":"microkernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microkernel"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_kernel"},{"link_name":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"system call","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_call"},{"link_name":"loadable kernel modules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loadable_kernel_module"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"EMM386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMM386"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"},{"link_name":"getpid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_identifier"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Liedtke95-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ousterhout90-15"},{"link_name":"L3 microkernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L3_microkernel"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Liedtke95-14"},{"link_name":"Maurice Wilkes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Wilkes"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"access control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_control"},{"link_name":"firewalls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall_(computing)"},{"link_name":"eXtremeDB Kernel Mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EXtremeDB#Kernel_mode_deployment"},{"link_name":"context switches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_switch"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"vDSO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VDSO"}],"sub_title":"Supervisor mode","text":"In computer terms, supervisor mode is a hardware-mediated flag that can be changed by code running in system-level software. System-level tasks or threads may[a] have this flag set while they are running, whereas user-level applications will not. This flag determines whether it would be possible to execute machine code operations such as modifying registers for various descriptor tables, or performing operations such as disabling interrupts. The idea of having two different modes to operate in comes from \"with more power comes more responsibility\" – a program in supervisor mode is trusted never to fail, since a failure may cause the whole computer system to crash.Supervisor mode is \"an execution mode on some processors which enables execution of all instructions, including privileged instructions. It may also give access to a different address space, to memory management hardware and to other peripherals. This is the mode in which the operating system usually runs.\"[12]In a monolithic kernel, the operating system runs in supervisor mode and the applications run in user mode. Other types of operating systems, like those with an exokernel or microkernel, do not necessarily share this behavior.Some examples from the PC world:Linux, macOS and Windows are three operating systems that use supervisor/user mode. To perform specialized functions, user mode code must perform a system call into supervisor mode or even to the kernel space where trusted code of the operating system will perform the needed task and return the execution back to the userspace. Additional code can be added into kernel space through the use of loadable kernel modules, but only by a user with the requisite permissions, as this code is not subject to the access control and safety limitations of user mode.\nDOS (for as long as no 386 memory manager such as EMM386 is loaded), as well as other simple operating systems and many embedded devices run in supervisor mode permanently, meaning that drivers can be written directly as user programs.Most processors have at least two different modes. The x86-processors have four different modes divided into four different rings. Programs that run in Ring 0 can do anything with the system, and code that runs in Ring 3 should be able to fail at any time without impact to the rest of the computer system. Ring 1 and Ring 2 are rarely used, but could be configured with different levels of access.In most existing systems, switching from user mode to kernel mode has an associated high cost in performance. It has been measured, on the basic request getpid, to cost 1000–1500 cycles on most machines. Of these just around 100 are for the actual switch (70 from user to kernel space, and 40 back), the rest is \"kernel overhead\".[13][14] In the L3 microkernel, the minimization of this overhead reduced the overall cost to around 150 cycles.[13]Maurice Wilkes wrote:[15]... it eventually became clear that the hierarchical protection that rings provided did not closely match the requirements of the system programmer and gave little or no improvement on the simple system of having two modes only. Rings of protection lent themselves to efficient implementation in hardware, but there was little else to be said for them. [...] The attractiveness of fine-grained protection remained, even after it was seen that rings of protection did not provide the answer... This again proved a blind alley...To gain performance and determinism, some systems place functions that would likely be viewed as application logic, rather than as device drivers, in kernel mode; security applications (access control, firewalls, etc.) and operating system monitors are cited as examples. At least one embedded database management system, eXtremeDB Kernel Mode, has been developed specifically for kernel mode deployment, to provide a local database for kernel-based application functions, and to eliminate the context switches that would otherwise occur when kernel functions interact with a database system running in user mode.[16]Functions are also sometimes moved across rings in the other direction. The Linux kernel, for instance, injects into processes a vDSO section which contains functions that would normally require a system call, i.e. a ring transition. Instead of doing a syscall these functions use static data provided by the kernel. This avoids the need for a ring transition and so is more lightweight than a syscall. The function gettimeofday can be provided this way.","title":"Modes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"x86 virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86_virtualization"},{"link_name":"hypervisor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervisor"},{"link_name":"Intel VT-x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_VT-x"},{"link_name":"AMD-V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86_virtualization#AMD_virtualization_(AMD-V)"},{"link_name":"hardware-assisted virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware-assisted_virtualization"},{"link_name":"SVM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Virtual_Machine"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Hypervisor mode","text":"Recent CPUs from Intel and AMD offer x86 virtualization instructions for a hypervisor to control Ring 0 hardware access. Although they are mutually incompatible, both Intel VT-x (codenamed \"Vanderpool\") and AMD-V (codenamed \"Pacifica\") allow a guest operating system to run Ring 0 operations natively without affecting other guests or the host OS.Before hardware-assisted virtualization, guest operating systems run under ring 1. Any attempt that requires a higher privilege level to perform (ring 0) will produces an interrupt and then handled using software, so called \"Trap and Emulate\".To assist virtualization and reduce overhead caused by the reason above, VT-x and SVM allows the guest to run under Ring 0. VT-x introduces VMX Root/Non-root Operation: The hypervisor runs in VMX Root Operation mode, possessing the highest privilege. Guest OS runs in VMX Non-Root Operation mode, which allows them to operate at ring 0 without having actual hardware privileges. VMX non-root operation and VMX transitions are controlled by a data structure called a virtual-machine control.[17] VT-x allows the hypervisor and guest OS both run under ring 0, rendering \"Trap and Emulate\" obsolete, improving virtualization performance.","title":"Modes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"},{"link_name":"instruction set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_set"},{"link_name":"general protection fault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_protection_fault"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"iOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS"},{"link_name":"Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"paging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paging"},{"link_name":"Windows NT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"containerization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container_(virtualization)"},{"link_name":"virtual machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_machine"},{"link_name":"kernel mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_mode"},{"link_name":"virtualize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtualize"},{"link_name":"system calls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_call"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OSPP-21"}],"text":"A privilege level in the x86 instruction set controls the access of the program currently running on the processor to resources such as memory regions, I/O ports, and special instructions. There are 4 privilege levels ranging from 0 which is the most privileged, to 3 which is least privileged. Most modern operating systems use level 0 for the kernel/executive, and use level 3 for application programs. Any resource available to level n is also available to levels 0 to n, so the privilege levels are rings. When a lesser privileged process tries to access a higher privileged process, a general protection fault exception is reported to the OS.It is not necessary to use all four privilege levels. Current operating systems with wide market share including Microsoft Windows, macOS, Linux, iOS and Android mostly use a paging mechanism with only one bit to specify the privilege level as either Supervisor or User (U/S Bit). Windows NT uses the two-level system.[18]\nThe real mode programs in 8086 are executed at level 0 (highest privilege level) whereas virtual mode in 8086 executes all programs at level 3.[19]Potential future uses for the multiple privilege levels supported by the x86 ISA family include containerization and virtual machines. A host operating system kernel could use instructions with full privilege access (kernel mode), whereas applications running on the guest OS in a virtual machine or container could use the lowest level of privileges in user mode. The virtual machine and guest OS kernel could themselves use an intermediate level of instruction privilege to invoke and virtualize kernel-mode operations such as system calls from the point of view of the guest operating system.[20]","title":"Privilege level"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"x86 CPUs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86_architecture"},{"link_name":"FLAGS register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLAGS_register"},{"link_name":"protected mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode"},{"link_name":"long mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode"},{"link_name":"I/O ports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I/O_port"},{"link_name":"I/O Port Permissions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_State_Segment#I.2FO_Port_Permissions"}],"sub_title":"IOPL","text":"The IOPL (I/O Privilege level) flag is a flag found on all IA-32 compatible x86 CPUs. It occupies bits 12 and 13 in the FLAGS register. In protected mode and long mode, it shows the I/O privilege level of the current program or task. The Current Privilege Level (CPL) (CPL0, CPL1, CPL2, CPL3) of the task or program must be less than or equal to the IOPL in order for the task or program to access I/O ports.The IOPL can be changed using POPF(D) and IRET(D) only when the current privilege level is Ring 0.Besides IOPL, the I/O Port Permissions in the TSS also take part in determining the ability of a task to access an I/O port.","title":"Privilege level"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"VT-x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VT-x"},{"link_name":"SVM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Virtual_Machine"},{"link_name":"System Management Mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Management_Mode"},{"link_name":"Intel Management Engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Management_Engine"},{"link_name":"AMD Platform Security Processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_Platform_Security_Processor"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Miscellaneous","text":"In x86 systems, the x86 hardware virtualization (VT-x and SVM) is referred as \"ring −1\", the System Management Mode is referred as \"ring −2\", the Intel Management Engine and AMD Platform Security Processor are sometimes referred as \"ring −3\".[21]","title":"Privilege level"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"PowerPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC"},{"link_name":"MIPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIPS_architecture"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-russinovich-7"},{"link_name":"Multics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multics"},{"link_name":"thread","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Microkernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microkernel"},{"link_name":"security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security"},{"link_name":"elegance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elegance"}],"text":"Many CPU hardware architectures provide far more flexibility than is exploited by the operating systems that they normally run. Proper use of complex CPU modes requires very close cooperation between the operating system and the CPU, and thus tends to tie the OS to the CPU architecture. When the OS and the CPU are specifically designed for each other, this is not a problem (although some hardware features may still be left unexploited), but when the OS is designed to be compatible with multiple, different CPU architectures, a large part of the CPU mode features may be ignored by the OS. For example, the reason Windows uses only two levels (ring 0 and ring 3) is that some hardware architectures that were supported in the past (such as PowerPC or MIPS) implemented only two privilege levels.[7]Multics was an operating system designed specifically for a special CPU architecture (which in turn was designed specifically for Multics), and it took full advantage of the CPU modes available to it. However, it was an exception to the rule. Today, this high degree of interoperation between the OS and the hardware is not often cost-effective, despite the potential advantages for security and stability.Ultimately, the purpose of distinct operating modes for the CPU is to provide hardware protection against accidental or deliberate corruption of the system environment (and corresponding breaches of system security) by software. Only \"trusted\" portions of system software are allowed to execute in the unrestricted environment of kernel mode, and then, in paradigmatic designs, only when absolutely necessary. All other software executes in one or more user modes. If a processor generates a fault or exception condition in a user mode, in most cases system stability is unaffected; if a processor generates a fault or exception condition in kernel mode, most operating systems will halt the system with an unrecoverable error. When a hierarchy of modes exists (ring-based security), faults and exceptions at one privilege level may destabilize only the higher-numbered privilege levels. Thus, a fault in Ring 0 (the kernel mode with the highest privilege) will crash the entire system, but a fault in Ring 2 will only affect Rings 3 and beyond and Ring 2 itself, at most.Transitions between modes are at the discretion of the executing thread when the transition is from a level of high privilege to one of low privilege (as from kernel to user modes), but transitions from lower to higher levels of privilege can take place only through secure, hardware-controlled \"gates\" that are traversed by executing special instructions or when external interrupts are received.Microkernel operating systems attempt to minimize the amount of code running in privileged mode, for purposes of security and elegance, but ultimately sacrificing performance.","title":"Use of hardware features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"OS/360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS/360"},{"link_name":"z/OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z/OS"}],"text":"^ E.g., In IBM OS/360 through z/OS, some system tasks run in problem state key 0.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A framework for dynamic subversion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//calhoun.nps.edu/bitstream/handle/10945/919/03Jun_Rogers_David.pdf"},{"link_name":"Naval Postgraduate School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Postgraduate_School"},{"link_name":"hdl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10945/919","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hdl.handle.net/10945%2F919"},{"link_name":"\"Relearning \"Trusted Systems\" in an Age of NIIP: Lessons from the Past for the Future\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20150420221504/https://cisse.info/resources/archives/category/25-papers?download=241:cael-2002"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//cisse.info/resources/archives/category/25-papers?download=241:cael-2002"},{"link_name":"\"A Multi-threading Architecture for Multilevel Secure Transaction Processing\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//calhoun.nps.edu/bitstream/handle/10945/7198/99paper_multithread.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y"},{"link_name":"hdl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10945/7198","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hdl.handle.net/10945%2F7198"},{"link_name":"\"Porting MINIX to Xen\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20060827024930/http://minixonxen.skynet.ie/cgi-bin/trac.cgi/attachment/wiki/Report/Report.pdf?format=raw"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//minixonxen.skynet.ie/cgi-bin/trac.cgi/attachment/wiki/Report/Report.pdf?format=raw"},{"link_name":"\"Xen and the Art of Virtualization\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cl.cam.ac.uk/netos/papers/2003-xensosp.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"NGSCB: A Trusted Open System\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20050304033047/https://research.microsoft.com/~yuqunc/papers/ngscb.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//research.microsoft.com/~yuqunc/papers/ngscb.pdf"},{"link_name":"Michael D. Schroeder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_D._Schroeder"},{"link_name":"Jerome H. Saltzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_H._Saltzer"},{"link_name":"\"A Hardware Architecture for Implementing Protection Rings\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.multicians.org/protection.html"},{"link_name":"\"Intel Architecture Software Developer's Manual Volume 3: System Programming (Order Number 243192)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20090219054818/http://download.intel.com/design/PentiumII/manuals/24319202.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//download.intel.com/design/PentiumII/manuals/24319202.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"Integrating segmentation and paging protection for safe, efficient and transparent software extensions\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/319151.319161"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1145/319151.319161","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1145%2F319151.319161"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1581131402","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1581131402"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9456119","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9456119"},{"link_name":"\"Exploiting Segmentation Mechanism for Protecting Against Malicious Mobile Code\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170810203311/http://www.is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/library/tech-reports/TR00-02-a4.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/library/tech-reports/TR00-02-a4.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"Kernel Mode Databases: A DBMS technology for high-performance applications\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ddj.com/database/207401567"},{"link_name":"Dr. Dobb's Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Dobb%27s_Journal"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Operating_systems"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Operating_systems"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Operating_systems"},{"link_name":"Operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"Comparison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_operating_systems"},{"link_name":"Forensic engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_software_engineering"},{"link_name":"History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_operating_systems"},{"link_name":"List","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_operating_systems"},{"link_name":"Timeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_operating_systems"},{"link_name":"Usage share","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usage_share_of_operating_systems"},{"link_name":"User features comparison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_user_features_of_operating_systems"},{"link_name":"Disk operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_operating_system"},{"link_name":"Distributed operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_operating_system"},{"link_name":"Embedded operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_operating_system"},{"link_name":"Hobbyist operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbyist_operating_system"},{"link_name":"Just enough operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just_enough_operating_system"},{"link_name":"Mobile operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_operating_system"},{"link_name":"Network operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_operating_system"},{"link_name":"Object-oriented operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_operating_system"},{"link_name":"Real-time operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_operating_system"},{"link_name":"Supercomputer operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer_operating_system"},{"link_name":"Kernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"Architectures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_architecture"},{"link_name":"Exokernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exokernel"},{"link_name":"Hybrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_kernel"},{"link_name":"Microkernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microkernel"},{"link_name":"Monolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolithic_kernel"},{"link_name":"Multikernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multikernel"},{"link_name":"vkernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vkernel"},{"link_name":"Rump kernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rump_kernel"},{"link_name":"Unikernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unikernel"},{"link_name":"Device driver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_driver"},{"link_name":"Loadable kernel module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loadable_kernel_module"},{"link_name":"User space and kernel space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_space_and_kernel_space"},{"link_name":"Process management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_management_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Computer multitasking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_multitasking"},{"link_name":"Cooperative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperative_multitasking"},{"link_name":"Preemptive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preemption_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Context switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_switch"},{"link_name":"Interrupt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrupt"},{"link_name":"IPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-process_communication"},{"link_name":"Process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Process control block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_control_block"},{"link_name":"Real-time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_operating_system"},{"link_name":"Thread","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Time-sharing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-sharing"},{"link_name":"Schedulingalgorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduling_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Fixed-priority preemptive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-priority_pre-emptive_scheduling"},{"link_name":"Multilevel feedback queue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilevel_feedback_queue"},{"link_name":"Round-robin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-robin_scheduling"},{"link_name":"Shortest job next","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_job_next"},{"link_name":"Memory management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_management_(operating_systems)"},{"link_name":"resource","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_resource"},{"link_name":"Bus error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus_error"},{"link_name":"General protection fault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_protection_fault"},{"link_name":"Memory paging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_paging"},{"link_name":"Memory protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_protection"},{"link_name":"Protection ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Segmentation fault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segmentation_fault"},{"link_name":"Virtual memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_memory"},{"link_name":"Storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_memory"},{"link_name":"file systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_system"},{"link_name":"Boot loader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booting#BOOT-LOADER"},{"link_name":"Defragmentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defragmentation"},{"link_name":"Device file","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_file"},{"link_name":"File attribute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_attribute"},{"link_name":"Inode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inode"},{"link_name":"Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journaling_file_system"},{"link_name":"Partition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_partitioning"},{"link_name":"Virtual file system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_file_system"},{"link_name":"Virtual tape library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_tape_library"},{"link_name":"API","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/API"},{"link_name":"Computer network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network"},{"link_name":"HAL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_abstraction"},{"link_name":"Live CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_CD"},{"link_name":"Live USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_USB"},{"link_name":"Shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_(computing)"},{"link_name":"CLI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command-line_interface"},{"link_name":"User interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_interface"},{"link_name":"PXE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preboot_Execution_Environment"}],"text":"David T. Rogers (June 2003). A framework for dynamic subversion (PDF) (MSc). Naval Postgraduate School. hdl:10945/919.\nWilliam J. Caelli (2002). \"Relearning \"Trusted Systems\" in an Age of NIIP: Lessons from the Past for the Future\". Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 April 2015.\nHaruna R. Isa; William R. Shockley; Cynthia E. Irvine (May 1999). \"A Multi-threading Architecture for Multilevel Secure Transaction Processing\" (PDF). Proceedings of the 1999 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. Oakland, CA. pp. 166–179. hdl:10945/7198.\nIvan Kelly (8 May 2006). \"Porting MINIX to Xen\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 August 2006.\nPaul Barham; Boris Dragovic; Keir Fraser; Steven Hand; Tim Harris; Alex Ho; Rolf Neugebauer; Ian Pratt; Andrew Warfield (2003). \"Xen and the Art of Virtualization\" (PDF).\nMarcus Peinado; Yuqun Chen; Paul England; John Manferdelli. \"NGSCB: A Trusted Open System\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2005.\nMichael D. Schroeder; Jerome H. Saltzer (1972). \"A Hardware Architecture for Implementing Protection Rings\".\n\"Intel Architecture Software Developer's Manual Volume 3: System Programming (Order Number 243192)\" (PDF). Chapter 4 \"Protection\"; section 4.5 \"Privilege levels\". Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 February 2009.\nTzi-cker Chiueh; Ganesh Venkitachalam; Prashant Pradhan (December 1999). \"Integrating segmentation and paging protection for safe, efficient and transparent software extensions\". Proceedings of the seventeenth ACM symposium on Operating systems principles. Section 3: Protection hardware features in Intel X86 architecture; subsection 3.1 Protection checks. doi:10.1145/319151.319161. ISBN 1581131402. S2CID 9456119.\nTakahiro Shinagawa; Kenji Kono; Takashi Masuda (17 May 2000). \"Exploiting Segmentation Mechanism for Protecting Against Malicious Mobile Code\" (PDF). Chapter 3 Implementation; section 3.2.1 Ring Protection. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 2 April 2018.\nBoebert, William Earl; R. Kain (1985). A Practical Alternative to Hierarchical Integrity Policies. 8th National Computer Security Conference.\nGorine, Andrei; Krivolapov, Alexander (May 2008). \"Kernel Mode Databases: A DBMS technology for high-performance applications\". Dr. Dobb's Journal.vteOperating systemsGeneral\nComparison\nForensic engineering\nHistory\nList\nTimeline\nUsage share\nUser features comparison\nVariants\nDisk operating system\nDistributed operating system\nEmbedded operating system\nHobbyist operating system\nJust enough operating system\nMobile operating system\nNetwork operating system\nObject-oriented operating system\nReal-time operating system\nSupercomputer operating system\nKernelArchitectures\nExokernel\nHybrid\nMicrokernel\nMonolithic\nMultikernel\nvkernel\nRump kernel\nUnikernel\nComponents\nDevice driver\nLoadable kernel module\nUser space and kernel space\nProcess managementConcepts\nComputer multitasking (Cooperative, Preemptive)\nContext switch\nInterrupt\nIPC\nProcess\nProcess control block\nReal-time\nThread\nTime-sharing\nSchedulingalgorithms\nFixed-priority preemptive\nMultilevel feedback queue\nRound-robin\nShortest job next\nMemory management,resource protection\nBus error\nGeneral protection fault\nMemory paging\nMemory protection\nProtection ring\nSegmentation fault\nVirtual memory\nStorage access,file systems\nBoot loader\nDefragmentation\nDevice file\nFile attribute\nInode\nJournal\nPartition\nVirtual file system\nVirtual tape library\nSupporting concepts\nAPI\nComputer network\nHAL\nLive CD\nLive USB\nShell\nCLI\nUser interface\nPXE","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"Privilege rings for the x86 available in protected mode","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Priv_rings.svg/300px-Priv_rings.svg.png"},{"image_text":"While x86 has 4 protection rings, it is more common for architectures to only have two. Even on x86, most operating systems only use ring 0 and 3.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Most_common_protection_rings.svg/220px-Most_common_protection_rings.svg.png"}]	[{"title":"Call gate (Intel)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_gate_(Intel)"},{"title":"Memory segmentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_segmentation"},{"title":"Protected mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode"},{"title":"IOPL (CONFIG.SYS directive)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOPL_(CONFIG.SYS_directive)"},{"title":"Segment descriptor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segment_descriptor"},{"title":"Supervisor Call instruction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervisor_Call_instruction"},{"title":"System Management Mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Management_Mode"},{"title":"Principle of least privilege","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_privilege"}]	[{"reference":"Karger, Paul A.; Herbert, Andrew J. (1984). An Augmented Capability Architecture to Support Lattice Security and Traceability of Access. 1984 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. p. 2. doi:10.1109/SP.1984.10001. ISBN 0-8186-0532-4. S2CID 14788823.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FSP.1984.10001","url_text":"10.1109/SP.1984.10001"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8186-0532-4","url_text":"0-8186-0532-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14788823","url_text":"14788823"}]},{"reference":"Binder, W. (2001). \"Design and implementation of the J-SEAL2 mobile agent kernel\". Proceedings 2001 Symposium on Applications and the Internet. pp. 35–42. doi:10.1109/SAINT.2001.905166. ISBN 0-7695-0942-8. S2CID 11066378.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FSAINT.2001.905166","url_text":"10.1109/SAINT.2001.905166"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7695-0942-8","url_text":"0-7695-0942-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11066378","url_text":"11066378"}]},{"reference":"\"Envisioning a Simplified Intel Architecture for the Future\". Intel. Retrieved 28 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/developer/articles/technical/envisioning-future-simplified-architecture.html","url_text":"\"Envisioning a Simplified Intel Architecture for the Future\""}]},{"reference":"\"A Hardware Architecture for Implementing Protection Rings\". Communications of the ACM. 15 (3). March 1972. Retrieved 27 September 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.multicians.org/protection.html","url_text":"\"A Hardware Architecture for Implementing Protection Rings\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_of_the_ACM","url_text":"Communications of the ACM"}]},{"reference":"\"Multics Glossary - ring\". Retrieved 27 September 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.multicians.org/mgr.html#ring","url_text":"\"Multics Glossary - ring\""}]},{"reference":"The Multics Virtual Memory, part 2 (PDF). Honeywell Information Systems. June 1972. pp. 160–161.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/honeywell/large_systems/multics/haley/AG95_part2_Jun72.pdf","url_text":"The Multics Virtual Memory, part 2"}]},{"reference":"Russinovich, Mark E.; David A. Solomon (2005). Microsoft Windows Internals (4 ed.). Microsoft Press. pp. 16. ISBN 978-0-7356-1917-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780735619173/page/16","url_text":"Microsoft Windows Internals"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780735619173/page/16","url_text":"16"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7356-1917-3","url_text":"978-0-7356-1917-3"}]},{"reference":"Russinovich, Mark (2012). Windows Internals Part 1 (6th ed.). Redmond, Washington: Microsoft Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-7356-4873-9. The reason Windows uses only two levels is that some hardware architectures that were supported in the past (such as Compaq Alpha and Silicon Graphics MIPS) implemented only two privilege levels.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7356-4873-9","url_text":"978-0-7356-4873-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEC_Alpha","url_text":"Compaq Alpha"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIPS_architecture","url_text":"Silicon Graphics MIPS"}]},{"reference":"\"Presentation Device Driver Reference for OS/2 – 5. Introduction to OS/2 Presentation Drivers\". Archived from the original on 15 June 2015. Retrieved 13 June 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150615030714/http://cyberkinetica.homeunix.net/os2tk45/ddk_pdrref/005_L1_IntroductiontoOS2Pre.html","url_text":"\"Presentation Device Driver Reference for OS/2 – 5. Introduction to OS/2 Presentation Drivers\""},{"url":"http://cyberkinetica.homeunix.net/os2tk45/ddk_pdrref/005_L1_IntroductiontoOS2Pre.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"ARM Architecture Reference Manual ARMv7-A and ARMv7-R edition. Arm Ltd. p. B1-1136.","urls":[{"url":"https://developer.arm.com/documentation/ddi0406/latest","url_text":"ARM Architecture Reference Manual ARMv7-A and ARMv7-R edition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arm_Ltd.","url_text":"Arm Ltd."}]},{"reference":"Arm Architecture Reference Manual Armv8, for A-profile architecture. Arm Ltd.","urls":[{"url":"https://developer.arm.com/documentation/ddi0487/latest","url_text":"Arm Architecture Reference Manual Armv8, for A-profile architecture"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arm_Ltd.","url_text":"Arm Ltd."}]},{"reference":"\"supervisor mode\". FOLDOC. 15 February 1995.","urls":[{"url":"https://foldoc.org/Supervisor+Mode","url_text":"\"supervisor mode\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing","url_text":"FOLDOC"}]},{"reference":"Jochen Liedtke (December 1995). \"On µ-Kernel Construction\". Proc. 15th ACM Symposium on Operating System Principles (SOSP).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jochen_Liedtke","url_text":"Jochen Liedtke"},{"url":"https://os.itec.kit.edu/65_1029.php","url_text":"\"On µ-Kernel Construction\""}]},{"reference":"Ousterhout, J. K. (1990). Why aren't operating systems getting faster as fast as hardware?. Usenix Summer Conference A. naheim, CA. pp. 247–256.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ousterhout","url_text":"Ousterhout, J. K."}]},{"reference":"Maurice Wilkes (April 1994). \"Operating systems in a changing world\". ACM SIGOPS Operating Systems Review. 28 (2): 9–21. doi:10.1145/198153.198154. ISSN 0163-5980. S2CID 254134.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Wilkes","url_text":"Maurice Wilkes"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F198153.198154","url_text":"\"Operating systems in a changing world\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F198153.198154","url_text":"10.1145/198153.198154"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0163-5980","url_text":"0163-5980"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254134","url_text":"254134"}]},{"reference":"Gorine, Andrei; Krivolapov, Alexander (May 2008). \"Kernel Mode Databases: A DBMS Technology For High-Performance Applications\". Dr. Dobb's Journal.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ddj.com/database/207401567","url_text":"\"Kernel Mode Databases: A DBMS Technology For High-Performance Applications\""}]},{"reference":"Intel® 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer’s Manual, Volume 3C (PDF). Intel Cooperation (published September 2016). 2016. pp. 1–3.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/us/en/documents/manuals/64-ia-32-architectures-software-developer-vol-3c-part-3-manual.pdf","url_text":"Intel® 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer’s Manual, Volume 3C"}]},{"reference":"Russinovich, Mark E.; Solomon, David A. (2005). Microsoft Windows Internals (4th ed.). Microsoft Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-7356-1917-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7356-1917-3","url_text":"978-0-7356-1917-3"}]},{"reference":"Sunil Mathur. Microprocessor 8086: Architecture, Programming and Interfacing (Eastern Economy ed.). PHI Learning.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Anderson, Thomas; Dahlin, Michael (21 August 2014). \"2.2\". Operating Systems: Principles and Practice (2nd ed.). Recursive Books. ISBN 978-0985673529.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0985673529","url_text":"978-0985673529"}]},{"reference":"De Gelas, Johan. \"Hardware Virtualization: the Nuts and Bolts\". AnandTech. Retrieved 13 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/2480","url_text":"\"Hardware Virtualization: the Nuts and Bolts\""}]},{"reference":"David T. Rogers (June 2003). A framework for dynamic subversion (PDF) (MSc). Naval Postgraduate School. hdl:10945/919.","urls":[{"url":"https://calhoun.nps.edu/bitstream/handle/10945/919/03Jun_Rogers_David.pdf","url_text":"A framework for dynamic subversion"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Postgraduate_School","url_text":"Naval Postgraduate School"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/10945%2F919","url_text":"10945/919"}]},{"reference":"William J. Caelli (2002). \"Relearning \"Trusted Systems\" in an Age of NIIP: Lessons from the Past for the Future\". Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 April 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150420221504/https://cisse.info/resources/archives/category/25-papers?download=241:cael-2002","url_text":"\"Relearning \"Trusted Systems\" in an Age of NIIP: Lessons from the Past for the Future\""},{"url":"https://cisse.info/resources/archives/category/25-papers?download=241:cael-2002","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Haruna R. Isa; William R. Shockley; Cynthia E. Irvine (May 1999). \"A Multi-threading Architecture for Multilevel Secure Transaction Processing\" (PDF). Proceedings of the 1999 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. Oakland, CA. pp. 166–179. hdl:10945/7198.","urls":[{"url":"https://calhoun.nps.edu/bitstream/handle/10945/7198/99paper_multithread.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y","url_text":"\"A Multi-threading Architecture for Multilevel Secure Transaction Processing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/10945%2F7198","url_text":"10945/7198"}]},{"reference":"Ivan Kelly (8 May 2006). \"Porting MINIX to Xen\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 August 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060827024930/http://minixonxen.skynet.ie/cgi-bin/trac.cgi/attachment/wiki/Report/Report.pdf?format=raw","url_text":"\"Porting MINIX to Xen\""},{"url":"http://minixonxen.skynet.ie/cgi-bin/trac.cgi/attachment/wiki/Report/Report.pdf?format=raw","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Paul Barham; Boris Dragovic; Keir Fraser; Steven Hand; Tim Harris; Alex Ho; Rolf Neugebauer; Ian Pratt; Andrew Warfield (2003). \"Xen and the Art of Virtualization\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/netos/papers/2003-xensosp.pdf","url_text":"\"Xen and the Art of Virtualization\""}]},{"reference":"Marcus Peinado; Yuqun Chen; Paul England; John Manferdelli. \"NGSCB: A Trusted Open System\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2005.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050304033047/https://research.microsoft.com/~yuqunc/papers/ngscb.pdf","url_text":"\"NGSCB: A Trusted Open System\""},{"url":"https://research.microsoft.com/~yuqunc/papers/ngscb.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Michael D. Schroeder; Jerome H. Saltzer (1972). \"A Hardware Architecture for Implementing Protection Rings\".","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_D._Schroeder","url_text":"Michael D. Schroeder"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_H._Saltzer","url_text":"Jerome H. Saltzer"},{"url":"http://www.multicians.org/protection.html","url_text":"\"A Hardware Architecture for Implementing Protection Rings\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel Architecture Software Developer's Manual Volume 3: System Programming (Order Number 243192)\" (PDF). Chapter 4 \"Protection\"; section 4.5 \"Privilege levels\". Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 February 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090219054818/http://download.intel.com/design/PentiumII/manuals/24319202.pdf","url_text":"\"Intel Architecture Software Developer's Manual Volume 3: System Programming (Order Number 243192)\""},{"url":"http://download.intel.com/design/PentiumII/manuals/24319202.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Tzi-cker Chiueh; Ganesh Venkitachalam; Prashant Pradhan (December 1999). \"Integrating segmentation and paging protection for safe, efficient and transparent software extensions\". Proceedings of the seventeenth ACM symposium on Operating systems principles. Section 3: Protection hardware features in Intel X86 architecture; subsection 3.1 Protection checks. doi:10.1145/319151.319161. ISBN 1581131402. S2CID 9456119.","urls":[{"url":"https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/319151.319161","url_text":"\"Integrating segmentation and paging protection for safe, efficient and transparent software extensions\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F319151.319161","url_text":"10.1145/319151.319161"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1581131402","url_text":"1581131402"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9456119","url_text":"9456119"}]},{"reference":"Takahiro Shinagawa; Kenji Kono; Takashi Masuda (17 May 2000). \"Exploiting Segmentation Mechanism for Protecting Against Malicious Mobile Code\" (PDF). Chapter 3 Implementation; section 3.2.1 Ring Protection. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 2 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170810203311/http://www.is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/library/tech-reports/TR00-02-a4.pdf","url_text":"\"Exploiting Segmentation Mechanism for Protecting Against Malicious Mobile Code\""},{"url":"https://www.is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/library/tech-reports/TR00-02-a4.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Boebert, William Earl; R. Kain (1985). A Practical Alternative to Hierarchical Integrity Policies. 8th National Computer Security Conference.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Gorine, Andrei; Krivolapov, Alexander (May 2008). \"Kernel Mode Databases: A DBMS technology for high-performance applications\". Dr. Dobb's Journal.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ddj.com/database/207401567","url_text":"\"Kernel Mode Databases: A DBMS technology for high-performance applications\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Dobb%27s_Journal","url_text":"Dr. Dobb's Journal"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FSP.1984.10001","external_links_name":"10.1109/SP.1984.10001"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14788823","external_links_name":"14788823"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FSAINT.2001.905166","external_links_name":"10.1109/SAINT.2001.905166"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11066378","external_links_name":"11066378"},{"Link":"https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/developer/articles/technical/envisioning-future-simplified-architecture.html","external_links_name":"\"Envisioning a Simplified Intel Architecture for the Future\""},{"Link":"http://www.multicians.org/protection.html","external_links_name":"\"A Hardware Architecture for Implementing Protection Rings\""},{"Link":"http://www.multicians.org/mgr.html#ring","external_links_name":"\"Multics Glossary - ring\""},{"Link":"http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/honeywell/large_systems/multics/haley/AG95_part2_Jun72.pdf","external_links_name":"The Multics Virtual Memory, part 2"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780735619173/page/16","external_links_name":"Microsoft Windows Internals"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780735619173/page/16","external_links_name":"16"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150615030714/http://cyberkinetica.homeunix.net/os2tk45/ddk_pdrref/005_L1_IntroductiontoOS2Pre.html","external_links_name":"\"Presentation Device Driver Reference for OS/2 – 5. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBMC	OpenBMC	["1 History","2 Features","3 Systems","4 References"]	Open source implementation of the Baseboard Management Controllers (BMC) Firmware Stack OpenBMCDeveloper(s)OpenBMC communityInitial release3 November 2015; 8 years ago (2015-11-03)Stable release2.14.0 / 16 May 2023; 13 months ago (2023-05-16) Repositorygithub.com/openbmc/openbmcWritten inC, C++Available inMainly EnglishLicenseApache License 2.0Websitewww.openbmc.org The OpenBMC project is a Linux Foundation collaborative open-source project that produces an open source implementation of the baseboard management controllers (BMC) firmware stack. OpenBMC is a Linux distribution for BMCs meant to work across heterogeneous systems that include enterprise, high-performance computing (HPC), telecommunications, and cloud-scale data centers. History In 2014, four Facebook programmers at a Facebook hackathon event created a prototype open-source BMC firmware stack named OpenBMC. In 2015, IBM collaborated with Rackspace on an open-source BMC firmware stack also named OpenBMC. These projects were similar in name and concept only. In March 2018, OpenBMC became a Linux Foundation project and converged on the IBM stack. Founding organizations of the OpenBMC project are Microsoft, Intel, IBM, Google, and Facebook. A technical steering committee was formed to guide the project with representation from the five founding companies. Brad Bishop from IBM was elected chair of the technical steering committee. In April 2019, Arm Holdings joined as the 6th member of the OpenBMC technical steering committee. Features OpenBMC uses the Yocto Project as the underlying building and distribution generation framework. The firmware itself is based on U-Boot. OpenBMC uses D-Bus as an inter-process communication (IPC). OpenBMC includes a web application for interacting with the firmware stack. OpenBMC added Redfish support for hardware management. Systems Google/Rackspace partnership Barreleye G2 / Zaius—two-socket server platform using POWER9 processors. IBM Power Systems AC922 also "Witherspoon" or "Newell"—two-socket, 2U Accelerated Computing (AC) node using POWER9 processors with up to 6 Nvidia Volta GPUs. AC922 was used in the U.S. Department of Energy's Sierra and Summit supercomputers. Power System's S1024, L1024, S1022, L1022, S1022, S1014, and E1050 – 1–4 socket Power10 systems Raptor Computing Systems / Raptor Engineering Talos II—two-socket workstation and development platform; available as 4U server, tower, or EATX mainboard. Talos II Lite – single-socket version of the Talos II mainboard, made using the same PCB. Blackbird – single-socket microATX platform using SMT4 Sforza POWER9 processors, 4–8 cores, 2 RAM slots (supporting up to 256 GiB total) References ^ "Projects - The Linux Foundation". The Linux Foundation. Retrieved 2018-03-19. ^ "Power of Open(Source)BMC - OpenPOWER". OpenPOWER. 2016-02-02. Retrieved 2018-01-05. ^ a b c "OpenBMC Project Community Comes Together at The Linux Foundation to Define Open Source Implementation of BMC Firmware Stack - The Linux Foundation". The Linux Foundation. 2018-03-19. Retrieved 2018-03-19. ^ "The Firmware Stack Opens Up". EnterpriseTech. 2018-03-20. Retrieved 2018-03-21. ^ "Introducing "OpenBMC": an open software framework for next-generation system management". Facebook Code. 10 March 2015. Retrieved 2018-01-05. ^ "Differences between facebook/openbmc and openbmc/openbmc · Issue #589 · openbmc/openbmc". GitHub. Retrieved 2019-03-28. ^ "Home - OpenBMC". OpenBMC. Retrieved 2018-03-19. ^ "README: add Technical Steering Committee members · openbmc/docs@e28e782". GitHub. Retrieved 2019-08-31. ^ "Docs: Add Arm representative to the list of TSC members · openbmc/docs@560b4ca". GitHub. Retrieved 2019-08-22. ^ Wang, Xo (2017-05-22). "Developing on OpenBMC Under the hood with BitBake" (PDF). openpowerfoundation.org. Retrieved 2018-01-09. ^ Lei, Yu (2020-06-15). "BMC Management". developer.ibm.com. Retrieved 2023-10-25. ^ "OpenBMC, A Reference Firmware Stack - OpenPOWER". OpenPOWER. 2016-02-02. Retrieved 2018-01-09. ^ The OpenBMC Project, 2017-03-14, retrieved 2018-01-09 ^ GitHub - openbmc/phosphor-webui: Reference WebUI for managing OpenBMC systems., openbmc, 2019-02-19, retrieved 2019-02-21 ^ A do everything Redfish, KVM, GUI, and DBus webserver for OpenBMC: openbmc/bmcweb, openbmc, 2019-08-29, retrieved 2019-08-29 ^ "Introducing Zaius, Google and Rackspace's open server running IBM POWER9". Google Cloud Platform Blog. Retrieved 2018-01-05. ^ OpenBMC: Boot your server with Python, 2016-08-15, retrieved 2018-01-09 ^ "IBM Power System AC922 - Details - United States". www.ibm.com. 2018-01-05. Retrieved 2018-01-05. ^ Bader, David (2017-11-15). "The @IBM Power9 "Newell" compute node is the world's most accelerated node with next-gen NVLink to @NVIDIA #GPUs". @Prof_DavidBader. Retrieved 2018-01-05. ^ "Details Emerge On "Summit" Power Tesla AI Supercomputer". The Next Platform. 2016-11-20. Retrieved 2018-03-27. ^ "The Roadmap Ahead For Exascale HPC In The US". The Next Platform. 2018-03-06. Retrieved 2018-03-27. ^ "Managing OpenBMC-based and BMC-based systems by using the HMC". www.ibm.com. Retrieved 2023-11-05. ^ "A High Performance, Open, and Secure Alternative to X86 Computing". markets.businessinsider.com. Retrieved 2018-01-05. ^ "Raptor Computing Systems::TL2WK2 Intro". www.raptorcs.com. Retrieved 2018-01-05. ^ "Raptor Computing Systems::TL1MB1 Intro". www.raptorcs.com. Retrieved 2019-08-22. ^ "Raptor Computing Systems::BK1MB1 Intro". raptorcs.com. Retrieved 2019-08-22. vteLinux FoundationSub-foundations Cloud Native Computing Foundation Cloud Foundry OpenJS Foundation LF Energy Presto Foundation Open Source Security Foundation Initiatives Open Container Initiative Core Infrastructure Initiative OpenAPI Initiative Projects Open Mainframe Project SONiC Hyperledger	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Linux Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_Foundation"},{"link_name":"open-source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_model"},{"link_name":"baseboard management controllers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseboard_management_controller"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"Linux distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_distribution"},{"link_name":"high-performance computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer"},{"link_name":"telecommunications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication"},{"link_name":"data centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_center"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The OpenBMC project is a Linux Foundation collaborative open-source project that produces an open source implementation of the baseboard management controllers (BMC) firmware stack.[1][2][3] OpenBMC is a Linux distribution for BMCs meant to work across heterogeneous systems that include enterprise, high-performance computing (HPC), telecommunications, and cloud-scale data centers.[3][4]","title":"OpenBMC"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"hackathon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackathon"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"Rackspace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rackspace"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Arm Holdings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arm_Holdings"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"In 2014, four Facebook programmers at a Facebook hackathon event created a prototype open-source BMC firmware stack named OpenBMC.[5] In 2015, IBM collaborated with Rackspace on an open-source BMC firmware stack also named OpenBMC. These projects were similar in name and concept only.[6] In March 2018, OpenBMC became a Linux Foundation project and converged on the IBM stack. Founding organizations of the OpenBMC project are Microsoft, Intel, IBM, Google, and Facebook.[7][3] A technical steering committee was formed to guide the project with representation from the five founding companies. Brad Bishop from IBM was elected chair of the technical steering committee.[8] In April 2019, Arm Holdings joined as the 6th member of the OpenBMC technical steering committee.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yocto Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yocto_Project"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"D-Bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-Bus"},{"link_name":"inter-process communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-process_communication"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"web application","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_application"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Redfish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redfish_(specification)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"OpenBMC uses the Yocto Project as the underlying building and distribution generation framework.[10] The firmware itself is based on U-Boot.[11] OpenBMC uses D-Bus as an inter-process communication (IPC).[12][13] OpenBMC includes a web application for interacting with the firmware stack.[14] OpenBMC added Redfish support for hardware management.[15]","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"POWER9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POWER9"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"POWER9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POWER9"},{"link_name":"Volta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volta_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"U.S. Department of Energy's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy"},{"link_name":"Sierra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_(supercomputer)"},{"link_name":"Summit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summit_(supercomputer)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Power10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power10"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"microATX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MicroATX"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"Google/Rackspace partnership\nBarreleye G2 / Zaius—two-socket server platform using POWER9 processors.[16][17]\nIBM\nPower Systems AC922 also \"Witherspoon\" or \"Newell\"—two-socket, 2U Accelerated Computing (AC) node using POWER9 processors with up to 6 Nvidia Volta GPUs.[18][19] AC922 was used in the U.S. Department of Energy's Sierra and Summit supercomputers.[20][21]\nPower System's S1024, L1024, S1022, L1022, S1022, S1014, and E1050 – 1–4 socket Power10 systems[22]\nRaptor Computing Systems / Raptor Engineering\nTalos II—two-socket workstation and development platform; available as 4U server, tower, or EATX mainboard.[23][24]\nTalos II Lite – single-socket version of the Talos II mainboard, made using the same PCB.[25]\nBlackbird – single-socket microATX platform using SMT4 Sforza POWER9 processors, 4–8 cores, 2 RAM slots (supporting up to 256 GiB total)[26]","title":"Systems"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"Projects - The Linux Foundation\". The Linux Foundation. Retrieved 2018-03-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.linuxfoundation.org/projects/","url_text":"\"Projects - The Linux Foundation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Power of Open(Source)BMC - OpenPOWER\". OpenPOWER. 2016-02-02. Retrieved 2018-01-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://openpowerfoundation.org/presentations/openbmc-the-next-reference-firmware/","url_text":"\"Power of Open(Source)BMC - OpenPOWER\""}]},{"reference":"\"OpenBMC Project Community Comes Together at The Linux Foundation to Define Open Source Implementation of BMC Firmware Stack - The Linux Foundation\". The Linux Foundation. 2018-03-19. Retrieved 2018-03-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.linuxfoundation.org/blog/openbmc-project-community-comes-together-at-the-linux-foundation-to-define-open-source-implementation-of-bmc-firmware-stack/","url_text":"\"OpenBMC Project Community Comes Together at The Linux Foundation to Define Open Source Implementation of BMC Firmware Stack - The Linux Foundation\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Firmware Stack Opens Up\". EnterpriseTech. 2018-03-20. Retrieved 2018-03-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.enterprisetech.com/2018/03/20/the-firmware-stack-opens-up/","url_text":"\"The Firmware Stack Opens Up\""}]},{"reference":"\"Introducing \"OpenBMC\": an open software framework for next-generation system management\". Facebook Code. 10 March 2015. Retrieved 2018-01-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://code.facebook.com/posts/1601610310055392/introducing-openbmc-an-open-software-framework-for-next-generation-system-management/","url_text":"\"Introducing \"OpenBMC\": an open software framework for next-generation system management\""}]},{"reference":"\"Differences between facebook/openbmc and openbmc/openbmc · Issue #589 · openbmc/openbmc\". GitHub. Retrieved 2019-03-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/openbmc/openbmc/issues/589","url_text":"\"Differences between facebook/openbmc and openbmc/openbmc · Issue #589 · openbmc/openbmc\""}]},{"reference":"\"Home - OpenBMC\". OpenBMC. Retrieved 2018-03-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.openbmc.org/","url_text":"\"Home - OpenBMC\""}]},{"reference":"\"README: add Technical Steering Committee members · openbmc/docs@e28e782\". GitHub. Retrieved 2019-08-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/openbmc/docs/commit/e28e782ac960b36f0285bd52806185f59c31ad13","url_text":"\"README: add Technical Steering Committee members · openbmc/docs@e28e782\""}]},{"reference":"\"Docs: Add Arm representative to the list of TSC members · openbmc/docs@560b4ca\". GitHub. Retrieved 2019-08-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/openbmc/docs/commit/560b4ca62bb45796133e4966e44d38a3d98cbeb8","url_text":"\"Docs: Add Arm representative to the list of TSC members · openbmc/docs@560b4ca\""}]},{"reference":"Wang, Xo (2017-05-22). \"Developing on OpenBMC Under the hood with BitBake\" (PDF). openpowerfoundation.org. Retrieved 2018-01-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://developercongress2017.openpowerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Developing-on-OpenBMC-Under-the-hood-with-BitBake.pdf","url_text":"\"Developing on OpenBMC Under the hood with BitBake\""}]},{"reference":"Lei, Yu (2020-06-15). \"BMC Management\". developer.ibm.com. Retrieved 2023-10-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.nvidia.com/networking/display/bluefieldbmcv28246/bmc+management","url_text":"\"BMC Management\""}]},{"reference":"\"OpenBMC, A Reference Firmware Stack - OpenPOWER\". OpenPOWER. 2016-02-02. Retrieved 2018-01-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://openpowerfoundation.org/presentations/openbmc-a-reference-firmware-stack/","url_text":"\"OpenBMC, A Reference Firmware Stack - OpenPOWER\""}]},{"reference":"The OpenBMC Project, 2017-03-14, retrieved 2018-01-09","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X5yVn_I8Thg","url_text":"The OpenBMC Project"}]},{"reference":"GitHub - openbmc/phosphor-webui: Reference WebUI for managing OpenBMC systems., openbmc, 2019-02-19, retrieved 2019-02-21","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/openbmc/phosphor-webui","url_text":"GitHub - openbmc/phosphor-webui: Reference WebUI for managing OpenBMC systems."}]},{"reference":"A do everything Redfish, KVM, GUI, and DBus webserver for OpenBMC: openbmc/bmcweb, openbmc, 2019-08-29, retrieved 2019-08-29","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/openbmc/bmcweb","url_text":"A do everything Redfish, KVM, GUI, and DBus webserver for OpenBMC: openbmc/bmcweb"}]},{"reference":"\"Introducing Zaius, Google and Rackspace's open server running IBM POWER9\". Google Cloud Platform Blog. Retrieved 2018-01-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://cloudplatform.googleblog.com/2016/10/introducing-Zaius-Google-and-Rackspaces-open-server-running-IBM-POWER9.html","url_text":"\"Introducing Zaius, Google and Rackspace's open server running IBM POWER9\""}]},{"reference":"OpenBMC: Boot your server with Python, 2016-08-15, retrieved 2018-01-09","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XrFaLnjOxQA","url_text":"OpenBMC: Boot your server with Python"}]},{"reference":"\"IBM Power System AC922 - Details - United States\". www.ibm.com. 2018-01-05. Retrieved 2018-01-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ibm.com/us-en/marketplace/power-systems-ac922/details","url_text":"\"IBM Power System AC922 - Details - United States\""}]},{"reference":"Bader, David (2017-11-15). \"The @IBM Power9 \"Newell\" compute node is the world's most accelerated node with next-gen NVLink to @NVIDIA #GPUs\". @Prof_DavidBader. Retrieved 2018-01-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://twitter.com/Prof_DavidBader/status/930926654331019265","url_text":"\"The @IBM Power9 \"Newell\" compute node is the world's most accelerated node with next-gen NVLink to @NVIDIA #GPUs\""}]},{"reference":"\"Details Emerge On \"Summit\" Power Tesla AI Supercomputer\". The Next Platform. 2016-11-20. Retrieved 2018-03-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nextplatform.com/2016/11/20/details-emerge-summit-power-tesla-ai-supercomputer/","url_text":"\"Details Emerge On \"Summit\" Power Tesla AI Supercomputer\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Roadmap Ahead For Exascale HPC In The US\". The Next Platform. 2018-03-06. Retrieved 2018-03-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nextplatform.com/2018/03/06/roadmap-ahead-exascale-hpc-us/","url_text":"\"The Roadmap Ahead For Exascale HPC In The US\""}]},{"reference":"\"Managing OpenBMC-based and BMC-based systems by using the HMC\". www.ibm.com. Retrieved 2023-11-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/power10/000V-HMC?topic=mhbuhv1l-managing-openbmc-based-bmc-based-systems-by-using-hmc","url_text":"\"Managing OpenBMC-based and BMC-based systems by using the HMC\""}]},{"reference":"\"A High Performance, Open, and Secure Alternative to X86 Computing\". markets.businessinsider.com. Retrieved 2018-01-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/A-High-Performance-Open-and-Secure-Alternative-to-X86-Computing-1002268659","url_text":"\"A High Performance, Open, and Secure Alternative to X86 Computing\""}]},{"reference":"\"Raptor Computing Systems::TL2WK2 Intro\". www.raptorcs.com. Retrieved 2018-01-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.raptorcs.com/content/TL2WK2/intro.html","url_text":"\"Raptor Computing Systems::TL2WK2 Intro\""}]},{"reference":"\"Raptor Computing Systems::TL1MB1 Intro\". www.raptorcs.com. 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Retrieved 2019-08-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://raptorcs.com/content/BK1MB1/intro.html","url_text":"\"Raptor Computing Systems::BK1MB1 Intro\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://github.com/openbmc/openbmc","external_links_name":"github.com/openbmc/openbmc"},{"Link":"https://www.openbmc.org/","external_links_name":"www.openbmc.org"},{"Link":"https://www.linuxfoundation.org/projects/","external_links_name":"\"Projects - The Linux Foundation\""},{"Link":"https://openpowerfoundation.org/presentations/openbmc-the-next-reference-firmware/","external_links_name":"\"Power of Open(Source)BMC - OpenPOWER\""},{"Link":"http://www.linuxfoundation.org/blog/openbmc-project-community-comes-together-at-the-linux-foundation-to-define-open-source-implementation-of-bmc-firmware-stack/","external_links_name":"\"OpenBMC Project Community Comes Together at The Linux Foundation to Define Open Source Implementation of BMC Firmware Stack - The Linux Foundation\""},{"Link":"https://www.enterprisetech.com/2018/03/20/the-firmware-stack-opens-up/","external_links_name":"\"The Firmware Stack Opens Up\""},{"Link":"https://code.facebook.com/posts/1601610310055392/introducing-openbmc-an-open-software-framework-for-next-generation-system-management/","external_links_name":"\"Introducing \"OpenBMC\": an open software framework for next-generation system management\""},{"Link":"https://github.com/openbmc/openbmc/issues/589","external_links_name":"\"Differences between facebook/openbmc and openbmc/openbmc · Issue #589 · openbmc/openbmc\""},{"Link":"https://www.openbmc.org/","external_links_name":"\"Home - OpenBMC\""},{"Link":"https://github.com/openbmc/docs/commit/e28e782ac960b36f0285bd52806185f59c31ad13","external_links_name":"\"README: add Technical Steering Committee members · openbmc/docs@e28e782\""},{"Link":"https://github.com/openbmc/docs/commit/560b4ca62bb45796133e4966e44d38a3d98cbeb8","external_links_name":"\"Docs: Add Arm representative to the list of TSC members · openbmc/docs@560b4ca\""},{"Link":"https://developercongress2017.openpowerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Developing-on-OpenBMC-Under-the-hood-with-BitBake.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Developing on OpenBMC Under the hood with BitBake\""},{"Link":"https://docs.nvidia.com/networking/display/bluefieldbmcv28246/bmc+management","external_links_name":"\"BMC Management\""},{"Link":"https://openpowerfoundation.org/presentations/openbmc-a-reference-firmware-stack/","external_links_name":"\"OpenBMC, A Reference Firmware Stack - OpenPOWER\""},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X5yVn_I8Thg","external_links_name":"The OpenBMC Project"},{"Link":"https://github.com/openbmc/phosphor-webui","external_links_name":"GitHub - openbmc/phosphor-webui: Reference WebUI for managing OpenBMC systems."},{"Link":"https://github.com/openbmc/bmcweb","external_links_name":"A do everything Redfish, KVM, GUI, and DBus webserver for OpenBMC: openbmc/bmcweb"},{"Link":"https://cloudplatform.googleblog.com/2016/10/introducing-Zaius-Google-and-Rackspaces-open-server-running-IBM-POWER9.html","external_links_name":"\"Introducing Zaius, Google and Rackspace's open server running IBM POWER9\""},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XrFaLnjOxQA","external_links_name":"OpenBMC: Boot your server with Python"},{"Link":"https://www.ibm.com/us-en/marketplace/power-systems-ac922/details","external_links_name":"\"IBM Power System AC922 - Details - United States\""},{"Link":"https://twitter.com/Prof_DavidBader/status/930926654331019265","external_links_name":"\"The @IBM Power9 \"Newell\" compute node is the world's most accelerated node with next-gen NVLink to @NVIDIA #GPUs\""},{"Link":"https://www.nextplatform.com/2016/11/20/details-emerge-summit-power-tesla-ai-supercomputer/","external_links_name":"\"Details Emerge On \"Summit\" Power Tesla AI Supercomputer\""},{"Link":"https://www.nextplatform.com/2018/03/06/roadmap-ahead-exascale-hpc-us/","external_links_name":"\"The Roadmap Ahead For Exascale HPC In The US\""},{"Link":"https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/power10/000V-HMC?topic=mhbuhv1l-managing-openbmc-based-bmc-based-systems-by-using-hmc","external_links_name":"\"Managing OpenBMC-based and BMC-based systems by using the HMC\""},{"Link":"http://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/A-High-Performance-Open-and-Secure-Alternative-to-X86-Computing-1002268659","external_links_name":"\"A High Performance, Open, and Secure Alternative to X86 Computing\""},{"Link":"https://www.raptorcs.com/content/TL2WK2/intro.html","external_links_name":"\"Raptor Computing Systems::TL2WK2 Intro\""},{"Link":"https://www.raptorcs.com/content/TL1MB1/intro.html","external_links_name":"\"Raptor Computing Systems::TL1MB1 Intro\""},{"Link":"https://raptorcs.com/content/BK1MB1/intro.html","external_links_name":"\"Raptor Computing Systems::BK1MB1 Intro\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaghetti_programming	Spaghetti code	["1 Meaning","2 History","3 Related phrases","3.1 Ravioli code","3.2 Lasagna code","4 Examples","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]	Software source code with poor structure Spaghetti code is a pejorative phrase for unstructured and difficult-to-maintain source code. Spaghetti code can be caused by several factors, such as volatile project requirements, lack of programming style rules, and software engineers with insufficient ability or experience. Meaning Code that overuses GOTO statements rather than structured programming constructs, resulting in convoluted and unmaintainable programs, is often called spaghetti code. Such code has a complex and tangled control structure, resulting in a program flow that is conceptually like a bowl of spaghetti, twisted and tangled. In a 1980 publication by the United States National Bureau of Standards, the phrase spaghetti program was used to describe older programs having "fragmented and scattered files". Spaghetti code can also describe an anti-pattern in which object-oriented code is written in a procedural style, such as by creating classes whose methods are overly long and messy, or forsaking object-oriented concepts like polymorphism. The presence of this form of spaghetti code can significantly reduce the comprehensibility of a system. History It is not clear when the phrase spaghetti code came into common usage; however, several references appeared in 1977 including Macaroni is Better Than Spaghetti by Guy Steele. In the 1978 book A primer on disciplined programming using PL/I, PL/CS, and PL/CT, Richard Conway described programs that "have the same clean logical structure as a plate of spaghetti", a phrase repeated in the 1979 book An Introduction to Programming he co-authored with David Gries. In the 1988 paper A spiral model of software development and enhancement, the term is used to describe the older practice of the code and fix model, which lacked planning and eventually led to the development of the waterfall model. In the 1979 book Structured programming for the COBOL programmer, author Paul Noll uses the phrases spaghetti code and rat's nest as synonyms to describe poorly structured source code. In the Ada – Europe '93 conference, Ada was described as forcing the programmer to "produce understandable, instead of spaghetti code", because of its restrictive exception propagation mechanism. In a 1981 computer languages spoof in The Michigan Technic titled "BASICally speaking...FORTRAN bytes!!", the author described FORTRAN stating that "it consists entirely of spaghetti code". Richard Hamming described in his lectures the etymology of the term in the context of early programming in binary codes: If, in fixing up an error, you wanted to insert some omitted instructions then you took the immediately preceding instruction and replaced it by a transfer to some empty space. There you put in the instruction you just wrote over, added the instructions you wanted to insert, and then followed by a transfer back to the main program. Thus the program soon became a sequence of jumps of the control to strange places. When, as almost always happens, there were errors in the corrections you then used the same trick again, using some other available space. As a result the control path of the program through storage soon took on the appearance of a can of spaghetti. Why not simply insert them in the run of instructions? Because then you would have to go over the entire program and change all the addresses which referred to any of the moved instructions! Anything but that! Related phrases Ravioli code Ravioli code is a term specific to object-oriented programming. It describes code that comprises well-structured classes that are easy to understand in isolation, but difficult to understand as a whole. Lasagna code See also: Architectural layer and Layer (object-oriented design) Lasagna code refers to code whose layers are so complicated and intertwined that making a change in one layer would necessitate changes in all other layers. Examples Here follows what would be considered a trivial example of spaghetti code in BASIC. The program prints each of the numbers 1 to 100 to the screen along with its square. Indentation is not used to differentiate the various actions performed by the code, and the program's GOTO statements create a reliance on line numbers. The flow of execution from one area to another is harder to predict. Real-world occurrences of spaghetti code are more complex and can add greatly to a program's maintenance costs. 1 i=0 2 i=i+1 3 PRINT i;"squared=";ii 4 IF i>=100 THEN GOTO 6 5 GOTO 2 6 PRINT "Program Completed." 7 END Here is the same code written in a structured programming style: 1 FOR i=1 TO 100 2 PRINT i;"squared=";ii 3 NEXT i 4 PRINT "Program Completed." 5 END The program jumps from one area to another, but this jumping is formal and more easily predictable, because for loops and functions provide flow control whereas the goto statement encourages arbitrary flow control. Though this example is small, real world programs are composed of many lines of code and are difficult to maintain when written in a spaghetti code fashion. Here is another example of Spaghetti code with embedded GOTO statements. INPUT "How many numbers should be sorted? "; T DIM n(T) FOR i = 1 TO T PRINT "NUMBER:"; i INPUT n(i) NEXT i 'Calculations: C = T E180: C = INT(C / 2) IF C = 0 THEN GOTO C330 D = T - C E = 1 I220: f = E F230: g = f + C IF n(f) > n(g) THEN SWAP n(f), n(g) f = f - C IF f > 0 THEN GOTO F230 E = E + 1 IF E > D THEN GOTO E180 GOTO I220 C330: PRINT "The sorted list is" FOR i = 1 TO T PRINT n(i) NEXT i See also Computer programming portalEngineering portal Big ball of mud, a piece of software with no perceivable architecture International Obfuscated C Code Contest, a competition to produce pleasingly obscure C code Technical debt The Elements of Programming Style References ^ Markus, Pizka (2004). "Straightening spaghetti-code with refactoring?" (PDF). Software Engineering Research and Practice: 846–852. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2018. Retrieved 5 March 2018. ^ Cram, David; Hedley, Paul (2005). "Pronouns and procedural meaning: The relevance of spaghetti code and paranoid delusion" (PDF). Oxford University Working Papers in Linguistics, Philology and Phonetics. 10: 187–210. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2018. Retrieved 5 March 2018. ^ Horstmann, Cay (2008). "Chapter 6 - Iteration". Java Concepts for AP Computer Science (5th ed. . ed.). Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley & Sons. pp. 235–236. ISBN 978-0-470-18160-7. Retrieved 2 January 2017. ^ United States National Bureau of Standards (1980). ASTM special technical publication. United States Government Printing Office. ^ Moha, N.; Gueheneuc, Y. G.; Duchien, L.; Meur, A. F. Le (January 2010). "DECOR: A Method for the Specification and Detection of Code and Design Smells". IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering. 36 (1): 20–36. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.156.1524. doi:10.1109/TSE.2009.50. ISSN 0098-5589. S2CID 14767901. ^ Abbes, M.; Khomh, F.; Gueheneuc, Y. G.; Antoniol, G. (2011). "An Empirical Study of the Impact of Two Antipatterns, Blob and Spaghetti Code, on Program Comprehension". 2011 15th European Conference on Software Maintenance and Reengineering. pp. 181–190. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.294.1685. doi:10.1109/CSMR.2011.24. ISBN 978-1-61284-259-2. S2CID 14152638. ^ Guy Lewis Steele. 1977. Macaroni is better than spaghetti. In Proceedings of the 1977 symposium on Artificial intelligence and programming languages. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 60–66. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1145/800228.806933 ^ Conway, Richard (1978). A primer on disciplined programming using PL/I, PL/CS, and PL/CT. Winthrop Publishers. ISBN 978-0-87626-712-7. ^ Conway, Richard; Gries, David (1979). An Introduction to Programming (3rd ed.). Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-316-15414-7. ^ Boehm, Barry W. (May 1988). "A spiral model of software development and enhancement". IEEE Computer. 21 (2): 61–72. doi:10.1109/2.59. S2CID 1781829. ^ Noll, Paul (1977). Structured programming for the COBOL programmer: design, documentation, coding, testing. M. Murach & Associates. ^ Schwille, Jürgen (1993). "Use and abuse of exceptions — 12 guidelines for proper exception handling". Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Ada – Europe '93 (Proceedings). Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 688. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 142–152. doi:10.1007/3-540-56802-6_12. ISBN 978-3-540-56802-5. ^ MTSBS (March–April 1981). "BASICally speaking...FORTRAN bytes!!". The Michigan Technic. 99 (4).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ Hamming, Richard (1996). The Art of Doing Science and Engineering. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9056995006. ^ De Troyer, O. (13 May 1991). Andersen, Rudolf; Bubenko, Janis A.; Sølvberg, Arne (eds.). The OO-binary relationship model : A truly object oriented conceptual model (PDF). Advanced Information Systems Engineering. Notes on Numerical Fluid Mechanics and Multidisciplinary Design. Vol. 498. pp. 561–578. doi:10.1007/3-540-54059-8_104. ISBN 978-3-319-98176-5. S2CID 10894568. ^ Tomov, Latchezar; Ivanova, Valentina (October 2014). "Teaching Good Practices In Software Engineering by Counterexamples". Computer Science and Education in Computer Science (1): 397–405. Retrieved 5 March 2018. External links Go To Statement Considered Harmful. The classic repudiation of spaghetti code by Edsger Dijkstra We don't know where to GOTO if we don't know where we've COME FROM by R. Lawrence Clark from DATAMATION, December, 1973 Archived 2018-07-16 at the Wayback Machine Refactoring Java spaghetti code into Java bento code separating out a bowl full of code from one class into seven classes Objects and Frameworks – Taking a Step Back by Brian Rinaldi Programming Pasta - Spaghetti, Lasagna, Ravioli and Macaroni Code Archived 2023-01-21 at the Wayback Machine Pasta Theory of Programming	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pejorative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pejorative"},{"link_name":"maintain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_maintenance"},{"link_name":"source code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code"},{"link_name":"programming style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_style"},{"link_name":"software engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Markus4-1"}],"text":"Spaghetti code is a pejorative phrase for unstructured and difficult-to-maintain source code. Spaghetti code can be caused by several factors, such as volatile project requirements, lack of programming style rules, and software engineers with insufficient ability or experience.[1]","title":"Spaghetti code"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GOTO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goto"},{"link_name":"structured programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_programming"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cram5-2"},{"link_name":"control structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_structure"},{"link_name":"bowl of spaghetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaghetti#Serving"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"United States National Bureau of Standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"anti-pattern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-pattern"},{"link_name":"object-oriented code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming"},{"link_name":"polymorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moha10-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Abbes11-6"}],"text":"Code that overuses GOTO statements rather than structured programming constructs, resulting in convoluted and unmaintainable programs, is often called spaghetti code.[2]\nSuch code has a complex and tangled control structure, resulting in a program flow that is conceptually like a bowl of spaghetti, twisted and tangled.[3]In a 1980 publication by the United States National Bureau of Standards, the phrase spaghetti program was used to describe older programs having \"fragmented and scattered files\".[4]Spaghetti code can also describe an anti-pattern in which object-oriented code is written in a procedural style, such as by creating classes whose methods are overly long and messy, or forsaking object-oriented concepts like polymorphism.[5] The presence of this form of spaghetti code can significantly reduce the comprehensibility of a system.[6]","title":"Meaning"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Guy Steele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_L._Steele_Jr."},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Richard Conway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_W._Conway"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"David Gries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Gries"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"waterfall model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterfall_model"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Ada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"FORTRAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FORTRAN"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Richard Hamming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Hamming"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"It is not clear when the phrase spaghetti code came into common usage; however, several references appeared in 1977 including Macaroni is Better Than Spaghetti by Guy Steele.[7] In the 1978 book A primer on disciplined programming using PL/I, PL/CS, and PL/CT, Richard Conway described programs that \"have the same clean logical structure as a plate of spaghetti\",[8] a phrase repeated in the 1979 book An Introduction to Programming he co-authored with David Gries.[9] In the 1988 paper A spiral model of software development and enhancement, the term is used to describe the older practice of the code and fix model, which lacked planning and eventually led to the development of the waterfall model.[10] In the 1979 book Structured programming for the COBOL programmer, author Paul Noll uses the phrases spaghetti code and rat's nest as synonyms to describe poorly structured source code.[11]In the Ada – Europe '93 conference, Ada was described as forcing the programmer to \"produce understandable, instead of spaghetti code\", because of its restrictive exception propagation mechanism.[12]In a 1981 computer languages spoof in The Michigan Technic titled \"BASICally speaking...FORTRAN bytes!!\", the author described FORTRAN stating that \"it consists entirely of spaghetti code\".[13]Richard Hamming described in his lectures[14] the etymology of the term in the context of early programming in binary codes:If, in fixing up an error, you wanted to insert some omitted instructions then you took the immediately preceding instruction and replaced it by a transfer to some empty space. There you put in the instruction you just wrote over, added the instructions you wanted to insert, and then followed by a transfer back to the main program. Thus the program soon became a sequence of jumps of the control to strange places. When, as almost always happens, there were errors in the corrections you then used the same trick again, using some other available space. As a result the control path of the program through storage soon took on the appearance of a can of spaghetti. Why not simply insert them in the run of instructions? Because then you would have to go over the entire program and change all the addresses which referred to any of the moved instructions! Anything but that!","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Related phrases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ravioli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravioli"},{"link_name":"object-oriented programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming"},{"link_name":"classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Troyer91-15"}],"sub_title":"Ravioli code","text":"Ravioli code is a term specific to object-oriented programming. It describes code that comprises well-structured classes that are easy to understand in isolation, but difficult to understand as a whole.[15]","title":"Related phrases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Architectural layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_layer"},{"link_name":"Layer (object-oriented design)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layer_(object-oriented_design)"},{"link_name":"Lasagna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasagna"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Latchezar18-16"}],"sub_title":"Lasagna code","text":"See also: Architectural layer and Layer (object-oriented design)Lasagna code refers to code whose layers are so complicated and intertwined that making a change in one layer would necessitate changes in all other layers.[16]","title":"Related phrases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC_programming_language"},{"link_name":"GOTO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goto"},{"link_name":"line numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_number"},{"link_name":"structured programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_programming"},{"link_name":"for loops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_loop"},{"link_name":"functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subroutine"},{"link_name":"flow control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_flow"}],"text":"Here follows what would be considered a trivial example of spaghetti code in BASIC. The program prints each of the numbers 1 to 100 to the screen along with its square. Indentation is not used to differentiate the various actions performed by the code, and the program's GOTO statements create a reliance on line numbers. The flow of execution from one area to another is harder to predict. Real-world occurrences of spaghetti code are more complex and can add greatly to a program's maintenance costs.1 i=0\n2 i=i+1\n3 PRINT i;\"squared=\";ii\n4 IF i>=100 THEN GOTO 6\n5 GOTO 2\n6 PRINT \"Program Completed.\"\n7 ENDHere is the same code written in a structured programming style:1 FOR i=1 TO 100\n2 PRINT i;\"squared=\";ii\n3 NEXT i\n4 PRINT \"Program Completed.\"\n5 ENDThe program jumps from one area to another, but this jumping is formal and more easily predictable, because for loops and functions provide flow control whereas the goto statement encourages arbitrary flow control. Though this example is small, real world programs are composed of many lines of code and are difficult to maintain when written in a spaghetti code fashion.Here is another example of Spaghetti code with embedded GOTO statements.INPUT \"How many numbers should be sorted? \"; T\n DIM n(T)\n FOR i = 1 TO T\n PRINT \"NUMBER:\"; i\n INPUT n(i)\n NEXT i\n 'Calculations:\n C = T\nE180:\n C = INT(C / 2)\n IF C = 0 THEN GOTO C330\n D = T - C\n E = 1\nI220:\n f = E\nF230:\n g = f + C\n IF n(f) > n(g) THEN SWAP n(f), n(g)\n f = f - C\n IF f > 0 THEN GOTO F230\n E = E + 1\n IF E > D THEN GOTO E180\n GOTO I220\nC330:\n PRINT \"The sorted list is\"\n FOR i = 1 TO T\n PRINT n(i)\n NEXT i","title":"Examples"}]	[]	[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Octicons-terminal.svg"},{"title":"Computer programming portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Computer_programming"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg"},{"title":"Engineering portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Engineering"},{"title":"Big ball of mud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_ball_of_mud"},{"title":"International Obfuscated C Code Contest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Obfuscated_C_Code_Contest"},{"title":"Technical debt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_debt"},{"title":"The Elements of Programming Style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Elements_of_Programming_Style"}]	[{"reference":"Markus, Pizka (2004). \"Straightening spaghetti-code with refactoring?\" (PDF). 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Retrieved 5 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180306022905/http://mostlyharmless.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/cramhedley-web.pdf","url_text":"\"Pronouns and procedural meaning: The relevance of spaghetti code and paranoid delusion\""},{"url":"http://mostlyharmless.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/cramhedley-web.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Horstmann, Cay (2008). \"Chapter 6 - Iteration\". Java Concepts for AP Computer Science (5th ed. [i.e. 2nd ed.]. ed.). Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley & Sons. pp. 235–236. ISBN 978-0-470-18160-7. Retrieved 2 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://horstmann.com/bigjava3.html","url_text":"\"Chapter 6 - Iteration\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-18160-7","url_text":"978-0-470-18160-7"}]},{"reference":"United States National Bureau of Standards (1980). ASTM special technical publication. United States Government Printing Office.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Moha, N.; Gueheneuc, Y. G.; Duchien, L.; Meur, A. F. Le (January 2010). \"DECOR: A Method for the Specification and Detection of Code and Design Smells\". IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering. 36 (1): 20–36. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.156.1524. doi:10.1109/TSE.2009.50. ISSN 0098-5589. S2CID 14767901.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.156.1524","url_text":"10.1.1.156.1524"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTSE.2009.50","url_text":"10.1109/TSE.2009.50"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0098-5589","url_text":"0098-5589"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14767901","url_text":"14767901"}]},{"reference":"Abbes, M.; Khomh, F.; Gueheneuc, Y. G.; Antoniol, G. (2011). \"An Empirical Study of the Impact of Two Antipatterns, Blob and Spaghetti Code, on Program Comprehension\". 2011 15th European Conference on Software Maintenance and Reengineering. pp. 181–190. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.294.1685. doi:10.1109/CSMR.2011.24. ISBN 978-1-61284-259-2. S2CID 14152638.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.294.1685","url_text":"10.1.1.294.1685"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FCSMR.2011.24","url_text":"10.1109/CSMR.2011.24"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61284-259-2","url_text":"978-1-61284-259-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14152638","url_text":"14152638"}]},{"reference":"Conway, Richard (1978). A primer on disciplined programming using PL/I, PL/CS, and PL/CT. Winthrop Publishers. ISBN 978-0-87626-712-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87626-712-7","url_text":"978-0-87626-712-7"}]},{"reference":"Conway, Richard; Gries, David (1979). An Introduction to Programming (3rd ed.). Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-316-15414-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-316-15414-7","url_text":"978-0-316-15414-7"}]},{"reference":"Boehm, Barry W. (May 1988). \"A spiral model of software development and enhancement\". IEEE Computer. 21 (2): 61–72. doi:10.1109/2.59. S2CID 1781829.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2F2.59","url_text":"10.1109/2.59"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1781829","url_text":"1781829"}]},{"reference":"Noll, Paul (1977). Structured programming for the COBOL programmer: design, documentation, coding, testing. M. Murach & Associates.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Schwille, Jürgen (1993). \"Use and abuse of exceptions — 12 guidelines for proper exception handling\". Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Ada – Europe '93 (Proceedings). Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 688. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 142–152. doi:10.1007/3-540-56802-6_12. ISBN 978-3-540-56802-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F3-540-56802-6_12","url_text":"10.1007/3-540-56802-6_12"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-56802-5","url_text":"978-3-540-56802-5"}]},{"reference":"MTSBS[clarification needed] (March–April 1981). \"BASICally speaking...FORTRAN bytes!!\". The Michigan Technic. 99 (4).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify","url_text":"clarification needed"}]},{"reference":"Hamming, Richard (1996). The Art of Doing Science and Engineering. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9056995006.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9056995006","url_text":"9056995006"}]},{"reference":"De Troyer, O. (13 May 1991). Andersen, Rudolf; Bubenko, Janis A.; Sølvberg, Arne (eds.). The OO-binary relationship model : A truly object oriented conceptual model (PDF). Advanced Information Systems Engineering. Notes on Numerical Fluid Mechanics and Multidisciplinary Design. Vol. 498. pp. 561–578. doi:10.1007/3-540-54059-8_104. ISBN 978-3-319-98176-5. S2CID 10894568.","urls":[{"url":"https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/files/5292185/DTO5613576.pdf","url_text":"The OO-binary relationship model : A truly object oriented conceptual model"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F3-540-54059-8_104","url_text":"10.1007/3-540-54059-8_104"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-98176-5","url_text":"978-3-319-98176-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10894568","url_text":"10894568"}]},{"reference":"Tomov, Latchezar; Ivanova, Valentina (October 2014). \"Teaching Good Practices In Software Engineering by Counterexamples\". Computer Science and Education in Computer Science (1): 397–405. Retrieved 5 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301298530","url_text":"\"Teaching Good Practices In Software Engineering by Counterexamples\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180305202716/http://itestra.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/04_itestra_straightening_spaghetti_code_with_refactoring.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Straightening spaghetti-code with refactoring?\""},{"Link":"http://itestra.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/04_itestra_straightening_spaghetti_code_with_refactoring.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180306022905/http://mostlyharmless.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/cramhedley-web.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Pronouns and procedural meaning: The relevance of spaghetti code and paranoid delusion\""},{"Link":"http://mostlyharmless.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/cramhedley-web.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://horstmann.com/bigjava3.html","external_links_name":"\"Chapter 6 - Iteration\""},{"Link":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.156.1524","external_links_name":"10.1.1.156.1524"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTSE.2009.50","external_links_name":"10.1109/TSE.2009.50"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0098-5589","external_links_name":"0098-5589"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14767901","external_links_name":"14767901"},{"Link":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.294.1685","external_links_name":"10.1.1.294.1685"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FCSMR.2011.24","external_links_name":"10.1109/CSMR.2011.24"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14152638","external_links_name":"14152638"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145/800228.806933","external_links_name":"https://doi.org/10.1145/800228.806933"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2F2.59","external_links_name":"10.1109/2.59"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1781829","external_links_name":"1781829"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F3-540-56802-6_12","external_links_name":"10.1007/3-540-56802-6_12"},{"Link":"https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/files/5292185/DTO5613576.pdf","external_links_name":"The OO-binary relationship model : A truly object oriented conceptual model"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F3-540-54059-8_104","external_links_name":"10.1007/3-540-54059-8_104"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10894568","external_links_name":"10894568"},{"Link":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301298530","external_links_name":"\"Teaching Good Practices In Software Engineering by Counterexamples\""},{"Link":"http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=362929.362947","external_links_name":"Go To Statement Considered Harmful"},{"Link":"http://www.fortran.com/fortran/come_from.html","external_links_name":"We don't know where to GOTO if we don't know where we've COME FROM by R. Lawrence Clark from DATAMATION, December, 1973"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180716171336/http://www.fortran.com/fortran/come_from.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://yost.com/computers/java/java-spaghetti/","external_links_name":"Refactoring Java spaghetti code into Java bento code"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20130201082958/http://www.remotesynthesis.com/post.cfm/Objects-and-Frameworks--Taking-a-Step-Back","external_links_name":"Objects and Frameworks – Taking a Step Back"},{"Link":"https://blog.docsity.com/en/study-tips/programming-2/programming-pasta-spaghetti-lasagna-ravioli-macaroni-code/","external_links_name":"Programming Pasta - Spaghetti, Lasagna, Ravioli and Macaroni Code"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230121050907/https://blog.docsity.com/en/study-tips/programming-2/programming-pasta-spaghetti-lasagna-ravioli-macaroni-code/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.techopedia.com/definition/24994/pasta-theory","external_links_name":"Pasta Theory of Programming"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_gravity	Newton's law of universal gravitation	["1 History","1.1 Newton's \"causes hitherto unknown\"","2 Modern form","3 Bodies with spatial extent","4 Vector form","5 Gravity field","6 Limitations","6.1 Observations conflicting with Newton's formula","6.2 Einstein's solution","7 Extensions","8 Solutions of Newton's law of universal gravitation","9 See also","10 Notes","11 References","12 External links"]	Classical statement of gravity as force Part of a series onClassical mechanics F = d d t ( m v ) {\displaystyle {\textbf {F}}={\frac {d}{dt}}(m{\textbf {v}})} Second law of motion History Timeline Textbooks Branches Applied Celestial Continuum Dynamics Kinematics Kinetics Statics Statistical mechanics Fundamentals Acceleration Angular momentum Couple D'Alembert's principle Energy kinetic potential Force Frame of reference Inertial frame of reference Impulse Inertia / Moment of inertia Mass Mechanical power Mechanical work Moment Momentum Space Speed Time Torque Velocity Virtual work Formulations Newton's laws of motion Analytical mechanics Lagrangian mechanicsHamiltonian mechanicsRouthian mechanicsHamilton–Jacobi equationAppell's equation of motionKoopman–von Neumann mechanics Core topics Damping Displacement Equations of motion Euler's laws of motion Fictitious force Friction Harmonic oscillator Inertial / Non-inertial reference frame Mechanics of planar particle motion Motion (linear) Newton's law of universal gravitation Newton's laws of motion Relative velocity Rigid body dynamics Euler's equations Simple harmonic motion Vibration Rotation Circular motion Rotating reference frame Centripetal force Centrifugal force reactive Coriolis force Pendulum Tangential speed Rotational frequency Angular acceleration / displacement / frequency / velocity Scientists Kepler Galileo Huygens Newton Horrocks Halley Maupertuis Daniel Bernoulli Johann Bernoulli Euler d'Alembert Clairaut Lagrange Laplace Poisson Hamilton Jacobi Cauchy Routh Liouville Appell Gibbs Koopman von Neumann Physics portal Categoryvte Newton's law of universal gravitation says that every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers. Separated objects attract and are attracted as if all their mass were concentrated at their centers. The publication of the law has become known as the "first great unification", as it marked the unification of the previously described phenomena of gravity on Earth with known astronomical behaviors. This is a general physical law derived from empirical observations by what Isaac Newton called inductive reasoning. It is a part of classical mechanics and was formulated in Newton's work Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("the Principia"), first published on 5 July 1687. The equation for universal gravitation thus takes the form: F = G m 1 m 2 r 2 , {\displaystyle F=G{\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}},} where F is the gravitational force acting between two objects, m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects, r is the distance between the centers of their masses, and G is the gravitational constant. The first test of Newton's law of gravitation between masses in the laboratory was the Cavendish experiment conducted by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798. It took place 111 years after the publication of Newton's Principia and approximately 71 years after his death. Newton's law of gravitation resembles Coulomb's law of electrical forces, which is used to calculate the magnitude of the electrical force arising between two charged bodies. Both are inverse-square laws, where force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. Coulomb's law has charge in place of mass and a different constant. Newton's law has later been superseded by Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity, but the universality of the gravitational constant is intact and the law still continues to be used as an excellent approximation of the effects of gravity in most applications. Relativity is required only when there is a need for extreme accuracy, or when dealing with very strong gravitational fields, such as those found near extremely massive and dense objects, or at small distances (such as Mercury's orbit around the Sun). History Main article: History of gravitational theory Around 1600, the scientific method began to take root. René Descartes started over with a more fundamental view, developing ideas of matter and action independent of theology. Galileo Galilei wrote about experimental measurements of falling and rolling objects. Johannes Kepler's laws of planetary motion summarized Tycho Brahe's astronomical observations.: 132 Around 1666 Isaac Newton developed the idea that Kepler's laws must also apply to the orbit of the Moon around the Earth and then to all objects on Earth. The analysis required assuming that the gravitation force acted as if all of the mass of the Earth were concentrated at its center, an unproven conjecture at that time. His calculations of the Moon orbit time was within 16% of the known value. By 1680, new values for the diameter of the Earth improved his orbit time to within 1.6%, but more importantly Newton had found a proof of his earlier conjecture.: 201 In 1687 Newton published his Principia which combined his laws of motion with new mathematical analysis to explain Kepler's empirical results.: 134 His explanation was in the form of a law of universal gravitation: any two bodies are attracted by a force proportional to their mass and inversely proportional to their separation squared.: 28 Newton's original formula was: F o r c e o f g r a v i t y ∝ m a s s o f o b j e c t 1 × m a s s o f o b j e c t 2 d i s t a n c e f r o m c e n t e r s 2 {\displaystyle {\rm {Force\,of\,gravity}}\propto {\frac {\rm {mass\,of\,object\,1\,\times \,mass\,of\,object\,2}}{\rm {distance\,from\,centers^{2}}}}} where the symbol ∝ {\displaystyle \propto } means "is proportional to". To make this into an equal-sided formula or equation, there needed to be a multiplying factor or constant that would give the correct force of gravity no matter the value of the masses or distance between them (the gravitational constant). Newton would need an accurate measure of this constant to prove his inverse-square law. When Newton presented Book 1 of the unpublished text in April 1686 to the Royal Society, Robert Hooke made a claim that Newton had obtained the inverse square law from him, ultimately a frivolous accusation.: 204 Newton's "causes hitherto unknown" Main article: Action at a distance While Newton was able to formulate his law of gravity in his monumental work, he was deeply uncomfortable with the notion of "action at a distance" that his equations implied. In 1692, in his third letter to Bentley, he wrote: "That one body may act upon another at a distance through a vacuum without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their action and force may be conveyed from one another, is to me so great an absurdity that, I believe, no man who has in philosophic matters a competent faculty of thinking could ever fall into it." He never, in his words, "assigned the cause of this power". In all other cases, he used the phenomenon of motion to explain the origin of various forces acting on bodies, but in the case of gravity, he was unable to experimentally identify the motion that produces the force of gravity (although he invented two mechanical hypotheses in 1675 and 1717). Moreover, he refused to even offer a hypothesis as to the cause of this force on grounds that to do so was contrary to sound science. He lamented that "philosophers have hitherto attempted the search of nature in vain" for the source of the gravitational force, as he was convinced "by many reasons" that there were "causes hitherto unknown" that were fundamental to all the "phenomena of nature". These fundamental phenomena are still under investigation and, though hypotheses abound, the definitive answer has yet to be found. And in Newton's 1713 General Scholium in the second edition of Principia: "I have not yet been able to discover the cause of these properties of gravity from phenomena and I feign no hypotheses.... It is enough that gravity does really exist and acts according to the laws I have explained, and that it abundantly serves to account for all the motions of celestial bodies." Modern form In modern language, the law states the following: Every point mass attracts every single other point mass by a force acting along the line intersecting both points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them: Diagram of two masses attracting one another F = G m 1 m 2 r 2 {\displaystyle F=G{\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}}\ } where F is the force between the masses; G is the Newtonian constant of gravitation (6.674×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2); m1 is the first mass; m2 is the second mass; r is the distance between the centers of the masses. Error plot showing experimental values for G. Assuming SI units, F is measured in newtons (N), m1 and m2 in kilograms (kg), r in meters (m), and the constant G is 6.67430(15)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2. The value of the constant G was first accurately determined from the results of the Cavendish experiment conducted by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798, although Cavendish did not himself calculate a numerical value for G. This experiment was also the first test of Newton's theory of gravitation between masses in the laboratory. It took place 111 years after the publication of Newton's Principia and 71 years after Newton's death, so none of Newton's calculations could use the value of G; instead he could only calculate a force relative to another force. Bodies with spatial extent Gravitational field strength within the Earth Gravity field near the surface of the Earth – an object is shown accelerating toward the surface If the bodies in question have spatial extent (as opposed to being point masses), then the gravitational force between them is calculated by summing the contributions of the notional point masses that constitute the bodies. In the limit, as the component point masses become "infinitely small", this entails integrating the force (in vector form, see below) over the extents of the two bodies. In this way, it can be shown that an object with a spherically symmetric distribution of mass exerts the same gravitational attraction on external bodies as if all the object's mass were concentrated at a point at its center. (This is not generally true for non-spherically symmetrical bodies.) For points inside a spherically symmetric distribution of matter, Newton's shell theorem can be used to find the gravitational force. The theorem tells us how different parts of the mass distribution affect the gravitational force measured at a point located a distance r0 from the center of the mass distribution: The portion of the mass that is located at radii r < r0 causes the same force at the radius r0 as if all of the mass enclosed within a sphere of radius r0 was concentrated at the center of the mass distribution (as noted above). The portion of the mass that is located at radii r > r0 exerts no net gravitational force at the radius r0 from the center. That is, the individual gravitational forces exerted on a point at radius r0 by the elements of the mass outside the radius r0 cancel each other. As a consequence, for example, within a shell of uniform thickness and density there is no net gravitational acceleration anywhere within the hollow sphere. Vector form Gravity field surrounding Earth from a macroscopic perspective. Newton's law of universal gravitation can be written as a vector equation to account for the direction of the gravitational force as well as its magnitude. In this formula, quantities in bold represent vectors. F 21 = − G m 1 m 2 \| r 21 \| 2 r ^ 21 = − G m 1 m 2 \| r 21 \| 3 r 21 {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{21}=-G{m_{1}m_{2} \over {\|\mathbf {r} _{21}\|}^{2}}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}_{21}=-G{m_{1}m_{2} \over {\|\mathbf {r} _{21}\|}^{3}}\mathbf {r} _{21}} where F21 is the force applied on body 2 exerted by body 1, G is the gravitational constant, m1 and m2 are respectively the masses of bodies 1 and 2, r21 = r2 − r1 is the displacement vector between bodies 1 and 2, and r ^ 21 = d e f r 2 − r 1 \| r 2 − r 1 \| {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}_{21}\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ {\frac {\mathbf {r_{2}-r_{1}} }{\|\mathbf {r_{2}-r_{1}} \|}}} is the unit vector from body 1 to body 2. It can be seen that the vector form of the equation is the same as the scalar form given earlier, except that F is now a vector quantity, and the right hand side is multiplied by the appropriate unit vector. Also, it can be seen that F12 = −F21. Gravity field Main article: Gravitational field The gravitational field is a vector field that describes the gravitational force that would be applied on an object in any given point in space, per unit mass. It is actually equal to the gravitational acceleration at that point. It is a generalisation of the vector form, which becomes particularly useful if more than two objects are involved (such as a rocket between the Earth and the Moon). For two objects (e.g. object 2 is a rocket, object 1 the Earth), we simply write r instead of r12 and m instead of m2 and define the gravitational field g(r) as: g ( r ) = − G m 1 \| r \| 2 r ^ {\displaystyle \mathbf {g} (\mathbf {r} )=-G{m_{1} \over {{\vert \mathbf {r} \vert }^{2}}}\,\mathbf {\hat {r}} } so that we can write: F ( r ) = m g ( r ) . {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} (\mathbf {r} )=m\mathbf {g} (\mathbf {r} ).} This formulation is dependent on the objects causing the field. The field has units of acceleration; in SI, this is m/s2. Gravitational fields are also conservative; that is, the work done by gravity from one position to another is path-independent. This has the consequence that there exists a gravitational potential field V(r) such that g ( r ) = − ∇ V ( r ) . {\displaystyle \mathbf {g} (\mathbf {r} )=-\nabla V(\mathbf {r} ).} If m1 is a point mass or the mass of a sphere with homogeneous mass distribution, the force field g(r) outside the sphere is isotropic, i.e., depends only on the distance r from the center of the sphere. In that case V ( r ) = − G m 1 r . {\displaystyle V(r)=-G{\frac {m_{1}}{r}}.} the gravitational field is on, inside and outside of symmetric masses. As per Gauss's law, field in a symmetric body can be found by the mathematical equation: ∂ V {\displaystyle \partial V} g ( r ) ⋅ d A = − 4 π G M enc , {\displaystyle \mathbf {g(r)} \cdot d\mathbf {A} =-4\pi GM_{\text{enc}},} where ∂ V {\displaystyle \partial V} is a closed surface and M enc {\displaystyle M_{\text{enc}}} is the mass enclosed by the surface. Hence, for a hollow sphere of radius R {\displaystyle R} and total mass M {\displaystyle M} , \| g ( r ) \| = { 0 , if r < R G M r 2 , if r ≥ R {\displaystyle \|\mathbf {g(r)} \|={\begin{cases}0,&{\text{if }}r<R\\\\{\dfrac {GM}{r^{2}}},&{\text{if }}r\geq R\end{cases}}} For a uniform solid sphere of radius R {\displaystyle R} and total mass M {\displaystyle M} , \| g ( r ) \| = { G M r R 3 , if r < R G M r 2 , if r ≥ R {\displaystyle \|\mathbf {g(r)} \|={\begin{cases}{\dfrac {GMr}{R^{3}}},&{\text{if }}r<R\\\\{\dfrac {GM}{r^{2}}},&{\text{if }}r\geq R\end{cases}}} Limitations Newton's description of gravity is sufficiently accurate for many practical purposes and is therefore widely used. Deviations from it are small when the dimensionless quantities ϕ / c 2 {\displaystyle \phi /c^{2}} and ( v / c ) 2 {\displaystyle (v/c)^{2}} are both much less than one, where ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } is the gravitational potential, v {\displaystyle v} is the velocity of the objects being studied, and c {\displaystyle c} is the speed of light in vacuum. For example, Newtonian gravity provides an accurate description of the Earth/Sun system, since ϕ c 2 = G M s u n r o r b i t c 2 ∼ 10 − 8 , ( v E a r t h c ) 2 = ( 2 π r o r b i t ( 1 y r ) c ) 2 ∼ 10 − 8 , {\displaystyle {\frac {\phi }{c^{2}}}={\frac {GM_{\mathrm {sun} }}{r_{\mathrm {orbit} }c^{2}}}\sim 10^{-8},\quad \left({\frac {v_{\mathrm {Earth} }}{c}}\right)^{2}=\left({\frac {2\pi r_{\mathrm {orbit} }}{(1\ \mathrm {yr} )c}}\right)^{2}\sim 10^{-8},} where r orbit {\displaystyle r_{\text{orbit}}} is the radius of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. In situations where either dimensionless parameter is large, then general relativity must be used to describe the system. General relativity reduces to Newtonian gravity in the limit of small potential and low velocities, so Newton's law of gravitation is often said to be the low-gravity limit of general relativity. Observations conflicting with Newton's formula Newton's theory does not fully explain the precession of the perihelion of the orbits of the planets, especially that of Mercury, which was detected long after the life of Newton. There is a 43 arcsecond per century discrepancy between the Newtonian calculation, which arises only from the gravitational attractions from the other planets, and the observed precession, made with advanced telescopes during the 19th century. The predicted angular deflection of light rays by gravity (treated as particles travelling at the expected speed) that is calculated by using Newton's theory is only one-half of the deflection that is observed by astronomers. Calculations using general relativity are in much closer agreement with the astronomical observations. In spiral galaxies, the orbiting of stars around their centers seems to strongly disobey both Newton's law of universal gravitation and general relativity. Astrophysicists, however, explain this marked phenomenon by assuming the presence of large amounts of dark matter. Einstein's solution Part of a series onSpacetime Special relativity General relativity Spacetime concepts Spacetime manifold Equivalence principle Lorentz transformations Minkowski space General relativity Introduction to general relativity Mathematics of general relativity Einstein field equations Classical gravity Introduction to gravitation Newton's law of universal gravitation Relevant mathematics Four-vector Derivations of relativity Spacetime diagrams Differential geometry Curved spacetime Mathematics of general relativity Spacetime topology Physics portal Category vte The first two conflicts with observations above were explained by Einstein's theory of general relativity, in which gravitation is a manifestation of curved spacetime instead of being due to a force propagated between bodies. In Einstein's theory, energy and momentum distort spacetime in their vicinity, and other particles move in trajectories determined by the geometry of spacetime. This allowed a description of the motions of light and mass that was consistent with all available observations. In general relativity, the gravitational force is a fictitious force resulting from the curvature of spacetime, because the gravitational acceleration of a body in free fall is due to its world line being a geodesic of spacetime. Extensions In recent years, quests for non-inverse square terms in the law of gravity have been carried out by neutron interferometry. Solutions of Newton's law of universal gravitation Main article: n-body problem The n-body problem is an ancient, classical problem of predicting the individual motions of a group of celestial objects interacting with each other gravitationally. Solving this problem — from the time of the Greeks and on — has been motivated by the desire to understand the motions of the Sun, planets and the visible stars. In the 20th century, understanding the dynamics of globular cluster star systems became an important n-body problem too. The n-body problem in general relativity is considerably more difficult to solve. The classical physical problem can be informally stated as: given the quasi-steady orbital properties (instantaneous position, velocity and time) of a group of celestial bodies, predict their interactive forces; and consequently, predict their true orbital motions for all future times. The two-body problem has been completely solved, as has the restricted three-body problem. See also Physics portal Bentley's paradox – Cosmological paradox involving gravity Gauss's law for gravity – Restatement of Newton's law of universal gravitation Jordan and Einstein frames – different conventions for the metric tensor, in a theory of a dilaton coupled to gravityPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Kepler orbit – Celestial orbit whose trajectory is a conic section in the orbital plane Newton's cannonball – Thought experiment about gravity Newton's laws of motion – Laws in physics about force and motion Social gravity – Social theory Static forces and virtual-particle exchange – Physical interaction in post-classical physics Notes References ^ Fritz Rohrlich (25 August 1989). From Paradox to Reality: Our Basic Concepts of the Physical World. Cambridge University Press. pp. 28–. ISBN 978-0-521-37605-1. ^ Klaus Mainzer (2 December 2013). Symmetries of Nature: A Handbook for Philosophy of Nature and Science. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 8–. ISBN 978-3-11-088693-1. ^ "Physics: Fundamental Forces and the Synthesis of Theory \| Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. ^ Isaac Newton: "In philosophy particular propositions are inferred from the phenomena and afterwards rendered general by induction": "Principia", Book 3, General Scholium, at p.392 in Volume 2 of Andrew Motte's English translation published 1729. ^ a b The Michell–Cavendish Experiment, Laurent Hodges ^ a b Hesse, Mary B. (2005). Forces and fields: the concept of action at a distance in the history of physics (Dover ed.). Mineola, N.Y: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-44240-2. ^ a b Feather, Norman (1959). An Introduction to the Physics of Mass Length and Time. Edinburgh University Press. ^ Whittaker, Edmund T. (1989). A history of the theories of aether & electricity. 1: The classical theories (Repr ed.). New York: Dover Publ. ISBN 978-0-486-26126-3. ^ The Construction of Modern Science: Mechanisms and Mechanics, by Richard S. Westfall. Cambridge University Press. 1978 ^ a b Proposition 75, Theorem 35: p. 956 – I.Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, translators: Isaac Newton, The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Preceded by A Guide to Newton's Principia, by I.Bernard Cohen. University of California Press 1999 ISBN 0-520-08816-6 ISBN 0-520-08817-4 ^ "2022 CODATA Value: Newtonian constant of gravitation". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. May 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-18. ^ "Rotational Flattening". farside.ph.utexas.edu. ^ The vector difference r2 − r1 points from object 1 to object 2. See Fig. 11–6. of The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Volume I, equation (9.19) of The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Volume I and Euclidean vector#Addition and subtraction ^ Misner, Charles W.; Thorne, Kip S.; Wheeler, John Archibald (1973). Gravitation. New York: W. H.Freeman and Company. ISBN 978-0-7167-0344-0. Page 1049. ^ Max Born (1924), Einstein's Theory of Relativity (The 1962 Dover edition, page 348 lists a table documenting the observed and calculated values for the precession of the perihelion of Mercury, Venus, and the Earth.) ^ Greene, Geoffrey L.; Gudkov, Vladimir (2007). "Neutron interferometric method to provide improved constraints on non-Newtonian gravity at the nanometer scale". Physical Review C. 75 (1): 015501. arXiv:hep-ph/0608346. Bibcode:2007PhRvC..75a5501G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.75.015501. S2CID 39665455. ^ Leimanis and Minorsky: Our interest is with Leimanis, who first discusses some history about the n-body problem, especially Ms. Kovalevskaya's ~1868–1888, twenty-year complex-variables approach, failure; Section 1: The Dynamics of Rigid Bodies and Mathematical Exterior Ballistics (Chapter 1, the motion of a rigid body about a fixed point (Euler and Poisson equations); Chapter 2, Mathematical Exterior Ballistics), good precursor background to the n-body problem; Section 2: Celestial Mechanics (Chapter 1, The Uniformization of the Three-body Problem (Restricted Three-body Problem); Chapter 2, Capture in the Three-Body Problem; Chapter 3, Generalized n-body Problem). ^ Quasi-steady loads refers to the instantaneous inertial loads generated by instantaneous angular velocities and accelerations, as well as translational accelerations (9 variables). It is as though one took a photograph, which also recorded the instantaneous position and properties of motion. In contrast, a steady-state condition refers to a system's state being invariant to time; otherwise, the first derivatives and all higher derivatives are zero. ^ R. M. Rosenberg states the n-body problem similarly (see References): Each particle in a system of a finite number of particles is subjected to a Newtonian gravitational attraction from all the other particles, and to no other forces. If the initial state of the system is given, how will the particles move? Rosenberg failed to realize, like everyone else, that it is necessary to determine the forces first before the motions can be determined. ^ A general, classical solution in terms of first integrals is known to be impossible. An exact theoretical solution for arbitrary n can be approximated via Taylor series, but in practice such an infinite series must be truncated, giving at best only an approximate solution; and an approach now obsolete. In addition, the n-body problem may be solved using numerical integration, but these, too, are approximate solutions; and again obsolete. See Sverre J. Aarseth's book Gravitational N-body Simulations listed in the References. External links Media related to Newton's law of universal gravitation at Wikimedia Commons Feather and Hammer Drop on Moon on YouTube Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation Javascript calculator vteSir Isaac NewtonPublications Fluxions (1671) De Motu (1684) Principia (1687) Opticks (1704) Queries (1704) Arithmetica (1707) De Analysi (1711) Other writings Quaestiones (1661–1665) "standing on the shoulders of giants" (1675) Notes on the Jewish Temple (c. 1680) "General Scholium" (1713; "hypotheses non fingo" ) Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728) Corruptions of Scripture (1754) Contributions Calculus fluxion Impact depth Inertia Newton disc Newton polygon Newton–Okounkov body Newton's reflector Newtonian telescope Newton scale Newton's metal Spectrum Structural coloration Newtonianism Bucket argument Newton's inequalities Newton's law of cooling Newton's law of universal gravitation post-Newtonian expansion parameterized gravitational constant Newton–Cartan theory Schrödinger–Newton equation 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Quantum gravity Theory of everything Classical Poincaré gauge theory Einstein–Cartan Teleparallelism Bimetric theories Gauge theory gravity Composite gravity f(R) gravity Infinite derivative gravity Massive gravity Modified Newtonian dynamics, MOND AQUAL Tensor–vector–scalar Nonsymmetric gravitation Scalar–tensor theories Brans–Dicke Scalar–tensor–vector Conformal gravity Scalar theories Nordström Whitehead Geometrodynamics Induced gravity Degenerate Higher-Order Scalar-Tensor theories Quantum-mechanical Euclidean quantum gravity Canonical quantum gravity Wheeler–DeWitt equation Loop quantum gravity Spin foam Causal dynamical triangulation Asymptotic safety in quantum gravity Causal sets DGP model Rainbow gravity theory Unified-field-theoric Kaluza–Klein theory Supergravity Unified-field-theoric and quantum-mechanical Noncommutative geometry Semiclassical gravity Superfluid vacuum theory Logarithmic BEC vacuum String theory M-theory F-theory Heterotic string theory Type I string theory Type 0 string theory Bosonic string theory Type II string theory Little string theory Twistor theory Twistor string theory Generalisations / extensions of GR Liouville gravity Lovelock theory (2+1)-dimensional topological gravity Gauss–Bonnet gravity Jackiw–Teitelboim gravity Pre-Newtoniantheories andtoy models Aristotelian physics CGHS model RST model Mechanical explanations Fatio–Le Sage Entropic gravity Gravitational interaction of antimatter Physics in the medieval Islamic world Theory of impetus Related topics Gravitational wave Graviton Authority control databases: National Germany Japan	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"particle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle"},{"link_name":"force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force"},{"link_name":"proportional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proportionality_(mathematics)#Direct_proportionality"},{"link_name":"inversely proportional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proportionality_(mathematics)#Inverse_proportionality"},{"link_name":"as if all their mass were concentrated at their centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_theorem"},{"link_name":"first great unification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unification_(physics)#Unification_of_gravity_and_astronomy"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"physical law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_law"},{"link_name":"empirical observations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_observation"},{"link_name":"Isaac Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"inductive reasoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_reasoning"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"classical mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanics"},{"link_name":"Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica"},{"link_name":"centers of their masses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_mass"},{"link_name":"gravitational constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_constant"},{"link_name":"Cavendish experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavendish_experiment"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Henry Cavendish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cavendish"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Michell-Cavendish_Experiment-5"},{"link_name":"gravitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity"},{"link_name":"Coulomb's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law"},{"link_name":"inverse-square laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse-square_law"},{"link_name":"Albert Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},{"link_name":"general relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity"},{"link_name":"Mercury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet)"}],"text":"Newton's law of universal gravitation says that every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers. Separated objects attract and are attracted as if all their mass were concentrated at their centers. The publication of the law has become known as the \"first great unification\", as it marked the unification of the previously described phenomena of gravity on Earth with known astronomical behaviors.[1][2][3]This is a general physical law derived from empirical observations by what Isaac Newton called inductive reasoning.[4] It is a part of classical mechanics and was formulated in Newton's work Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (\"the Principia\"), first published on 5 July 1687.The equation for universal gravitation thus takes the form:F\n =\n G\n \n \n \n \n m\n \n 1\n \n \n \n m\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n r\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F=G{\\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}},}where F is the gravitational force acting between two objects, m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects, r is the distance between the centers of their masses, and G is the gravitational constant.The first test of Newton's law of gravitation between masses in the laboratory was the Cavendish experiment conducted by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798.[5] It took place 111 years after the publication of Newton's Principia and approximately 71 years after his death.Newton's law of gravitation resembles Coulomb's law of electrical forces, which is used to calculate the magnitude of the electrical force arising between two charged bodies. Both are inverse-square laws, where force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. Coulomb's law has charge in place of mass and a different constant.Newton's law has later been superseded by Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity, but the universality of the gravitational constant is intact and the law still continues to be used as an excellent approximation of the effects of gravity in most applications. Relativity is required only when there is a need for extreme accuracy, or when dealing with very strong gravitational fields, such as those found near extremely massive and dense objects, or at small distances (such as Mercury's orbit around the Sun).","title":"Newton's law of universal gravitation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"scientific method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method"},{"link_name":"René Descartes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes"},{"link_name":"Galileo Galilei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei"},{"link_name":"Johannes Kepler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Kepler"},{"link_name":"laws of planetary motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion"},{"link_name":"Tycho Brahe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hesse2005-6"},{"link_name":"Isaac Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Feather-7"},{"link_name":"Principia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica"},{"link_name":"laws of motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hesse2005-6"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whittaker-8"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"Robert Hooke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hooke"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Feather-7"}],"text":"Around 1600, the scientific method began to take root. René Descartes started over with a more fundamental view, developing ideas of matter and action independent of theology. Galileo Galilei wrote about experimental measurements of falling and rolling objects. Johannes Kepler's laws of planetary motion summarized Tycho Brahe's astronomical observations.[6]: 132Around 1666 Isaac Newton developed the idea that Kepler's laws must also apply to the orbit of the Moon around the Earth and then to all objects on Earth. The analysis required assuming that the gravitation force acted as if all of the mass of the Earth were concentrated at its center, an unproven conjecture at that time. His calculations of the Moon orbit time was within 16% of the known value. By 1680, new values for the diameter of the Earth improved his orbit time to within 1.6%, but more importantly Newton had found a proof of his earlier conjecture.[7]: 201In 1687 Newton published his Principia which combined his laws of motion with new mathematical analysis to explain Kepler's empirical results.[6]: 134 His explanation was in the form of a law of universal gravitation: any two bodies are attracted by a force proportional to their mass and inversely proportional to their separation squared.[8]: 28 \nNewton's original formula was:F\n o\n r\n c\n e\n \n o\n f\n \n g\n r\n a\n v\n i\n t\n y\n \n \n ∝\n \n \n \n m\n a\n s\n s\n \n o\n f\n \n o\n b\n j\n e\n c\n t\n \n 1\n \n ×\n \n m\n a\n s\n s\n \n o\n f\n \n o\n b\n j\n e\n c\n t\n \n 2\n \n \n d\n i\n s\n t\n a\n n\n c\n e\n \n f\n r\n o\n m\n \n c\n e\n n\n t\n e\n r\n \n s\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\rm {Force\\,of\\,gravity}}\\propto {\\frac {\\rm {mass\\,of\\,object\\,1\\,\\times \\,mass\\,of\\,object\\,2}}{\\rm {distance\\,from\\,centers^{2}}}}}where the symbol \n \n \n \n ∝\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\propto }\n \n means \"is proportional to\". To make this into an equal-sided formula or equation, there needed to be a multiplying factor or constant that would give the correct force of gravity no matter the value of the masses or distance between them (the gravitational constant). Newton would need an accurate measure of this constant to prove his inverse-square law. When Newton presented Book 1 of the unpublished text in April 1686 to the Royal Society, Robert Hooke made a claim that Newton had obtained the inverse square law from him, ultimately a frivolous accusation.[7]: 204","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mechanical hypotheses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation"},{"link_name":"General Scholium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Scholium"},{"link_name":"feign no hypotheses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypotheses_non_fingo"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Newton's \"causes hitherto unknown\"","text":"While Newton was able to formulate his law of gravity in his monumental work, he was deeply uncomfortable with the notion of \"action at a distance\" that his equations implied. In 1692, in his third letter to Bentley, he wrote: \"That one body may act upon another at a distance through a vacuum without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their action and force may be conveyed from one another, is to me so great an absurdity that, I believe, no man who has in philosophic matters a competent faculty of thinking could ever fall into it.\"He never, in his words, \"assigned the cause of this power\". In all other cases, he used the phenomenon of motion to explain the origin of various forces acting on bodies, but in the case of gravity, he was unable to experimentally identify the motion that produces the force of gravity (although he invented two mechanical hypotheses in 1675 and 1717). Moreover, he refused to even offer a hypothesis as to the cause of this force on grounds that to do so was contrary to sound science. He lamented that \"philosophers have hitherto attempted the search of nature in vain\" for the source of the gravitational force, as he was convinced \"by many reasons\" that there were \"causes hitherto unknown\" that were fundamental to all the \"phenomena of nature\". These fundamental phenomena are still under investigation and, though hypotheses abound, the definitive answer has yet to be found. And in Newton's 1713 General Scholium in the second edition of Principia: \"I have not yet been able to discover the cause of these properties of gravity from phenomena and I feign no hypotheses.... It is enough that gravity does really exist and acts according to the laws I have explained, and that it abundantly serves to account for all the motions of celestial bodies.\"[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gravity_Big_G_Measurements_NIST.png"},{"link_name":"SI units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Units"},{"link_name":"newtons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton_(units)"},{"link_name":"kilograms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilogram"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-physconst-G-11"},{"link_name":"Cavendish experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavendish_experiment"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Henry Cavendish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cavendish"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Michell-Cavendish_Experiment-5"}],"text":"In modern language, the law states the following:Error plot showing experimental values for G.Assuming SI units, F is measured in newtons (N), m1 and m2 in kilograms (kg), r in meters (m), and the constant G is 6.67430(15)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2.[11]\nThe value of the constant G was first accurately determined from the results of the Cavendish experiment conducted by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798, although Cavendish did not himself calculate a numerical value for G.[5] This experiment was also the first test of Newton's theory of gravitation between masses in the laboratory. It took place 111 years after the publication of Newton's Principia and 71 years after Newton's death, so none of Newton's calculations could use the value of G; instead he could only calculate a force relative to another force.","title":"Modern form"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Earth-G-force.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gravity_field_near_earth.gif"},{"link_name":"integrating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral"},{"link_name":"bodies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_body"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Newton1-10"},{"link_name":"shell theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_theorem"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Gravitational field strength within the EarthGravity field near the surface of the Earth – an object is shown accelerating toward the surfaceIf the bodies in question have spatial extent (as opposed to being point masses), then the gravitational force between them is calculated by summing the contributions of the notional point masses that constitute the bodies. In the limit, as the component point masses become \"infinitely small\", this entails integrating the force (in vector form, see below) over the extents of the two bodies.In this way, it can be shown that an object with a spherically symmetric distribution of mass exerts the same gravitational attraction on external bodies as if all the object's mass were concentrated at a point at its center.[10] (This is not generally true for non-spherically symmetrical bodies.)For points inside a spherically symmetric distribution of matter, Newton's shell theorem can be used to find the gravitational force. The theorem tells us how different parts of the mass distribution affect the gravitational force measured at a point located a distance r0 from the center of the mass distribution:[12]The portion of the mass that is located at radii r < r0 causes the same force at the radius r0 as if all of the mass enclosed within a sphere of radius r0 was concentrated at the center of the mass distribution (as noted above).\nThe portion of the mass that is located at radii r > r0 exerts no net gravitational force at the radius r0 from the center. That is, the individual gravitational forces exerted on a point at radius r0 by the elements of the mass outside the radius r0 cancel each other.As a consequence, for example, within a shell of uniform thickness and density there is no net gravitational acceleration anywhere within the hollow sphere.","title":"Bodies with spatial extent"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gravitymacroscopic.svg"},{"link_name":"vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation"},{"link_name":"gravitational constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_constant"},{"link_name":"displacement vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement_vector"},{"link_name":"unit vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_vector"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"scalar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_(physics)"}],"text":"Gravity field surrounding Earth from a macroscopic perspective.Newton's law of universal gravitation can be written as a vector equation to account for the direction of the gravitational force as well as its magnitude. In this formula, quantities in bold represent vectors.F\n \n \n 21\n \n \n =\n −\n G\n \n \n \n \n m\n \n 1\n \n \n \n m\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \|\n \n \n \n r\n \n \n 21\n \n \n \n \|\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n ^\n \n \n \n \n 21\n \n \n =\n −\n G\n \n \n \n \n m\n \n 1\n \n \n \n m\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \|\n \n \n \n r\n \n \n 21\n \n \n \n \|\n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n 21\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{21}=-G{m_{1}m_{2} \\over {\|\\mathbf {r} _{21}\|}^{2}}{\\hat {\\mathbf {r} }}_{21}=-G{m_{1}m_{2} \\over {\|\\mathbf {r} _{21}\|}^{3}}\\mathbf {r} _{21}}F21 is the force applied on body 2 exerted by body 1,\nG is the gravitational constant,\nm1 and m2 are respectively the masses of bodies 1 and 2,\nr21 = r2 − r1 is the displacement vector between bodies 1 and 2, and\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n ^\n \n \n \n \n 21\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n e\n f\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n r\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \|\n \n \n \n r\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n r\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \|\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {\\mathbf {r} }}_{21}\\ {\\stackrel {\\mathrm {def} }{=}}\\ {\\frac {\\mathbf {r_{2}-r_{1}} }{\|\\mathbf {r_{2}-r_{1}} \|}}}\n \n is the unit vector from body 1 to body 2.[13]It can be seen that the vector form of the equation is the same as the scalar form given earlier, except that F is now a vector quantity, and the right hand side is multiplied by the appropriate unit vector. Also, it can be seen that F12 = −F21.","title":"Vector form"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"vector field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_field"},{"link_name":"gravitational acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_acceleration"},{"link_name":"SI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI"},{"link_name":"conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_field"},{"link_name":"Gauss's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss%27s_law_for_gravity"}],"text":"The gravitational field is a vector field that describes the gravitational force that would be applied on an object in any given point in space, per unit mass. It is actually equal to the gravitational acceleration at that point.It is a generalisation of the vector form, which becomes particularly useful if more than two objects are involved (such as a rocket between the Earth and the Moon). For two objects (e.g. object 2 is a rocket, object 1 the Earth), we simply write r instead of r12 and m instead of m2 and define the gravitational field g(r) as:g\n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n =\n −\n G\n \n \n \n m\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \|\n \n r\n \n \|\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n ^\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {g} (\\mathbf {r} )=-G{m_{1} \\over {{\\vert \\mathbf {r} \\vert }^{2}}}\\,\\mathbf {\\hat {r}} }so that we can write:F\n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n =\n m\n \n g\n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} (\\mathbf {r} )=m\\mathbf {g} (\\mathbf {r} ).}This formulation is dependent on the objects causing the field. The field has units of acceleration; in SI, this is m/s2.Gravitational fields are also conservative; that is, the work done by gravity from one position to another is path-independent. This has the consequence that there exists a gravitational potential field V(r) such thatg\n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n =\n −\n ∇\n V\n (\n \n r\n \n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {g} (\\mathbf {r} )=-\\nabla V(\\mathbf {r} ).}If m1 is a point mass or the mass of a sphere with homogeneous mass distribution, the force field g(r) outside the sphere is isotropic, i.e., depends only on the distance r from the center of the sphere. In that caseV\n (\n r\n )\n =\n −\n G\n \n \n \n m\n \n 1\n \n \n r\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V(r)=-G{\\frac {m_{1}}{r}}.}the gravitational field is on, inside and outside of symmetric masses.As per Gauss's law, field in a symmetric body can be found by the mathematical equation:∂\n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\partial V}\n \n \n \n \n \n \n g\n (\n r\n )\n \n ⋅\n d\n \n A\n \n =\n −\n 4\n π\n G\n \n M\n \n enc\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {g(r)} \\cdot d\\mathbf {A} =-4\\pi GM_{\\text{enc}},}where \n \n \n \n ∂\n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\partial V}\n \n is a closed surface and \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n enc\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{\\text{enc}}}\n \n is the mass enclosed by the surface.Hence, for a hollow sphere of radius \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R}\n \n and total mass \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M}\n \n,\|\n \n \n g\n (\n r\n )\n \n \n \|\n \n =\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n 0\n ,\n \n \n \n if \n \n r\n <\n R\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n G\n M\n \n \n r\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n if \n \n r\n ≥\n R\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \|\\mathbf {g(r)} \|={\\begin{cases}0,&{\\text{if }}r<R\\\\\\\\{\\dfrac {GM}{r^{2}}},&{\\text{if }}r\\geq R\\end{cases}}}For a uniform solid sphere of radius \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R}\n \n and total mass \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M}\n \n,\|\n \n \n g\n (\n r\n )\n \n \n \|\n \n =\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n G\n M\n r\n \n \n R\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n if \n \n r\n <\n R\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n G\n M\n \n \n r\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n if \n \n r\n ≥\n R\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \|\\mathbf {g(r)} \|={\\begin{cases}{\\dfrac {GMr}{R^{3}}},&{\\text{if }}r<R\\\\\\\\{\\dfrac {GM}{r^{2}}},&{\\text{if }}r\\geq R\\end{cases}}}","title":"Gravity field"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gravitational potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_potential"},{"link_name":"speed of light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_light"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"general relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity"}],"text":"Newton's description of gravity is sufficiently accurate for many practical purposes and is therefore widely used. Deviations from it are small when the dimensionless quantities \n \n \n \n ϕ\n \n /\n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi /c^{2}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n (\n v\n \n /\n \n c\n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (v/c)^{2}}\n \n are both much less than one, where \n \n \n \n ϕ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi }\n \n is the gravitational potential, \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n {\\displaystyle v}\n \n is the velocity of the objects being studied, and \n \n \n \n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c}\n \n is the speed of light in vacuum.[14]\nFor example, Newtonian gravity provides an accurate description of the Earth/Sun system, sinceϕ\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n G\n \n M\n \n \n s\n u\n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n o\n r\n b\n i\n t\n \n \n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ∼\n \n 10\n \n −\n 8\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n v\n \n \n E\n a\n r\n t\n h\n \n \n \n c\n \n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n 2\n π\n \n r\n \n \n o\n r\n b\n i\n t\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n 1\n \n \n y\n r\n \n )\n c\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ∼\n \n 10\n \n −\n 8\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {\\phi }{c^{2}}}={\\frac {GM_{\\mathrm {sun} }}{r_{\\mathrm {orbit} }c^{2}}}\\sim 10^{-8},\\quad \\left({\\frac {v_{\\mathrm {Earth} }}{c}}\\right)^{2}=\\left({\\frac {2\\pi r_{\\mathrm {orbit} }}{(1\\ \\mathrm {yr} )c}}\\right)^{2}\\sim 10^{-8},}where \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n orbit\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle r_{\\text{orbit}}}\n \n is the radius of the Earth's orbit around the Sun.In situations where either dimensionless parameter is large, then\ngeneral relativity must be used to describe the system. General relativity reduces to Newtonian gravity in the limit of small potential and low velocities, so Newton's law of gravitation is often said to be the low-gravity limit of general relativity.","title":"Limitations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"precession of the perihelion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apsidal_precession"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"arcsecond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcsecond"},{"link_name":"deflection of light rays by gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_lens"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"dark matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_matter"}],"sub_title":"Observations conflicting with Newton's formula","text":"Newton's theory does not fully explain the precession of the perihelion of the orbits of the planets, especially that of Mercury, which was detected long after the life of Newton.[15] There is a 43 arcsecond per century discrepancy between the Newtonian calculation, which arises only from the gravitational attractions from the other planets, and the observed precession, made with advanced telescopes during the 19th century.\nThe predicted angular deflection of light rays by gravity (treated as particles travelling at the expected speed) that is calculated by using Newton's theory is only one-half of the deflection that is observed by astronomers.[citation needed] Calculations using general relativity are in much closer agreement with the astronomical observations.\nIn spiral galaxies, the orbiting of stars around their centers seems to strongly disobey both Newton's law of universal gravitation and general relativity. Astrophysicists, however, explain this marked phenomenon by assuming the presence of large amounts of dark matter.","title":"Limitations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"general relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity"},{"link_name":"curved spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curved_spacetime"},{"link_name":"fictitious force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictitious_force"},{"link_name":"curvature of spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvature_of_spacetime"},{"link_name":"gravitational acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_acceleration"},{"link_name":"free fall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_fall"},{"link_name":"world line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line"},{"link_name":"geodesic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodesic"},{"link_name":"spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime"}],"sub_title":"Einstein's solution","text":"The first two conflicts with observations above were explained by Einstein's theory of general relativity, in which gravitation is a manifestation of curved spacetime instead of being due to a force propagated between bodies. In Einstein's theory, energy and momentum distort spacetime in their vicinity, and other particles move in trajectories determined by the geometry of spacetime. This allowed a description of the motions of light and mass that was consistent with all available observations. In general relativity, the gravitational force is a fictitious force resulting from the curvature of spacetime, because the gravitational acceleration of a body in free fall is due to its world line being a geodesic of spacetime.","title":"Limitations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"neutron interferometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_interferometry"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"In recent years, quests for non-inverse square terms in the law of gravity have been carried out by neutron interferometry.[16]","title":"Extensions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leimanis_and_Minorsky-17"},{"link_name":"celestial objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_object"},{"link_name":"gravitationally","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitation"},{"link_name":"Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun"},{"link_name":"planets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet"},{"link_name":"stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star"},{"link_name":"globular cluster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globular_cluster"},{"link_name":"general relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"two-body problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-body_problem"},{"link_name":"three-body problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-body_problem"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"The n-body problem is an ancient, classical problem[17] of predicting the individual motions of a group of celestial objects interacting with each other gravitationally. Solving this problem — from the time of the Greeks and on — has been motivated by the desire to understand the motions of the Sun, planets and the visible stars. In the 20th century, understanding the dynamics of globular cluster star systems became an important n-body problem too. The n-body problem in general relativity is considerably more difficult to solve.The classical physical problem can be informally stated as: given the quasi-steady orbital properties (instantaneous position, velocity and time)[18] of a group of celestial bodies, predict their interactive forces; and consequently, predict their true orbital motions for all future times.[19]The two-body problem has been completely solved, as has the restricted three-body problem.[20]","title":"Solutions of Newton's law of universal gravitation"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notes"}]	[{"image_text":"Diagram of two masses attracting one another","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/NewtonsLawOfUniversalGravitation.svg/200px-NewtonsLawOfUniversalGravitation.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Error plot showing experimental values for G.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Gravity_Big_G_Measurements_NIST.png/440px-Gravity_Big_G_Measurements_NIST.png"},{"image_text":"Gravitational field strength within the Earth","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Earth-G-force.png/200px-Earth-G-force.png"},{"image_text":"Gravity field near the surface of the Earth – an object is shown accelerating toward the surface","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Gravity_field_near_earth.gif/220px-Gravity_field_near_earth.gif"},{"image_text":"Gravity field surrounding Earth from a macroscopic perspective.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Gravitymacroscopic.svg/200px-Gravitymacroscopic.svg.png"}]	[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg"},{"title":"Physics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Physics"},{"title":"Bentley's paradox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentley%27s_paradox"},{"title":"Gauss's law for gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss%27s_law_for_gravity"},{"title":"Jordan and Einstein frames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan_and_Einstein_frames"},{"title":"Kepler orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler_orbit"},{"title":"Newton's cannonball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_cannonball"},{"title":"Newton's laws of motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion"},{"title":"Social gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_gravity"},{"title":"Static forces and virtual-particle exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_forces_and_virtual-particle_exchange"}]	[{"reference":"Fritz Rohrlich (25 August 1989). From Paradox to Reality: Our Basic Concepts of the Physical World. Cambridge University Press. pp. 28–. ISBN 978-0-521-37605-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3TqA1394OVcC&pg=PA28","url_text":"From Paradox to Reality: Our Basic Concepts of the Physical World"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37605-1","url_text":"978-0-521-37605-1"}]},{"reference":"Klaus Mainzer (2 December 2013). Symmetries of Nature: A Handbook for Philosophy of Nature and Science. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 8–. ISBN 978-3-11-088693-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QekhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8","url_text":"Symmetries of Nature: A Handbook for Philosophy of Nature and Science"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-088693-1","url_text":"978-3-11-088693-1"}]},{"reference":"\"Physics: Fundamental Forces and the Synthesis of Theory \| Encyclopedia.com\". www.encyclopedia.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/science-magazines/physics-fundamental-forces-and-synthesis-theory","url_text":"\"Physics: Fundamental Forces and the Synthesis of Theory \| Encyclopedia.com\""}]},{"reference":"Hesse, Mary B. (2005). Forces and fields: the concept of action at a distance in the history of physics (Dover ed.). Mineola, N.Y: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-44240-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-44240-2","url_text":"978-0-486-44240-2"}]},{"reference":"Feather, Norman (1959). An Introduction to the Physics of Mass Length and Time. Edinburgh University Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Whittaker, Edmund T. (1989). A history of the theories of aether & electricity. 1: The classical theories (Repr ed.). New York: Dover Publ. ISBN 978-0-486-26126-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-26126-3","url_text":"978-0-486-26126-3"}]},{"reference":"\"2022 CODATA Value: Newtonian constant of gravitation\". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. May 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bg","url_text":"\"2022 CODATA Value: Newtonian constant of gravitation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology","url_text":"NIST"}]},{"reference":"\"Rotational Flattening\". farside.ph.utexas.edu.","urls":[{"url":"http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/336k/lectures/node109.html","url_text":"\"Rotational Flattening\""}]},{"reference":"Misner, Charles W.; Thorne, Kip S.; Wheeler, John Archibald (1973). Gravitation. New York: W. H.Freeman and Company. ISBN 978-0-7167-0344-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_W._Misner","url_text":"Misner, Charles W."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kip_Thorne","url_text":"Thorne, Kip S."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler","url_text":"Wheeler, John Archibald"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-0344-0","url_text":"978-0-7167-0344-0"}]},{"reference":"Greene, Geoffrey L.; Gudkov, Vladimir (2007). \"Neutron interferometric method to provide improved constraints on non-Newtonian gravity at the nanometer scale\". Physical Review C. 75 (1): 015501. arXiv:hep-ph/0608346. Bibcode:2007PhRvC..75a5501G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.75.015501. S2CID 39665455.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0608346","url_text":"hep-ph/0608346"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PhRvC..75a5501G","url_text":"2007PhRvC..75a5501G"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevC.75.015501","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevC.75.015501"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39665455","url_text":"39665455"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3TqA1394OVcC&pg=PA28","external_links_name":"From Paradox to Reality: Our Basic Concepts of the Physical World"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QekhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8","external_links_name":"Symmetries of Nature: A Handbook for Philosophy of Nature and Science"},{"Link":"https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/science-magazines/physics-fundamental-forces-and-synthesis-theory","external_links_name":"\"Physics: Fundamental Forces and the Synthesis of Theory \| Encyclopedia.com\""},{"Link":"http://www.public.iastate.edu/~lhodges/Michell.htm","external_links_name":"The Michell–Cavendish Experiment"},{"Link":"https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bg","external_links_name":"\"2022 CODATA Value: Newtonian constant of gravitation\""},{"Link":"http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/336k/lectures/node109.html","external_links_name":"\"Rotational Flattening\""},{"Link":"https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_11.html#Ch11-S5","external_links_name":"The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Volume I"},{"Link":"https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_09.html#Ch9-S7","external_links_name":"The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Volume I"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0608346","external_links_name":"hep-ph/0608346"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PhRvC..75a5501G","external_links_name":"2007PhRvC..75a5501G"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevC.75.015501","external_links_name":"10.1103/PhysRevC.75.015501"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39665455","external_links_name":"39665455"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5C5_dOEyAfk","external_links_name":"Feather and Hammer Drop on Moon"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090817212723/http://www.pythia.com.ar/?id=gravlaw","external_links_name":"Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation Javascript calculator"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4296819-7","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00564150","external_links_name":"Japan"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitive_information	Information sensitivity	["1 Non-sensitive information","1.1 Public information","1.2 Routine business information","2 Types of sensitive information","2.1 Confidential business information","2.2 Classified","3 Legal protection from unauthorised disclosure","3.1 Personal and private information","3.2 Confidential business information","3.3 Classified information","4 Digital sensitive information","5 See also","6 References"]	Classification of secrecy of information This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Information sensitivity" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (May 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Information sensitivity is the control of access to information or knowledge that might result in loss of an advantage or level of security if disclosed to others. Loss, misuse, modification, or unauthorized access to sensitive information can adversely affect the privacy or welfare of an individual, trade secrets of a business or even the security and international relations of a nation depending on the level of sensitivity and nature of the information. Non-sensitive information Public information This refers to information that is already a matter of public record or knowledge. With regard to government and private organizations, access to or release of such information may be requested by any member of the public, and there are often formal processes laid out for how to do so. The accessibility of government-held public records is an important part of government transparency, accountability to its citizens, and the values of democracy. Public records may furthermore refer to information about identifiable individuals that is not considered confidential, including but not limited to: census records, criminal records, sex offender registry files, and voter registration. Routine business information This includes business information that is not subjected to special protection and may be routinely shared with anyone inside or outside of the business. Types of sensitive information Confidential information is used in a general sense to mean sensitive information whose access is subject to restriction, and may refer to information about an individual as well as that which pertains to a business. However, there are situations in which the release of personal information could have a negative effect on its owner. For example, a person trying to avoid a stalker will be inclined to further restrict access to such personal information. Furthermore, a person's SSN or SIN, credit card numbers, and other financial information may be considered private if their disclosure might lead to crimes such as identity theft or fraud. Some types of private information, including records of a person's health care, education, and employment may be protected by privacy laws. Unauthorized disclosure of private information can make the perpetrator liable for civil remedies and may in some cases be subject to criminal penalties. Even though they are often used interchangeably, personal information is sometimes distinguished from private information, or personally identifiable information. The latter is distinct from the former in that Private information can be used to identify a unique individual. Personal information, on the other hand, is information belonging to the private life of an individual that cannot be used to uniquely identify that individual. This can range from an individual's favourite colour, to the details of their domestic life. The latter is a common example of personal information that is also regarded as sensitive, where the individual sharing these details with a trusted listener would prefer for it not to be shared with anyone else, and the sharing of which may result in unwanted consequences. Confidential business information Confidential business information (CBI) refers to information whose disclosure may harm the business. Such information may include trade secrets, sales and marketing plans, new product plans, notes associated with patentable inventions, customer and supplier information, financial data, and more. Under TSCA, CBI is defined as proprietary information, considered confidential to the submitter, the release of which would cause substantial business injury to the owner. The US EPA may as of 2016, review and determine if a company´s claim is valid. Classified Classified information generally refers to information that is subject to special security classification regulations imposed by many national governments, the disclosure of which may cause harm to national interests and security. The protocol of restriction imposed upon such information is categorized into a hierarchy of classification levels in almost every national government worldwide, with the most restricted levels containing information that may cause the greatest danger to national security if leaked. Authorized access is granted to individuals on a need to know basis who have also passed the appropriate level of security clearance. Classified information can be reclassified to a different level or declassified (made available to the public) depending on changes of situation or new intelligence. Classified information may also be further denoted with the method of communication or access. For example, Protectively Marked "Secret" Eyes Only or Protectively Marked "Secret" Encrypted transfer only. Indicating that the document must be physically read by the recipient and cannot be openly discussed for example over a telephone conversation or that the communication can be sent only using encrypted means. Often mistakenly listed as meaning for the eyes of the intended recipient only the anomaly becomes apparent when the additional tag "Not within windowed area" is also used. Legal protection from unauthorised disclosure Personal and private information Data privacy concerns exist in various aspects of daily life wherever personal data is stored and collected, such as on the internet, in medical records, financial records, and expression of political opinions. In over 80 countries in the world, personally identifiable information is protected by information privacy laws, which outline limits to the collection and use of personally identifiable information by public and private entities. Such laws usually require entities to give clear and unambiguous notice to the individual of the types of data being collected, its reason for collection, and planned uses of the data. In consent-based legal frameworks, explicit consent of the individual is required as well. The EU passed the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), replacing the earlier Data Protection Directive. The regulation was adopted on 27 April 2016. It became enforceable from 25 May 2018 after a two-year transition period and, unlike a directive, it does not require national governments to pass any enabling legislation, and is thus directly binding and applicable. "The proposed new EU data protection regime extends the scope of the EU data protection law to all foreign companies processing data of EU residents. It provides for a harmonisation of the data protection regulations throughout the EU, thereby making it easier for non-European companies to comply with these regulations; however, this comes at the cost of a strict data protection compliance regime with severe penalties of up to 4% of worldwide turnover." The GDPR also brings a new set of "digital rights" for EU citizens in an age when the economic value of personal data is increasing in the digital economy. In Canada, the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA) regulates the collection and use of personal data and electronic documents by public and private organizations. PIPEDA is in effect in all federal and provincial jurisdictions, except provinces where existing privacy laws are determined to be “substantially similar”. Even though not through the unified sensitive information framework, the United States has implemented significant amount of privacy legislation pertaining to different specific aspects of data privacy, with emphasis to privacy in healthcare, financial, e-commerce, educational industries, and both on federal and state levels. Whether being regulated or self regulated, the laws require to establish ways at which access to sensitive information is limited to the people with different roles, thus in essence requiring establishment of the "sensitive data domain" model and mechanisms of its protection. Some of the domains have a guideline in form of pre-defined models such as "Safe Harbor" of HIPAA, based on the research of Latanya Sweeny and established privacy industry metrics. Additionally, many other countries have enacted their own legislature regarding data privacy protection, and more are still in the process of doing so. Confidential business information The confidentiality of sensitive business information is established through non-disclosure agreements, a legally binding contract between two parties in a professional relationship. NDAs may be one-way, such as in the case of an employee receiving confidential information about the employing organization, or two-way between businesses needing to share information with one another to accomplish a business goal. Depending on the severity of consequences, a violation of non-disclosure may result in employment loss, loss of business and client contacts, criminal charges or a civil lawsuit, and a hefty sum in damages. When NDAs are signed between employer and employee at the initiation of employment, a non-compete clause may be a part of the agreement as an added protection of sensitive business information, where the employee agrees not to work for competitors or start their own competing business within a certain time or geographical limit. Unlike personal and private information, there is no internationally recognized framework protecting trade secrets, or even an agreed-upon definition of the term “trade secret”. However, many countries and political jurisdictions have taken the initiative to account for the violation of commercial confidentiality in their criminal or civil laws. For example, under the US Economic Espionage Act of 1996, it is a federal crime in the United States to misappropriate trade secrets with the knowledge that it will benefit a foreign power, or will injure the owner of the trade secret. More commonly, breach of commercial confidentiality falls under civil law, such as in the United Kingdom. In some developing countries, trade secret laws are either non-existent or poorly developed and offer little substantial protection. Classified information In many countries, unauthorized disclosure of classified information is a criminal offence, and may be punishable by fines, prison sentence, or even the death penalty, depending on the severity of the violation. For less severe violations, civil sanctions may be imposed, ranging from reprimand to revoking of security clearance and subsequent termination of employment. Whistleblowing is the intentional disclosure of sensitive information to a third-party with the intention of revealing alleged illegal, immoral, or otherwise harmful actions. There are many examples of present and former government employees disclosing classified information regarding national government misconduct to the public and media, in spite of the criminal consequences that await them. Espionage, or spying, involves obtaining sensitive information without the permission or knowledge of its holder. The use of spies is a part of national intelligence gathering in most countries, and has been used as a political strategy by nation-states since ancient times. It is unspoken knowledge in international politics that countries are spying on one another all the time, even their allies. Digital sensitive information Computer security is information security applied to computing and network technology, and is a significant and ever-growing field in computer science. The term computer insecurity, on the other hand, is the concept that computer systems are inherently vulnerable to attack, and therefore an evolving arms race between those who exploit existing vulnerabilities in security systems and those who must then engineer new mechanisms of security. A number of security concerns have arisen in the recent years as increasing amounts of sensitive information at every level have found their primary existence in digital form. At the personal level, credit card fraud, internet fraud, and other forms of identity theft have become widespread concerns that individuals need to be aware of on a day-to-day basis. The existence of large databases of classified information on computer networks is also changing the face of domestic and international politics. Cyber-warfare and cyber espionage is becoming of increasing importance to the national security and strategy of nations around the world, and it is estimated that 120 nations around the world are currently actively engaged in developing and deploying technology for these purposes. Philosophies and internet cultures such as open-source governance, hacktivism, and the popular hacktivist slogan "information wants to be free" reflects some of the cultural shifts in perception towards political and government secrecy. The popular, controversial WikiLeaks is just one of many manifestations of a growing cultural sentiment that is becoming an additional challenge to the security and integrity of classified information. See also Espionage Federal Standard 1037C and the National Information Systems Security Glossary Mandatory Access Control Privacy protocol Information privacy law References ^ Mothersbaugh, David L.; Foxx, William K.; Beatty, Sharon E.; Wang, Sijun (2011-12-20). "Disclosure Antecedents in an Online Service Context: The Role of Sensitivity of Information". Journal of Service Research. 15 (1): 76–98. doi:10.1177/1094670511424924. ISSN 1094-6705. S2CID 168122924. ^ "2.2 - Information Classification \| Unit 2 \| OCR Cambridge Technicals". CSNewbs. Retrieved 2023-05-20. ^ "Accessing Public Information" Information and Privacy Commissioner, Ontario, Canada. Retrieved Feb. 11 2013. ^ "Accountability and Transparency: Essential Principles" Democracy Web. Retrieved Feb. 11, 2013. ^ Rights (OCR), Office for Civil (2008-05-07). "Your Rights Under HIPAA". HHS.gov. Retrieved 2022-08-28. ^ Shelest, Dmytri (2024-02-07). "What are data brokers? The secret economy of your personal information". onerep. Retrieved 2024-04-03. ^ "Private and Personal Information" Common Sense Media Inc., 2013. Retrieved Feb. 9 2013. ^ "Confidential information and trade secrets" MaRS, Dec. 8 2009. Retrieved Feb. 9 2013. ^ US EPA, OCSPP (2015-04-22). "CBI Claims and Reviews Under TSCA". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2023-03-01. ^ "Eyes-only". ^ "Basic Privacy" (lecture). University of Toronto, Jan. 24, 2012. Retrieved Feb. 9 2013. ^ Blackmer, W.S. (5 May 2016). "GDPR: Getting Ready for the New EU General Data Protection Regulation". Information Law Group. InfoLawGroup LLP. Archived from the original on 14 May 2018. Retrieved 22 June 2016. ^ "New draft European data protection regime". Law Patent Group. February 2, 2012. Retrieved January 9, 2018. ^ "DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRY: PERSONAL INFORMATION PROTECTION AND ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS ACT" Archived 2013-06-02 at the Wayback Machine Canada Gazette, Apr. 03 2002. Retrieved Feb. 9 2013. ^ "Sensitive Data Discovery" ^ "Methods for De-identification of PHI". 7 September 2012. ^ "International Privacy Laws " InformationShield. Retrieved Feb. 9 2013. ^ Niznik, J. S. "Non-Disclosure Agreement" About.com, 2002. Retrieved Feb. 9 2013. ^ Magri, K. A. "International Aspects of Trade Secrets Law" 1997. Retrieved Feb. 9 2013. ^ 104th US Congress. "ECONOMIC ESPIONAGE ACT OF 1996" PUBLIC LAW 104–294, OCT. 11, 1996. Retrieved Feb. 9 2013. ^ Bently, L. "Breach of confidence - the basics" (lecture). Retrieved Feb. 9 2013. ^ Kransdorf, G. "Intellectual Property, Trade, and Technology Transfer Law: The United States and Mexico" Boston College Third World Law Journal 7(2): 277-295. 1987. Retrieved Feb. 9 2013. ^ 113th US Congress. "Disclosure of classified information" Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School. Retrieved Feb. 9 2013. ^ "Charges in Classified Information and National Security Cases" James Madison Project, Retrieved Feb. 9 2013. ^ Elsea, J. K. "The Protection of Classified Information: The Legal Framework" Congressional Research Service, Jan. 10 2013. Retrieved Feb. 9 2013. ^ Morley, H., Cohen-Lyons, J. "WHISTLEBLOWING IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR: A BALANCE OF RIGHTS AND INTERESTS" Public Sector Digest, Spring 2012. Pp 16-18. Retrieved Feb. 9 2013. ^ Woolsey, R. J. "Why We Spy on Our Allies" The Wall Street Journal: Mar. 17 2000. Retrieved Feb. 9 2013. ^ Brodkin, J. "Government-sponsored cyberattacks on the rise, McAfee says" Archived 2013-06-17 at the Wayback Machine Networked World: Nov. 29 2007. Retrieved Feb. 9 2013. ^ Ludlow, P. "WikiLeaks and Hacktivist Culture" The Nation: Sep. 15 2010. Retrieved Feb. 9 2013.	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"access to information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_to_information"},{"link_name":"knowledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"unauthorized access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_control"},{"link_name":"privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy"},{"link_name":"trade secrets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_secret"},{"link_name":"security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_security"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Information sensitivity is the control of access to information or knowledge that might result in loss of an advantage or level of security if disclosed to others.[1]Loss, misuse, modification, or unauthorized access to sensitive information can adversely affect the privacy or welfare of an individual, trade secrets of a business or even the security and international relations of a nation depending on the level of sensitivity and nature of the information.[2]","title":"Information sensitivity"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Non-sensitive information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Public records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_records"},{"link_name":"census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census"},{"link_name":"criminal records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_records"},{"link_name":"sex offender registry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_offender_registry"},{"link_name":"voter registration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voter_registration"}],"sub_title":"Public information","text":"This refers to information that is already a matter of public record or knowledge. With regard to government and private organizations, access to or release of such information may be requested by any member of the public, and there are often formal processes laid out for how to do so.[3] The accessibility of government-held public records is an important part of government transparency, accountability to its citizens, and the values of democracy.[4] Public records may furthermore refer to information about identifiable individuals that is not considered confidential, including but not limited to: census records, criminal records, sex offender registry files, and voter registration.","title":"Non-sensitive information"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Routine business information","text":"This includes business information that is not subjected to special protection and may be routinely shared with anyone inside or outside of the business.","title":"Non-sensitive information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Security_number"},{"link_name":"SIN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_insurance_number"},{"link_name":"crimes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime"},{"link_name":"identity theft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_theft"},{"link_name":"fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraud"},{"link_name":"health care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act"},{"link_name":"privacy laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_law"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"personally identifiable information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personally_identifiable_information"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Confidential information is used in a general sense to mean sensitive information whose access is subject to restriction, and may refer to information about an individual as well as that which pertains to a business.However, there are situations in which the release of personal information could have a negative effect on its owner. For example, a person trying to avoid a stalker will be inclined to further restrict access to such personal information. Furthermore, a person's SSN or SIN, credit card numbers, and other financial information may be considered private if their disclosure might lead to crimes such as identity theft or fraud.Some types of private information, including records of a person's health care, education, and employment may be protected by privacy laws. [5] Unauthorized disclosure of private information can make the perpetrator liable for civil remedies and may in some cases be subject to criminal penalties.Even though they are often used interchangeably, personal information is sometimes distinguished from private information, or personally identifiable information.[6] The latter is distinct from the former in that Private information can be used to identify a unique individual. Personal information, on the other hand, is information belonging to the private life of an individual that cannot be used to uniquely identify that individual. This can range from an individual's favourite colour, to the details of their domestic life.[7] The latter is a common example of personal information that is also regarded as sensitive, where the individual sharing these details with a trusted listener would prefer for it not to be shared with anyone else, and the sharing of which may result in unwanted consequences.","title":"Types of sensitive information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"trade secrets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_secret"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"TSCA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TSCA"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Confidential business information","text":"Confidential business information (CBI) refers to information whose disclosure may harm the business. Such information may include trade secrets, sales and marketing plans, new product plans, notes associated with patentable inventions, customer and supplier information, financial data, and more.[8]Under TSCA, CBI is defined as proprietary information, considered confidential to the submitter, the release of which would cause substantial business injury to the owner. The US EPA may as of 2016, review and determine if a company´s claim is valid.[9]","title":"Types of sensitive information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Classified information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classified_information"},{"link_name":"need to know","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_to_know"},{"link_name":"security clearance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_clearance"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Classified","text":"Classified information generally refers to information that is subject to special security classification regulations imposed by many national governments, the disclosure of which may cause harm to national interests and security. The protocol of restriction imposed upon such information is categorized into a hierarchy of classification levels in almost every national government worldwide, with the most restricted levels containing information that may cause the greatest danger to national security if leaked. Authorized access is granted to individuals on a need to know basis who have also passed the appropriate level of security clearance. Classified information can be reclassified to a different level or declassified (made available to the public) depending on changes of situation or new intelligence.Classified information may also be further denoted with the method of communication or access. For example, Protectively Marked \"Secret\" Eyes Only or Protectively Marked \"Secret\" Encrypted transfer only. Indicating that the document must be physically read by the recipient and cannot be openly discussed for example over a telephone conversation or that the communication can be sent only using encrypted means. Often mistakenly listed as meaning for the eyes of the intended recipient only[10] the anomaly becomes apparent when the additional tag \"Not within windowed area\" is also used.","title":"Types of sensitive information"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Legal protection from unauthorised disclosure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_privacy"},{"link_name":"medical records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_privacy"},{"link_name":"financial records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_privacy"},{"link_name":"expression of political opinions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_privacy"},{"link_name":"information privacy laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_privacy_law"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"General Data Protection Regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Data_Protection_Regulation"},{"link_name":"Data Protection Directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Protection_Directive"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BlackmerGDPR16-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_Information_Protection_and_Electronic_Documents_Act"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Latanya Sweeny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latanya_Sweeny&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"Personal and private information","text":"Data privacy concerns exist in various aspects of daily life wherever personal data is stored and collected, such as on the internet, in medical records, financial records, and expression of political opinions. In over 80 countries in the world, personally identifiable information is protected by information privacy laws, which outline limits to the collection and use of personally identifiable information by public and private entities. Such laws usually require entities to give clear and unambiguous notice to the individual of the types of data being collected, its reason for collection, and planned uses of the data. In consent-based legal frameworks, explicit consent of the individual is required as well.[11]The EU passed the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), replacing the earlier Data Protection Directive. The regulation was adopted on 27 April 2016. It became enforceable from 25 May 2018 after a two-year transition period and, unlike a directive, it does not require national governments to pass any enabling legislation, and is thus directly binding and applicable.[12]\n\"The proposed new EU data protection regime extends the scope of the EU data protection law to all foreign companies processing data of EU residents. It provides for a harmonisation of the data protection regulations throughout the EU, thereby making it easier for non-European companies to comply with these regulations; however, this comes at the cost of a strict data protection compliance regime with severe penalties of up to 4% of worldwide turnover.\"[13] The GDPR also brings a new set of \"digital rights\" for EU citizens in an age when the economic value of personal data is increasing in the digital economy.In Canada, the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA) regulates the collection and use of personal data and electronic documents by public and private organizations. PIPEDA is in effect in all federal and provincial jurisdictions, except provinces where existing privacy laws are determined to be “substantially similar”.[14]Even though not through the unified sensitive information framework, the United States has implemented significant amount of privacy legislation pertaining to different specific aspects of data privacy, with emphasis to privacy in healthcare, financial, e-commerce, educational industries, and both on federal and state levels. Whether being regulated or self regulated, the laws require to establish ways at which access to sensitive information is limited to the people with different roles, thus in essence requiring establishment of the \"sensitive data domain\" model[15] and mechanisms of its protection. Some of the domains have a guideline in form of pre-defined models such as \"Safe Harbor\" of HIPAA,[16] based on the research of Latanya Sweeny and established privacy industry metrics.Additionally, many other countries have enacted their own legislature regarding data privacy protection, and more are still in the process of doing so.[17]","title":"Legal protection from unauthorised disclosure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"confidentiality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidentiality"},{"link_name":"non-disclosure agreements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-disclosure_agreements"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"non-compete clause","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-compete_clause"},{"link_name":"trade secrets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_secrets"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Economic Espionage Act of 1996","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_Espionage_Act_of_1996"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"in the United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breach_of_confidence_in_English_law"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Confidential business information","text":"The confidentiality of sensitive business information is established through non-disclosure agreements, a legally binding contract between two parties in a professional relationship. NDAs may be one-way, such as in the case of an employee receiving confidential information about the employing organization, or two-way between businesses needing to share information with one another to accomplish a business goal. Depending on the severity of consequences, a violation of non-disclosure may result in employment loss, loss of business and client contacts, criminal charges or a civil lawsuit, and a hefty sum in damages.[18] When NDAs are signed between employer and employee at the initiation of employment, a non-compete clause may be a part of the agreement as an added protection of sensitive business information, where the employee agrees not to work for competitors or start their own competing business within a certain time or geographical limit.Unlike personal and private information, there is no internationally recognized framework protecting trade secrets, or even an agreed-upon definition of the term “trade secret”.[19] However, many countries and political jurisdictions have taken the initiative to account for the violation of commercial confidentiality in their criminal or civil laws. For example, under the US Economic Espionage Act of 1996, it is a federal crime in the United States to misappropriate trade secrets with the knowledge that it will benefit a foreign power, or will injure the owner of the trade secret.[20] More commonly, breach of commercial confidentiality falls under civil law, such as in the United Kingdom.[21] In some developing countries, trade secret laws are either non-existent or poorly developed and offer little substantial protection.[22]","title":"Legal protection from unauthorised disclosure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"classified information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classified_information"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Whistleblowing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whistleblowing"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Espionage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionage"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"Classified information","text":"In many countries, unauthorized disclosure of classified information is a criminal offence, and may be punishable by fines, prison sentence, or even the death penalty, depending on the severity of the violation.[23][24] For less severe violations, civil sanctions may be imposed, ranging from reprimand to revoking of security clearance and subsequent termination of employment.[25]Whistleblowing is the intentional disclosure of sensitive information to a third-party with the intention of revealing alleged illegal, immoral, or otherwise harmful actions.[26] There are many examples of present and former government employees disclosing classified information regarding national government misconduct to the public and media, in spite of the criminal consequences that await them.Espionage, or spying, involves obtaining sensitive information without the permission or knowledge of its holder. The use of spies is a part of national intelligence gathering in most countries, and has been used as a political strategy by nation-states since ancient times. It is unspoken knowledge in international politics that countries are spying on one another all the time, even their allies.[27]","title":"Legal protection from unauthorised disclosure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Computer security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security"},{"link_name":"information security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_security"},{"link_name":"computer insecurity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_insecurity"},{"link_name":"credit card fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_card_fraud"},{"link_name":"internet fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_fraud"},{"link_name":"identity theft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_theft"},{"link_name":"Cyber-warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyber-warfare"},{"link_name":"cyber espionage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyber_espionage"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"open-source governance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_governance"},{"link_name":"hacktivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacktivism"},{"link_name":"information wants to be free","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free"},{"link_name":"WikiLeaks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WikiLeaks"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"text":"Computer security is information security applied to computing and network technology, and is a significant and ever-growing field in computer science. The term computer insecurity, on the other hand, is the concept that computer systems are inherently vulnerable to attack, and therefore an evolving arms race between those who exploit existing vulnerabilities in security systems and those who must then engineer new mechanisms of security.A number of security concerns have arisen in the recent years as increasing amounts of sensitive information at every level have found their primary existence in digital form. At the personal level, credit card fraud, internet fraud, and other forms of identity theft have become widespread concerns that individuals need to be aware of on a day-to-day basis. \nThe existence of large databases of classified information on computer networks is also changing the face of domestic and international politics. Cyber-warfare and cyber espionage is becoming of increasing importance to the national security and strategy of nations around the world, and it is estimated that 120 nations around the world are currently actively engaged in developing and deploying technology for these purposes.[28]Philosophies and internet cultures such as open-source governance, hacktivism, and the popular hacktivist slogan \"information wants to be free\" reflects some of the cultural shifts in perception towards political and government secrecy. The popular, controversial WikiLeaks is just one of many manifestations of a growing cultural sentiment that is becoming an additional challenge to the security and integrity of classified information.[29]","title":"Digital sensitive information"}]	[]	[{"title":"Espionage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionage"},{"title":"Federal Standard 1037C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Standard_1037C"},{"title":"National Information Systems Security Glossary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Information_Systems_Security_Glossary"},{"title":"Mandatory Access Control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Access_Control"},{"title":"Privacy protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_protocol"},{"title":"Information privacy law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_privacy_law"}]	[{"reference":"Mothersbaugh, David L.; Foxx, William K.; Beatty, Sharon E.; Wang, Sijun (2011-12-20). \"Disclosure Antecedents in an Online Service Context: The Role of Sensitivity of Information\". Journal of Service Research. 15 (1): 76–98. doi:10.1177/1094670511424924. ISSN 1094-6705. S2CID 168122924.","urls":[{"url":"http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094670511424924","url_text":"\"Disclosure Antecedents in an Online Service Context: The Role of Sensitivity of Information\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1094670511424924","url_text":"10.1177/1094670511424924"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1094-6705","url_text":"1094-6705"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:168122924","url_text":"168122924"}]},{"reference":"\"2.2 - Information Classification \| Unit 2 \| OCR Cambridge Technicals\". CSNewbs. Retrieved 2023-05-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.csnewbs.com/ctech-2-2-informationclassification","url_text":"\"2.2 - Information Classification \| Unit 2 \| OCR Cambridge Technicals\""}]},{"reference":"Rights (OCR), Office for Civil (2008-05-07). \"Your Rights Under HIPAA\". HHS.gov. Retrieved 2022-08-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-individuals/guidance-materials-for-consumers/index.html","url_text":"\"Your Rights Under HIPAA\""}]},{"reference":"Shelest, Dmytri (2024-02-07). \"What are data brokers? The secret economy of your personal information\". onerep. Retrieved 2024-04-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://onerep.com/blog/what-are-data-brokers-and-how-come-they-sell-your-info","url_text":"\"What are data brokers? The secret economy of your personal information\""}]},{"reference":"US EPA, OCSPP (2015-04-22). \"CBI Claims and Reviews Under TSCA\". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2023-03-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.epa.gov/tsca-cbi/cbi-claims-and-reviews-under-tsca","url_text":"\"CBI Claims and Reviews Under TSCA\""}]},{"reference":"\"Eyes-only\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thefreedictionary.com/eyes-only","url_text":"\"Eyes-only\""}]},{"reference":"Blackmer, W.S. (5 May 2016). \"GDPR: Getting Ready for the New EU General Data Protection Regulation\". Information Law Group. InfoLawGroup LLP. Archived from the original on 14 May 2018. Retrieved 22 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180514111300/https://www.infolawgroup.com/2016/05/articles/gdpr/gdpr-getting-ready-for-the-new-eu-general-data-protection-regulation/","url_text":"\"GDPR: Getting Ready for the New EU General Data Protection Regulation\""},{"url":"http://www.infolawgroup.com/2016/05/articles/gdpr/gdpr-getting-ready-for-the-new-eu-general-data-protection-regulation/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"New draft European data protection regime\". Law Patent Group. February 2, 2012. Retrieved January 9, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://hyp.is/oExZ4PVtEeefHEPs4cEz6w/www.mlawgroup.de/news/publications/detail.php","url_text":"\"New draft European data protection regime\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_Patent_Group&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Law Patent Group"}]},{"reference":"\"Methods for De-identification of PHI\". 7 September 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/privacy/special-topics/de-identification/index.html#standard","url_text":"\"Methods for De-identification of PHI\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Information+sensitivity%22","external_links_name":"\"Information sensitivity\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Information+sensitivity%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Information+sensitivity%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Information+sensitivity%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Information+sensitivity%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Information+sensitivity%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Information_sensitivity&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve this article"},{"Link":"http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094670511424924","external_links_name":"\"Disclosure Antecedents in an Online Service Context: The Role of Sensitivity of Information\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1094670511424924","external_links_name":"10.1177/1094670511424924"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1094-6705","external_links_name":"1094-6705"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:168122924","external_links_name":"168122924"},{"Link":"https://www.csnewbs.com/ctech-2-2-informationclassification","external_links_name":"\"2.2 - Information Classification \| Unit 2 \| OCR Cambridge Technicals\""},{"Link":"http://www.ipc.on.ca/english/access-to-information/accessing-public-information/","external_links_name":"\"Accessing Public Information\" Information and Privacy Commissioner, Ontario, Canada. Retrieved Feb. 11 2013."},{"Link":"http://www.democracyweb.org/accountability/principles.php","external_links_name":"\"Accountability and Transparency: Essential Principles\" Democracy Web. Retrieved Feb. 11, 2013."},{"Link":"https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-individuals/guidance-materials-for-consumers/index.html","external_links_name":"\"Your Rights Under HIPAA\""},{"Link":"https://onerep.com/blog/what-are-data-brokers-and-how-come-they-sell-your-info","external_links_name":"\"What are data brokers? 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Dehornoy	Patrick Dehornoy	["1 Early life and education","2 Career","3 Research","4 Awards","5 Selected publications","6 References","7 External links"]	French mathematician (1952–2019) Patrick DehornoyDehornoy in 2013Born(1952-09-11)11 September 1952Rouen, FranceDied4 September 2019(2019-09-04) (aged 66)Villejuif, FranceNationalityFrenchAlma materUniversity of ParisÉcole normale supérieureAwardsFerran Sunyer i Balaguer Prize (1999)Senior member of the Institut Universitaire de France (2002)Prix Langevin (2005)EMS Monograph Award (2014)Scientific careerFieldsMathematicsInstitutionsUniversity of Caen NormandyFrench National Centre for Scientific ResearchDoctoral advisorKenneth Walter McAloon Patrick Dehornoy (11 September 1952 – 4 September 2019) was a mathematician at the University of Caen Normandy who worked on set theory and group theory. Early life and education Dehornoy was born on 11 September 1952 in Rouen, France. He graduated from the Lycée Pierre-Corneille in 1971. He studied at the École normale supérieure from 1971 to 1975 and completed his Ph.D. in 1978 at the University of Paris, with a thesis written under the direction of Kenneth Walter McAloon. Career Dehornoy was a researcher at the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) from 1975 to 1982. He was at the University of Caen Normandy as a Professor from 1983 to 2017 and as an Emeritus Professor from 2017 until his death. From 2009 to 2013, he was an adjunct scientific director of the Institut national des sciences mathématiques et de leurs interactions (INSMI) at the CNRS. Dehornoy died on 4 September 2019 in Villejuif, France at the age of 66. Research Dehornoy found one of the first applications of large cardinals to algebra by constructing a certain left-invariant total order, called the Dehornoy order, on the braid group. In his later career, he was a major contributor to the theory of braid groups, including creating a fast algorithm for comparing braids, and was one of the main contributors to the development of Garside methods. Awards In 1999, Dehornoy received the Ferran Sunyer i Balaguer Prize. In 2002, he was elected a senior member of the Institut Universitaire de France (renewed in 2007). In 2005, he received the Prix Langevin of the French Academy of Sciences. In 2014, he received the EMS Monograph Award for his book Foundations of Garside Theory. Selected publications Dehornoy, Patrick (1994), "Braid groups and left distributive operations", Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, 345 (1): 115–150, doi:10.2307/2154598, ISSN 0002-9947, JSTOR 2154598, MR 1214782 Dehornoy, Patrick (1995), "From large cardinals to braids via distributive algebra", Journal of Knot Theory and Its Ramifications, 4 (1): 33–79, doi:10.1142/S0218216595000041, ISSN 0218-2165, MR 1321290 Dehornoy, Patrick; Dynnikov, Ivan; Rolfsen, Dale; Wiest, Bert (2008), Ordering braids, Mathematical Surveys and Monographs, vol. 148, Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, ISBN 978-0-8218-4431-1, MR 2463428 Dehornoy, Patrick; Digne, François; Godelle, Eddy; Krammer, Daan; Michel, Jean (2015), Foundations of Garside theory, EMS Tracts in Mathematics, vol. 22, Zürich: European Mathematical Society, ISBN 978-3-03719-139-2, MR 3362691 Dehornoy, Patrick (2017), "Multifraction reduction (II): conjectures for Artin–Tits groups", Journal of Combinatorial Algebra , 1 (3): 229–287, arXiv:1606.08995, doi:10.4171/JCA/1-3-1, ISSN 2415-6302, MR 3681576, S2CID 119604700 References ^ a b c d e f g h i j "CV, tâches d'animation de la recherche". Centre national de la recherche scientifique (in French). Archived from the original on 31 December 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2020. ^ Patrick Dehornoy at the Mathematics Genealogy Project ^ a b "Décès de Patrick Dehornoy \| Société Mathématique de France". smf.emath.fr. Retrieved 31 December 2020. ^ Dehornoy, Patrick (1994), "Braid groups and left distributive operations", Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, 345 (1): 115–150, doi:10.2307/2154598, ISSN 0002-9947, JSTOR 2154598, MR 1214782 ^ Dehornoy, Patrick (10 February 1997). "A Fast Method for Comparing Braids". Advances in Mathematics. 125 (2): 200–235. doi:10.1006/aima.1997.1605. External links "Home page of Patrick Dehornoy". Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National France BnF data Catalonia Germany Italy Israel United States Sweden Netherlands Academics DBLP MathSciNet Mathematics Genealogy Project ORCID PhilPeople zbMATH Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Caen Normandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Caen_Normandy"},{"link_name":"set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_theory"},{"link_name":"group theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_theory"}],"text":"Patrick Dehornoy (11 September 1952 – 4 September 2019) was a mathematician at the University of Caen Normandy who worked on set theory and group theory.","title":"Patrick Dehornoy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rouen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouen"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CV-1"},{"link_name":"Lycée Pierre-Corneille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyc%C3%A9e_Pierre-Corneille"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CV-1"},{"link_name":"École normale supérieure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_normale_sup%C3%A9rieure_(Paris)"},{"link_name":"Ph.D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph.D."},{"link_name":"University of Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CV-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Dehornoy was born on 11 September 1952 in Rouen, France.[1] He graduated from the Lycée Pierre-Corneille in 1971.[1] He studied at the École normale supérieure from 1971 to 1975 and completed his Ph.D. in 1978 at the University of Paris, with a thesis written under the direction of Kenneth Walter McAloon.[1][2]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"French National Centre for Scientific Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_National_Centre_for_Scientific_Research"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CV-1"},{"link_name":"University of Caen Normandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Caen_Normandy"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CV-1"},{"link_name":"Institut national des sciences mathématiques et de leurs interactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Institut_national_des_sciences_math%C3%A9matiques_et_de_leurs_interactions&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_national_des_sciences_math%C3%A9matiques_et_de_leurs_interactions"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CV-1"},{"link_name":"Villejuif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villejuif"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SMF-obit-3"}],"text":"Dehornoy was a researcher at the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) from 1975 to 1982.[1] He was at the University of Caen Normandy as a Professor from 1983 to 2017 and as an Emeritus Professor from 2017 until his death.[1] From 2009 to 2013, he was an adjunct scientific director of the Institut national des sciences mathématiques et de leurs interactions [fr] (INSMI) at the CNRS.[1] Dehornoy died on 4 September 2019 in Villejuif, France at the age of 66.[3]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"large cardinals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_cardinal"},{"link_name":"total order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_order"},{"link_name":"Dehornoy order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehornoy_order"},{"link_name":"braid group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braid_group"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dehornoy_1997-5"},{"link_name":"Garside methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garside_element"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SMF-obit-3"}],"text":"Dehornoy found one of the first applications of large cardinals to algebra by constructing a certain left-invariant total order, called the Dehornoy order, on the braid group.[4] In his later career, he was a major contributor to the theory of braid groups, including creating a fast algorithm for comparing braids,[5] and was one of the main contributors to the development of Garside methods.[3]","title":"Research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ferran Sunyer i Balaguer Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferran_Sunyer_i_Balaguer_Prize"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CV-1"},{"link_name":"Institut Universitaire de France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_Universitaire_de_France"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CV-1"},{"link_name":"Prix Langevin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prix_Langevin&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prix_Langevin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CV-1"},{"link_name":"EMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Mathematical_Society"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CV-1"}],"text":"In 1999, Dehornoy received the Ferran Sunyer i Balaguer Prize.[1] In 2002, he was elected a senior member of the Institut Universitaire de France (renewed in 2007).[1] In 2005, he received the Prix Langevin [fr] of the French Academy of Sciences.[1] In 2014, he received the EMS Monograph Award for his book Foundations of Garside Theory.[1]","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Transactions of the American Mathematical 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Patrick (1994), \"Braid groups and left distributive operations\", Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, 345 (1): 115–150, doi:10.2307/2154598, ISSN 0002-9947, JSTOR 2154598, MR 1214782\nDehornoy, Patrick (1995), \"From large cardinals to braids via distributive algebra\", Journal of Knot Theory and Its Ramifications, 4 (1): 33–79, doi:10.1142/S0218216595000041, ISSN 0218-2165, MR 1321290\nDehornoy, Patrick; Dynnikov, Ivan; Rolfsen, Dale; Wiest, Bert (2008), Ordering braids, Mathematical Surveys and Monographs, vol. 148, Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, ISBN 978-0-8218-4431-1, MR 2463428\nDehornoy, Patrick; Digne, François; Godelle, Eddy; Krammer, Daan; Michel, Jean (2015), Foundations of Garside theory, EMS Tracts in Mathematics, vol. 22, Zürich: European Mathematical Society, ISBN 978-3-03719-139-2, MR 3362691\nDehornoy, Patrick (2017), \"Multifraction reduction (II): conjectures for Artin–Tits groups\", Journal of Combinatorial Algebra [fr], 1 (3): 229–287, arXiv:1606.08995, doi:10.4171/JCA/1-3-1, ISSN 2415-6302, MR 3681576, S2CID 119604700","title":"Selected publications"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Dehornoy, Patrick (1994), \"Braid groups and left distributive operations\", Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, 345 (1): 115–150, doi:10.2307/2154598, ISSN 0002-9947, JSTOR 2154598, MR 1214782","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactions_of_the_American_Mathematical_Society","url_text":"Transactions of the American Mathematical 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Retrieved 31 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://smf.emath.fr/actualites-smf/deces-de-patrick-dehornoy","url_text":"\"Décès de Patrick Dehornoy \| Société Mathématique de France\""}]},{"reference":"Dehornoy, Patrick (1994), \"Braid groups and left distributive operations\", Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, 345 (1): 115–150, doi:10.2307/2154598, ISSN 0002-9947, JSTOR 2154598, MR 1214782","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactions_of_the_American_Mathematical_Society","url_text":"Transactions of the American Mathematical Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2154598","url_text":"10.2307/2154598"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9947","url_text":"0002-9947"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2154598","url_text":"2154598"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1214782","url_text":"1214782"}]},{"reference":"Dehornoy, Patrick (10 February 1997). \"A Fast Method for Comparing Braids\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPEG-7	MPEG-7	["1 Introduction","2 Parts","3 Relation between description and content","4 MPEG-7 tools","5 MPEG-7 applications","6 See also","7 Limitations","8 Compare","9 References","10 External links"]	MPEG-7 is a multimedia content description standard. It was standardized in ISO/IEC 15938 (Multimedia content description interface). This description will be associated with the content itself, to allow fast and efficient searching for material that is of interest to the user. MPEG-7 is formally called Multimedia Content Description Interface. Thus, it is not a standard which deals with the actual encoding of moving pictures and audio, like MPEG-1, MPEG-2 and MPEG-4. It uses XML to store metadata, and can be attached to timecode in order to tag particular events, or synchronise lyrics to a song, for example. It was designed to standardize: a set of Description Schemes ("DS") and Descriptors ("D") a language to specify these schemes, called the Description Definition Language ("DDL") a scheme for coding the description The combination of MPEG-4 and MPEG-7 has been sometimes referred to as MPEG-47. Introduction MPEG-7 is intended to complement the previous MPEG standards, by standardizing multimedia metadata -- information about the content, not the content itself. MPEG-7 can be used independently of the other MPEG standards - the description might even be attached to an analog movie. The representation that is defined within MPEG-4, i.e. the representation of audio-visual data in terms of objects, is however very well suited to what will be built on the MPEG-7 standard. This representation is basic to the process of categorization. In addition, MPEG-7 descriptions could be used to improve the functionality of previous MPEG standards. With these tools, we can build an MPEG-7 Description and deploy it. According to the requirements document,1 "a Description consists of a Description Scheme (structure) and the set of Descriptor Values (instantiations) that describe the Data." A Descriptor Value is "an instantiation of a Descriptor for a given data set (or subset thereof)." The Descriptor is the syntactic and semantic definition of the content. Extraction algorithms are inside the scope of the standard because their standardization is not required to allow interoperability. Parts The MPEG-7 (ISO/IEC 15938) consists of different Parts. Each part covers a certain aspect of the whole specification. MPEG-7 Parts Part Number First public release date (First edition) Latest public release date (edition) Latest amendment Title Description Part 1 ISO/IEC 15938-1 2002 2002 2006 Systems the architectural framework of MPEG-7, the carriage of MPEG-7 content - TeM (Textual format for MPEG-7) and the binary format for MPEG-7 descriptions (BiM) Part 2 ISO/IEC 15938-2 2002 2002 Description definition language Part 3 ISO/IEC 15938-3 2002 2002 2010 Visual Part 4 ISO/IEC 15938-4 2002 2002 2006 Audio Part 5 ISO/IEC 15938-5 2003 2003 2015 Multimedia description schemes Part 6 ISO/IEC 15938-6 2003 2003 2011 Reference software Part 7 ISO/IEC 15938-7 2003 2003 2011 Conformance testing Part 8 ISO/IEC TR 15938-8 2002 2002 2011 Extraction and use of MPEG-7 descriptions Part 9 ISO/IEC 15938-9 2005 2005 2012 Profiles and levels Part 10 ISO/IEC 15938-10 2005 2005 Schema definition Part 11 ISO/IEC TR 15938-11 2005 2005 2012 MPEG-7 profile schemas Part 12 ISO/IEC 15938-12 2008 2012 Query format Part 13 ISO/IEC 15938-13 2015 2015 Compact descriptors for visual search Relation between description and content Independence between description and content An MPEG-7 architecture requirement is that description must be separate from the audiovisual content. On the other hand, there must be a relation between the content and description. Thus the description is multiplexed with the content itself. On the right side you can see this relation between description and content. MPEG-7 tools Relation between different tools and elaboration process of MPEG-7 MPEG-7 uses the following tools: Descriptor (D): It is a representation of a feature defined syntactically and semantically. It could be that a unique object was described by several descriptors. Description Schemes (DS): Specify the structure and semantics of the relations between its components, these components can be descriptors (D) or description schemes (DS). Description Definition Language (DDL): It is based on XML language used to define the structural relations between descriptors. It allows the creation and modification of description schemes and also the creation of new descriptors (D). System tools: These tools deal with binarization, synchronization, transport and storage of descriptors. It also deals with Intellectual Property protection. On the right side you can see the relation between MPEG-7 tools. MPEG-7 applications There are many applications and application domains which will benefit from the MPEG-7 standard. A few application examples are: Digital library: Image/video catalogue, musical dictionary. Multimedia directory services: e.g. yellow pages. Broadcast media selection: Radio channel, TV channel. Multimedia editing: Personalized electronic news service, media authoring. Security services: Traffic control, production chains... E-business: Searching process of products. Cultural services: Art-galleries, museums... Educational applications. Biomedical applications. Intelligent multimedia applications that leverage low-level multimedia semantics via formal representation and automated reasoning. See also Exif ID3 Metadata standards MPEG-4 Part 11 – Scene description and application engine Multimedia information retrieval Query by humming Limitations The MPEG-7 standard was originally written in XML Schema (XSD), which constitutes semi-structured data. For example, the running time of a movie annotated using MPEG-7 in XML is machine-readable data, so software agents will know that the number expressing the running time is a positive integer, but such data is not machine-interpretable (cannot be understood by agents), because it does not convey semantics (meaning), known as the "Semantic Gap." To address this issue, there were many attempts to map the MPEG-7 XML Schema to the Web Ontology Language (OWL), which is a structured data equivalent of the terms of the MPEG-7 standard (MPEG-7Ontos, COMM, SWIntO, etc.). However, these mappings did not really bridge the "Semantic Gap," because low-level video features alone are inadequate for representing video semantics. In other words, annotating an automatically extracted video feature, such as color distribution, does not provide the meaning of the actual visual content. Compare Material Exchange Format (MXF), a container format for professional digital video and audio media defined by SMPTE. References B.S. Manjunath (Editor), Philippe Salembier (Editor), and Thomas Sikora (Editor): Introduction to MPEG-7: Multimedia Content Description Interface. Wiley & Sons, April 2002 - ISBN 0-471-48678-7 Harald Kosch: Distributed Multimedia Database Technologies Supported by MPEG-7 and MPEG-21. CRC Press, January 2004 - ISBN 0-8493-1854-8 Giorgos Stamou (Editor) and Stefanos Kollias (Editor): Multimedia Content and the Semantic Web: Standards, Methods and Tools. Wiley & Sons, May 2005 - ISBN 0-470-85753-6 Hyoung-Gook Kim, Nicolas Moreau, and Thomas Sikora: MPEG-7 Audio and Beyond: Audio Content Indexing and Retrieval. Wiley & Sons, October 2005 - ISBN 0-470-09334-X ^ ISO. "ISO/IEC 15938-1:2002 - Information technology -- Multimedia content description interface -- Part 1: Systems". Retrieved 2009-10-31. ^ MPEG. "About MPEG - Achievements". chiariglione.org. Archived from the original on July 8, 2008. Retrieved 2009-10-31. ^ MPEG. "Terms of Reference". chiariglione.org. Archived from the original on February 21, 2010. Retrieved 2009-10-31. ^ a b MPEG. "MPEG standards - Full list of standards developed or under development". chiariglione.org. Archived from the original on April 20, 2010. Retrieved 2009-10-31. ^ NetworkDictionary. "Complete Protocol dictionary, glossary and reference - M". Archived from the original on 2010-01-01. Retrieved 2009-12-26. ^ ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 29 (2009-10-30). "MPEG-7 (Multimedia content description interface)". Archived from the original on 2013-12-31. Retrieved 2009-11-10.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ ISO/IEC JTC1/SC29/WG11 (October 2004). "MPEG-7 Overview (version 10)". chiariglione.org. Retrieved 2009-11-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ "MPEG-7 Ontology". Retrieved 29 June 2017. ^ Sikos, Leslie F.; Powers, David M.W. (2015). "Knowledge-Driven Video Information Retrieval with LOD". Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop on Exploiting Semantic Annotations in Information Retrieval. pp. 35–37. doi:10.1145/2810133.2810141. ISBN 9781450337908. S2CID 16544890. ^ Boll, Susanne; Klas, Wolfgang; Sheth, Amit (1998). "Overview on Using Metadata to Manage Multimedia Data". Using Metadata to Integrate and Apply Digital Media. McGraw-Hill. p. 3. ISBN 978-0070577350. External links MPEG-7 Overview MPEG-7/-21 Community Portal vteMPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group) MPEG-1 2 3 4 7 21 A B C D E G V M U H I 5 MPEG-1 Parts Part 1: Systems Program stream Part 2: Video based on H.261 Part 3: Audio Layer I Layer II Layer III MPEG-2 Parts Part 1: Systems (H.222.0) Transport stream Program stream Part 2: Video (H.262) Part 3: Audio Layer I Layer II Layer III MPEG Multichannel Part 6: DSM CC Part 7: Advanced Audio Coding MPEG-4 Parts Part 2: Video based on H.263 Part 3: Audio Part 6: DMIF Part 10: Advanced Video Coding (H.264) Part 11: Scene description Part 12: ISO base media file format Part 14: MP4 file format Part 17: Streaming text format Part 20: LASeR Part 22: Open Font Format Part 33: Internet Video Coding MPEG-7 Parts Part 2: Description definition language MPEG-21 Parts Parts 2, 3 and 9: Digital Item Part 5: Rights Expression Language MPEG-D Parts Part 1: MPEG Surround Part 3: Unified Speech and Audio Coding MPEG-G Parts Part 1: Transport and Storage of Genomic Information Part 2: Coding of Genomic Information Part 3: APIs Part 4: Reference Software Part 5: Conformance MPEG-H Parts Part 1: MPEG media transport Part 2: High Efficiency Video Coding (H.265) Part 3: MPEG-H 3D Audio Part 12: High Efficiency Image File Format MPEG-I Parts Part 3: Versatile Video Coding (H.266) MPEG-5 Parts Part 1: Essential Video Coding Part 2: Low Complexity Enhancement Video Coding OtherMPEG-DASH vteMultimedia compression and container formatsVideocompressionISO, IEC, MPEG DV MJPEG Motion JPEG 2000 MPEG-1 MPEG-2 Part 2 MPEG-4 Part 2 / ASP Part 10 / AVC Part 33 / IVC MPEG-H Part 2 / HEVC MPEG-I Part 3 / VVC MPEG-5 Part 1 / EVC Part 2 / LCEVC ITU-T, VCEG H.120 H.261 H.262 H.263 H.264 / AVC H.265 / HEVC H.266 / VVC SMPTE VC-1 VC-2 VC-3 VC-5 VC-6 TrueMotion TrueMotion S VP3 VP6 VP7 VP8 VP9 AV1 Others Apple Video AVS Bink Cinepak Daala DVI FFV1 Huffyuv Indeo Lagarith Microsoft Video 1 MSU Lossless OMS Video Pixlet ProRes 422 4444 QuickTime Animation Graphics RealVideo RTVideo SheerVideo Smacker Sorenson Video/Spark Theora Thor Ut WMV XEB YULS AudiocompressionISO, IEC, MPEG MPEG-1 Layer II Multichannel MPEG-1 Layer I MPEG-1 Layer III (MP3) AAC HE-AAC AAC-LD MPEG Surround MPEG-4 ALS MPEG-4 SLS MPEG-4 DST MPEG-4 HVXC MPEG-4 CELP MPEG-D USAC MPEG-H 3D Audio ITU-T G.711 A-law µ-law G.718 G.719 G.722 G.722.1 G.722.2 G.723 G.723.1 G.726 G.728 G.729 G.729.1 IETF Opus iLBC Speex Vorbis 3GPP AMR AMR-WB AMR-WB+ EVRC EVRC-B EVS GSM-HR GSM-FR GSM-EFR ETSI AC-3 AC-4 DTS Bluetooth SIG SBC LC3 Others ACELP ALAC Asao ATRAC AVS CELT Codec 2 DRA FLAC iSAC Lyra MELP Monkey's Audio MT9 Musepack OptimFROG OSQ QCELP RCELP RealAudio RTAudio SD2 SHN SILK Siren SMV SVOPC TTA True Audio TwinVQ VMR-WB VSELP WavPack WMA MQA aptX aptX HD aptX Low Latency aptX Adaptive LDAC LHDC LLAC L2HC ImagecompressionIEC, ISO, IETF, W3C, ITU-T, JPEG CCITT Group 4 GIF HEIC / HEIF HEVC JBIG JBIG2 JPEG JPEG 2000 JPEG-LS JPEG XL JPEG XR JPEG XS JPEG XT PNG TIFF TIFF/EP TIFF/IT Others APNG AV1 AVIF BPG DjVu EXR FLIF ICER MNG PGF QOI QTVR WBMP WebP ContainersISO, IEC MPEG-ES MPEG-PES MPEG-PS MPEG-TS ISO/IEC base media file format MPEG-4 Part 14 (MP4) Motion JPEG 2000 MPEG-21 Part 9 MPEG media transport ITU-T H.222.0 T.802 IETF RTP Ogg SMPTE GXF MXF Others 3GP and 3G2 AMV ASF AIFF AVI AU BPG Bink Smacker BMP DivX Media Format EVO Flash Video HEIF IFF M2TS Matroska WebM QuickTime File Format RatDVD RealMedia RIFF WAV MOD and TOD VOB, IFO and BUP Collaborations NETVC MPEG LA Alliance for Open Media Methods Entropy Arithmetic Huffman Modified LPC ACELP CELP LSP WLPC Lossless Lossy LZ DEFLATE LZW PCM A-law µ-law ADPCM DPCM Transforms DCT FFT MDCT Wavelet Daubechies DWT Lists Comparison of audio coding formats Comparison of video codecs List of codecs See Compression methods for techniques and Compression software for codecs vteIEC standardsIEC 60027 60034 60038 60062 60063 60068 60112 60228 60269 60297 60309 60320 60364 60446 60559 60601 60870 60870-5 60870-6 60906-1 60908 60929 60958 61030 61131 61131-3 61131-9 61158 61162 61334 61355 61360 61400 61499 61508 61511 61784 61850 61851 61883 61960 61968 61970 62014-4 62026 62056 62061 62196 62262 62264 62304 62325 62351 62365 62366 62379 62386 62455 62680 62682 62700 63110 63119 63382 ISO/IEC 646 1989 2022 4909 5218 6429 6523 7810 7811 7812 7813 7816 7942 8613 8632 8652 8859 9126 9293 9496 9529 9592 9593 9899 9945 9995 10021 10116 10165 10179 10279 10646 10967 11172 11179 11404 11544 11801 12207 13250 13346 13522-5 13568 13816 13818 14443 14496 14651 14882 15288 15291 15408 15444 15445 15504 15511 15693 15897 15938 16262 16485 17024 17025 18004 18014 18181 19752 19757 19770 19788 20000 20802 21000 21827 22275 22537 23000 23003 23008 23270 23360 24707 24727 24744 24752 26300 27000 27000-series 27002 27040 29110 29119 33001 38500 39075 42010 80000 81346 Related International Electrotechnical Commission	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Description Definition Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Description_Definition_Language"},{"link_name":"MPEG-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPEG-4"},{"link_name":"MPEG-47","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPEG-47"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"It was designed to standardize:a set of Description Schemes (\"DS\") and Descriptors (\"D\")\na language to specify these schemes, called the Description Definition Language (\"DDL\")\na scheme for coding the descriptionThe combination of MPEG-4 and MPEG-7 has been sometimes referred to as MPEG-47.[5]","title":"MPEG-7"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MPEG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPEG"}],"text":"MPEG-7 is intended to complement the previous MPEG standards, by standardizing multimedia metadata -- information about the content, not the content itself. MPEG-7 can be used independently of the other MPEG standards - the description might even be attached to an analog movie. The representation that is defined within MPEG-4, i.e. the representation of audio-visual data in terms of objects, is however very well suited to what will be built on the MPEG-7 standard. This representation is basic to the process of categorization. In addition, MPEG-7 descriptions could be used to improve the functionality of previous MPEG standards. With these tools, we can build an MPEG-7 Description and deploy it. According to the requirements document,1 \"a Description consists of a Description Scheme (structure) and the\nset of Descriptor Values (instantiations) that\ndescribe the Data.\" A Descriptor Value is \"an instantiation of a Descriptor for a given data set (or subset thereof).\"\nThe Descriptor is the syntactic and semantic definition of the content.\nExtraction algorithms are inside the scope of the standard because their standardization is not required to allow interoperability.","title":"Introduction"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The MPEG-7 (ISO/IEC 15938) consists of different Parts. Each part covers a certain aspect of the whole specification.","title":"Parts"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mpeg7image1.svg"}],"text":"Independence between description and contentAn MPEG-7 architecture requirement is that description must be separate from the audiovisual content.On the other hand, there must be a relation between the content and description. Thus the description is multiplexed with the content itself.On the right side you can see this relation between description and content.","title":"Relation between description and content"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mpeg7image2.svg"},{"link_name":"Description Definition Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Description_Definition_Language"},{"link_name":"Intellectual Property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_Property"}],"text":"Relation between different tools and elaboration process of MPEG-7MPEG-7 uses the following tools:Descriptor (D): It is a representation of a feature defined syntactically and semantically. It could be that a unique object was described by several descriptors.\nDescription Schemes (DS): Specify the structure and semantics of the relations between its components, these components can be descriptors (D) or description schemes (DS).\nDescription Definition Language (DDL): It is based on XML language used to define the structural relations between descriptors. It allows the creation and modification of description schemes and also the creation of new descriptors (D).\nSystem tools: These tools deal with binarization, synchronization, transport and storage of descriptors. It also deals with Intellectual Property protection.On the right side you can see the relation between MPEG-7 tools.","title":"MPEG-7 tools"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Digital library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_library"},{"link_name":"Intelligent multimedia applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"semantics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"formal representation and automated reasoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"There are many applications and application domains which will benefit from the MPEG-7 standard. A few application examples are:Digital library: Image/video catalogue, musical dictionary.\nMultimedia directory services: e.g. yellow pages.\nBroadcast media selection: Radio channel, TV channel.\nMultimedia editing: Personalized electronic news service, media authoring.\nSecurity services: Traffic control, production chains...\nE-business: Searching process of products.\nCultural services: Art-galleries, museums...\nEducational applications.\nBiomedical applications.\nIntelligent multimedia applications that leverage low-level multimedia semantics via formal representation and automated reasoning.[8]","title":"MPEG-7 applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"XML Schema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_Schema_(W3C)"},{"link_name":"semi-structured data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-structured_data"},{"link_name":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"},{"link_name":"machine-readable data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine-readable_data"},{"link_name":"semantics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics"},{"link_name":"Semantic Gap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_gap"},{"link_name":"XML Schema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_Schema_(W3C)"},{"link_name":"Web Ontology Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Ontology_Language"},{"link_name":"structured data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_data"},{"link_name":"Semantic Gap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_gap"},{"link_name":"low-level video features","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_extraction#Low-level"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SikosPowers2015-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BollKlasSheth1998-10"}],"text":"The MPEG-7 standard was originally written in XML Schema (XSD), which constitutes semi-structured data. For example, the running time of a movie annotated using MPEG-7 in XML is machine-readable data, so software agents will know that the number expressing the running time is a positive integer, but such data is not machine-interpretable (cannot be understood by agents), because it does not convey semantics (meaning), known as the \"Semantic Gap.\" To address this issue, there were many attempts to map the MPEG-7 XML Schema to the Web Ontology Language (OWL), which is a structured data equivalent of the terms of the MPEG-7 standard (MPEG-7Ontos, COMM, SWIntO, etc.). However, these mappings did not really bridge the \"Semantic Gap,\" because low-level video features alone are inadequate for representing video semantics.[9] In other words, annotating an automatically extracted video feature, such as color distribution, does not provide the meaning of the actual visual content.[10]","title":"Limitations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Material Exchange Format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_Exchange_Format"},{"link_name":"SMPTE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMPTE"}],"text":"Material Exchange Format (MXF), a container format for professional digital video and audio media defined by SMPTE.","title":"Compare"}]	[{"image_text":"Independence between description and content","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Mpeg7image1.svg/350px-Mpeg7image1.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Relation between different tools and elaboration process of MPEG-7","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Mpeg7image2.svg/350px-Mpeg7image2.svg.png"}]	[{"title":"Exif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exif"},{"title":"ID3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ID3"},{"title":"Metadata standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadata_standards"},{"title":"MPEG-4 Part 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPEG-4_Part_11"},{"title":"Multimedia information retrieval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia_information_retrieval"},{"title":"Query by humming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Query_by_humming"}]	[{"reference":"ISO. \"ISO/IEC 15938-1:2002 - Information technology -- Multimedia content description interface -- Part 1: Systems\". Retrieved 2009-10-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iso.org/standard/34228.html","url_text":"\"ISO/IEC 15938-1:2002 - Information technology -- Multimedia content description interface -- Part 1: Systems\""}]},{"reference":"MPEG. \"About MPEG - Achievements\". chiariglione.org. Archived from the original on July 8, 2008. Retrieved 2009-10-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080708183405/http://mpeg.chiariglione.org/achievements.htm","url_text":"\"About MPEG - Achievements\""},{"url":"http://mpeg.chiariglione.org/achievements.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"MPEG. \"Terms of Reference\". chiariglione.org. Archived from the original on February 21, 2010. Retrieved 2009-10-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100221015538/http://mpeg.chiariglione.org/terms_of_reference.htm","url_text":"\"Terms of Reference\""},{"url":"http://mpeg.chiariglione.org/terms_of_reference.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"MPEG. \"MPEG standards - Full list of standards developed or under development\". chiariglione.org. Archived from the original on April 20, 2010. Retrieved 2009-10-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100420192552/http://mpeg.chiariglione.org/standards.htm","url_text":"\"MPEG standards - Full list of standards developed or under development\""},{"url":"http://mpeg.chiariglione.org/standards.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"NetworkDictionary. \"Complete Protocol dictionary, glossary and reference - M\". Archived from the original on 2010-01-01. Retrieved 2009-12-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100101222717/http://networkdictionary.com/protocols/m.php","url_text":"\"Complete Protocol dictionary, glossary and reference - M\""},{"url":"http://www.networkdictionary.com/protocols/m.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 29 (2009-10-30). \"MPEG-7 (Multimedia content description interface)\". Archived from the original on 2013-12-31. Retrieved 2009-11-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131231054907/http://kikaku.itscj.ipsj.or.jp/sc29/29w42911.htm","url_text":"\"MPEG-7 (Multimedia content description interface)\""},{"url":"http://kikaku.itscj.ipsj.or.jp/sc29/29w42911.htm#MPEG-7","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"ISO/IEC JTC1/SC29/WG11 (October 2004). \"MPEG-7 Overview (version 10)\". chiariglione.org. Retrieved 2009-11-01.","urls":[{"url":"http://mpeg.chiariglione.org/standards/mpeg-7/mpeg-7.htm","url_text":"\"MPEG-7 Overview (version 10)\""}]},{"reference":"\"MPEG-7 Ontology\". Retrieved 29 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://mpeg7.org/","url_text":"\"MPEG-7 Ontology\""}]},{"reference":"Sikos, Leslie F.; Powers, David M.W. (2015). \"Knowledge-Driven Video Information Retrieval with LOD\". Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop on Exploiting Semantic Annotations in Information Retrieval. pp. 35–37. doi:10.1145/2810133.2810141. ISBN 9781450337908. S2CID 16544890.","urls":[{"url":"https://unisa.alma.exlibrisgroup.com/view/delivery/61USOUTHAUS_INST/12165439490001831","url_text":"Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop on Exploiting Semantic Annotations in Information Retrieval"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2810133.2810141","url_text":"10.1145/2810133.2810141"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781450337908","url_text":"9781450337908"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16544890","url_text":"16544890"}]},{"reference":"Boll, Susanne; Klas, Wolfgang; Sheth, Amit (1998). \"Overview on Using Metadata to Manage Multimedia Data\". Using Metadata to Integrate and Apply Digital Media. McGraw-Hill. p. 3. ISBN 978-0070577350.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/multimediadatama0000unse/page/3","url_text":"\"Overview on Using Metadata to Manage Multimedia Data\""},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/multimediadatama0000unse/page/3","url_text":"3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0070577350","url_text":"978-0070577350"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.iso.org/standard/34228.html","external_links_name":"ISO/IEC 15938-1"},{"Link":"https://www.iso.org/standard/34229.html","external_links_name":"ISO/IEC 15938-2"},{"Link":"https://www.iso.org/standard/34230.html","external_links_name":"ISO/IEC 15938-3"},{"Link":"https://www.iso.org/standard/34231.html","external_links_name":"ISO/IEC 15938-4"},{"Link":"https://www.iso.org/standard/34232.html","external_links_name":"ISO/IEC 15938-5"},{"Link":"https://www.iso.org/standard/35364.html","external_links_name":"ISO/IEC 15938-6"},{"Link":"https://www.iso.org/standard/35365.html","external_links_name":"ISO/IEC 15938-7"},{"Link":"https://www.iso.org/standard/37778.html","external_links_name":"ISO/IEC TR 15938-8"},{"Link":"https://www.iso.org/standard/40392.html","external_links_name":"ISO/IEC 15938-9"},{"Link":"https://www.iso.org/standard/40527.html","external_links_name":"ISO/IEC 15938-10"},{"Link":"https://www.iso.org/standard/42114.html","external_links_name":"ISO/IEC TR 15938-11"},{"Link":"https://www.iso.org/standard/61195.html","external_links_name":"ISO/IEC 15938-12"},{"Link":"https://www.iso.org/standard/65393.html","external_links_name":"ISO/IEC 15938-13"},{"Link":"https://www.iso.org/standard/34228.html","external_links_name":"\"ISO/IEC 15938-1:2002 - Information technology -- Multimedia content description interface -- Part 1: Systems\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080708183405/http://mpeg.chiariglione.org/achievements.htm","external_links_name":"\"About MPEG - Achievements\""},{"Link":"http://mpeg.chiariglione.org/achievements.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100221015538/http://mpeg.chiariglione.org/terms_of_reference.htm","external_links_name":"\"Terms of Reference\""},{"Link":"http://mpeg.chiariglione.org/terms_of_reference.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100420192552/http://mpeg.chiariglione.org/standards.htm","external_links_name":"\"MPEG standards - Full list of standards developed or under development\""},{"Link":"http://mpeg.chiariglione.org/standards.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100101222717/http://networkdictionary.com/protocols/m.php","external_links_name":"\"Complete Protocol dictionary, glossary and reference - M\""},{"Link":"http://www.networkdictionary.com/protocols/m.php","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131231054907/http://kikaku.itscj.ipsj.or.jp/sc29/29w42911.htm","external_links_name":"\"MPEG-7 (Multimedia content description interface)\""},{"Link":"http://kikaku.itscj.ipsj.or.jp/sc29/29w42911.htm#MPEG-7","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://mpeg.chiariglione.org/standards/mpeg-7/mpeg-7.htm","external_links_name":"\"MPEG-7 Overview (version 10)\""},{"Link":"http://mpeg7.org/","external_links_name":"\"MPEG-7 Ontology\""},{"Link":"https://unisa.alma.exlibrisgroup.com/view/delivery/61USOUTHAUS_INST/12165439490001831","external_links_name":"Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop on Exploiting Semantic Annotations in Information Retrieval"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2810133.2810141","external_links_name":"10.1145/2810133.2810141"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16544890","external_links_name":"16544890"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/multimediadatama0000unse/page/3","external_links_name":"\"Overview on Using Metadata to Manage Multimedia Data\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/multimediadatama0000unse/page/3","external_links_name":"3"},{"Link":"http://mpeg.chiariglione.org/standards/mpeg-7/mpeg-7.htm","external_links_name":"MPEG-7 Overview"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170930084356/http://www.multimedia-metadata.info/","external_links_name":"MPEG-7/-21 Community Portal"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_University_of_Rio_de_Janeiro	Federal University of Rio de Janeiro	["1 History","1.1 Creation","1.2 Restructuring","1.3 Present day","2 Organization","2.1 Administration","3 Notable Rectors","3.1 Statistics & Heritage","4 Structure","4.1 University Centers","4.2 Units and supplementary organs","4.3 Libraries and museums","4.4 Health complex","5 Campuses","5.1 Rio de Janeiro","5.2 Duque de Caxias","5.3 Macaé","5.4 E-learning poles","6 Academics","6.1 Undergraduate courses","6.2 Postgraduate courses","7 Students","7.1 Admissions","7.2 Notable alumni","7.3 Student unions","8 Technological Park of Rio","9 Projects","9.1 UFRJ Newspaper","9.2 UFRJ Sea","9.3 Getting to Know UFRJ","9.4 Plant Waves","9.5 MagLev Cobra","9.6 LabOceano","10 Institutions","11 See also","12 Notes","13 References","14 External links"]	Coordinates: 22°51′45″S 43°13′26″W / 22.86250°S 43.22389°W / -22.86250; -43.22389Public university in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil"University of Rio de Janeiro" redirects here. For other uses, see University of Rio de Janeiro (disambiguation).Federal University of Rio de JaneiroUniversidade Federal do Rio de JaneiroOther namesUFRJMottoA Universidade do BrasilMotto in English"The University of Brazil"TypePublic research universityEstablishedDecember 16, 1792 (231 years) (Royal Academy)September 7, 1920 (103 years) (University)BudgetR$3.8 billion (2020)RectorRoberto de Andrade MedronhoAcademic staff4,218 (2021)Administrative staff9,153 (2021)Students69,200 (2021)Undergraduates53,500 (2021)Postgraduates15,700 (2021)LocationRio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil22°51′45″S 43°13′26″W / 22.86250°S 43.22389°W / -22.86250; -43.22389CampusUniversity town2,338 acres (946 ha)(Main campus) 3 municipalities Rio de Janeiro Duque de Caxias Macaé ColorsYellow and White MascotMinervaWebsiteufrj.br The Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), alternatively known as University of Brazil, is a public research university in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is the largest federal university in the country and is one of the Brazilian centers of excellence in teaching and research. Brazil's first official higher education institution, it has operated continuously since 1792, when the "Real Academia de Artilharia, Fortificação e Desenho" (Royal Academy of Artillery, Fortification and Design, precursor to the university's current Polytechnic School) was founded, and served as basis for the country's college system since its officialization in 1920. Besides its 157 undergraduate and 580 postgraduate courses, the UFRJ is responsible for seven museums, most notably the National Museum of Brazil, nine hospitals, hundreds of laboratories and research facilities and forty-three libraries. Its history and identity are closely tied to the Brazilian ambitions of forging a modern, competitive and just society. The university is located mainly in Rio de Janeiro, with satellites spreading to ten other cities. Its main campuses are the historical campus of "Praia Vermelha" (Red Beach) and the newer "Cidade Universitária" (University Town), which houses the "Parque Tecnológico do Rio" (Technology Park of Rio) - a science, technology and innovation development cluster. There are also several off-campus units scattered in Rio de Janeiro: the School of Music, the College of Law Studies, the Institute of Philosophy and Social Sciences and the Institute of History, in downtown Rio; the National Museum and the Valongo Observatory (not to be confused with the National Observatory); and the high-school unit "Colégio de Aplicação" (Application College) in Lagoa. To the city of Macaé, located in the State's northern region, was dedicated a research and learning center focused on environmental issues and oil-related matters, and the city of Duque de Caxias, in partnership with the National Institute of Metrics, Normalization and Industrial Quality (Inmetro), saw the implementation of "Pólo Avançado de Xerém" (Advanced Center of Xerém), aimed at boosting research in the fields of biotechnology and nanotechnology. UFRJ is one of the main actors in the formation of the Brazilian intellectual elite, contributing significantly to build not only the history of Rio de Janeiro but also of Brazil. Some of its former students include renowned economists Carlos Lessa and Mário Henrique Simonsen; Minister Marco Aurélio Mello; the architect Oscar Niemeyer; the philosopher and politician Roberto Mangabeira Unger; the educator Anísio Teixeira; the engineer Benjamin Constant; writers Clarice Lispector, Jorge Amado and Vinicius de Moraes; politicians Francisco Pereira Passos, Oswaldo Aranha and Pedro Calmon, besides the great physicians Carlos Chagas, Oswaldo Cruz and Vital Brazil. History Creation University Palace in the 19th century, when it functioned as a hospice. The building was given to University of Brazil only in 1949. The Federal University of Rio de Janeiro is a direct descendant of Brazil's first higher education courses. Created on September 7, 1920 (Brazilian Independence Day) by president Epitácio Pessoa through the Law Decree 14343, the institution was initially named "University of Rio de Janeiro". Its history, however, is much vaster and parallel to that of the country's cultural, economic and social development (many of its courses trace back to the very foundations of Brazilian higher education system). In its inception, the university was composed by the "Escola Politécnica" (Polytechnic School, founded on December 17, 1792 as Royal Academy of Artillery, Fortification and Design, during the reign of Portuguese Queen Maria I), the "Faculdade Nacional de Medicina" (National College of Medicine, founded on April 2, 1808, by Dom João VI under the name of Academy of Medicine and Surgery) and by the "Faculdade Nacional de Direito" (National College of Law, which came to exist after the fusion between the College of Legal and Social Sciences and the Free College of Law - both recognized by the Law Decree 693 of October 1, 1891). 1928 diploma certificated by then-University of Rio de Janeiro To these initial units many others were progressively added, such as the "Escola Nacional de Belas Artes" (National School of Fine Arts) and the "Faculdade Nacional de Filosofia" (National College of Philosophy). Thanks to such achievements, the UFRJ toke crucial role in the implantation of Brazilian higher education, which was in fact an aspiration from Brazilian intellectual elite since the country's colonial era. Due to the longstanding tradition of its pioneering courses, the university functioned as the "scholar mill" upon which most of Brazil's subsequent higher education institutions were molded. Restructuring University Palace, neoclassical building finished in 1842. In the foreground, the Charity Statue, symbol of piety towards the ill (the facility originally functioned as a hospice). In 1937, Getúlio Vargas's minister of education, Gustavo Capanema , announced a reform of the education system, under which the institution changed its name to the "University of Brazil". The change reflected the government's aim of controlling the quality of the national higher education system - mainly by setting a standard by which all other universities would have to conform. Such decision was strongly influenced by the French concept of university - that in which component schools are isolated in order to assume a specific professionalizing teaching method under strong state control -, which contrasted to the German model seen, for example, in the University of São Paulo, founded in 1934. The early 1950s marked the institutionalization of research in the university, which consequentially led to the implementation of research institutes, full-time academic staff, instruction of highly specialized professors and the establishment of partnership with national and international financing agencies. In 1958, occasion for the 150-year anniversary of UFRJ's medicine school, the university was faced by the urgent needs of a structural reform that stimulated deeper participation and cooperation among professors and students with college affairs and a more rational, efficiency-based use of public resources. After an ample sequence of debates and public consultations, the resulting plans for reforms in University of Brazil were quickly absorbed by the scientific community, set a new standard for national college planning and influenced even, among others, Brazilian communication industries and government's decisional spheres. In 1965, under the government of general Castelo Branco, the university would achieve plain financial, didactic and academic autonomy - a condition called, according to Brazilian legislature, "autarchy" - and acquire its current name, which followed the still-active standard for federal university naming (i.e.: Federal University of name of State or region). After the reformation process, the university was propelled into a deeper and riskier restructuring phase that aimed to make the institution fit for the recently approved Law Decree of March 13, 1967 - a situation widely regarded as too bold for a nation with recent history as an independent territory and a culture that, inheriting traits from the Portuguese colonial rule, heavily emphasized tradition and stability. Present day Ponte do Saber ("Knowledge Bridge") is one of the main exit points from the campus at Ilha do Fundão ("Backyard Island"). The UFRJ keeps an "open-doors policy" regarding foreigners who arrive at it to disseminate or accumulate expertise; this also allows for internship or job opportunities for its teaching staff in different institutions and areas of research. International interexchange and partnerships are profuse, leading to reformist tendencies that most of times successfully coexist with the university's strong traditional ties. The UFRJ adopts the Roman goddess Minerva - patroness of the Arts and all professions; also associated with knowledge and intellectuality - as its mascot, and many sculptures depicting the goddess are seem scattered throughout the institution. In 2000, the rectory requested to the Federal Justice that the university's name was changed back to "University of Brazil", as the old name has been changed by an arbitrary decree during the country's years of military dictatorship. The request was deferred, so it is correct to address the university by either names. The university manages an ambitious program for extension courses, consisting mostly in providing full-time education to financially debilitated non-students of varying education backgrounds. Besides, the UFRJ contributes heavily to Rio de Janeiro's public health with its nine college hospitals, providing for over one thousand vacancies, and its deep integration with the State's health treatment network. In 2010, the institution achieved a "very good" evaluation and a maximum score in the Ministry of Education's General Index of College Courses ("Índice Geral de Cursos", or IGC in Portuguese). Its clear emphasis on research alludes to the personal motto of one of its most famous and distinguished scientists:In a university, one teaches because one researches.— Carlos Chagas Filho Organization The Rectory building, designed by architect Jorge Machado Moreira and finished in 1957, was awarded in the same year at the IV Bienal Internacional de Arte de São Paulo. Its gardens were designed by Roberto Burle Marx. Administration The Federal University of Rio de Janeiro is an autarchy and a public institution linked to the Ministry of Education (MEC). Its administration is commanded by the superior councils: the "Conselho Universitário" (University Council), the highest decisional authority, presided by the "reitor" (rector); the "Conselho de Curadores" (Curators Council), responsible for the financial books and budgetary matters, also under rectorship rule; the "Conselho de Ensino de Graduação" (Undergraduate Council), responsible for admission to undergraduate course and other undergraduate affairs, presided by the pro-rector of graduation; and the "Conselho de Ensino para Graduados" (Graduate Council), responsible for research activities and post-graduation courses, presided by the pro-rector of post-graduation and research. The institution is also directed by a vice-rector and six other pro-rectors. The rectors are nominated and chosen by the Ministry of Education (MEC) from a three-candidate list formed by a general election every four years. In general, the MEC respects the electoral decision, choosing the most voted candidate. The current rector (2014) is Carlos Antônio Levi da Conceição, with Antônio José Ledo Alves da Cunha as vice-rector. The academic pro-rectories are as follows: "Pró-reitoria de Graduação" (Pro-Rectory of Undergraduate Studies), "Pró-reitoria de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa" (Pro-Rectory of Research and Post-Graduate Studies), "Pró-reitoria de Planejamento e Desenvolvimento" (Pro-Rectory of Planning and Development), "Pró-reitoria de Pessoal" (Pro-Rectory of Human Resources), "Pró-reitoria de Extensão" (Pro-Rectory of Extension) e a Pró-reitoria de Gestão e Governança" (Pro-Rectory of Management and Governance). "Salão Dourado""Capela de São Pedro de Alcântara"The University Pallace Serving as executive institutions are a total of eleven superintendencies: "Superintendência Geral de Graduação" (General Superintendency of Undergraduate Studies), "Superintendência Geral de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa" (General Superintendency of Research and Post-Graduate Studies), "Superintendência Geral de Planejamento e Desenvolvimento" (General Superintendency of Planning and Development), "Superintendência Geral de Finanças" (General Superintendency of Finances), "Superintendência Geral de Pessoal" (General Superintendency of Human Resources), "Superintendência Geral de Extensão" (General Superintendency of Extension), "Superintendência Geral de Gestão e Controle" (General Superintendency of Management and Control), "Superintendência Geral de Governança" (General Superintendency of Governance), "Superintendência Geral de Tecnologia da Informação e Comunicação Gerencial" (General Superintendency of Information Technology and Managerial Communication), "Superintendência Geral de Políticas Estudantis" (General Superintendency of Student Policies) e a "Superintendência Geral de Atividades Fora da Sede" (General Superintendency of Non-Campus Activities). Notable Rectors Night view of the University City: highlighted Saber bridge supported by 21 wires tied to a pylon. Some of the famous figures that have held the post of rector in UFRJ are: Benjamin Franklin Ramiz Galvão, doctor, first-ever rector and former member of the Brazilian Academy of Literature(ABL); Raul Leitão da Cunha, doctor; Pedro Calmon, former minister of Education and Health; Deolindo Couto, former member of the ABL; Raymundo Augustto de Castro Moniz de Aragão, former minister of Education; Carlos Lessa, economist and former president of "Banco Nacional de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social" (National Bank of Economic and Social Development, BNDS). Statistics & Heritage According to its yearly statistical report (2013), the university controls 52 units and supplementary departments, each linked to one of six academic centers. It has a total of 48 454 active undergraduate students plus 7 333 students in undergraduate online courses, and a yearly graduation rate of 5 381 students. As of post-graduation studies, there are 5 389 individuals undergoing master's degree and 5 5382 candidates for doctor's degree. Of its 3 821 professors, 3 068 hold a doctor degree, 618 are masters and 61 are specialists. In addition, its high-school unit ("Colégio de Aplicação", or Application School) accounts for 760 enrolled students. The university's main buildings are located at "Cidade Universitária" (College City, with 5.2 million m2) in "Ilha do Fundão" (Backward Island), but the campus at "Praia Vermelha" (Red Beach, with 100 thousand m2) still gathers a plethora of units and supplementary departments. Additionally, there are the Institute of Philosophy and Social Sciences, the Institute of History, the College of Law Studies, the Valongo Observatory, the School of Music, the Residence of College Students and the National Museum (53 276 40 m2). Among the isolated health buildings there are the Maternity School, the São Francisco School-Hospital and the Anna Nery Nursery Schools. The UFRJ possesses additional campuses in Rio de Janeiro's Chile Avenue (8 550 m2), in the cities of Macaé and Duque de Caxias (149 869,18 m2), Jacarepaguá (10 000 m2), Arraial do Cabo and in Santa Teresa (a 1.5 million m2 research-only wildlife reserve). The National Museum is among the most important architectural heritages not only of the university, but of Brazilian society as a whole Structure It is in the Center of Technology's Block A where the Institute of Chemistry and the Institute of Physics are housed. The university's modern-architecture City Hall is home of, besides the central bureau, the College of Fine Arts and the College of Architecture and Urbanism. Garden in front of the Center of Technology Students at the Center of Technology's Library UFRJ can be divided into six university centers plus the "Escritório Técnico da Universidade" (University Technical Department), the "Fórum da Ciência e Cultura" (Forum of Science and Culture, FCC) and the University City Hall. Each center is made of dozens of units and supplementary organs responsible for education, research and extension in their respective areas of knowledge. University Centers Center of Health Sciences (CCS): the university's largest, involved in activities and research related to biosciences. As a whole, it gathers ten units and fourteen supplementary organs: three hospitals, three "nuclei" (headquarters), two schools, three colleges and thirteen institutes. Activities are developed mostly at CCS's main building at College City, but there are also units at Praia Vermelha, in downtown Rio, in Macaé and in Xerém. Center of Technology (CT): the university's second largest center, it manages two sprawling engineering schools and two high-tech research institutes, all located at College City. The CT also controls two business incubators and one foundation focused at technological studies. These units were all previous to the center's foundation, each with a unique history, and their performance is crucial to the national technological environment, given that together they form one of the country's most influential tech-poles. Center of Mathematical and Natural Sciences (CCMN): originated from the traditional and influential National School of Philosophy, it is made of five institutes and one observatory. Its main infrastructure is located at College City. The Institute of Chemistry and the Institute of Physics are located at Center of Technology's Block A and the Institute of Mathematics, at its Block C, but both are units of CCMN. The Valongo Observatory is placed near the Mauá Park, at the top of Morro da Conceição, and it is the country's only federal institution to offer undergraduate course in Astronomy. Center of Law and Economic Sciences (CCJE): responsible for activities concerning applied social sciences: administration, economics, law, library science and urban planning. It gathers three units (schools) and two supplementary organs (institutes) scattered throughout College CIty, Praia Vermelha and downtown Rio. Center of Philosophy and Human Sciences (CFHC): encompasses interdisciplinary academic activities regarding social sciences, especially those with theoretical focus on society formation. The CFCH is made of six units (two schools, one college and three institutes) and two supplementary organs (one headquarter and the Application College, which supports professor-training courses). The CFHC is locates mainly at the campus of Praia Vermelha, though some minor buildings are found in the regions of Largo do São Francisco and Lagoa. Center of Literature and Arts (CLA): similar to the other centers, it was founded in 1967. It currently comprises four traditional units of UFRJ: two schools and two colleges focused on the arts, language and architecture. Its main buildings are placed at College City, except for the School of Music, which is located at downtown Rio. COPPEAD Graduate School of Business (COPPEAD): The UFRJ School of the Business founded in 1973, located in its own building on the campus of UFRJ Fundão Island is the only business school associated with a Brazilian public university that has international certification, whose is the only of Latin America listed among the 100 best in the world by the prestigious Financial Times ranking. Units and supplementary organs The so-called "units" and "supplementary organs" are institutions of basically two types: schools/colleges, destined to professional training, research and extension; and institutes, destined to basic research, extension and teaching of a specific area of knowledge. Generally, units deal with undergraduate and postgraduate courses while supplementary organs are charged with coordinating disciplines according to each specific line of research. Additionally, there are "research nuclei", which fall into the category of "supplementary organs". As in most Brazilian universities, these two institutional sets are subdivided into departments. Libraries and museums The National Museum, built from the Brazilian Imperial Family's old residence in "Paço de São Cristóvão" (Palace of São Cristóvão). Keeping important historical documents of both national and international relevance, UFRJ's libraries and museums can be considered the primary source of inquiry for the country's most renowned researchers. In 1983, the university implanted the System of Libraries and Information (SiBI), through which students and staff enjoy easy and speedy access to the entire collection of its forty three libraries. General (i.e. non-affiliated to the institution) digital access to UFRJ's libraries is made through the Minerva Base, a database that, much like the SiBI, gathers all university libraries into a single website. Among the most noteworthy museums and cultural spaces are: the National Museum, Latin America's largest museum and anthropological of natural history as well as Brazil's oldest scientific institution. Its building is a conversion from the Brazilian Imperial Family's old palace in "Paço de São Cristóvão" and it was founded by royal figure Dom João VI in 1818, but integrated to the university only much afterwards, in 1946. Brazil's emperor Dom Pedro II himself, an enthusiast for scientific knowledge, contributed to the museum's collection with Egyptian art, fossils, botanic species and many other items obtained by during his personal trips. Laboratories occupy a great portion of the museum and spread to some buildings raised in "Horto Botânico" (Botanic Garden), in "Quinta da Boa Vista". In Botafogo, the university also manages the "Casa da Ciência" (House of Science), a cultural center of science and technology active since 1995 and dedicated to the exploration of languages and of popular forms of communication such as theater, music and audiovisual techniques. It performs periodical workshops and expositions opened to both students and the general public. Access to the Clementino Fraga Filho University Hospital (HUCFF) is made through the Red Line of João Goulard Freeway, which passes through the northern area of UFRJ's College City (main campus). Health complex The university's medical-hospital network is composed of nine supplementary organs distributed throughout various campuses. Together, these units are responsible for 566 410 treatments, 8 293 surgeries and 18 555 hospitalizations every year. Clementino Fraga Filho University Hospital (HUCFF): created in 1978, it is UFRJ's flagship medical institution. Sprawling through 110 000 meters squared, it is both national and international reference in high surgical procedures of high complexity. São Francisco de Assis Institute of Health (HESFA): founded in the 19th century as School Hospital and reopened in 1988 by then-rector Luís Renato Caldas. Sustaining a profile of high-quality customer service clinic, it acts on medical procedures of low or medium complexity and focuses on patients requiring long-term care and hospitalization. Institute of Psichiatry (IPUB): acts as Latin America's flagship research, post-graduation learning and knowledge-diffuser institution regarding multidisciplinary studies in psychiatry and mental health. Martagão Gesteira Institute of Childcare and Pediatrics (IPPMG): institute of nationwide recognition in matters of childcare, it was incorporated to the university after formal proposal from professor Joaquim Martagão Gesteira. It undergoes research in the mother-child field and acts on assistance and teaching and training in pediatrics. Institute of Chest Diseases (IDT): founded in 1957 by professor Antonio Ibiapina and, since 2000, adjunct to HUCFF's main structure. Promotes full-time assistance and undergoes research regarding respiratory illnesses. Deolindo Couto Institute of Neurology (INDC): located at Praia Vermelha campus, is responsible for activities, research, teaching and assistance in the fields of neurology and neurosurgery. Institute of Gynecology (IG): founded in 1947 and located at university hospital "Moncorvo Filho". Notable for providing radio-therapeutic services specifically for matters of gynecology ontology. Edson Saad Institute of Heart (ICES): founded in 2003 to develop high-quality research in the fields of cardiology and vascular surgery. The institute initiated its activities in old departments from HUCFF and the School of Medicine. Maternity School (ME): founded in 1904 to assist pregnant women and newly born children from unprivileged social backgrounds in the State of Rio de Janeiro. It was pioneer in the use of, among other methods, ultrasonography and dopplerfluxometry in Brazil. The Clementino Fraga Filho University Hospital (HUCFF) at College City, seen from Nossa Senhora da Penha Church: at the center, the hospital's main building and, in the background, the famous Guanabara Bay. Campuses Rio de Janeiro The Palácio Universitário, a 19th-century neoclassical building that serves as campus of the UFRJ. The Institutes for Economics, Education, Communications and Administration, among others, are based here. The Federal University of Rio de Janeiro's main infrastructure is the College City, located at and occupying almost all of Ilha do Fundão (Backyard Island), northern Rio de Janeiro. The island was artificially created in 1950 by the union of various already existing islands through embankment techniques. Academic activities in the campus, however, would only start in 1970, and the initial project stated that all active courses would be transferred to the city. Architecture was hugely influenced by modernism and some designs were even awarded, such as the rectory building (designed by Jorge Machado Moreira and awarded at the "IV Bienal de São Paulo"). The campus has a residence complex for undergraduate students (504 rooms), three university restaurants (commonly called "bandejões", or "big trays"), a sports center, and banking agencies. In 2010, there was the opening of an integration station for the unified college transport system, aiming for more security and comfort to the college community. Dozens of 24/7 inter-campus bus lines, free for students, are connected to the College City, plus regular urban and intercity lines serving the population of Baixada Fluminense region and of metropolitan Rio de Janeiro. The campus at Praia Vermelha (Red Beach), locates at Urca, southern Rio, concentrates on courses related mainly to human sciences. Its largest and most historically notable building is the University Pallace, a neoclassical-style premise built between 1842 and 1852 to serve as a hospice, which was inaugurated by emperor Dom Pedro II only ten years later. In 1949, the building was given to the University of Brazil, which then restored and expanded its facilities. Building of both the Institute of Philosophy and Social Sciences and the Institute of History at "Largo de São Francisco de Paula. In downtown Rio de Janeiro, one can find many isolated college units: the College of Law Studies, at Conde dos Arcos Palace, former headquarter of Brazilian senate; the School of Music, planted in the old National Library building since 1913; the Valongo Observatory at the top of "Morro da Conceição" (Conceição Hill); the Institute of Philosophy and Social Sciences and the Institute of History, both situated in the old National School of Engineering building, at "Largo de São Francisco de Paula". In the 2010-2020 UFRJ Master Plan a project was set for conversion of the Praia Vermelha campus into a great cultural center, consequentially transferring almost all of the campus' academic activities, plus that of all of college units scattered throughout Rio, to the College City, thus redeeming the city's original intent of centering all university activities in Ilha do Fundão. The decision has generated strong polemic with both students and staff, given the great distances between southern (Praia Vermelha) and northern (Ilha do Fundão) Rio and the chaotic traffic that plagues the Red Line of João Goulart Freeway - the "jugular" connecting the College City to Rio. Aloísio Teixeira, then rector and strong advocate for the integration, argued that the University Palace can bear a circulation of no more than two to three thousand people per day, and that the College City's major problems are not on its structure, but on its access points which are more easily fixable matters. Aiming to solve part of the city's traffic problem, in mid-2010 Rio de Janeiro saw the building of its first cable-stayed bridge, named "Ponte do Saber" (Knowledge Bridge), which was inaugurated in 2012 to receive a daily average of 25,000 vehicles. Duque de Caxias Through its biophysics undergraduate course, started in the second half of 2008, UFRJ initiated activities in Xerém, a region with large industrial and technological potential in the city of Duque de Caxias. Aiming to cooperate with Inmetro (National Institute of Metrics, Normalization and Industrial Quality), the university forged a partnership with the government of Duque de Caxias and with the Foundation for Technological Development and Social Policies. Currently, and additionally to biophysics, the Xerém campus offers undergraduate courses in biotechnology and nanotechnology, both added in the first half of 2010. As of the following year, there was the addition of the professional master's in Scientific Formation for Biology Teachers, targeted at professors of the biosciences looking for skill improvement. Students have Inmetro's infrastructure and laboratories at hand, but most students and staff whose main laboratories are at Ilha do Fundão still have to complete their academic internships at College City. In an attempt to fix this inconvenience, Inmetro agreed to concede its Xerém infrastructures to UFRJ, which was then reinaugurated as a full campus in 2012. Macaé University complex in Macaé, at northern Rio de Janeiro (state). UFRJ has operated in the city of Macaé since the 1980s, when researchers from its Institute of Biology performed studies in the lakes of "Região dos Lagos" (literally, Lake Regions). In partnership with the city, it instituted the Macaé Nucleus for Ecological Researches (NUPEM) in 1994. The university's recognition in and importance to the city was so visible that, in 2012, the City Hall has donated to the institution a 29,000 m2 terrain, in which was raised a new university center. In 2005, NUPEM was officialized as a supplementary organ of the Center of Health Sciences and, in 2006, the university implemented its first course outside Rio de Janeiro, professor training in the biosciences, to be taken in NUPEM's headquarters. In 2007, Macaé inaugurated a full university complex with two buildings and seven more planned ones, for graduation, post-graduation and extension courses. During this solemnity there was also the signing of the "Protocolo de Intenções" (Intentions Protocol) between UFRJ and the city, promising the initiation of chemistry and pharmacy courses in 2008. Currently, the campus is physically distributed among four poles (University Pole, Barreto, Novo Cavaleiros and Ajuda), where the following undergraduate courses are offered: biological sciences, chemistry, nursing and obstetrics, engineering (production, civil and mechanical), pharmacy, medicine, and nutrition; as of post-graduation courses, there are two: environmental and conservation sciences, and bioactive and biosciences products. The main campus was named after former rector Aloísio Teixeira, incumbent from 2003 to 2011, in 2012 (Campus UFRJ–Macaé Professor Aloísio Teixeira), honoring his decisive contribution to the spreading of UFRJ through the State of Rio de Janeiro. E-learning poles Map of the state of Rio de Janeiro highlighting the cities where UFRJ, either by its physical or e-learning courses, is active (in red).E-learning courses are offered by the CEDERJ (Rio de Janeiro Center of Higher-Education E-learning) consortium, signed between UFRJ and the following institutions: Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO), Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ), Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro (UENF) and Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica Celso Suckow da Fonseca (CEFET/RJ). Taught in a mixed scheme where some activities require the students' physical presence, UFRJ offers professor training courses in the biosciences, physics, and chemistry. At the course's conclusion, a student is awarded with a certificate equivalent to that of physically-based courses offered by the institution, according to each student's chosen e-learning pole. Admission are made by an independent "vestibular" organized by the consortium. UFRJ's e-learning poles in the State of Rio de Janeiro are: Angra dos Reis, Duque de Caxias, Itaperuna, Macaé, Nova Iguaçu, Paracambi, Piraí, Rio de Janeiro, São Gonçalo, Três Rios, and Volta Redonda. Academics Undergraduate courses This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: the chart is unreadable. Please help improve this section if you can. (March 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message) There are 179 undergraduate courses covering all areas of human knowledge and distributed into four types: morning, afternoon, night and integral (all previous three combined) courses. Each courses is linked to one academic institution, but some share multiple institutions, like the nanotechnology course, which is offered by the Polytechnic School, the "Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho" (Institute of Biophysics Carlos Chagas Filho), the Institute of Physics and the "Instituto de Macromoléculas Professora Eloisa Mano" (Institute of Machomolecules Professor Eloisa Mano). Below are listed all offered courses and the respective specializations (including emphases, habilitations or modalities) for which students can opt during their graduation. Biosciences * Biophysics Bioinformatics Systems biology Structural biology Biotechnology Toxic environment Biomedicine * Biotechnology Ecology Biomedicine Biological engineering Botanics * Biology Sealife biology Vegetal biology Ecology Genetics Licensing Zoology Physical education Nursing Pharmacology Physiotherapy Speech Gastronomy Medicine Microbiology Nutrition Dentistry Public Health Occupational therapy Exact Sciences * Astronomy Astrophysics Computational astronomy Instrumental astronomy Mathematical astronomy Diffusion of astronomy Computer science * Mathematics and earth sciences Analyst decision support Remote sensing and gis Earth sciences and natural heritage Environmental engineering * Civil engineering Building Geotechnics Transportation Structural engineering Water resources and environment. Food engineering Bioprocess engineering Computer and information engineering Control and automation engineering Materials engineering Petroleum engineering * Production engineering Economic engineering Production Management Electrical engineering Electronics and computer engineering * Mechanical engineering Acoustics Machine design Mechanical manufacture Thermosciences Metallurgical engineering Naval and oceanic engineering Nuclear engineering Chemical engineering Statistics Physics Medical physics Geology * Mathematics Computational mathematics Mathematical statistics * Applied mathematics Scientific computing Mathematics for business Math for biological sciences Meteorology * Nanotechnology Bionanotechnology Physics Materials. Chemistry Chemistry with technology assignments Industrial chemistry Humanities * Administration International management Corporate strategy Finance and control Logistics Marketing Human resources Architecture and urbanism * Performing arts Scenography Theater directing Clothing Library Science Actuarial science * Accounting Financial accounting Management accounting business Economics Social science Composition of interiors Landscaping * Social communication Journalism Editorial production Advertising and propaganda Radio and tv Visual communication Preservation and restoration * Dance Choreography and interpretation Dance, and image creation * International defence and strategic management Defence and strategic affairs National and regional security strategy for development International health and global environmental issues * Industrial design Visual communication Product project Drama Law * Arts education Fine arts Drawing Sculpture Philosophy Geography * Public management Public sector management Management of the third sector Engraving History History of art * Languages German Arabic Spanish French Ancient greek Hebrew English Italian Japanese Classical latin Literature Russian * Music Singing Clarinet Musical composition Contrabass Harpsichord Bassoon Flute Harp Percussion instrument Oboe Organ Piano Maestro Saxophone Trombone Trumpet Tuba Viola Guitar Violin Cello * Pedagogy Teaching magisterium normal course Teaching early childhood education Elementary school teaching Painting Psychology International relations Social service Theory of dance Postgraduate courses There are 345 post-graduation courses, being 167 lato sensu (specialization) and 178 stricto sensu (master's and doctor's degrees). Similarly to the undergraduate courses, each post-grad course is linked to a specific academic institution. As of 2010, there were 1 965 scholarship programs from Coordination of Higher-Education Personnel Improvement (CAPES) available to post-graduation candidates, 844 from the National Council of Technologic and Scientific Development (CNPq) and 800 from the university itself. Students Admissions Similarly to most Brazilian public universities, admissions to the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro are defined by highly competitive entrance exams held every year (commonly known in Brazil as "vestibular"). Anyone who was already graduated from high school is eligible to the undergraduate courses. Admission is also possible by transfer (known as "external transfer"), exemption from exams ("reentrance") or by international partnerships. UFRJ's Center of Mathematical and Natural Sciences houses the Coordination for Undergraduate Courses Admission. Until the late 1980s, the admission exam was managed as a unified "vestibular" by Cesgranrio Foundation. Given the university's disagreement with the test's methodology - which consisted almost entirely in multiple-choice questions -, the institution quit the partnership and organized its own "vestibular", named "Concurso de Acesso aos Cursos de Graduação" (Undergraduate Courses Admission Exam). The test was solely based on open-ended responses, and its elaborate questions eventually led it to be considered one of Brazil's toughest and most demanding higher education admission exams. Since 2012, the university responded favorably to the utilization of the "Exame Nacional do Ensino Médio" (High School National Exam, or ENEM; a yearly nationwide exam managed by the Ministry of Education) for student admission. The exam's importance grew to the point that, in 2011, the UFRJ extinguished its "Concurso de Acesso" and made the ENEM its single admission exam; candidates' selection was delegated to the "Sistema de Seleção Unificada" (Unified Selection System, or SiSU; also under the Ministry of Education's rule). UFRJ quickly became one of the most coveted institutions in the system: as of the second semester of 2012, it received 103 829 applications, the highest of any other university in SiSU. The institution also adheres to affirmative action policies since 2010: currently, 30% of all vacancies are reserved by some form of affirmative action measure; the most common basis for selection under this system is through socioeconomic standards, favoring students with public schooling backgrounds and whose families earn less than one and a half minimum wage (R$1 086/month, or roughly US$15/day, as of January, 2014). Notable alumni Given its academic excellence, the UFRJ was home to some of the countries brightest minds in all fields of knowledge. What follows is a list of some of them: Anthropologists: Eduardo Viveiros de Castro, and Gilberto Velho Architect: Oscar Niemeyer Artists: Ary Barroso, Vinícius de Moraes, Mário Lago, Ângela Leal, and Ivan Lins Billionaires: André Esteves, Carlos Alberto Sicupira Biologists: Lúcia Mendonça Previato Chemist: Otto Gottlieb Doctors: Vital Brazil, Carlos Chagas, Osvaldo Cruz, Carlos Chagas Filho, Herman Lent, and Mauricio Rocha e Silva Economists: Carlos Lessa, Joaquim Levy, Jose A. Scheinkman, and Mário Henrique Simonsen Educator: Anísio Teixeira Engineers: Luiz Bevilacqua, Maurício Botelho, Fernando Lobo Carneiro, Mauricio Carrasco , Benjamin Constant, Heródoto Bento de Mello, Aïda Espinola, Maria das Graças Foster, Giulio Massarani, Tércio Pacitti e Paulo de Frontin, Francisco Pereira Passos, Luiz Pinguelli Rosa, and Belkis Valdman Entrepreneur: Maurício Botelho, and Fabio Coelho Historians: Sérgio Buarque de Holanda, Francisco Falcon, and José Honório Rodrigues Journalists: Fátima Bernardes, and Ali Kamel Mathematicians: Artur Ávila, Elon Lages Lima, Leopoldo Nachbin, and Jacob Palis Minister of Justice: Marco Aurélio Mello Minister of Treasury: Nelson Barbosa, and Joaquim Levy Neuroscientist: Suzana Herculano-Houzel Physicist: Carlos Bertulani, Fernando de Souza Barros, Marcelo Gleiser, Belita Koiller, José Leite Lopes, and Herch Moysés Nussenzveig Political commentator: Villas-Bôas Corrêa; Politicians: Osvaldo Aranha, Índio da Costa, Moreira Franco, and Carlos Lacerda Writers: Jorge Amado, Evandro Lins e Silva, Rubem Fonseca, and Clarice Lispector, Leandro Müller, Marques Rebelo, and Mário Furley Schmidt, Notable UFRJ Alumni Jorge Amado, writer Oswaldo Aranha, politician, diplomat and statesman Artur Ávila, Fields Medal-winning mathematician Vital Brazil, physician, biomedical scientist and immunologist. Discoverer of the polyvalent anti-ophidic serum Carlos Chagas, doctor, discoverer of the Chagas disease Oswaldo Cruz, physician, public health officer and the founder of the Oswaldo Cruz Institute. Former member of the Brazilian Academy of Literature Joaquim Levy, Finance Minister of Brazil Ivan Lins, Latin Grammy-winning musician Clarice Lispector, writer Leandro Müller, writer and editor. Oscar Niemeyer, architect Jacob Palis, Legion of Honor and Balzan Prize-winning mathematician and professor Vinícius de Moraes, Diplomat, writer, and lyricist Student unions Students are formally represented by the "Diretório Central dos Estudantes Mário Prata" (Mário Prata Central Student Directory, or DCE), which was founded in 1930 - preceding even the National Student Union (UNE, 1937). The entity remained influential until its shutdown by the military regime of 1964–85, when dozens of union leaders, including student and then-president of DCE Mario de Souza Prata, were murdered. In the late-1970s, given a gradual political opening, academic centers such as the DCE were given permission to function once again. Among the students that participated in the DCE's reactivation are Mário Furley Schimidt and some member of popular Brazilian comedy show Casseta & Planeta, like Marcelo Madureira, Beto Silva and Hélio de la Peña. Building in which the College of Medicine operated until 1973, at "Praia Vermelha" (Red Beach). To the young students who, at dawn of September 23rd, 1968, in the National College of Medicine building, dared to resist the police forces of the military regime. The episode known as "Massacre da Praia Vermelha" is one of the most important events of the constant fight for academic autonomy. To them, our deepest admiration.— "Conselho Universitário" (University Council), resolution of 08/24/2006. Besides the DCE, minor academic centers (CAs) act as students representative organs for each course: the Carlos Chagas Academic Center for the College of Medicine, the Polytechnic School Academic Center of Engineering, the Cândido de Oliveira Academic Center for the College of Law Studies, the Max Planck Academic Center for the Institute of Physics and the Academic Directory for the School of Chemistry, to cite the most notable. The infamous episode known as "Massacre da Praia Vermelha" (Red Beach Massacre) was a hallmark the history of Brazilian student unions. At dawn of September 23, 1968, squads from the military government invading the old facility of then-National College of Medicine and savagely beat all students sheltered there. There was also massive depredation of public patrimony, as the action disenabled several of the college's laboratories and administrative sectors. Around 600 students were gathered to protest against the government's arbitrary and oppressive actions (ex.: the shutdown of DCE and UNE, the increase in meal prices) and to vindicate the release of Law student Rodrigo Lima, arrested for 35 days in the "Batalhão de Guardas do Exército" (Army Squad Battalion). Technological Park of Rio Former president of Brazil Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, ex-governor of Rio de Janeiro state Sérgio Cabral Filho, and mayor of Rio Eduardo Paes visiting the CENPES. The Parque Tecnológico do Rio (Technological Park of Rio) is also located in College City. It is a technopole geared towards research in energy, oil, and gas. In partnership with Petrobras, UFRJ intends to convert an area of 350 000 m2 into the world's largest oil-related technological research center, given that exploration and oil extraction from the recently discovered pre-salt layer fields is in urgent need of new, more affordable techniques. Intense private and state investments in the region, plus the high expectations it has generated, led it to be considered a Brazilian "Silicon Valley". The park gathers, among its main facilities: Leopoldo Américo Miguez de Mello Research Center (CENPES): founded in 1962 and managed by Petrobras, it is responsible for research and development (R&D) and for the company's basic engineering matters; it is the largest oil research pole in the southern hemisphere. Electric Energy Research Center (CEPEL): founded in 1974, it is part of group Eletrobrás and manages R&D related to the generation, transmission and distribution of electric energy. It is also the hemisphere's largest research center in the field. Mineral Technology Center (CETEM): founded in 1978 and under direct command by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), it acts on the technological development concerning to minerals. General Electric Global Technological Center (GE): under construction, with inauguration planned to 2014. Until then, General Electric operates in the facilities of the Center of Excellence in Communication and Information Technology (CETIC). Alberto Luiz Coimbra Institute of Post-Graduation and Research in Engineering (COPPE): UFRJ's supplementary organ, it is Latin America's largest research and learning center of engineering. Also notable for owning the world's largest (volume terms) and deepest oceanic tank, which is used to simulate sea-life conditions. Additionally, there is the Center of Excellence in Natural Gas (CEGN), the Institute of Nuclear Engineering (IEN), the Nucleus of Ecosystem Recovery Technologies (NUTRE) and a virtual reality center linked to the Laboratory of Computational Engineering Methods (LAMCE). Among the corporations with research units established in the Technological Park or in other spots of College City are: L'Oréal, Siemens AG, Usiminas, Schlumberger, Baker Hughes, FMC Technologies, Repsol YPF, Halliburton and Tenaris Confab. Public biddings for the construction of new research centers and commercial tower, all capable of supporting one hundred new more enterprises, are currently under request. The Park project has also attracted over 200 small or medium-sized companies to its centers, resulting in higher stakes for its innovational potential. Projects H2+2 project, a hybrid hydrogene bus with electric traction developed by the Alberto Luiz Coimbra Institute of Post-Graduation and Research in Engineering (COPPE) and exhibited at Rio+20 conference. UFRJ Newspaper The "Jornal da UFRJ" (UFRJ Newspaper) is a monthly publication by the General Superintendence of Social Communication. It has been on circulation since 2003, covering subjects of academic interest and government affairs. It is available both on print and digitally, with 25 000 copies being distributed across the universities many campuses. UFRJ Sea The "UFRJ Mar" (UFRJ Sea) was developed along Rio de Janeiro's coastline and comprehends several fields, from physical education and engineering to biological sciences and geosciences. The project relies on one of Brazil's most complex set of R&D laboratories in maritime and coastal studies. Getting to Know UFRJ The "Conhecendo a UFRJ" (Getting to Know UFRJ) is a two-day yearly event that takes place at College City, when high-school students have lectures about the institution, tour through its main campus and get to know its academic routine and student life. As of 2010, on its eighth edition, approximately 14 000 students participated in the event. Plant Waves Developed by COPPE with Government of Ceará supporting Pecém Wave Power Plant is the first in Latin America and places Brazil in a select group of countries with knowledge to extract electrical energy from sea waves. Factory with 100% Brazilian technology, is located 60 km from Fortaleza in the breakwater of the Port of Pecém. The project of researchers from COPPE underwater Technology Laboratory is designed in modules which allows the expansion of the capacity of the plant. MagLev Cobra The Maglev Cobra is a levitation train developed at UFRJ (Federal University of Rio de Janeiro) by Coppe (Alberto Luiz Coimbra Institute of Graduate Studies and Research in Engineering) and the Polytechnic School by LASUP (Superconducting Applications Laboratory). The Brazilian train, as well as the German maglev floats on the tracks, with only friction with air during their displacement. Maglev Cobra based on levitation, moving without friction with the ground by a linear motor primary short. The vehicle has been designed towards a revolution in public transportation through high-tech, non-polluting way, energy efficient and affordable to large urban centers. The deployment cost of Maglev Cobra is significantly lower than the subway, getting to cost only one-third of this. Its operating normal speed will be within a range of 70 to 100 km/h, compatible to the subway and ideal for urban public transport. LabOceano Able to reproduce the main features of the marine environment and simulate phenomena occurring in water depths greater than 2000 meters, LabOceano is a strategic technological support for Brazil, which has more than 90% of its oil reserves concentrated at sea, and for the oil and shipping industries. The ocean tank holds 23 million liters of water and its height corresponds to an eight-story building. 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O Globo. 6 December 2010. Retrieved 5 July 2015. ^ Virgilio Favero Neto. "Superintendência Geral de Comunicação Social da UFRJ - www.olharvirtual.ufrj.br". Retrieved 5 July 2015. ^ "Grupo Interdisciplinar". ufrj.br. Archived from the original on 2013-07-04. Retrieved 2014-01-28. ^ "Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro". Archived from the original on 6 July 2015. Retrieved 5 July 2015. ^ "Informações". Archived from the original on 2016-07-01. ^ "Maglev o Globo". 16 February 2016. ^ "Tanque". Archived from the original on 2016-06-06. Retrieved 2016-08-01. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Federal University of Rio de Janeiro. 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Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"federal university","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_university"},{"link_name":"teaching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching"},{"link_name":"research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-maioruf-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"undergraduate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undergraduate"},{"link_name":"postgraduate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postgraduate"},{"link_name":"National Museum of Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"National Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Observatory_(Brazil)"},{"link_name":"Macaé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maca%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Duque de Caxias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duque_de_Caxias,_Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"biotechnology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology"},{"link_name":"nanotechnology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology"},{"link_name":"Carlos Lessa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Lessa"},{"link_name":"Mário Henrique Simonsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1rio_Henrique_Simonsen"},{"link_name":"Marco Aurélio Mello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Aur%C3%A9lio_Mello"},{"link_name":"Oscar Niemeyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer"},{"link_name":"Roberto Mangabeira Unger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Mangabeira_Unger"},{"link_name":"Anísio Teixeira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%C3%ADsio_Teixeira"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant_(Brazil)"},{"link_name":"Clarice Lispector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarice_Lispector"},{"link_name":"Jorge Amado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Amado"},{"link_name":"Vinicius de Moraes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinicius_de_Moraes"},{"link_name":"Francisco Pereira Passos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Pereira_Passos"},{"link_name":"Oswaldo Aranha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswaldo_Aranha"},{"link_name":"Pedro Calmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pedro_Calmon&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Carlos Chagas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Chagas"},{"link_name":"Oswaldo Cruz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswaldo_Cruz"},{"link_name":"Vital Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vital_Brazil"}],"text":"Public university in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil\"University of Rio de Janeiro\" redirects here. For other uses, see University of Rio de Janeiro (disambiguation).The Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ),[a] alternatively known as University of Brazil,[b] is a public research university in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is the largest federal university in the country and is one of the Brazilian centers of excellence in teaching and research.[6]Brazil's first official higher education institution,[7] it has operated continuously since 1792, when the \"Real Academia de Artilharia, Fortificação e Desenho\" (Royal Academy of Artillery, Fortification and Design, precursor to the university's current Polytechnic School) was founded,[8] and served as basis for the country's college system since its officialization in 1920.[9] Besides its 157 undergraduate and 580 postgraduate courses, the UFRJ is responsible for seven museums, most notably the National Museum of Brazil, nine hospitals, hundreds of laboratories and research facilities and forty-three libraries. Its history and identity are closely tied to the Brazilian ambitions of forging a modern, competitive and just society.[10]The university is located mainly in Rio de Janeiro, with satellites spreading to ten other cities. Its main campuses are the historical campus of \"Praia Vermelha\" (Red Beach) and the newer \"Cidade Universitária\" (University Town), which houses the \"Parque Tecnológico do Rio\" (Technology Park of Rio) - a science, technology and innovation development cluster. There are also several off-campus units scattered in Rio de Janeiro: the School of Music, the College of Law Studies, the Institute of Philosophy and Social Sciences and the Institute of History, in downtown Rio; the National Museum and the Valongo Observatory (not to be confused with the National Observatory); and the high-school unit \"Colégio de Aplicação\" (Application College) in Lagoa. To the city of Macaé, located in the State's northern region, was dedicated a research and learning center focused on environmental issues and oil-related matters, and the city of Duque de Caxias, in partnership with the National Institute of Metrics, Normalization and Industrial Quality (Inmetro), saw the implementation of \"Pólo Avançado de Xerém\" (Advanced Center of Xerém), aimed at boosting research in the fields of biotechnology and nanotechnology.UFRJ is one of the main actors in the formation of the Brazilian intellectual elite, contributing significantly to build not only the history of Rio de Janeiro but also of Brazil. Some of its former students include renowned economists Carlos Lessa and Mário Henrique Simonsen; Minister Marco Aurélio Mello; the architect Oscar Niemeyer; the philosopher and politician Roberto Mangabeira Unger; the educator Anísio Teixeira; the engineer Benjamin Constant; writers Clarice Lispector, Jorge Amado and Vinicius de Moraes; politicians Francisco Pereira Passos, Oswaldo Aranha and Pedro Calmon, besides the great physicians Carlos Chagas, Oswaldo Cruz and Vital Brazil.","title":"Federal University of Rio de Janeiro"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hosp%C3%ADcio_D_Pedro_II_-_Atual_Pal%C3%A1cio_Universit%C3%A1rio_da_UFRJ_-_Praia_Vermelha.jpg"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diploma_da_Escola_Polytechnica_da_Universidade_do_Rio_de_Janeiro_em_1928.jpg"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"sub_title":"Creation","text":"University Palace in the 19th century, when it functioned as a hospice. The building was given to University of Brazil only in 1949.The Federal University of Rio de Janeiro is a direct descendant of Brazil's first higher education courses. Created on September 7, 1920 (Brazilian Independence Day) by president Epitácio Pessoa through the Law Decree 14343, the institution was initially named \"University of Rio de Janeiro\".[11] Its history, however, is much vaster and parallel to that of the country's cultural, economic and social development (many of its courses trace back to the very foundations of Brazilian higher education system).[12]In its inception, the university was composed by the \"Escola Politécnica\" (Polytechnic School, founded on December 17, 1792 as Royal Academy of Artillery, Fortification and Design, during the reign of Portuguese Queen Maria I),[13] the \"Faculdade Nacional de Medicina\" (National College of Medicine, founded on April 2, 1808, by Dom João VI under the name of Academy of Medicine and Surgery)[14] and by the \"Faculdade Nacional de Direito\" (National College of Law, which came to exist after the fusion between the College of Legal and Social Sciences and the Free College of Law - both recognized by the Law Decree 693 of October 1, 1891).[15][16]1928 diploma certificated by then-University of Rio de JaneiroTo these initial units many others were progressively added, such as the \"Escola Nacional de Belas Artes\" (National School of Fine Arts) and the \"Faculdade Nacional de Filosofia\" (National College of Philosophy). Thanks to such achievements, the UFRJ toke crucial role in the implantation of Brazilian higher education,[17] which was in fact an aspiration from Brazilian intellectual elite since the country's colonial era.[18] Due to the longstanding tradition of its pioneering courses, the university functioned as the \"scholar mill\" upon which most of Brazil's subsequent higher education institutions were molded.[19]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pal%C3%A1cio_Universit%C3%A1rio_da_UFRJ.jpg"},{"link_name":"neoclassical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassicism"},{"link_name":"Charity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity_(virtue)"},{"link_name":"hospice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospice"},{"link_name":"Getúlio Vargas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get%C3%BAlio_Vargas"},{"link_name":"Gustavo Capanema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gustavo_Capanema&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"pt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustavo_Capanema"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"autarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autarchism"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"Restructuring","text":"University Palace, neoclassical building finished in 1842. In the foreground, the Charity Statue, symbol of piety towards the ill (the facility originally functioned as a hospice).In 1937, Getúlio Vargas's minister of education, Gustavo Capanema [pt], announced a reform of the education system, under which the institution changed its name to the \"University of Brazil\". The change reflected the government's aim of controlling the quality of the national higher education system - mainly by setting a standard by which all other universities would have to conform. Such decision was strongly influenced by the French concept of university - that in which component schools are isolated in order to assume a specific professionalizing teaching method under strong state control -, which contrasted to the German model seen, for example, in the University of São Paulo, founded in 1934.[20]The early 1950s marked the institutionalization of research in the university, which consequentially led to the implementation of research institutes, full-time academic staff, instruction of highly specialized professors and the establishment of partnership with national and international financing agencies.In 1958, occasion for the 150-year anniversary of UFRJ's medicine school, the university was faced by the urgent needs of a structural reform that stimulated deeper participation and cooperation among professors and students with college affairs and a more rational, efficiency-based use of public resources. After an ample sequence of debates and public consultations, the resulting plans for reforms in University of Brazil were quickly absorbed by the scientific community, set a new standard for national college planning and influenced even, among others, Brazilian communication industries and government's decisional spheres.[21]In 1965, under the government of general Castelo Branco, the university would achieve plain financial, didactic and academic autonomy - a condition called, according to Brazilian legislature, \"autarchy\" - and acquire its current name, which followed the still-active standard for federal university naming (i.e.: Federal University of name of State or region).[22][23]After the reformation process, the university was propelled into a deeper and riskier restructuring phase that aimed to make the institution fit for the recently approved Law Decree of March 13, 1967[24] - a situation widely regarded as too bold for a nation with recent history as an independent territory and a culture that, inheriting traits from the Portuguese colonial rule, heavily emphasized tradition and stability.[25]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ponte_do_Saber_da_UFRJ_(Ponte_estaiada_do_Rio_de_Janeiro)_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ponte do Saber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponte_do_Saber"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-www1.folha.uol.com.br-6"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ufrj.br-32"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Carlos Chagas Filho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Chagas_Filho"}],"sub_title":"Present day","text":"Ponte do Saber (\"Knowledge Bridge\") is one of the main exit points from the campus at Ilha do Fundão (\"Backyard Island\").The UFRJ keeps an \"open-doors policy\" regarding foreigners who arrive at it to disseminate or accumulate expertise; this also allows for internship or job opportunities for its teaching staff in different institutions and areas of research. International interexchange and partnerships are profuse, leading to reformist tendencies that most of times successfully coexist with the university's strong traditional ties.[26]The UFRJ adopts the Roman goddess Minerva - patroness of the Arts and all professions; also associated with knowledge and intellectuality - as its mascot,[27] and many sculptures depicting the goddess are seem scattered throughout the institution.[28] In 2000, the rectory requested to the Federal Justice that the university's name was changed back to \"University of Brazil\", as the old name has been changed by an arbitrary decree during the country's years of military dictatorship. The request was deferred, so it is correct to address the university by either names.[5]The university manages an ambitious program for extension courses, consisting mostly in providing full-time education to financially debilitated non-students of varying education backgrounds.[29] Besides, the UFRJ contributes heavily to Rio de Janeiro's public health with its nine college hospitals, providing for over one thousand vacancies, and its deep integration with the State's health treatment network.[30] In 2010, the institution achieved a \"very good\" evaluation and a maximum score in the Ministry of Education's General Index of College Courses (\"Índice Geral de Cursos\", or IGC in Portuguese).[31][32] Its clear emphasis on research alludes to the personal motto of one of its most famous and distinguished scientists:[33]In a university, one teaches because one researches.— Carlos Chagas Filho","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pr%C3%A9dio_da_reitoria_da_Universidade_Federal_do_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg"},{"link_name":"Roberto Burle Marx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Burle_Marx"}],"text":"The Rectory building, designed by architect Jorge Machado Moreira and finished in 1957, was awarded in the same year at the IV Bienal Internacional de Arte de São Paulo. Its gardens were designed by Roberto Burle Marx.","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"autarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autarchism"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sal%C3%A3o_Dourado_da_UFRJ.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%B1%BC,_y%C3%BA"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"sub_title":"Administration","text":"The Federal University of Rio de Janeiro is an autarchy and a public institution linked to the Ministry of Education (MEC).[34] Its administration is commanded by the superior councils: the \"Conselho Universitário\" (University Council), the highest decisional authority, presided by the \"reitor\" (rector); the \"Conselho de Curadores\" (Curators Council), responsible for the financial books and budgetary matters, also under rectorship rule; the \"Conselho de Ensino de Graduação\" (Undergraduate Council), responsible for admission to undergraduate course and other undergraduate affairs, presided by the pro-rector of graduation; and the \"Conselho de Ensino para Graduados\" (Graduate Council), responsible for research activities and post-graduation courses, presided by the pro-rector of post-graduation and research.[35]The institution is also directed by a vice-rector and six other pro-rectors. The rectors are nominated and chosen by the Ministry of Education (MEC) from a three-candidate list formed by a general election every four years. In general, the MEC respects the electoral decision, choosing the most voted candidate. The current rector (2014) is Carlos Antônio Levi da Conceição, with Antônio José Ledo Alves da Cunha as vice-rector.[36]The academic pro-rectories are as follows: \"Pró-reitoria de Graduação\" (Pro-Rectory of Undergraduate Studies), \"Pró-reitoria de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa\" (Pro-Rectory of Research and Post-Graduate Studies), \"Pró-reitoria de Planejamento e Desenvolvimento\" (Pro-Rectory of Planning and Development), \"Pró-reitoria de Pessoal\" (Pro-Rectory of Human Resources), \"Pró-reitoria de Extensão\" (Pro-Rectory of Extension) e a Pró-reitoria de Gestão e Governança\" (Pro-Rectory of Management and Governance).[37]\"Salão Dourado\"\"Capela de São Pedro de Alcântara\"The University PallaceServing as executive institutions are a total of eleven superintendencies: \"Superintendência Geral de Graduação\" (General Superintendency of Undergraduate Studies), \"Superintendência Geral de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa\" (General Superintendency of Research and Post-Graduate Studies), \"Superintendência Geral de Planejamento e Desenvolvimento\" (General Superintendency of Planning and Development), \"Superintendência Geral de Finanças\" (General Superintendency of Finances), \"Superintendência Geral de Pessoal\" (General Superintendency of Human Resources), \"Superintendência Geral de Extensão\" (General Superintendency of Extension), \"Superintendência Geral de Gestão e Controle\" (General Superintendency of Management and Control), \"Superintendência Geral de Governança\" (General Superintendency of Governance), \"Superintendência Geral de Tecnologia da Informação e Comunicação Gerencial\" (General Superintendency of Information Technology and Managerial Communication), \"Superintendência Geral de Políticas Estudantis\" (General Superintendency of Student Policies) e a \"Superintendência Geral de Atividades Fora da Sede\" (General Superintendency of Non-Campus Activities).[38]","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Linha_Vermelha_-_Ponte_do_Saber_-_UFRJ.jpg"},{"link_name":"University City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cidade_Universit%C3%A1ria"},{"link_name":"Saber bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponte_do_Saber"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Franklin Ramiz Galvão","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramiz_Galv%C3%A3o"},{"link_name":"Brazilian Academy of Literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_Academy_of_Literature"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"text":"Night view of the University City: highlighted Saber bridge supported by 21 wires tied to a pylon.Some of the famous figures[39] that have held the post of rector in UFRJ are: Benjamin Franklin Ramiz Galvão, doctor, first-ever rector and former member of the Brazilian Academy of Literature(ABL);[40] Raul Leitão da Cunha, doctor;[41] Pedro Calmon, former minister of Education and Health;[42] Deolindo Couto, former member of the ABL;[43] Raymundo Augustto de Castro Moniz de Aragão, former minister of Education;[44] Carlos Lessa, economist and former president of \"Banco Nacional de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social\" (National Bank of Economic and Social Development, BNDS).[45]","title":"Notable Rectors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"master's degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master%27s_degree"},{"link_name":"doctor's degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor%27s_degree"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated2-48"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Macaé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maca%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Duque de Caxias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duque_de_Caxias,_Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Jacarepaguá","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacarepagu%C3%A1"},{"link_name":"Arraial do Cabo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arraial_do_Cabo"},{"link_name":"Santa Teresa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Teresa,_Esp%C3%ADrito_Santo"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Museu_Nacional_UFRJ.jpg"},{"link_name":"The National Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Brazil"}],"sub_title":"Statistics & Heritage","text":"According to its yearly statistical report (2013), the university controls 52 units and supplementary departments, each linked to one of six academic centers. It has a total of 48 454 active undergraduate students plus 7 333 students in undergraduate online courses, and a yearly graduation rate of 5 381 students. As of post-graduation studies, there are 5 389 individuals undergoing master's degree and 5 5382 candidates for doctor's degree.[46] Of its 3 821 professors, 3 068 hold a doctor degree, 618 are masters and 61 are specialists.[47] In addition, its high-school unit (\"Colégio de Aplicação\", or Application School) accounts for 760 enrolled students.[48]The university's main buildings are located at \"Cidade Universitária\" (College City, with 5.2 million m2) in \"Ilha do Fundão\" (Backward Island), but the campus at \"Praia Vermelha\" (Red Beach, with 100 thousand m2) still gathers a plethora of units and supplementary departments. Additionally, there are the Institute of Philosophy and Social Sciences, the Institute of History, the College of Law Studies, the Valongo Observatory, the School of Music, the Residence of College Students and the National Museum (53 276 40 m2). Among the isolated health buildings there are the Maternity School, the São Francisco School-Hospital and the Anna Nery Nursery Schools. The UFRJ possesses additional campuses in Rio de Janeiro's Chile Avenue (8 550 m2), in the cities of Macaé and Duque de Caxias (149 869,18 m2), Jacarepaguá (10 000 m2), Arraial do Cabo and in Santa Teresa (a 1.5 million m2 research-only wildlife reserve).[49]The National Museum is among the most important architectural heritages not only of the university, but of Brazilian society as a whole","title":"Notable Rectors"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CT_UFRJ.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hall_Reitoria_UFRJ.jpg"},{"link_name":"College of Fine Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escola_Nacional_de_Belas_Artes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Minerva_-_CT_-_UFRJ.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Universidade_Federal_RJ.jpg"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"}],"text":"It is in the Center of Technology's Block A where the Institute of Chemistry and the Institute of Physics are housed.The university's modern-architecture City Hall is home of, besides the central bureau, the College of Fine Arts and the College of Architecture and Urbanism.Garden in front of the Center of TechnologyStudents at the Center of Technology's LibraryUFRJ can be divided into six university centers plus the \"Escritório Técnico da Universidade\" (University Technical Department), the \"Fórum da Ciência e Cultura\" (Forum of Science and Culture, FCC) and the University City Hall.[50] Each center is made of dozens of units and supplementary organs responsible for education, research and extension in their respective areas of knowledge.[51]","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Center of Health Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Center_of_Health_Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Center of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Center_of_Technology&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Center of Mathematical and Natural Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Center_of_Mathematical_and_Natural_Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Center of Law and Economic Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Center_of_Law_and_Economic_Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Center of Philosophy and Human Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Center_of_Philosophy_and_Human_Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Center of Literature and Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Center_of_Literature_and_Arts&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"COPPEAD Graduate School of Business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_COPPEAD_Graduate_School_of_Business"}],"sub_title":"University Centers","text":"Center of Health Sciences (CCS): the university's largest, involved in activities and research related to biosciences. As a whole, it gathers ten units and fourteen supplementary organs: three hospitals, three \"nuclei\" (headquarters), two schools, three colleges and thirteen institutes. Activities are developed mostly at CCS's main building at College City, but there are also units at Praia Vermelha, in downtown Rio, in Macaé and in Xerém.[52]\nCenter of Technology (CT): the university's second largest center, it manages two sprawling engineering schools and two high-tech research institutes, all located at College City. The CT also controls two business incubators and one foundation focused at technological studies. These units were all previous to the center's foundation, each with a unique history, and their performance is crucial to the national technological environment, given that together they form one of the country's most influential tech-poles.[53]\nCenter of Mathematical and Natural Sciences (CCMN): originated from the traditional and influential National School of Philosophy, it is made of five institutes and one observatory. Its main infrastructure is located at College City. The Institute of Chemistry and the Institute of Physics are located at Center of Technology's Block A and the Institute of Mathematics, at its Block C, but both are units of CCMN. The Valongo Observatory is placed near the Mauá Park, at the top of Morro da Conceição, and it is the country's only federal institution to offer undergraduate course in Astronomy.[54]\nCenter of Law and Economic Sciences (CCJE): responsible for activities concerning applied social sciences: administration, economics, law, library science and urban planning. It gathers three units (schools) and two supplementary organs (institutes) scattered throughout College CIty, Praia Vermelha and downtown Rio.[55]\nCenter of Philosophy and Human Sciences (CFHC): encompasses interdisciplinary academic activities regarding social sciences, especially those with theoretical focus on society formation. The CFCH is made of six units (two schools, one college and three institutes) and two supplementary organs (one headquarter and the Application College, which supports professor-training courses). The CFHC is locates mainly at the campus of Praia Vermelha, though some minor buildings are found in the regions of Largo do São Francisco and Lagoa.[56]\nCenter of Literature and Arts (CLA): similar to the other centers, it was founded in 1967. It currently comprises four traditional units of UFRJ: two schools and two colleges focused on the arts, language and architecture. Its main buildings are placed at College City, except for the School of Music, which is located at downtown Rio.[57]\nCOPPEAD Graduate School of Business (COPPEAD): The UFRJ School of the Business founded in 1973, located in its own building on the campus of UFRJ Fundão Island is the only business school associated with a Brazilian public university that has international certification, whose is the only of Latin America listed among the 100 best in the world by the prestigious Financial Times ranking.","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"}],"sub_title":"Units and supplementary organs","text":"The so-called \"units\" and \"supplementary organs\" are institutions of basically two types: schools/colleges, destined to professional training, research and extension; and institutes, destined to basic research, extension and teaching of a specific area of knowledge. Generally, units deal with undergraduate and postgraduate courses while supplementary organs are charged with coordinating disciplines according to each specific line of research. Additionally, there are \"research nuclei\", which fall into the category of \"supplementary organs\". As in most Brazilian universities, these two institutional sets are subdivided into departments.[58][59]","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fachada_Museu_Nacional_-_UFRJ.jpg"},{"link_name":"Brazilian Imperial Family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_Imperial_Family"},{"link_name":"Paço de São Cristóvão","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pa%C3%A7o_de_S%C3%A3o_Crist%C3%B3v%C3%A3o"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"National Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cidade_Universit%C3%A1ria_UFRJ.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Libraries and museums","text":"The National Museum, built from the Brazilian Imperial Family's old residence in \"Paço de São Cristóvão\" (Palace of São Cristóvão).Keeping important historical documents of both national and international relevance, UFRJ's libraries and museums can be considered the primary source of inquiry for the country's most renowned researchers. In 1983, the university implanted the System of Libraries and Information (SiBI), through which students and staff enjoy easy and speedy access to the entire collection of its forty three libraries. General (i.e. non-affiliated to the institution) digital access to UFRJ's libraries is made through the Minerva Base, a database that, much like the SiBI, gathers all university libraries into a single website.[60]Among the most noteworthy museums and cultural spaces are: the National Museum, Latin America's largest museum and anthropological of natural history as well as Brazil's oldest scientific institution.[61] Its building is a conversion from the Brazilian Imperial Family's old palace in \"Paço de São Cristóvão\" and it was founded by royal figure Dom João VI in 1818, but integrated to the university only much afterwards, in 1946.[62] Brazil's emperor Dom Pedro II himself, an enthusiast for scientific knowledge, contributed to the museum's collection with Egyptian art, fossils, botanic species and many other items obtained by during his personal trips.[63] Laboratories occupy a great portion of the museum and spread to some buildings raised in \"Horto Botânico\" (Botanic Garden), in \"Quinta da Boa Vista\".[64]In Botafogo, the university also manages the \"Casa da Ciência\" (House of Science), a cultural center of science and technology active since 1995 and dedicated to the exploration of languages and of popular forms of communication such as theater, music and audiovisual techniques. It performs periodical workshops and expositions opened to both students and the general public.[65]Access to the Clementino Fraga Filho University Hospital (HUCFF) is made through the Red Line of João Goulard Freeway, which passes through the northern area of UFRJ's College City (main campus).","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ufrj.br-32"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"psychiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatry"},{"link_name":"mental health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_health"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"childcare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childcare"},{"link_name":"pediatrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediatrics"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"neurology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurology"},{"link_name":"neurosurgery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosurgery"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"gynecology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gynecology"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"cardiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiology"},{"link_name":"vascular surgery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_surgery"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-portal.mec.gov.br-75"},{"link_name":"ultrasonography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonography"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-portal.mec.gov.br-75"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cidade_Universit%C3%A1ria_da_UFRJ_vista_a_partir_da_Igreja_da_Penha.jpg"},{"link_name":"Guanabara Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanabara_Bay"}],"sub_title":"Health complex","text":"The university's medical-hospital network is composed of nine supplementary organs distributed throughout various campuses. Together, these units are responsible for 566 410 treatments, 8 293 surgeries and 18 555 hospitalizations every year.[30]Clementino Fraga Filho University Hospital (HUCFF): created in 1978, it is UFRJ's flagship medical institution. Sprawling through 110 000 meters squared, it is both national and international reference in high surgical procedures of high complexity.[66]\nSão Francisco de Assis Institute of Health (HESFA): founded in the 19th century as School Hospital and reopened in 1988 by then-rector Luís Renato Caldas. Sustaining a profile of high-quality customer service clinic, it acts on medical procedures of low or medium complexity and focuses on patients requiring long-term care and hospitalization.[67]\nInstitute of Psichiatry (IPUB): acts as Latin America's flagship research, post-graduation learning and knowledge-diffuser institution regarding multidisciplinary studies in psychiatry and mental health.[68]\nMartagão Gesteira Institute of Childcare and Pediatrics (IPPMG): institute of nationwide recognition in matters of childcare, it was incorporated to the university after formal proposal from professor Joaquim Martagão Gesteira. It undergoes research in the mother-child field and acts on assistance and teaching and training in pediatrics.[69]\nInstitute of Chest Diseases (IDT): founded in 1957 by professor Antonio Ibiapina and, since 2000, adjunct to HUCFF's main structure. Promotes full-time assistance and undergoes research regarding respiratory illnesses.[70]\nDeolindo Couto Institute of Neurology (INDC): located at Praia Vermelha campus, is responsible for activities, research, teaching and assistance in the fields of neurology and neurosurgery.[71]\nInstitute of Gynecology (IG): founded in 1947 and located at university hospital \"Moncorvo Filho\". Notable for providing radio-therapeutic services specifically for matters of gynecology ontology.[72]\nEdson Saad Institute of Heart (ICES): founded in 2003 to develop high-quality research in the fields of cardiology and vascular surgery. The institute initiated its activities in old departments from HUCFF and the School of Medicine.[73]\nMaternity School (ME): founded in 1904 to assist pregnant women and newly born children from unprivileged social backgrounds in the State of Rio de Janeiro. It was pioneer in the use of, among other methods, ultrasonography and dopplerfluxometry in Brazil.[73]The Clementino Fraga Filho University Hospital (HUCFF) at College City, seen from Nossa Senhora da Penha Church: at the center, the hospital's main building and, in the background, the famous Guanabara Bay.","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Campuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:UFRJ-Praia_Vermelha.jpg"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ufrjparaestrangeiros.wordpress.com-76"},{"link_name":"embankment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embankment_dam"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ufrjparaestrangeiros.wordpress.com-76"},{"link_name":"modernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Urca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urca"},{"link_name":"human sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sciences"},{"link_name":"neoclassical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassicism"},{"link_name":"hospice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospice"},{"link_name":"Dom Pedro II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dom_Pedro_II"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Universidade_Federal_do_Rio_de_Janeiro.JPG"},{"link_name":"College of Law Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_University_of_Rio_de_Janeiro_Faculty_of_Law"},{"link_name":"senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"Ponte do Saber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponte_do_Saber"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"}],"sub_title":"Rio de Janeiro","text":"The Palácio Universitário, a 19th-century neoclassical building that serves as campus of the UFRJ. The Institutes for Economics, Education, Communications and Administration, among others, are based here.The Federal University of Rio de Janeiro's main infrastructure is the College City, located at and occupying almost all of Ilha do Fundão (Backyard Island), northern Rio de Janeiro.[74] The island was artificially created in 1950 by the union of various already existing islands through embankment techniques.[75] Academic activities in the campus, however, would only start in 1970, and the initial project stated that all active courses would be transferred to the city.[74] Architecture was hugely influenced by modernism and some designs were even awarded, such as the rectory building (designed by Jorge Machado Moreira and awarded at the \"IV Bienal de São Paulo\").[76]The campus has a residence complex for undergraduate students (504 rooms),[77] three university restaurants (commonly called \"bandejões\", or \"big trays\"),[78] a sports center, and banking agencies.[79] In 2010, there was the opening of an integration station for the unified college transport system, aiming for more security and comfort to the college community. Dozens of 24/7 inter-campus bus lines, free for students, are connected to the College City,[80] plus regular urban and intercity lines[81] serving the population of Baixada Fluminense region and of metropolitan Rio de Janeiro.[82][83][84]The campus at Praia Vermelha (Red Beach), locates at Urca, southern Rio, concentrates on courses related mainly to human sciences. Its largest and most historically notable building is the University Pallace, a neoclassical-style premise built between 1842 and 1852 to serve as a hospice, which was inaugurated by emperor Dom Pedro II only ten years later.[85] In 1949, the building was given to the University of Brazil, which then restored and expanded its facilities.[86]Building of both the Institute of Philosophy and Social Sciences and the Institute of History at \"Largo de São Francisco de Paula.In downtown Rio de Janeiro, one can find many isolated college units: the College of Law Studies, at Conde dos Arcos Palace, former headquarter of Brazilian senate;[87] the School of Music, planted in the old National Library building since 1913;[88] the Valongo Observatory at the top of \"Morro da Conceição\" (Conceição Hill);[89] the Institute of Philosophy and Social Sciences and the Institute of History, both situated in the old National School of Engineering building, at \"Largo de São Francisco de Paula\".[90]In the 2010-2020 UFRJ Master Plan a project was set for conversion of the Praia Vermelha campus into a great cultural center, consequentially transferring almost all of the campus' academic activities, plus that of all of college units scattered throughout Rio, to the College City, thus redeeming the city's original intent of centering all university activities in Ilha do Fundão.[91] The decision has generated strong polemic with both students and staff, given the great distances between southern (Praia Vermelha) and northern (Ilha do Fundão) Rio and the chaotic traffic that plagues the Red Line of João Goulart Freeway - the \"jugular\" connecting the College City to Rio.[92]Aloísio Teixeira, then rector and strong advocate for the integration, argued that the University Palace can bear a circulation of no more than two to three thousand people per day, and that the College City's major problems are not on its structure, but on its access points which are more easily fixable matters.[93] Aiming to solve part of the city's traffic problem, in mid-2010 Rio de Janeiro saw the building of its first cable-stayed bridge, named \"Ponte do Saber\" (Knowledge Bridge), which was inaugurated in 2012 to receive a daily average of 25,000 vehicles.[94]","title":"Campuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Xerém","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xer%C3%A9m"},{"link_name":"Duque de Caxias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duque_de_Caxias,_Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"master's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master%27s_degree"},{"link_name":"biosciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioscience"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"}],"sub_title":"Duque de Caxias","text":"Through its biophysics undergraduate course, started in the second half of 2008, UFRJ initiated activities in Xerém, a region with large industrial and technological potential in the city of Duque de Caxias.[95] Aiming to cooperate with Inmetro (National Institute of Metrics, Normalization and Industrial Quality), the university forged a partnership with the government of Duque de Caxias and with the Foundation for Technological Development and Social Policies.[96][97] Currently, and additionally to biophysics, the Xerém campus offers undergraduate courses in biotechnology and nanotechnology, both added in the first half of 2010.[98] As of the following year, there was the addition of the professional master's in Scientific Formation for Biology Teachers, targeted at professors of the biosciences looking for skill improvement.[99] Students have Inmetro's infrastructure and laboratories at hand, but most students and staff whose main laboratories are at Ilha do Fundão still have to complete their academic internships at College City. In an attempt to fix this inconvenience, Inmetro agreed to concede its Xerém infrastructures to UFRJ, which was then reinaugurated as a full campus in 2012.[100]","title":"Campuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Interioriza%C3%A7%C3%A3oNorteFluminense.JPG"},{"link_name":"Macaé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maca%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Macaé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maca%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"}],"sub_title":"Macaé","text":"University complex in Macaé, at northern Rio de Janeiro (state).UFRJ has operated in the city of Macaé since the 1980s, when researchers from its Institute of Biology performed studies in the lakes of \"Região dos Lagos\" (literally, Lake Regions). In partnership with the city, it instituted the Macaé Nucleus for Ecological Researches (NUPEM) in 1994.[101] The university's recognition in and importance to the city was so visible that, in 2012, the City Hall has donated to the institution a 29,000 m2 terrain, in which was raised a new university center.[102] In 2005, NUPEM was officialized as a supplementary organ of the Center of Health Sciences and,[103] in 2006, the university implemented its first course outside Rio de Janeiro, professor training in the biosciences, to be taken in NUPEM's headquarters. In 2007, Macaé inaugurated a full university complex with two buildings and seven more planned ones, for graduation, post-graduation and extension courses. During this solemnity there was also the signing of the \"Protocolo de Intenções\" (Intentions Protocol) between UFRJ and the city, promising the initiation of chemistry and pharmacy courses in 2008.[104]Currently, the campus is physically distributed among four poles (University Pole, Barreto, Novo Cavaleiros and Ajuda), where the following undergraduate courses are offered: biological sciences, chemistry, nursing and obstetrics, engineering (production, civil and mechanical), pharmacy, medicine, and nutrition;[105] as of post-graduation courses, there are two: environmental and conservation sciences, and bioactive and biosciences products.[106] The main campus was named after former rector Aloísio Teixeira, incumbent from 2003 to 2011, in 2012 (Campus UFRJ–Macaé Professor Aloísio Teixeira), honoring his decisive contribution to the spreading of UFRJ through the State of Rio de Janeiro.","title":"Campuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mapa_dos_Campi_da_UFRJ_no_Rio_de_Janeiro.png"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro_(state)"},{"link_name":"Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universidade_Federal_do_Estado_do_Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Universidade Federal Fluminense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universidade_Federal_Fluminense"},{"link_name":"Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universidade_Federal_Rural_do_Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universidade_do_Estado_do_Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universidade_Estadual_do_Norte_Fluminense_Darcy_Ribeiro"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"vestibular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibular"},{"link_name":"Angra dos Reis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angra_dos_Reis"},{"link_name":"Itaperuna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itaperuna"},{"link_name":"Nova Iguaçu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_Igua%C3%A7u"},{"link_name":"Paracambi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracambi"},{"link_name":"Piraí","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pira%C3%AD"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"São Gonçalo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Gon%C3%A7alo,_Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Três Rios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C3%AAs_Rios"},{"link_name":"Volta Redonda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volta_Redonda"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"}],"sub_title":"E-learning poles","text":"Map of the state of Rio de Janeiro highlighting the cities where UFRJ, either by its physical or e-learning courses, is active (in red).E-learning courses are offered by the CEDERJ (Rio de Janeiro Center of Higher-Education E-learning) consortium, signed between UFRJ and the following institutions: Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO), Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ), Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro (UENF) and Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica Celso Suckow da Fonseca (CEFET/RJ).[107]Taught in a mixed scheme where some activities require the students' physical presence, UFRJ offers professor training courses in the biosciences, physics, and chemistry.[108] At the course's conclusion, a student is awarded with a certificate equivalent to that of physically-based courses offered by the institution, according to each student's chosen e-learning pole.[109] Admission are made by an independent \"vestibular\" organized by the consortium. UFRJ's e-learning poles in the State of Rio de Janeiro are: Angra dos Reis, Duque de Caxias, Itaperuna, Macaé, Nova Iguaçu, Paracambi, Piraí, Rio de Janeiro, São Gonçalo, Três Rios, and Volta Redonda.[110]","title":"Campuses"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Academics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Polytechnic School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escola_Polit%C3%A9cnica_da_UFRJ"}],"sub_title":"Undergraduate courses","text":"There are 179 undergraduate courses covering all areas of human knowledge and distributed into four types: morning, afternoon, night and integral (all previous three combined) courses. Each courses is linked to one academic institution, but some share multiple institutions, like the nanotechnology course, which is offered by the Polytechnic School, the \"Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho\" (Institute of Biophysics Carlos Chagas Filho), the Institute of Physics and the \"Instituto de Macromoléculas Professora Eloisa Mano\" (Institute of Machomolecules Professor Eloisa Mano).\nBelow are listed all offered courses and the respective specializations (including emphases, habilitations or modalities) for which students can opt during their graduation.","title":"Academics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"post-graduation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-graduation"},{"link_name":"master's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master%27s_degree"},{"link_name":"doctor's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctorate"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated2-48"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"}],"sub_title":"Postgraduate courses","text":"There are 345 post-graduation courses, being 167 lato sensu (specialization) and 178 stricto sensu (master's and doctor's degrees).[46] Similarly to the undergraduate courses, each post-grad course is linked to a specific academic institution. As of 2010, there were 1 965 scholarship programs from Coordination of Higher-Education Personnel Improvement (CAPES) available to post-graduation candidates, 844 from the National Council of Technologic and Scientific Development (CNPq) and 800 from the university itself.[111]","title":"Academics"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Students"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"vestibular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibular"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CCMN.png"},{"link_name":"Cesgranrio Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funda%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Cesgranrio"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"Exame Nacional do Ensino Médio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exame_Nacional_do_Ensino_M%C3%A9dio"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"Sistema de Seleção Unificada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_Sele%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Unificada"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"affirmative action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affirmative_action"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"}],"sub_title":"Admissions","text":"Similarly to most Brazilian public universities, admissions to the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro are defined by highly competitive entrance exams held every year (commonly known in Brazil as \"vestibular\"). Anyone who was already graduated from high school is eligible to the undergraduate courses. Admission is also possible by transfer (known as \"external transfer\"), exemption from exams (\"reentrance\") or by international partnerships.[112]UFRJ's Center of Mathematical and Natural Sciences houses the Coordination for Undergraduate Courses Admission.Until the late 1980s, the admission exam was managed as a unified \"vestibular\" by Cesgranrio Foundation. Given the university's disagreement with the test's methodology - which consisted almost entirely in multiple-choice questions -, the institution quit the partnership and organized its own \"vestibular\", named \"Concurso de Acesso aos Cursos de Graduação\" (Undergraduate Courses Admission Exam).[113] The test was solely based on open-ended responses, and its elaborate questions eventually led it to be considered one of Brazil's toughest and most demanding higher education admission exams.[114]Since 2012, the university responded favorably to the utilization of the \"Exame Nacional do Ensino Médio\" (High School National Exam, or ENEM; a yearly nationwide exam managed by the Ministry of Education) for student admission.[115] The exam's importance grew to the point that, in 2011, the UFRJ extinguished its \"Concurso de Acesso\" and made the ENEM its single admission exam; candidates' selection was delegated to the \"Sistema de Seleção Unificada\" (Unified Selection System, or SiSU; also under the Ministry of Education's rule).[116] UFRJ quickly became one of the most coveted institutions in the system: as of the second semester of 2012, it received 103 829 applications, the highest of any other university in SiSU.[117]The institution also adheres to affirmative action policies since 2010:[118] currently, 30% of all vacancies are reserved by some form of affirmative action measure; the most common basis for selection under this system is through socioeconomic standards, favoring students with public schooling backgrounds and whose families earn less than one and a half minimum wage (R$1 086/month, or roughly US$15/day, as of January, 2014).[119]","title":"Students"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eduardo Viveiros de Castro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduardo_Viveiros_de_Castro"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"Oscar Niemeyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"Ary Barroso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ary_Barroso"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"Vinícius de Moraes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vin%C3%ADcius_de_Moraes"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"Ângela Leal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%82ngela_Leal"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"Ivan Lins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Lins"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"André Esteves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Esteves"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"Carlos Alberto Sicupira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Alberto_Sicupira"},{"link_name":"Lúcia Mendonça Previato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BAcia_Mendon%C3%A7a_Previato"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"Otto Gottlieb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Gottlieb"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"Vital Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vital_Brazil"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aluno-Vital-133"},{"link_name":"Carlos Chagas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Chagas"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aluno-CarlosChagas-134"},{"link_name":"Osvaldo Cruz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswaldo_Cruz"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aluno-Oswaldo-135"},{"link_name":"Carlos Chagas Filho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Chagas_Filho"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"Mauricio Rocha e Silva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maur%C3%ADcio_Rocha_e_Silva"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lessa-139"},{"link_name":"Joaquim Levy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joaquim_Levy"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"Jose A. Scheinkman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Scheinkman"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Simonsen-142"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"Luiz Bevilacqua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luiz_Bevilacqua"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Luis-144"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fernando-145"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mauricio-146"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant_(Brazil)"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Benjamin-147"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Her%C3%B3doto-148"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"link_name":"Maria das Graças Foster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_das_Gra%C3%A7as_Silva_Foster"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Massarani-151"},{"link_name":"Tércio Pacitti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9rcio_Pacitti"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Frontin-152"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PPassos-153"},{"link_name":"Luiz Pinguelli Rosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luiz_Pinguelli_Rosa"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"Belkis Valdman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belkis_Valdman"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aluno-Belkis-155"},{"link_name":"Maurício Botelho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maur%C3%ADcio_Botelho"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"Sérgio Buarque de Holanda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9rgio_Buarque_de_Holanda"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sergioholanda-157"},{"link_name":"Francisco Falcon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Falcon"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JHonorio-159"},{"link_name":"Fátima Bernardes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A1tima_Bernardes"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"Artur Ávila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artur_Avila"},{"link_name":"Elon Lages Lima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elon_Lages_Lima"},{"link_name":"Leopoldo Nachbin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopoldo_Nachbin"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nachbin-162"},{"link_name":"Jacob Palis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Palis"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jacob-163"},{"link_name":"Marco Aurélio Mello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Aur%C3%A9lio_Mello"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-164"},{"link_name":"Nelson Barbosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_Barbosa"},{"link_name":"Joaquim Levy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joaquim_Levy"},{"link_name":"Suzana Herculano-Houzel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzana_Herculano-Houzel"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-165"},{"link_name":"Carlos Bertulani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Bertulani"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-166"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-167"},{"link_name":"Marcelo Gleiser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcelo_Gleiser"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-168"},{"link_name":"Belita Koiller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belita_Koiller"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-169"},{"link_name":"José Leite Lopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Leite_Lopes"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jose-170"},{"link_name":"Herch Moysés Nussenzveig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herch_Moys%C3%A9s_Nussenzveig"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-171"},{"link_name":"Osvaldo Aranha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osvaldo_Aranha"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aranha-172"},{"link_name":"Índio da Costa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%B4nio_Pedro_de_Siqueira_Indio_da_Costa"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-indiodacosta-173"},{"link_name":"Moreira Franco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moreira_Franco"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-174"},{"link_name":"Carlos Lacerda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Lacerda"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lacerda-175"},{"link_name":"Jorge Amado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Amado"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-176"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-177"},{"link_name":"Rubem Fonseca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubem_Fonseca"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-178"},{"link_name":"Clarice Lispector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarice_Lispector"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-179"},{"link_name":"Leandro Müller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leandro_M%C3%BCller"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-180"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-181"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jorge_Amado.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jorge Amado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Amado"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oswaldo_Aranha.jpg"},{"link_name":"Oswaldo Aranha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswaldo_Aranha"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Artur_%C3%81vila.jpg"},{"link_name":"Artur Ávila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artur_%C3%81vila"},{"link_name":"Fields Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fields_Medal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Instituto_Butantan_2016_010_-_Vital_Brazil.jpg"},{"link_name":"Vital Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vital_Brazil"},{"link_name":"anti-ophidic serum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antivenin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carlos_chagas_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Carlos Chagas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Chagas"},{"link_name":"Chagas disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chagas_disease"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oswaldo_cruz.jpg"},{"link_name":"Oswaldo Cruz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswaldo_Cruz"},{"link_name":"Oswaldo Cruz Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswaldo_Cruz_Institute"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:6S2A6787.jpg"},{"link_name":"Joaquim Levy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joaquim_Levy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ivan_Lins.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ivan Lins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Lins"},{"link_name":"Latin Grammy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Grammy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Clarice_Lispector_statue.jpg"},{"link_name":"Clarice Lispector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarice_Lispector"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leandro_muller_em_salamanca.jpg"},{"link_name":"Leandro Müller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leandro_M%C3%BCller"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oscar_Niemeyer,_Pic,_9_-_Restoration.jpg"},{"link_name":"Oscar Niemeyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jacob_Palis.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jacob Palis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Palis"},{"link_name":"Legion of Honor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legion_of_Honor"},{"link_name":"Balzan Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balzan_Prize"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vinicius.jpg"},{"link_name":"Vinícius de Moraes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vin%C3%ADcius_de_Moraes"}],"sub_title":"Notable alumni","text":"Given its academic excellence, the UFRJ was home to some of the countries brightest minds in all fields of knowledge. What follows is a list of some of them:Anthropologists: Eduardo Viveiros de Castro,[120] and Gilberto Velho[121]\nArchitect: Oscar Niemeyer[122]\nArtists: Ary Barroso,[123] Vinícius de Moraes,[124] Mário Lago,[125] Ângela Leal,[126] and Ivan Lins[127]\nBillionaires: André Esteves,[128] Carlos Alberto Sicupira\nBiologists: Lúcia Mendonça Previato[129]\nChemist: Otto Gottlieb[130]\nDoctors: Vital Brazil,[131] Carlos Chagas,[132] Osvaldo Cruz,[133] Carlos Chagas Filho,[134] Herman Lent,[135] and Mauricio Rocha e Silva[136]\nEconomists: Carlos Lessa,[137] Joaquim Levy,[138] Jose A. Scheinkman,[139] and Mário Henrique Simonsen[140]\nEducator: Anísio Teixeira[141]\nEngineers: Luiz Bevilacqua,[142] Maurício Botelho, Fernando Lobo Carneiro,[143] Mauricio Carrasco ,[144] Benjamin Constant,[145] Heródoto Bento de Mello,[146] Aïda Espinola,[147] Maria das Graças Foster,[148] Giulio Massarani,[149] Tércio Pacitti e Paulo de Frontin,[150] Francisco Pereira Passos,[151] Luiz Pinguelli Rosa,[152] and Belkis Valdman[153]\nEntrepreneur: Maurício Botelho, and Fabio Coelho[154]\nHistorians: Sérgio Buarque de Holanda,[155] Francisco Falcon,[156] and José Honório Rodrigues[157]\nJournalists: Fátima Bernardes,[158] and Ali Kamel[159]\nMathematicians: Artur Ávila, Elon Lages Lima, Leopoldo Nachbin,[160] and Jacob Palis[161]\nMinister of Justice: Marco Aurélio Mello[162]\nMinister of Treasury: Nelson Barbosa, and Joaquim Levy\nNeuroscientist: Suzana Herculano-Houzel[163]\nPhysicist: Carlos Bertulani,[164] Fernando de Souza Barros,[165] Marcelo Gleiser,[166] Belita Koiller,[167] José Leite Lopes,[168] and Herch Moysés Nussenzveig[169]\nPolitical commentator: Villas-Bôas Corrêa;\nPoliticians: Osvaldo Aranha,[170] Índio da Costa,[171] Moreira Franco,[172] and Carlos Lacerda[173]\nWriters: Jorge Amado,[174] Evandro Lins e Silva,[175] Rubem Fonseca,[176] and Clarice Lispector,[177] Leandro Müller, Marques Rebelo,[178] and Mário Furley Schmidt,[179]Notable UFRJ Alumni\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJorge Amado, writer\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tOswaldo Aranha, politician, diplomat and statesman\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tArtur Ávila, Fields Medal-winning mathematician\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tVital Brazil, physician, biomedical scientist and immunologist. Discoverer of the polyvalent anti-ophidic serum\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCarlos Chagas, doctor, discoverer of the Chagas disease\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tOswaldo Cruz, physician, public health officer and the founder of the Oswaldo Cruz Institute. Former member of the Brazilian Academy of Literature\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJoaquim Levy, Finance Minister of Brazil\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tIvan Lins, Latin Grammy-winning musician\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tClarice Lispector, writer\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLeandro Müller, writer and editor.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tOscar Niemeyer, architect\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJacob Palis, Legion of Honor and Balzan Prize-winning mathematician and professor\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tVinícius de Moraes, Diplomat, writer, and lyricist","title":"Students"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-182"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-183"},{"link_name":"Casseta & Planeta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casseta_%26_Planeta"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-184"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-185"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-186"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Faculdade_Nacional_de_Medicina_-_UFRJ_-_Universidade_do_Brasil.jpg"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-187"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-188"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-189"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-190"},{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-191"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-192"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-193"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-194"}],"sub_title":"Student unions","text":"Students are formally represented by the \"Diretório Central dos Estudantes Mário Prata\" (Mário Prata Central Student Directory, or DCE), which was founded in 1930 - preceding even the National Student Union (UNE, 1937). The entity remained influential until its shutdown by the military regime of 1964–85, when dozens of union leaders, including student and then-president of DCE Mario de Souza Prata, were murdered.[180] In the late-1970s, given a gradual political opening, academic centers such as the DCE were given permission to function once again. Among the students that participated in the DCE's reactivation are Mário Furley Schimidt[181] and some member of popular Brazilian comedy show Casseta & Planeta, like Marcelo Madureira,[182] Beto Silva[183] and Hélio de la Peña.[184]Building in which the College of Medicine operated until 1973, at \"Praia Vermelha\" (Red Beach).To the young students who, at dawn of September 23rd, 1968, in the National College of Medicine building, dared to resist the police forces of the military regime. The episode known as \"Massacre da Praia Vermelha\" is one of the most important events of the constant fight for academic autonomy. To them, our deepest admiration.— \"Conselho Universitário\" (University Council), resolution of 08/24/2006.Besides the DCE, minor academic centers (CAs) act as students representative organs for each course: the Carlos Chagas Academic Center for the College of Medicine,[185] the Polytechnic School Academic Center of Engineering,[186] the Cândido de Oliveira Academic Center for the College of Law Studies,[187] the Max Planck Academic Center for the Institute of Physics[188] and the Academic Directory for the School of Chemistry,[189] to cite the most notable.The infamous episode known as \"Massacre da Praia Vermelha\" (Red Beach Massacre) was a hallmark the history of Brazilian student unions.[190] At dawn of September 23, 1968, squads from the military government invading the old facility of then-National College of Medicine and savagely beat all students sheltered there.[191] There was also massive depredation of public patrimony, as the action disenabled several of the college's laboratories and administrative sectors. Around 600 students were gathered to protest against the government's arbitrary and oppressive actions (ex.: the shutdown of DCE and UNE, the increase in meal prices) and to vindicate the release of Law student Rodrigo Lima, arrested for 35 days in the \"Batalhão de Guardas do Exército\" (Army Squad Battalion).[192]","title":"Students"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cenpes_-_Petrobras_-_Eduardo_Paes_-_S%C3%A9rgio_Cabral_-_Lula_-_Cid_Univers_UFRJ.jpg"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro_(state)"},{"link_name":"Sérgio Cabral Filho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9rgio_Cabral_Filho"},{"link_name":"Rio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Eduardo Paes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduardo_Paes"},{"link_name":"energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy"},{"link_name":"oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil"},{"link_name":"gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-195"},{"link_name":"Petrobras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrobras"},{"link_name":"pre-salt layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-salt_layer"},{"link_name":"Silicon Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Valley"},{"link_name":"[194]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-196"},{"link_name":"Leopoldo Américo Miguez de Mello Research Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenpes"},{"link_name":"southern hemisphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_hemisphere"},{"link_name":"[195]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-197"},{"link_name":"Electric Energy Research Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletrobras_Cepel"},{"link_name":"Eletrobrás","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletrobr%C3%A1s"},{"link_name":"electric energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_energy"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-198"},{"link_name":"Mineral Technology Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Centro_de_Tecnologia_Mineral&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"minerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minerals"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-199"},{"link_name":"General Electric Global Technological Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-200"},{"link_name":"[199]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-201"},{"link_name":"Alberto Luiz Coimbra Institute of Post-Graduation and Research in Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COPPE"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-202"},{"link_name":"[201]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-203"},{"link_name":"[202]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-204"},{"link_name":"[203]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-205"},{"link_name":"[204]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-206"},{"link_name":"[205]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-207"},{"link_name":"virtual reality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-208"},{"link_name":"L'Oréal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Or%C3%A9al"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-209"},{"link_name":"Siemens AG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens_AG"},{"link_name":"[208]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-210"},{"link_name":"Usiminas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usiminas"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-211"},{"link_name":"Schlumberger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlumberger"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-212"},{"link_name":"Baker Hughes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker_Hughes"},{"link_name":"[211]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-213"},{"link_name":"FMC Technologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FMC_Technologies"},{"link_name":"[212]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-214"},{"link_name":"Repsol YPF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repsol_YPF"},{"link_name":"[213]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-215"},{"link_name":"Halliburton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halliburton"},{"link_name":"[214]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-216"},{"link_name":"Tenaris Confab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tenaris_Confab&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-217"},{"link_name":"[216]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-218"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-219"}],"text":"Former president of Brazil Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, ex-governor of Rio de Janeiro state Sérgio Cabral Filho, and mayor of Rio Eduardo Paes visiting the CENPES.The Parque Tecnológico do Rio (Technological Park of Rio) is also located in College City. It is a technopole geared towards research in energy, oil, and gas.[193] In partnership with Petrobras, UFRJ intends to convert an area of 350 000 m2 into the world's largest oil-related technological research center, given that exploration and oil extraction from the recently discovered pre-salt layer fields is in urgent need of new, more affordable techniques. Intense private and state investments in the region, plus the high expectations it has generated, led it to be considered a Brazilian \"Silicon Valley\".[194] The park gathers, among its main facilities:Leopoldo Américo Miguez de Mello Research Center (CENPES): founded in 1962 and managed by Petrobras, it is responsible for research and development (R&D) and for the company's basic engineering matters; it is the largest oil research pole in the southern hemisphere.[195]\nElectric Energy Research Center (CEPEL): founded in 1974, it is part of group Eletrobrás and manages R&D related to the generation, transmission and distribution of electric energy. It is also the hemisphere's largest research center in the field.[196]\nMineral Technology Center (CETEM): founded in 1978 and under direct command by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), it acts on the technological development concerning to minerals.[197]\nGeneral Electric Global Technological Center (GE): under construction, with inauguration planned to 2014. Until then, General Electric operates in the facilities of the Center of Excellence in Communication and Information Technology (CETIC).[198][199]\nAlberto Luiz Coimbra Institute of Post-Graduation and Research in Engineering (COPPE): UFRJ's supplementary organ, it is Latin America's largest research and learning center of engineering.[200] Also notable for owning the world's largest (volume terms) and deepest oceanic tank, which is used to simulate sea-life conditions.[201][202]Additionally, there is the Center of Excellence in Natural Gas (CEGN),[203] the Institute of Nuclear Engineering (IEN),[204] the Nucleus of Ecosystem Recovery Technologies (NUTRE)[205] and a virtual reality center linked to the Laboratory of Computational Engineering Methods (LAMCE).[206] Among the corporations with research units established in the Technological Park or in other spots of College City are: L'Oréal,[207] Siemens AG,[208] Usiminas,[209] Schlumberger,[210] Baker Hughes,[211] FMC Technologies,[212] Repsol YPF,[213] Halliburton[214] and Tenaris Confab.[215] Public biddings for the construction of new research centers and commercial tower, all capable of supporting one hundred new more enterprises, are currently under request.[216] The Park project has also attracted over 200 small or medium-sized companies to its centers, resulting in higher stakes for its innovational potential.[217]","title":"Technological Park of Rio"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%C3%94nibus_H%C3%ADbrido_Hidrog%C3%AAnio_COPPE_UFRJ.jpg"},{"link_name":"Rio+20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio%2B20"}],"text":"H2+2 project, a hybrid hydrogene bus with electric traction developed by the Alberto Luiz Coimbra Institute of Post-Graduation and Research in Engineering (COPPE) and exhibited at Rio+20 conference.","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-220"}],"sub_title":"UFRJ Newspaper","text":"The \"Jornal da UFRJ\" (UFRJ Newspaper) is a monthly publication by the General Superintendence of Social Communication. It has been on circulation since 2003, covering subjects of academic interest and government affairs. It is available both on print and digitally, with 25 000 copies being distributed across the universities many campuses.[218]","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[219]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-221"}],"sub_title":"UFRJ Sea","text":"The \"UFRJ Mar\" (UFRJ Sea) was developed along Rio de Janeiro's coastline and comprehends several fields, from physical education and engineering to biological sciences and geosciences. The project relies on one of Brazil's most complex set of R&D laboratories in maritime and coastal studies.[219]","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[220]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-222"}],"sub_title":"Getting to Know UFRJ","text":"The \"Conhecendo a UFRJ\" (Getting to Know UFRJ) is a two-day yearly event that takes place at College City, when high-school students have lectures about the institution, tour through its main campus and get to know its academic routine and student life. As of 2010, on its eighth edition, approximately 14 000 students participated in the event.[220]","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[221]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-223"}],"sub_title":"Plant Waves","text":"Developed by COPPE with Government of Ceará supporting Pecém Wave Power Plant is the first in Latin America and places Brazil in a select group of countries with knowledge to extract electrical energy from sea waves. Factory with 100% Brazilian technology, is located 60 km from Fortaleza in the breakwater of the Port of Pecém. The project of researchers from COPPE underwater Technology Laboratory is designed in modules which allows the expansion of the capacity of the plant.[221]","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Maglev Cobra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maglev_Cobra"},{"link_name":"[222]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-224"}],"sub_title":"MagLev Cobra","text":"The Maglev Cobra is a levitation train developed at UFRJ (Federal University of Rio de Janeiro) by Coppe (Alberto Luiz Coimbra Institute of Graduate Studies and Research in Engineering) and the Polytechnic School by LASUP (Superconducting Applications Laboratory). The Brazilian train, as well as the German maglev floats on the tracks, with only friction with air during their displacement. Maglev Cobra based on levitation, moving without friction with the ground by a linear motor primary short. The vehicle has been designed towards a revolution in public transportation through high-tech, non-polluting way, energy efficient and affordable to large urban centers.The deployment cost of Maglev Cobra is significantly lower than the subway, getting to cost only one-third of this. Its operating normal speed will be within a range of 70 to 100 km/h, compatible to the subway and ideal for urban public transport.[222]","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[223]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-225"}],"sub_title":"LabOceano","text":"Able to reproduce the main features of the marine environment and simulate phenomena occurring in water depths greater than 2000 meters, LabOceano is a strategic technological support for Brazil, which has more than 90% of its oil reserves concentrated at sea, and for the oil and shipping industries. The ocean tank holds 23 million liters of water and its height corresponds to an eight-story building. Today, only two facilities in the world exist with similar characteristics to the tank designed by COPPE researchers: the Marintek, Norway, 10 meters, and Marin, Holland, 10.5 meters.[223]","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Law School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_University_of_Rio_de_Janeiro_Faculty_of_Law"},{"link_name":"Museu Nacional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museu_Nacional_(Brazil)"},{"link_name":"Casa da Ciência","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20120825062751/http://casadaciencia.ufrj.br/"},{"link_name":"CAp UFRJ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAp_UFRJ"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portal_do_Pal%C3%A1cio_Universit%C3%A1rio_da_UFRJ.png"}],"text":"Law School\nMuseu Nacional (National Museum)\nCasa da Ciência (House of Science)\nCAp UFRJ (Laboratory School)University Palace gateway.","title":"Institutions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-www1.folha.uol.com.br-6"}],"text":"^ Portuguese: Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro\n\n^ Universidade do Brasil [5]","title":"Notes"}]	[{"image_text":"University Palace in the 19th century, when it functioned as a hospice. The building was given to University of Brazil only in 1949.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Hosp%C3%ADcio_D_Pedro_II_-_Atual_Pal%C3%A1cio_Universit%C3%A1rio_da_UFRJ_-_Praia_Vermelha.jpg/270px-Hosp%C3%ADcio_D_Pedro_II_-_Atual_Pal%C3%A1cio_Universit%C3%A1rio_da_UFRJ_-_Praia_Vermelha.jpg"},{"image_text":"1928 diploma certificated by then-University of Rio de Janeiro","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Diploma_da_Escola_Polytechnica_da_Universidade_do_Rio_de_Janeiro_em_1928.jpg/220px-Diploma_da_Escola_Polytechnica_da_Universidade_do_Rio_de_Janeiro_em_1928.jpg"},{"image_text":"University Palace, neoclassical building finished in 1842. In the foreground, the Charity Statue, symbol of piety towards the ill (the facility originally functioned as a hospice).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Pal%C3%A1cio_Universit%C3%A1rio_da_UFRJ.jpg/220px-Pal%C3%A1cio_Universit%C3%A1rio_da_UFRJ.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ponte do Saber (\"Knowledge Bridge\") is one of the main exit points from the campus at Ilha do Fundão (\"Backyard Island\").","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Ponte_do_Saber_da_UFRJ_%28Ponte_estaiada_do_Rio_de_Janeiro%29_2.jpg/220px-Ponte_do_Saber_da_UFRJ_%28Ponte_estaiada_do_Rio_de_Janeiro%29_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Rectory building, designed by architect Jorge Machado Moreira and finished in 1957, was awarded in the same year at the IV Bienal Internacional de Arte de São Paulo. Its gardens were designed by Roberto Burle Marx.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Pr%C3%A9dio_da_reitoria_da_Universidade_Federal_do_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg/270px-Pr%C3%A9dio_da_reitoria_da_Universidade_Federal_do_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg"},{"image_text":"Night view of the University City: highlighted Saber bridge supported by 21 wires tied to a pylon.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Linha_Vermelha_-_Ponte_do_Saber_-_UFRJ.jpg/253px-Linha_Vermelha_-_Ponte_do_Saber_-_UFRJ.jpg"},{"image_text":"The National Museum is among the most important architectural heritages not only of the university, but of Brazilian society as a whole","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Museu_Nacional_UFRJ.jpg/530px-Museu_Nacional_UFRJ.jpg"},{"image_text":"It is in the Center of Technology's Block A where the Institute of Chemistry and the Institute of Physics are housed.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/CT_UFRJ.png/220px-CT_UFRJ.png"},{"image_text":"The university's modern-architecture City Hall is home of, besides the central bureau, the College of Fine Arts and the College of Architecture and Urbanism.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Hall_Reitoria_UFRJ.jpg/220px-Hall_Reitoria_UFRJ.jpg"},{"image_text":"Garden in front of the Center of Technology","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Minerva_-_CT_-_UFRJ.JPG/220px-Minerva_-_CT_-_UFRJ.JPG"},{"image_text":"Students at the Center of Technology's Library","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Universidade_Federal_RJ.jpg/220px-Universidade_Federal_RJ.jpg"},{"image_text":"The National Museum, built from the Brazilian Imperial Family's old residence in \"Paço de São Cristóvão\" (Palace of São Cristóvão).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Fachada_Museu_Nacional_-_UFRJ.jpg/220px-Fachada_Museu_Nacional_-_UFRJ.jpg"},{"image_text":"Access to the Clementino Fraga Filho University Hospital (HUCFF) is made through the Red Line of João Goulard Freeway, which passes through the northern area of UFRJ's College City (main campus).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Cidade_Universit%C3%A1ria_UFRJ.jpg/252px-Cidade_Universit%C3%A1ria_UFRJ.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Clementino Fraga Filho University Hospital (HUCFF) at College City, seen from Nossa Senhora da Penha Church: at the center, the hospital's main building and, in the background, the famous Guanabara Bay.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Cidade_Universit%C3%A1ria_da_UFRJ_vista_a_partir_da_Igreja_da_Penha.jpg/887px-Cidade_Universit%C3%A1ria_da_UFRJ_vista_a_partir_da_Igreja_da_Penha.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Palácio Universitário, a 19th-century neoclassical building that serves as campus of the UFRJ. The Institutes for Economics, Education, Communications and Administration, among others, are based here.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/UFRJ-Praia_Vermelha.jpg/220px-UFRJ-Praia_Vermelha.jpg"},{"image_text":"Building of both the Institute of Philosophy and Social Sciences and the Institute of History at \"Largo de São Francisco de Paula.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Universidade_Federal_do_Rio_de_Janeiro.JPG/220px-Universidade_Federal_do_Rio_de_Janeiro.JPG"},{"image_text":"University complex in Macaé, at northern Rio de Janeiro (state).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Interioriza%C3%A7%C3%A3oNorteFluminense.JPG/220px-Interioriza%C3%A7%C3%A3oNorteFluminense.JPG"},{"image_text":"Map of the state of Rio de Janeiro highlighting the cities where UFRJ, either by its physical or e-learning courses, is active (in red).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Mapa_dos_Campi_da_UFRJ_no_Rio_de_Janeiro.png/333px-Mapa_dos_Campi_da_UFRJ_no_Rio_de_Janeiro.png"},{"image_text":"UFRJ's Center of Mathematical and Natural Sciences houses the Coordination for Undergraduate Courses Admission.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/CCMN.png/250px-CCMN.png"},{"image_text":"Building in which the College of Medicine operated until 1973, at \"Praia Vermelha\" (Red Beach).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Faculdade_Nacional_de_Medicina_-_UFRJ_-_Universidade_do_Brasil.jpg/220px-Faculdade_Nacional_de_Medicina_-_UFRJ_-_Universidade_do_Brasil.jpg"},{"image_text":"Former president of Brazil Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, ex-governor of Rio de Janeiro state Sérgio Cabral Filho, and mayor of Rio Eduardo Paes visiting the CENPES.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Cenpes_-_Petrobras_-_Eduardo_Paes_-_S%C3%A9rgio_Cabral_-_Lula_-_Cid_Univers_UFRJ.jpg/220px-Cenpes_-_Petrobras_-_Eduardo_Paes_-_S%C3%A9rgio_Cabral_-_Lula_-_Cid_Univers_UFRJ.jpg"},{"image_text":"H2+2 project, a hybrid hydrogene bus with electric traction developed by the Alberto Luiz Coimbra Institute of Post-Graduation and Research in Engineering (COPPE) and exhibited at Rio+20 conference.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/%C3%94nibus_H%C3%ADbrido_Hidrog%C3%AAnio_COPPE_UFRJ.jpg/268px-%C3%94nibus_H%C3%ADbrido_Hidrog%C3%AAnio_COPPE_UFRJ.jpg"},{"image_text":"University Palace gateway.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Portal_do_Pal%C3%A1cio_Universit%C3%A1rio_da_UFRJ.png/600px-Portal_do_Pal%C3%A1cio_Universit%C3%A1rio_da_UFRJ.png"}]	[{"title":"Brazil portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Brazil"},{"title":"Brazil University Rankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil_University_Rankings"},{"title":"Education in Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Brazil"},{"title":"List of federal universities of Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_federal_universities_of_Brazil"},{"title":"Universities and Higher Education in Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universities_and_Higher_Education_in_Brazil"}]	[{"reference":"\"Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobium%E2%80%93tin	Niobium–tin	["1 History","2 Notable uses","3 Composite wire","3.1 Strain effects","4 Developments and future uses","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]	Superconducting intermetallic compound Nb-Sn phase diagram Niobium–tin is an intermetallic compound of niobium (Nb) and tin (Sn), used industrially as a type-II superconductor. This intermetallic compound has a simple structure: A3B. It is more expensive than niobium–titanium (NbTi), but remains superconducting up to a magnetic flux density of 30 teslas (300,000 G), compared to a limit of roughly 15 T for NbTi. Nb3Sn was discovered to be a superconductor in 1954. The material's ability to support high currents and magnetic fields was discovered in 1961 and started the era of large-scale applications of superconductivity. The critical temperature is 18.3 kelvins (−254.8 °C; −426.7 °F). Application temperatures are commonly around 4.2 K (−268.95 °C; −452.11 °F), the boiling point of liquid helium at atmospheric pressure. In April 2008 a record non-copper current density was claimed of 2,643 A mm−2 at 12 T and 4.2 K. History Nb3Sn was discovered to be a superconductor in 1954, one year after the discovery of V3Si, the first example of an A3B superconductor. In 1961 it was discovered that niobium–tin still exhibits superconductivity at large currents and strong magnetic fields, thus becoming the first known material to support the high currents and fields necessary for making useful high-power magnets and electric power machinery. Notable uses Nb3Sn wire from the ITER fusion reactor, which is currently under construction. The central solenoid and toroidal field superconducting magnets for the planned experimental ITER fusion reactor use niobium–tin as a superconductor. The central solenoid coil will produce a field of 13.5 teslas (135,000 G). The toroidal field coils will operate at a maximum field of 11.8 T. Estimated use is 600 metric tons (590 long tons) of Nb3Sn strands and 250 metric tonnes of NbTi strands. At the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, extra-strong quadrupole magnets (for focussing beams) made with niobium–tin are being installed in key points of the accelerator between late 2018 and early 2020. Niobium tin had been proposed in 1986 as an alternative to niobium–titanium, since it allowed coolants less complex than superfluid helium, but this was not pursued in order to avoid delays while competing with the then-planned US-led Superconducting Super Collider. Composite wire Unit cell of the A3B phases of Nb3Sn Mechanically, Nb3Sn is extremely brittle and thus cannot be easily drawn into a wire, which is necessary for winding superconducting magnets. To overcome this, wire manufacturers typically draw down composite wires containing ductile precursors. The "internal tin" process includes separate alloys of Nb, Cu and Sn. The "bronze" process contains Nb in a copper–tin bronze matrix. With both processes the strand is typically drawn to final size and coiled into a solenoid or cable before heat treatment. It is only during heat treatment that the Sn reacts with the Nb to form the brittle, superconducting niobium–tin compound. The powder-in-tube process is also used. The high field section of modern NMR magnets are composed of niobium–tin wire. Strain effects Inside a magnet the wires are subjected to high Lorentz forces as well as thermal stresses during cooling. Any strain in the niobium tin causes a decrease in the superconducting performance of the material, and can cause the brittle material to fracture. Because of this, the wires need to be as stiff as possible. The Young's modulus of niobium tin is around 140 GPa at room temperature. However, the stiffness drops down to as low as 50 GPa when the material is cooled below 50 K (−223.2 °C; −369.7 °F). Engineers must therefore find ways of improving the strength of the material. Strengthening fibers are often incorporated in the composite niobium tin wires to increase their stiffness. Common strengthening materials include Inconel, stainless steel, molybdenum, and tantalum because of their high stiffness at cryogenic temperatures. Since the thermal expansion coefficients of the matrix, fiber, and niobium tin are all different, significant amounts of strain can be generated after the wire is annealed and cooled all the way down to operating temperatures. This strain is referred to as the pre-strain in the wire. Since any strain in the niobium tin generally decreases the superconducting performance of the material, a proper combination of materials must be used to minimize this value. The pre-strain in a composite wire can be calculated by the formula ε m = V c E c { Δ L L c − Δ L L f } − σ c u , y V c u − σ b z , y V b z V f E f + V c E c . {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{m}={\frac {V_{c}E_{c}\{{\frac {\Delta L}{L_{c}}}-{\frac {\Delta L}{L_{f}}}\}-\sigma _{cu,y}V_{cu}-\sigma _{bz,y}V_{bz}}{V_{f}E_{f}+V_{c}E_{c}}}.} where εm is the pre-strain, ΔL/Lc and ΔL/Lf are changes in length due to thermal expansion of the niobium tin conduit and strengthening fiber respectively; Vc, Vf, Vcu, and Vbz are the volume fractions of conduit, fiber, copper, and bronze; σcu,y, and σbz,y are the yield stresses of copper and bronze; and Ec, and Ef are the Young's modulus of the conduit and the fiber. Since the copper and bronze matrix deforms plastically during cooldown, they apply a constant stress equal to their yield stress. The conduit and fiber, however, deform elastically by design. Commercial superconductors manufactured by the bronze process generally have a pre-strain value around 0.2% to 0.4%. The so-called strain effect causes a reduction in the superconducting properties of many materials including niobium tin. The critical strain, the maximum allowable strain over which superconductivity is lost, is given by the formula ε c = ε c o { 1 − B B c 2 m } . {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{c}=\varepsilon _{co}\{1-{\frac {B}{B_{c2m}}}\}.} where εc is the critical strain, εco is a material dependent parameter equal to 1.5% in tension (−1.8% in compression) for niobium tin, B is the applied magnetic field, and Bc2m is the maximum upper critical field of the material. Strain in the niobium tin causes tetragonal distortions in the crystal lattice, which changes the electron-phonon interaction spectrum. This is equivalent to an increase in disorder in the A15 crystal structure. At high enough strain, around 1%, the niobium tin conduit will develop fractures and the current carrying capability of the wire will be irreversibly damaged. In most circumstances, except for high field conditions, the niobium tin conduit will fracture before the critical strain is reached. Developments and future uses Hafnium or zirconium added to niobium–tin increases the maximum current density in a magnetic field. This may allow it to be used at 16 tesla for CERN's planned Future Circular Collider. See also Niobium–titanium, more ductile than Nb-Sn References ^ Godeke, A.; Cheng, D.; Dietderich, D. R.; Ferracin, P.; Prestemon, S. O.; Sa Bbi, G.; Scanlan, R. M. (September 1, 2006). Limits of NbTi and Nb3Sn, and Development of W&R Bi–2212 High Field Accelerator Magnets. Office of Science, High Energy Physics, U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved December 26, 2015. ^ a b "Record current with powder-in-tube superconductor". laboratorytalk.com. Archived from the original on October 8, 2008. Retrieved September 6, 2008. ^ Matthias, B. T.; Geballe, T. H.; Geller, S.; Corenzwit, E. (1954). "Superconductivity of Nb3Sn". Physical Review. 95 (6): 1435. Bibcode:1954PhRv...95.1435M. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.95.1435. ^ Geballe, Theodore H. (1993). "Superconductivity: From Physics to Technology". Physics Today. 46 (10): 52–56. Bibcode:1993PhT....46j..52G. doi:10.1063/1.881384. ^ Godeke, A. (2006). "A review of the properties of Nb3Sn and their variation with A15 composition, morphology and strain state". Supercond. Sci. Technol. 19 (8): R68–R80. arXiv:cond-mat/0606303. Bibcode:2006SuScT..19R..68G. doi:10.1088/0953-2048/19/8/R02. S2CID 73655040. ^ "Results of the first tests on the ITER toroidal magnet conductor". Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique. September 10, 2001. Retrieved September 6, 2008. ^ Grunblatt, G.; Mocaer, P.; Verwaerde, Ch.; Kohler, C. (2005). "A success story: LHC cable production at ALSTOM-MSA". Fusion Engineering and Design (Proceedings of the 23rd Symposium of Fusion Technology). 75–79: 1–5. doi:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2005.06.216. S2CID 41810761. ^ "Alstom and Oxford Instruments Team Up to Offer Niobium–tin Superconducting Strand". Alstrom. June 27, 2007. Retrieved September 6, 2008. ^ Rossi, Lucio (October 25, 2011). "Superconductivity and the LHC: the early days". CERN Courier. Retrieved December 10, 2013. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter \|agency= ignored (help) ^ Scanlan, R.; Greene, A. F.; Suenaga, M. (May 1986). Survey Of High Field Superconducting Material For Accelerator Magnets. 1986 ICFA Workshop on Superconducting Magnets and Cryogenics. Upton, NY. Report LBL-21549. ^ Lindenhovius, J. L. H.; Hornsveld, E. M.; den Ouden, A.; Wessel, W. A. J.; ten Kate, H. H. J. (2000). "Powder-in-tube (PIT) Nb3Sn conductors for high-field magnets". IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity. 10 (1): 975–978. Bibcode:2000ITAS...10..975L. doi:10.1109/77.828394. S2CID 26260700. ^ Bussiére, J. F.; LeHuy, H.; Faucher, B. (1984). "ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF POLYCRYSTALLINE Nb3Sn, V3Ga AND Nb3Ge". In Clark, A. F; Reed, R. P (eds.). Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials. Vol. 30. Springer, Boston, MA. pp. 859–866. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9868-4. ISBN 978-1-4613-9870-7. Retrieved May 20, 2020. ^ Flükiger, R.; Drost, E.; Specking, W. (1984). "EFFECT OF INTERNAL REINFORCEMENT ON THE CRITICAL CURRENT DENSITY OF Nb 3 Sn WIRES". In Clark, A. F; Reed, R. P (eds.). Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials. Vol. 30. Springer, Boston, MA. pp. 875–882. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9868-4. ISBN 978-1-4613-9870-7. Retrieved May 20, 2020. ^ Steeves, M. M.; Hoenig, M. O.; Cyders, C.J. (1984). "EFFECTS OF INCOLOY 903 AND TANTALUM CONDUITS ON CRITICAL CURRENT IN Nb3Sn CABLE-IN-CONDUIT CONDUCTORS". In Clark, A. F; Reed, R. P (eds.). Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials. Vol. 30. Springer, Boston, MA. pp. 883–890. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9868-4. ISBN 978-1-4613-9870-7. Retrieved May 20, 2020. ^ Ekin, J. W. (1984). "STRAIN EFFECTS IN SUPERCONDUCTING COMPOUNDS". In Clark, A. F; Reed, R. P (eds.). Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials. Vol. 30. Springer, Boston, MA. pp. 823–836. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9868-4. ISBN 978-1-4613-9870-7. Retrieved May 20, 2020. ^ Godeke, A. (2008). "A Review of the Properties of Nb 3 Sn and Their Variation with A15 Composition, Morphology and Strain State". Superconductor Science and Technology. 19 (8). IOP Publishing Ltd: 68–80. ^ MagLab awarded $1.5M by U.S. Department of Energy to develop better superconductors July 2020 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Niobium-tin. European Advanced Superconductors	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nb-Sn_phase_diagram.png"},{"link_name":"intermetallic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermetallic"},{"link_name":"niobium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobium"},{"link_name":"tin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin"},{"link_name":"type-II superconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type-II_superconductor"},{"link_name":"A3B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A15_phases"},{"link_name":"niobium–titanium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobium-titanium"},{"link_name":"magnetic flux density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_flux_density"},{"link_name":"teslas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_(unit)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"critical temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_temperature#Superconductivity"},{"link_name":"kelvins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin"},{"link_name":"liquid helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_helium"},{"link_name":"current density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_density"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EAS-2"}],"text":"Superconducting intermetallic compoundNb-Sn phase diagramNiobium–tin is an intermetallic compound of niobium (Nb) and tin (Sn), used industrially as a type-II superconductor. This intermetallic compound has a simple structure: A3B. It is more expensive than niobium–titanium (NbTi), but remains superconducting up to a magnetic flux density of 30 teslas [T] (300,000 G),[1] compared to a limit of roughly 15 T for NbTi.Nb3Sn was discovered to be a superconductor in 1954. The material's ability to support high currents and magnetic fields was discovered in 1961 and started the era of large-scale applications of superconductivity.The critical temperature is 18.3 kelvins (−254.8 °C; −426.7 °F). Application temperatures are commonly around 4.2 K (−268.95 °C; −452.11 °F), the boiling point of liquid helium at atmospheric pressure.In April 2008 a record non-copper current density was claimed of 2,643 A mm−2 at 12 T and 4.2 K.[2]","title":"Niobium–tin"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"V3Si","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V3Si"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"machinery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machinery"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-geballe-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Nb3Sn was discovered to be a superconductor in 1954, one year after the discovery of V3Si, the first example of an A3B superconductor.[3] In 1961 it was discovered that niobium–tin still exhibits superconductivity at large currents and strong magnetic fields, thus becoming the first known material to support the high currents and fields necessary for making useful high-power magnets and electric power machinery.[4][5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ITER_wire.jpg"},{"link_name":"ITER","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITER"},{"link_name":"fusion reactor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_reactor"},{"link_name":"solenoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solenoid"},{"link_name":"superconducting magnets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconducting_magnet"},{"link_name":"ITER","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITER"},{"link_name":"fusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"NbTi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobium-titanium"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-alstrom-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Large Hadron Collider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider"},{"link_name":"CERN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"niobium–titanium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobium%E2%80%93titanium"},{"link_name":"superfluid helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfluid_helium"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Superconducting Super Collider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconducting_Super_Collider"}],"text":"Nb3Sn wire from the ITER fusion reactor, which is currently under construction.The central solenoid and toroidal field superconducting magnets for the planned experimental ITER fusion reactor use niobium–tin as a superconductor.[6] The central solenoid coil will produce a field of 13.5 teslas (135,000 G). The toroidal field coils will operate at a maximum field of 11.8 T. Estimated use is 600 metric tons (590 long tons) of Nb3Sn strands and 250 metric tonnes of NbTi strands.[7][8]At the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, extra-strong quadrupole magnets (for focussing beams) made with niobium–tin are being installed in key points of the accelerator between late 2018 and early 2020.[9] Niobium tin had been proposed in 1986 as an alternative to niobium–titanium, since it allowed coolants less complex than superfluid helium,[clarification needed][citation needed] but this was not pursued in order to avoid delays while competing with the then-planned US-led Superconducting Super Collider.","title":"Notable uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nb3Sn-unit-cell-from-xtal-1991-3D-SF-B.png"},{"link_name":"brittle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittle"},{"link_name":"superconducting magnets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconducting_magnet"},{"link_name":"copper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper"},{"link_name":"bronze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"powder-in-tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconducting_wire#Powder-in-tube"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EAS-2"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"NMR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMR"}],"text":"Unit cell of the A3B phases of Nb3SnMechanically, Nb3Sn is extremely brittle and thus cannot be easily drawn into a wire, which is necessary for winding superconducting magnets. To overcome this, wire manufacturers typically draw down composite wires containing ductile precursors. The \"internal tin\" process includes separate alloys of Nb, Cu and Sn. The \"bronze\" process contains Nb in a copper–tin bronze matrix. With both processes the strand is typically drawn to final size and coiled into a solenoid or cable before heat treatment. It is only during heat treatment that the Sn reacts with the Nb to form the brittle, superconducting niobium–tin compound.[10] The powder-in-tube process is also used.[2][11]The high field section of modern NMR magnets are composed of niobium–tin wire.","title":"Composite wire"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lorentz forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_force"},{"link_name":"strain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_(mechanics)"},{"link_name":"Young's modulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young%27s_modulus"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Inconel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inconel"},{"link_name":"stainless steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel"},{"link_name":"molybdenum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenum"},{"link_name":"tantalum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalum"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"upper critical field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type-II_superconductor"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Strain effects","text":"Inside a magnet the wires are subjected to high Lorentz forces as well as thermal stresses during cooling. Any strain in the niobium tin causes a decrease in the superconducting performance of the material, and can cause the brittle material to fracture. Because of this, the wires need to be as stiff as possible. The Young's modulus of niobium tin is around 140 GPa at room temperature. However, the stiffness drops down to as low as 50 GPa when the material is cooled below 50 K (−223.2 °C; −369.7 °F).[12] Engineers must therefore find ways of improving the strength of the material. Strengthening fibers are often incorporated in the composite niobium tin wires to increase their stiffness. Common strengthening materials include Inconel, stainless steel, molybdenum, and tantalum because of their high stiffness at cryogenic temperatures.[13] Since the thermal expansion coefficients of the matrix, fiber, and niobium tin are all different, significant amounts of strain can be generated after the wire is annealed and cooled all the way down to operating temperatures. This strain is referred to as the pre-strain in the wire. Since any strain in the niobium tin generally decreases the superconducting performance of the material, a proper combination of materials must be used to minimize this value. The pre-strain in a composite wire can be calculated by the formulaε\n \n m\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n c\n \n \n \n E\n \n c\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n Δ\n L\n \n \n L\n \n c\n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n Δ\n L\n \n \n L\n \n f\n \n \n \n \n }\n −\n \n σ\n \n c\n u\n ,\n y\n \n \n \n V\n \n c\n u\n \n \n −\n \n σ\n \n b\n z\n ,\n y\n \n \n \n V\n \n b\n z\n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n f\n \n \n \n E\n \n f\n \n \n +\n \n V\n \n c\n \n \n \n E\n \n c\n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varepsilon _{m}={\\frac {V_{c}E_{c}\\{{\\frac {\\Delta L}{L_{c}}}-{\\frac {\\Delta L}{L_{f}}}\\}-\\sigma _{cu,y}V_{cu}-\\sigma _{bz,y}V_{bz}}{V_{f}E_{f}+V_{c}E_{c}}}.}where εm is the pre-strain, ΔL/Lc and ΔL/Lf are changes in length due to thermal expansion of the niobium tin conduit and strengthening fiber respectively; Vc, Vf, Vcu, and Vbz are the volume fractions of conduit, fiber, copper, and bronze; σcu,y, and σbz,y are the yield stresses of copper and bronze; and Ec, and Ef are the Young's modulus of the conduit and the fiber.[14] Since the copper and bronze matrix deforms plastically during cooldown, they apply a constant stress equal to their yield stress. The conduit and fiber, however, deform elastically by design. Commercial superconductors manufactured by the bronze process generally have a pre-strain value around 0.2% to 0.4%. The so-called strain effect causes a reduction in the superconducting properties of many materials including niobium tin. The critical strain, the maximum allowable strain over which superconductivity is lost, is given by the formulaε\n \n c\n \n \n =\n \n ε\n \n c\n o\n \n \n {\n 1\n −\n \n \n B\n \n B\n \n c\n 2\n m\n \n \n \n \n }\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varepsilon _{c}=\\varepsilon _{co}\\{1-{\\frac {B}{B_{c2m}}}\\}.}where εc is the critical strain, εco is a material dependent parameter equal to 1.5% in tension (−1.8% in compression) for niobium tin, B is the applied magnetic field, and Bc2m is the maximum upper critical field of the material.[15] Strain in the niobium tin causes tetragonal distortions in the crystal lattice, which changes the electron-phonon interaction spectrum. This is equivalent to an increase in disorder in the A15 crystal structure.[16] At high enough strain, around 1%, the niobium tin conduit will develop fractures and the current carrying capability of the wire will be irreversibly damaged. In most circumstances, except for high field conditions, the niobium tin conduit will fracture before the critical strain is reached.","title":"Composite wire"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hafnium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafnium"},{"link_name":"zirconium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirconium"},{"link_name":"Future Circular Collider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Circular_Collider"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Hafnium or zirconium added to niobium–tin increases the maximum current density in a magnetic field. This may allow it to be used at 16 tesla for CERN's planned Future Circular Collider.[17]","title":"Developments and future uses"}]	[{"image_text":"Nb-Sn phase diagram","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Nb-Sn_phase_diagram.png/440px-Nb-Sn_phase_diagram.png"},{"image_text":"Nb3Sn wire from the ITER fusion reactor, which is currently under construction.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/ITER_wire.jpg/220px-ITER_wire.jpg"},{"image_text":"Unit cell of the A3B phases of Nb3Sn","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Nb3Sn-unit-cell-from-xtal-1991-3D-SF-B.png/170px-Nb3Sn-unit-cell-from-xtal-1991-3D-SF-B.png"}]	[{"title":"Niobium–titanium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobium%E2%80%93titanium"}]	[{"reference":"Godeke, A.; Cheng, D.; Dietderich, D. R.; Ferracin, P.; Prestemon, S. O.; Sa Bbi, G.; Scanlan, R. M. (September 1, 2006). Limits of NbTi and Nb3Sn, and Development of W&R Bi–2212 High Field Accelerator Magnets. Office of Science, High Energy Physics, U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved December 26, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.osti.gov/scitech/servlets/purl/928774-D1NAve/","url_text":"Limits of NbTi and Nb3Sn, and Development of W&R Bi–2212 High Field Accelerator Magnets"}]},{"reference":"\"Record current with powder-in-tube superconductor\". laboratorytalk.com. Archived from the original on October 8, 2008. Retrieved September 6, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081008042419/http://www.laboratorytalk.com/news/bru/bru219.html","url_text":"\"Record current with powder-in-tube superconductor\""},{"url":"http://www.laboratorytalk.com/news/bru/bru219.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Matthias, B. T.; Geballe, T. H.; Geller, S.; Corenzwit, E. (1954). \"Superconductivity of Nb3Sn\". Physical Review. 95 (6): 1435. Bibcode:1954PhRv...95.1435M. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.95.1435.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_H._Geballe","url_text":"Geballe, T. H."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Review","url_text":"Physical Review"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1954PhRv...95.1435M","url_text":"1954PhRv...95.1435M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.95.1435","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRev.95.1435"}]},{"reference":"Geballe, Theodore H. (1993). \"Superconductivity: From Physics to Technology\". Physics Today. 46 (10): 52–56. Bibcode:1993PhT....46j..52G. doi:10.1063/1.881384.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_H._Geballe","url_text":"Geballe, Theodore H."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_Today","url_text":"Physics Today"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993PhT....46j..52G","url_text":"1993PhT....46j..52G"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.881384","url_text":"10.1063/1.881384"}]},{"reference":"Godeke, A. (2006). \"A review of the properties of Nb3Sn and their variation with A15 composition, morphology and strain state\". Supercond. Sci. Technol. 19 (8): R68–R80. arXiv:cond-mat/0606303. Bibcode:2006SuScT..19R..68G. doi:10.1088/0953-2048/19/8/R02. S2CID 73655040.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercond._Sci._Technol.","url_text":"Supercond. Sci. Technol."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0606303","url_text":"cond-mat/0606303"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006SuScT..19R..68G","url_text":"2006SuScT..19R..68G"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0953-2048%2F19%2F8%2FR02","url_text":"10.1088/0953-2048/19/8/R02"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73655040","url_text":"73655040"}]},{"reference":"\"Results of the first tests on the ITER toroidal magnet conductor\". Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique. September 10, 2001. Retrieved September 6, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www-fusion-magnetique.cea.fr/gb/actualites/01-0910-insert_tf.htm","url_text":"\"Results of the first tests on the ITER toroidal magnet conductor\""}]},{"reference":"Grunblatt, G.; Mocaer, P.; Verwaerde, Ch.; Kohler, C. (2005). \"A success story: LHC cable production at ALSTOM-MSA\". Fusion Engineering and Design (Proceedings of the 23rd Symposium of Fusion Technology). 75–79: 1–5. doi:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2005.06.216. S2CID 41810761.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_Engineering_and_Design","url_text":"Fusion Engineering and Design"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fusengdes.2005.06.216","url_text":"10.1016/j.fusengdes.2005.06.216"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:41810761","url_text":"41810761"}]},{"reference":"\"Alstom and Oxford Instruments Team Up to Offer Niobium–tin Superconducting Strand\". Alstrom. June 27, 2007. Retrieved September 6, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.azom.com/news.asp?newsID=9064","url_text":"\"Alstom and Oxford Instruments Team Up to Offer Niobium–tin Superconducting Strand\""}]},{"reference":"Rossi, Lucio (October 25, 2011). \"Superconductivity and the LHC: the early days\". CERN Courier. Retrieved December 10, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucio_Rossi","url_text":"Rossi, Lucio"},{"url":"http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/47504","url_text":"\"Superconductivity and the LHC: the early days\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN_Courier","url_text":"CERN Courier"}]},{"reference":"Scanlan, R.; Greene, A. F.; Suenaga, M. (May 1986). Survey Of High Field Superconducting Material For Accelerator Magnets. 1986 ICFA Workshop on Superconducting Magnets and Cryogenics. Upton, NY. Report LBL-21549.","urls":[{"url":"https://pubarchive.lbl.gov/islandora/object/ir%3A88753","url_text":"Survey Of High Field Superconducting Material For Accelerator Magnets"}]},{"reference":"Lindenhovius, J. L. H.; Hornsveld, E. M.; den Ouden, A.; Wessel, W. A. J.; ten Kate, H. H. J. (2000). \"Powder-in-tube (PIT) Nb3Sn conductors for high-field magnets\". IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity. 10 (1): 975–978. Bibcode:2000ITAS...10..975L. doi:10.1109/77.828394. S2CID 26260700.","urls":[{"url":"https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/powderintube-pit-nb3sn-conductors-for-highfield-magnets(23e9b5b4-9709-4746-8ca1-1bcd2348d8d4).html","url_text":"\"Powder-in-tube (PIT) Nb3Sn conductors for high-field magnets\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Transactions_on_Applied_Superconductivity","url_text":"IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000ITAS...10..975L","url_text":"2000ITAS...10..975L"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2F77.828394","url_text":"10.1109/77.828394"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26260700","url_text":"26260700"}]},{"reference":"Bussiére, J. F.; LeHuy, H.; Faucher, B. (1984). \"ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF POLYCRYSTALLINE Nb3Sn, V3Ga AND Nb3Ge\". In Clark, A. F; Reed, R. P (eds.). Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials. Vol. 30. Springer, Boston, MA. pp. 859–866. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9868-4. ISBN 978-1-4613-9870-7. Retrieved May 20, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.springer.com/us/book/9781461398707","url_text":"Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4613-9868-4","url_text":"10.1007/978-1-4613-9868-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4613-9870-7","url_text":"978-1-4613-9870-7"}]},{"reference":"Flükiger, R.; Drost, E.; Specking, W. (1984). \"EFFECT OF INTERNAL REINFORCEMENT ON THE CRITICAL CURRENT DENSITY OF Nb 3 Sn WIRES\". In Clark, A. F; Reed, R. P (eds.). Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials. Vol. 30. Springer, Boston, MA. pp. 875–882. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9868-4. ISBN 978-1-4613-9870-7. Retrieved May 20, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.springer.com/us/book/9781461398707","url_text":"Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4613-9868-4","url_text":"10.1007/978-1-4613-9868-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4613-9870-7","url_text":"978-1-4613-9870-7"}]},{"reference":"Steeves, M. M.; Hoenig, M. O.; Cyders, C.J. (1984). \"EFFECTS OF INCOLOY 903 AND TANTALUM CONDUITS ON CRITICAL CURRENT IN Nb3Sn CABLE-IN-CONDUIT CONDUCTORS\". In Clark, A. F; Reed, R. P (eds.). Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials. Vol. 30. Springer, Boston, MA. pp. 883–890. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9868-4. ISBN 978-1-4613-9870-7. 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Retrieved May 20, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.springer.com/us/book/9781461398707","url_text":"Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4613-9868-4","url_text":"10.1007/978-1-4613-9868-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4613-9870-7","url_text":"978-1-4613-9870-7"}]},{"reference":"Godeke, A. (2008). \"A Review of the Properties of Nb 3 Sn and Their Variation with A15 Composition, Morphology and Strain State\". Superconductor Science and Technology. 19 (8). IOP Publishing Ltd: 68–80.","urls":[]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.osti.gov/scitech/servlets/purl/928774-D1NAve/","external_links_name":"Limits of NbTi and Nb3Sn, and Development of W&R Bi–2212 High Field Accelerator Magnets"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081008042419/http://www.laboratorytalk.com/news/bru/bru219.html","external_links_name":"\"Record current with powder-in-tube superconductor\""},{"Link":"http://www.laboratorytalk.com/news/bru/bru219.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1954PhRv...95.1435M","external_links_name":"1954PhRv...95.1435M"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.95.1435","external_links_name":"10.1103/PhysRev.95.1435"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993PhT....46j..52G","external_links_name":"1993PhT....46j..52G"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.881384","external_links_name":"10.1063/1.881384"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0606303","external_links_name":"cond-mat/0606303"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006SuScT..19R..68G","external_links_name":"2006SuScT..19R..68G"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0953-2048%2F19%2F8%2FR02","external_links_name":"10.1088/0953-2048/19/8/R02"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73655040","external_links_name":"73655040"},{"Link":"http://www-fusion-magnetique.cea.fr/gb/actualites/01-0910-insert_tf.htm","external_links_name":"\"Results of the first tests on the ITER toroidal magnet conductor\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fusengdes.2005.06.216","external_links_name":"10.1016/j.fusengdes.2005.06.216"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:41810761","external_links_name":"41810761"},{"Link":"http://www.azom.com/news.asp?newsID=9064","external_links_name":"\"Alstom and Oxford Instruments Team Up to Offer Niobium–tin Superconducting Strand\""},{"Link":"http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/47504","external_links_name":"\"Superconductivity and the LHC: the early days\""},{"Link":"https://pubarchive.lbl.gov/islandora/object/ir%3A88753","external_links_name":"Survey Of High Field Superconducting Material For Accelerator Magnets"},{"Link":"https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/powderintube-pit-nb3sn-conductors-for-highfield-magnets(23e9b5b4-9709-4746-8ca1-1bcd2348d8d4).html","external_links_name":"\"Powder-in-tube (PIT) Nb3Sn conductors for high-field magnets\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000ITAS...10..975L","external_links_name":"2000ITAS...10..975L"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2F77.828394","external_links_name":"10.1109/77.828394"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26260700","external_links_name":"26260700"},{"Link":"https://www.springer.com/us/book/9781461398707","external_links_name":"Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4613-9868-4","external_links_name":"10.1007/978-1-4613-9868-4"},{"Link":"https://www.springer.com/us/book/9781461398707","external_links_name":"Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4613-9868-4","external_links_name":"10.1007/978-1-4613-9868-4"},{"Link":"https://www.springer.com/us/book/9781461398707","external_links_name":"Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4613-9868-4","external_links_name":"10.1007/978-1-4613-9868-4"},{"Link":"https://www.springer.com/us/book/9781461398707","external_links_name":"Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4613-9868-4","external_links_name":"10.1007/978-1-4613-9868-4"},{"Link":"https://news.fsu.edu/news/science-technology/2020/07/17/maglab-awarded-1-5m-by-u-s-department-of-energy-to-develop-better-superconductors/","external_links_name":"MagLab awarded $1.5M by U.S. Department of Energy to develop better superconductors July 2020"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20031016034652/http://www.advancedsupercon.com/","external_links_name":"European Advanced Superconductors"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common-mode_signal	Common-mode signal	["1 Methods of eliminating common-mode signals","2 References"]	Voltage common to both input terminals of an electrical device In electrical engineering, a common-mode signal is the identical component of voltage present at both input terminals of an electrical device. In telecommunication, the common-mode signal on a transmission line is also known as longitudinal voltage. Common-mode interference (CMI) is a type of common-mode signal. Common-mode interference is interference that appears on both signal leads, or coherent interference that affects two or more elements of a network. In most electrical circuits, desired signals are transferred by a differential voltage between two conductors. If the voltages on these conductors are U1 and U2, the common-mode signal is the average of the voltages: U cm = U 1 + U 2 2 {\displaystyle U_{\text{cm}}={\frac {U_{1}+U_{2}}{2}}} When referenced to the local common or ground, a common-mode signal appears on both lines of a two-wire cable, in phase and with equal amplitudes. Technically, a common-mode voltage is one-half the vector sum of the voltages from each conductor of a balanced circuit to local ground or common. Such signals can arise from one or more of the following sources: Radiated signals coupled equally to both lines, An offset from signal common created in the driver circuit, or A ground differential between the transmitting and receiving locations. Noise induced into a cable, or transmitted from a cable, usually occurs in the common mode, as the same signal tends to be picked up by both conductors in a two-wire cable. Likewise, RF noise transmitted from a cable tends to emanate from both conductors. Elimination of common-mode signals on cables entering or leaving electronic equipment is important to ensure electromagnetic compatibility. Unless the intention is to transmit or receive radio signals, an electronic designer generally designs electronic circuits to minimise or eliminate common-mode effects. Methods of eliminating common-mode signals Differential amplifiers or receivers that respond only to voltage differences, e.g. those between the wires that constitute a pair. This method is particularly suited for instrumentation where signals are transmitted through DC bias. For sensors with very high output impedance that require very high common-mode rejection ratio, a differential amplifier is combined with input buffers to form an instrumentation amplifier. An inductor where a pair of signaling wires follow the same path through the inductor, e.g. in a bifilar winding configuration such as used in Ethernet magnetics. Useful for AC and DC signals, but will filter only higher frequency common-mode signals. A transformer, which is useful for AC signals only, and will filter any form of common-mode noise, but may be used in combination with a bifilar wound coil to eliminate capacitive coupling of higher frequency common-mode signals across the transformer. Used in twisted pair Ethernet. Common-mode filtering may also be used to prevent egress of noise for electromagnetic compatibility purposes: High frequency common-mode signals (e.g., RF noise from a computing circuit) may be blocked using a ferrite bead clamped to the outside of a cable. These are often observable on laptop computer power supplies near the jack socket, and good quality mouse or printer USB cables and HDMI cables. Switch mode power supplies include common and differential mode filtering inductors to block the switching signal noise returning into mains wiring. Common-mode rejection ratio is a measure of how well a circuit eliminates common-mode interference. References ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2013-12-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2013-12-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-07-06. Retrieved 2013-05-07.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Understanding And Controlling Common-Mode Emissions In High-Power Electronics Archived 2020-11-08 at the Wayback Machine This article incorporates public domain material from Federal Standard 1037C. General Services Administration. Archived from the original on 2022-01-22.	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"electrical engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering"},{"link_name":"voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage"},{"link_name":"terminals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"telecommunication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication"},{"link_name":"transmission line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_line"},{"link_name":"electrical circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_circuit"},{"link_name":"conductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductor"},{"link_name":"average","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_mean"},{"link_name":"ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_(electricity)"},{"link_name":"in phase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_phase"},{"link_name":"vector sum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_sum"},{"link_name":"balanced circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balanced_circuit"},{"link_name":"Noise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"electromagnetic compatibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_compatibility"}],"text":"In electrical engineering, a common-mode signal is the identical component of voltage present at both input terminals of an electrical device. In telecommunication, the common-mode signal on a transmission line is also known as longitudinal voltage.Common-mode interference (CMI) is a type of common-mode signal. Common-mode interference is interference that appears on both signal leads, or coherent interference that affects two or more elements of a network.In most electrical circuits, desired signals are transferred by a differential voltage between two conductors. If the voltages on these conductors are U1 and U2, the common-mode signal is the average of the voltages:U\n \n cm\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n U\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n U\n \n 2\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle U_{\\text{cm}}={\\frac {U_{1}+U_{2}}{2}}}When referenced to the local common or ground, a common-mode signal appears on both lines of a two-wire cable, in phase and with equal amplitudes. Technically, a common-mode voltage is one-half the vector sum of the voltages from each conductor of a balanced circuit to local ground or common. Such signals can arise from one or more of the following sources:Radiated signals coupled equally to both lines,\nAn offset from signal common created in the driver circuit, or\nA ground differential between the transmitting and receiving locations.Noise induced into a cable, or transmitted from a cable, usually occurs in the common mode, as the same signal tends to be picked up by both conductors in a two-wire cable. Likewise, RF noise transmitted from a cable tends to emanate from both conductors. Elimination of common-mode signals on cables entering or leaving electronic equipment is important to ensure electromagnetic compatibility. Unless the intention is to transmit or receive radio signals, an electronic designer generally designs electronic circuits to minimise or eliminate common-mode effects.","title":"Common-mode signal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Differential amplifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_amplifier"},{"link_name":"instrumentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation"},{"link_name":"sensors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor"},{"link_name":"output impedance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Output_impedance"},{"link_name":"common-mode rejection ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common-mode_rejection_ratio"},{"link_name":"buffers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffer_amplifier"},{"link_name":"instrumentation amplifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation_amplifier"},{"link_name":"bifilar winding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bifilar_winding"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"transformer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer"},{"link_name":"capacitive coupling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitive_coupling"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"filtering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_(signal_processing)"},{"link_name":"RF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_frequency"},{"link_name":"ferrite bead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrite_bead"},{"link_name":"USB cables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_cable"},{"link_name":"HDMI cables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDMI_cables"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Switch mode power supplies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched-mode_power_supply"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Common-mode rejection ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common-mode_rejection_ratio"}],"text":"Differential amplifiers or receivers that respond only to voltage differences, e.g. those between the wires that constitute a pair. This method is particularly suited for instrumentation where signals are transmitted through DC bias. For sensors with very high output impedance that require very high common-mode rejection ratio, a differential amplifier is combined with input buffers to form an instrumentation amplifier.\nAn inductor where a pair of signaling wires follow the same path through the inductor, e.g. in a bifilar winding configuration such as used in Ethernet magnetics.[1] Useful for AC and DC signals, but will filter only higher frequency common-mode signals.\nA transformer, which is useful for AC signals only, and will filter any form of common-mode noise, but may be used in combination with a bifilar wound coil to eliminate capacitive coupling of higher frequency common-mode signals across the transformer. Used in twisted pair Ethernet.[2]Common-mode filtering may also be used to prevent egress of noise for electromagnetic compatibility purposes:High frequency common-mode signals (e.g., RF noise from a computing circuit) may be blocked using a ferrite bead clamped to the outside of a cable. These are often observable on laptop computer power supplies near the jack socket, and good quality mouse or printer USB cables and HDMI cables.[3]Switch mode power supplies include common and differential mode filtering inductors to block the switching signal noise returning into mains wiring.[4]Common-mode rejection ratio is a measure of how well a circuit eliminates common-mode interference.","title":"Methods of eliminating common-mode signals"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"Archived copy\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2013-12-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000938/http://pulseeng.com/products/datasheets/H325.pdf","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"http://pulseeng.com/products/datasheets/H325.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2013-12-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000938/http://pulseeng.com/products/datasheets/H325.pdf","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"http://pulseeng.com/products/datasheets/H325.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-07-06. Retrieved 2013-05-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120706223753/http://www.elmac.co.uk/pdfs/ferrite.pdf","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"http://www.elmac.co.uk/pdfs/ferrite.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000938/http://pulseeng.com/products/datasheets/H325.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Archived copy\""},{"Link":"http://pulseeng.com/products/datasheets/H325.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000938/http://pulseeng.com/products/datasheets/H325.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Archived copy\""},{"Link":"http://pulseeng.com/products/datasheets/H325.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120706223753/http://www.elmac.co.uk/pdfs/ferrite.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Archived copy\""},{"Link":"http://www.elmac.co.uk/pdfs/ferrite.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.hottconsultants.com/pdf_files/APEC-2002.pdf","external_links_name":"Understanding And Controlling Common-Mode Emissions In High-Power Electronics"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201108100609/http://www.hottconsultants.com/pdf_files/APEC-2002.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220122224547/https://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm","external_links_name":"Federal Standard 1037C"},{"Link":"https://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm","external_links_name":"the original"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_iOS_devices	List of iPhone models	["1 Comparison of models","1.1 Release dates","1.2 Supported","1.3 Unsupported (64-bit CPU, 2013 to 2017 models)","1.4 Unsupported (32-bit CPU)","2 iPhone systems-on-chips","3 Timeline","4 See also","5 Notes","6 References","7 External links"]	"List of iOS devices" redirects here. For iPads, see List of iPad models. For Apple TVs, see Apple TV § Models. For Apple Watches, see Apple Watch § Hardware. For iPod Touch models, see iPod Touch § Models. The backs of an iPhone 6, an iPhone 7, an iPhone 8, and an iPhone SE (3rd generation) The iPhone, developed by Apple Inc., is a line of smartphones that combine a mobile phone, digital camera, and personal computer, music player into one device. Introduced by then-CEO Steve Jobs on January 9, 2007, the iPhone revolutionized the mobile phone industry with its multi-touch interface and lack of physical keyboard. Over the years, Apple has released numerous models, each iteration bringing advancements in hardware, software, and design. The iPhone series has expanded to include various models catering to different user needs and preferences, from entry-level options to high end devices. Key innovations across the generations have included improvements in processing power, camera capabilities, display technology, and battery life, as well as the introduction of new features such as Face ID, advanced augmented reality (AR), and 5G connectivity. As of 2024, the most recent iPhone models are the iPhone 15, iPhone 15 Plus, iPhone 15 Pro, and iPhone 15 Pro Max, released in September 2023. Comparison of models Main article: iPhone Legend: Obsolete Vintage Discontinued and unsupported Discontinued and supported Current Upcoming Release dates Release dates. "Bug fixes" columns are for security updates too. "Months supported" are until now if support is continuing. Generation Model Announced Released Discontinued Unsupported Months supported Months supported after discontinuation Features Bug fixes Features Bug fixes Features Bug fixes 1 iPhone Jan 9, 2007 June 29, 2007; 16 years ago (2007-06-29) July 11, 2008; 15 years ago (2008-07-11) June 21, 2010; 13 years ago (2010-06-21) 35 months 23 months 2 iPhone 3G Jun 9, 2008 July 11, 2008; 15 years ago (2008-07-11) June 7, 2010; 14 years ago (2010-06-07) March 9, 2011; 13 years ago (2011-03-09) 31 months 9 months 3 iPhone 3GS Jun 8, 2009 June 19, 2009; 15 years ago (2009-06-19) September 12, 2012; 11 years ago (2012-09-12) September 18, 2013; 10 years ago (2013-09-18) February 21, 2014; 10 years ago (2014-02-21) 50 months 56 months 12 months 17 months 4 iPhone 4 Jun 7, 2010 June 24, 2010; 13 years ago (2010-06-24)February 11, 2011; 13 years ago (2011-02-11) (CDMA model) September 10, 2013; 10 years ago (2013-09-10) September 17, 2014; 9 years ago (2014-09-17) 50 months43 months (CDMA model) 12 months 5 iPhone 4s Oct 4, 2011 October 14, 2011; 12 years ago (2011-10-14) September 9, 2014; 9 years ago (2014-09-09) September 13, 2016; 7 years ago (2016-09-13) July 22, 2019; 4 years ago (2019-07-22) 58 months 93 months 24 months 58 months 6 iPhone 5 Sep 12, 2012 September 21, 2012; 11 years ago (2012-09-21) September 10, 2013; 10 years ago (2013-09-10) September 19, 2017; 6 years ago (2017-09-19) July 22, 2019; 4 years ago (2019-07-22) 59 months 82 months 48 months 70 months iPhone 5c Sep 10, 2013 September 20, 2013; 10 years ago (2013-09-20) September 9, 2015; 8 years ago (2015-09-09) September 19, 2017; 6 years ago (2017-09-19) 45 months 22 months 7 iPhone 5s March 21, 2016; 8 years ago (2016-03-21) September 19, 2019; 4 years ago (2019-09-19) January 23, 2023; 16 months ago (2023-01-23) 71 months 112 months 41 months 82 months 8 iPhone 6 Sep 9, 2014 September 19, 2014; 9 years ago (2014-09-19)March 10, 2017; 7 years ago (2017-03-10) (32 GB model) September 7, 2016; 7 years ago (2016-09-07)September 12, 2018; 5 years ago (2018-09-12) (32 GB model) September 19, 2019; 4 years ago (2019-09-19) January 23, 2023; 16 months ago (2023-01-23) 60 months30 months (32 GB model) 100 months70 months (32 GB model) 36 months12 months (32 GB model) 76 months52 months (32 GB model) iPhone 6 Plus September 19, 2014; 9 years ago (2014-09-19) September 7, 2016; 7 years ago (2016-09-07) 60 months 100 months 36 months 76 months 9 iPhone 6s Sep 9, 2015 September 25, 2015; 8 years ago (2015-09-25) September 12, 2018; 5 years ago (2018-09-12) September 12, 2022; 21 months ago (2022-09-12) supported (bug fixes only) 83 months 104 months 48 months 69 months iPhone 6s Plus iPhone SE(1st generation) Mar 21, 2016 March 31, 2016; 8 years ago (2016-03-31) September 12, 2018; 5 years ago (2018-09-12) 77 months 98 months 48 months 69 months 10 iPhone 7 Sep 7, 2016 September 16, 2016; 7 years ago (2016-09-16) September 10, 2019; 4 years ago (2019-09-10) 71 months 93 months 36 months 57 months iPhone 7 Plus 11 iPhone 8 Sep 12, 2017 September 22, 2017; 6 years ago (2017-09-22) April 15, 2020; 4 years ago (2020-04-15) September 18, 2023; 9 months ago (2023-09-18) supported (bug fixes only) 71 months 80 months 41 months 50 months iPhone 8 Plus iPhone X November 3, 2017; 6 years ago (2017-11-03) September 12, 2018; 5 years ago (2018-09-12) 70 months 79 months 60 months 69 months 12 iPhone XR Sep 12, 2018 October 26, 2018; 5 years ago (2018-10-26) September 14, 2021; 2 years ago (2021-09-14) Supported 67 months 33 months iPhone XS September 21, 2018; 5 years ago (2018-09-21) September 10, 2019; 4 years ago (2019-09-10) 68 months 57 months iPhone XS Max 13 iPhone 11 Sep 10, 2019 September 20, 2019; 4 years ago (2019-09-20) September 7, 2022; 21 months ago (2022-09-07) Supported 56 months 21 months iPhone 11 Pro October 13, 2020; 3 years ago (2020-10-13) 44 months iPhone 11 Pro Max iPhone SE(2nd generation) Apr 15, 2020 April 24, 2020; 4 years ago (2020-04-24) March 8, 2022; 2 years ago (2022-03-08) 49 months 27 months 14 iPhone 12 Oct 13, 2020 October 23, 2020; 3 years ago (2020-10-23) September 12, 2023; 9 months ago (2023-09-12) Supported 43 months 9 months iPhone 12 Mini November 13, 2020; 3 years ago (2020-11-13) September 7, 2022; 21 months ago (2022-09-07) 43 months 21 months iPhone 12 Pro October 23, 2020; 3 years ago (2020-10-23) September 14, 2021; 2 years ago (2021-09-14) 43 months 33 months iPhone 12 Pro Max November 13, 2020; 3 years ago (2020-11-13) 43 months 15 iPhone 13 Sep 14, 2021 September 24, 2021; 2 years ago (2021-09-24) In production 32 months In production iPhone 13 Mini September 12, 2023; 9 months ago (2023-09-12) Supported 9 months iPhone 13 Pro September 7, 2022; 21 months ago (2022-09-07) 21 months iPhone 13 Pro Max iPhone SE(3rd generation) Mar 8, 2022 March 18, 2022; 2 years ago (2022-03-18) In production 27 months In production 16 iPhone 14 Sep 7, 2022 September 16, 2022; 21 months ago (2022-09-16) In production 21 months In production iPhone 14 Plus October 7, 2022; 20 months ago (2022-10-07) 20 months iPhone 14 Pro September 16, 2022; 21 months ago (2022-09-16) September 12, 2023; 9 months ago (2023-09-12) Supported 21 months 9 months iPhone 14 Pro Max 17 iPhone 15 Sep 12, 2023 September 22, 2023; 8 months ago (2023-09-22) In production 8 months In production iPhone 15 Plus iPhone 15 Pro iPhone 15 Pro Max Supported Model iPhone 15 Pro Max iPhone 15 Pro iPhone 15 Plus iPhone 15 iPhone 14 Pro Max iPhone 14 Pro iPhone 14 Plus iPhone 14 iPhone SE(3rd generation) iPhone 13 Pro Max iPhone 13 Pro iPhone 13 iPhone 13 Mini iPhone 12 Pro Max iPhone 12 Pro iPhone 12 iPhone 12 Mini iPhone SE(2nd generation) iPhone 11 Pro Max iPhone 11 Pro iPhone 11 iPhone XR iPhone XS Max iPhone XS Picture Initial release operating system iOS 17.0 iOS 16.0 iOS 15.4 iOS 15.0 iOS 14.1 iOS 13.4 iOS 13.0 iOS 12.0 Latest release operating system iOS 17.5.1 Display Screen Size 6.69 in (170 mm) (diagonal)6.07 by 2.8 in (154 by 71 mm) 6.12 in (155 mm) (diagonal)5.56 by 2.56 in (141 by 65 mm) 6.69 in (170 mm) (diagonal)6.07 by 2.8 in (154 by 71 mm) 6.12 in (155 mm) (diagonal)5.56 by 2.56 in (141 by 65 mm) 6.69 in (170 mm) (diagonal)6.07 by 2.8 in (154 by 71 mm) 6.12 in (155 mm) (diagonal)5.56 by 2.56 in (141 by 65 mm) 6.68 in (170 mm) (diagonal)6.06 by 2.8 in (154 by 71 mm) 6.06 in (154 mm) (diagonal)5.54 by 2.56 in (141 by 65 mm) 4.7 in (120 mm) (diagonal)4.1 by 2.3 in (104 by 58 mm) 6.68 in (170 mm) (diagonal)6.06 by 2.8 in (154 by 71 mm) 6.06 in (154 mm) (diagonal)5.54 by 2.56 in (141 by 65 mm) 5.42 in (138 mm) (diagonal)4.92 by 2.27 in (125 by 58 mm) 6.68 in (170 mm) (diagonal)6.06 by 2.8 in (154 by 71 mm) 6.06 in (154 mm) (diagonal)5.54 by 2.56 in (141 by 65 mm) 5.42 in (138 mm) (diagonal)4.92 by 2.27 in (125 by 58 mm) 4.7 in (120 mm) (diagonal)4.1 by 2.3 in (104 by 58 mm) 6.46 in (164 mm) (diagonal)5.9 by 2.73 in (150 by 69 mm) 5.85 in (149 mm) (diagonal)5.31 by 2.45 in (135 by 62 mm) 6.06 in (154 mm) (diagonal)5.54 by 2.56 in (141 by 65 mm) 6.46 in (164 mm) (diagonal)5.9 by 2.73 in (150 by 69 mm) 5.85 in (149 mm) (diagonal)5.31 by 2.45 in (135 by 62 mm) Backlight — LED-backlit — LED-backlit — LED-backlit — Multi-touch Yes Technology Super Retina XDR Display all-screen OLED Retina HD Display widescreen with IPS technology Super Retina XDR Display all-screen OLED Retina HD Display widescreen with IPS technology Super Retina XDR Display all-screen OLED Liquid Retina Display all-screen with IPS technology Super Retina HD Display all-screen OLED Resolution 1290 x 2796 1179 x 2556 1290 x 2796 1179 x 2556 1290 x 2796 1179 x 2556 1284 x 2778 1170 x 2532 750 x 1334 1284 x 2778 1170 x 2532 1080 x 2340 1284 x 2778 1170 x 2532 1080 x 2340 750 x 1334 1242 x 2688 1125 x 2436 828 x 1792 1242 x 2688 1125 x 2436 Pixel Density (ppi) 460 458 460 326 458 460 476 458 460 476 326 458 326 458 Aspect Ratio ~19.5:9 16:9 ~19.5:9 16:9 ~19.5:9 Typical Max brightness ( cd⁄m2) 1000 800 625 1000 800 625 800 625 HDR Max brightness ( cd⁄m2) 1600 1200 — 1200 — 1200 — Outdoor Max brightness ( cd⁄m2) 2000 — Contrast ratio (typical) 2000000:1 1400:1 2000000:1 1400:1 2000000:1 1400:1 1000000:1 Fingerprint-resistant oleophobic coating Yes Full sRGB Display Yes Wide Color Display (Display P3) Yes True Tone Display Yes Night Shift Yes ProMotion Display Yes No Yes No Yes No Always-On Display Yes No Yes No HDR Display Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes HDR 10 Content Yes Dolby Vision With HDR Yes With HDR Yes With HDR Yes With HDR Dynamic Island Yes No Taptic Haptic Touch 3D Touch Processor Chip Apple A17 Pro Apple A16 Bionic Apple A15 Bionic Apple A14 Bionic Apple A13 Bionic Apple A12 Bionic Technology Node 3 nm (N3B) 4 nm (N4P) 5 nm (N5P) 5 nm (N5) 7 nm (N7P) 7 nm (N7) Total Cores 6 High-Performance Cores 2 x Coll-P 2 x Everest 2 x Avalanche 2 x Firestorm 2 x Lightning 2 x Vortex Energy-Efficiency Cores 4 x Coll-E 4 x Sawtooth 4 x Blizzard 4 x Icestorm 4 x Thunder 4 x Tempest Clock Speed 3.78 GHz, 2.11 GHz 3.46 GHz, 2.02 GHz 3.23 GHz, 2.02 GHz 3.09 GHz, 1.82 GHz 2.65 GHz, 1.72 GHz 2.49 GHz, 1.59 GHz Bit 64-bit Motion Coprocessor Embedded in SoC Bus width 64-bit Graphics Processor Apple G16P 6-core GPU with hardware ray tracing Apple G15P 5-core GPU Apple G14P 5-core GPU Apple G14P 4-core GPU Apple G14P 5-core GPU Apple G14P 4-core GPU Apple G13P 4-core GPU Apple G12P 4-core GPU Apple G11P 4-core GPU Neural Engine 16-core Neural Engine(35 TOPS) 16-core Neural Engine(17 TOPS) 16-core Neural Engine(15.8 TOPS) 16-core Neural Engine(11 TOPS) 8-core Neural Engine(5.5 TOPS) 8-core Neural Engine(5 TOPS) Storage 256 GB, 512 GB, 1 TB 128 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB, 1 TB 128 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB 128 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB, 1 TB 128 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB 64 GB, 128 GB, 256 GB 128 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB, 1 TB 128 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB 64 GB, 128 GB, 256 GB 64 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB 64 GB, 128 GB, 256 GB 64 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB Storage Type NAND Flash driven by NVMe-based controller that communicates over a PCIe connection RAM 8 GB 6 GB 4 GB 6 GB 4 GB 6 GB 4 GB 3 GB 4 GB 3 GB 4 GB RAM Type LPDDR5 3200 MHz (51.2 GB/s) LPDDR4X 2133 MHz (34.1 GB/s) Connector Type USB-C port supporting charging and DisplayPort protocols among others 8-pin Lightning connector port supporting charging Transmission Speed Up to 10 Gbit/s transmission speeds (USB 3.1 Gen 2) Up to 0.48 Gbit/s transmission speeds (USB 2.0) External Display Support One display up to 4K HDR at 60 Hz No Connectivity Wi-Fi (802.11) Wi-Fi 6E (802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax) Wi-Fi 6 (802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax) Wi-Fi 5 (802.11a/b/g/n/ac) MIMO Yes Thread networking technology Yes No NFC With Reader Mode in background Express Cards With Power Reserve Bluetooth Bluetooth 5.3 Bluetooth 5.0 Ultra Wideband chip for spatial awareness Second generation First generation No First generation No First generation No Cellular GSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A (some models)/Gigabit-class LTE/5G (sub-6 GHz and mmWave (some models)) GSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/LTE Advanced/5G (sub-6 GHz) GSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A (some models)/Gigabit-class LTE/5G (sub-6 GHz and mmWave (some models)) GSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A (some models)/Gigabit-class LTE GSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A (some models)/LTE Advanced VoLTE Yes Assisted GPS Precision Dual-frequency Yes Precision Dual-frequency Yes GLONASS/GNSS Precision Dual-frequency Yes Precision Dual-frequency Yes BeiDou Precision Dual-frequency Yes Precision Dual-frequency Yes No SIM card form-factor Dual SIM with one Nano-SIM and one eSIM, supports dual eSIM No physical SIM card form-factor in U.S. models Dual SIM with one Nano-SIM and one eSIM Dual SIM with one Nano-SIM and one eSIM, supports dual eSIM Dual SIM with one Nano-SIM and one eSIM Dual Nano-SIM in Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau Single Nano-SIM in Mainland China Dual Nano-SIM in Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau Single Nano-SIM in Mainland China Dual Nano-SIM in Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau Single Nano-SIM in Mainland China Dual Nano-SIM in Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau Single Nano-SIM in Mainland China Secure Authentication Touch ID No Second generation No Second generation No Face ID Yes No Yes No Yes Safety Emergency SOS Via Satellite (selected regions only) Yes Crash Detection Yes No Sensors LiDAR sensor Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Proximity sensor Yes Three-axis gyro High dynamic range gyro Yes Accelerometer High-g accelerometer Yes Ambient Light Sensor Yes Barometer Yes Rear Camera Camera 48 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide12 MP 2x Telephoto (Enabled by Quad-pixel)12 MP 5x Telephoto 48 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide12 MP 2x Telephoto (Enabled by Quad-pixel)12 MP 3x Telephoto 48 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide12 MP 2x Telephoto (Enabled by Quad-pixel) 48 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide12 MP 2x Telephoto (Enabled by Quad-pixel)12 MP 3x Telephoto 12 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide 12 MP Main 12 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide12 MP Telephoto 12 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide 12 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide12 MP Telephoto 12 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide 12 MP Main 12 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide12 MP Telephoto 12 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide 12 MP Main 12 MP Main12 MP Telephoto Aperture f/1.78 (Wide and 2x Telephoto)f/2.2 (Ultra Wide)f/2.8 (3x Telephoto) f/1.6 (Wide and 2x Telephoto)f/2.4 (Ultra Wide) f/1.78 (Wide and 2x Telephoto)f/2.2 (Ultra Wide)f/2.8 (3x Telephoto) f/1.5 (Wide)f/2.4 (Ultra Wide) f/1.8 f/1.5 (Wide)f/1.8 (Ultra Wide)f/2.8 (Telephoto) f/1.6 (Wide)f/2.4 (Ultra Wide) f/1.6 (Wide)f/2.4 (Ultra Wide)f/2.2 (Telephoto) f/1.6 (Wide)f/2.4 (Ultra Wide)f/2.0 (Telephoto) f/1.6 (Wide)f/2.4 (Ultra Wide) f/1.8 f/1.8 (Wide)f/2.4 (Ultra Wide)f/2.0 (Telephoto) f/1.8 (Wide)f/2.4 (Ultra Wide) f/1.8 f/1.8 (Wide)f/2.4 (Telephoto) Pixel Size for Wide camera 1.22 μm (48 MP)2.44 μm (Quad-pixel 12MP) 1 μm (48 MP)2 μm (Quad-pixel 12MP) 1.22 μm (48 MP)2.44 μm (Quad-pixel 12MP) 1.9 μm 1.22 μm 1.9 μm 1.7 μm 1.4 μm 1.22 μm 1.4 μm Super High Resolution Support 24 MP (Default)48 MP HEIF and 48 MP ProRAW 24 MP (Default)48 MP HEIF 48 MP HEIF and 48 MP ProRAW No Sensor Size for Main camera 1/1.28" 1/1.59" 1/1.28" 1/1.65" 1/2.93" 1/1.65" 1/1.88" 1/2.55" 1/2.93" 1/2.55" Optical Image Stabilization Main, 2x Telephoto and 5x TelephotoSecond generation sensor-shift optical image stabilization for main and 2x telephoto camera, 3D sensor‑shift optical image stabilization with tetraprism design for 5x telephoto camera Main, 2x Telephoto and 3x TelephotoSecond generation sensor-shift optical image stabilization for main and 2x telephoto camera Main, 2x TelephotoSensor-shift optical image stabilization for main and 2x telephoto camera Main, 2x Telephoto and 3x TelephotoSecond generation sensor-shift optical image stabilization for main and 2x telephoto camera Sensor-shift optical image stabilization for main camera Yes Main and TelephotoSensor-shift optical image stabilization for main camera Sensor-shift optical image stabilization for main camera Main and TelephotoSensor-shift optical image stabilization for main camera Main and Telephoto Main Yes Main and Telephoto Main Yes Main and Telephoto Auto Image Stabilization Yes Element Lens Seven-element lens (Main and 2x Telephoto)Six-element lens (Ultra Wide)Four-element hybrid lens with 1 glass and 3 plastics lenses (5x Telephoto) Seven-element lens (Main and 2x Telephoto)Six-element lens (Ultra Wide and 3x Telephoto) Seven-element lens (Main and 2x Telephoto)Five-element lens (Ultra Wide) Seven-element lens (Main and 2x Telephoto)Six-element lens (Ultra Wide and 3x Telephoto) Seven-element lens (Main)Five-element lens (Ultra Wide) Six-element lens Seven-element lens (Main)Six-element lens (Ultra Wide and Telephoto) Seven-element lens (Main)Five-element lens (Ultra Wide) Seven-element lens (Main)Six-element lens (Telephoto)Five-element lens (Ultra Wide) Seven-element lens (Main)Five-element lens (Ultra Wide) Six-element lens Six-element lens (Main and Telephoto)Five-element lens (Ultra Wide) Six-element lens (Main)Five-element lens (Ultra Wide) Six-element lens Six-element lens (Main and Telephoto) Night Mode Ultra Wide, Main, 2x Telephoto, 5x Telephoto and Night Mode Portrait Ultra Wide, Main, 2x Telephoto, 3x Telephoto and Night Mode Portrait Ultra Wide and Main Ultra Wide, Main, 2x Telephoto, 3x Telephoto and Night Mode Portrait Ultra Wide and Main No Ultra Wide, Main, Telephoto and Night Mode Portrait Ultra Wide and Main Ultra Wide, Main and Night Mode Portrait Ultra Wide and Main No Main only No Deep Fusion Ultra Wide, Main, 2x Telephoto and 5x Telephoto Ultra Wide, Main, 2x Telephoto and 3x Telephoto Ultra Wide and Main Ultra Wide, Main, 2x Telephoto and 3x Telephoto Ultra Wide and Main Yes Ultra Wide, Main and Telephoto Ultra Wide and Main Ultra Wide, Main and Telephoto Ultra Wide and Main No Main and Telephoto Yes No Photonic Engine Yes No Apple ProRAW Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Macro mode Yes No Yes No Yes No Photographic Styles Yes No Optical Zoom 0.5x, 1x, 2x, 5x 0.5x, 1x, 2x, 3x 0.5x, 1x, 2x 0.5x, 1x, 2x, 3x 0.5x, 1x 1x 0.5x, 1x, 3x 0.5x, 1x 0.5x, 1x, 2.5x 0.5x, 1x, 2x 0.5x, 1x 1x 0.5x, 1x, 2x 0.5x, 1x 1x 1x, 2x Digital Zoom Up to 25x Up to 15x Up to 10x Up to 15x Up to 5x Up to 15x Up to 5x Up to 12x Up to 10x Up to 5x Up to 10x Up to 5x Up to 10x Autofocus 100% Focus Pixels (Ultra Wide, Main and 2x Telephoto)With Focus Pixels (Telephoto) 100% Focus Pixels (Main only) 100% Focus Pixels (Ultra Wide, Main and 2x Telephoto)With Focus Pixels (Telephoto) 100% Focus Pixels (Main only) With Focus Pixels 100% Focus Pixels (Main)With Focus Pixels (Ultra Wide and Telephoto) 100% Focus Pixels (Main only) 100% Focus Pixels (Main)With Focus Pixels (Telephoto) 100% Focus Pixels (Main only) With Focus Pixels 100% Focus Pixels (Main only) With Focus Pixels Panorama Up to 63 MP Portrait Mode Next Generation with Focus and Depth Control With Focus and Depth Control With Depth Control With Focus and Depth Control With Depth Control Portrait Lighting With six effects (Natural, Studio, Contour, Stage, Stage Mono, High‑Key Mono) With three effects (Natural, Studio, Contour) With six effects (Natural, Studio, Contour, Stage, Stage Mono, High‑Key Mono) Lens Cover Sapphire crystal lens cover Burst Mode Yes Flash Adaptive True Tone flash True Tone flash Adaptive True Tone flash True Tone flash True Tone flash with Slow Sync Live Photos Yes Wide Color Capture Yes HDR for photos Smart HDR 5 Smart HDR 4 Smart HDR 3 Smart HDR 2 Smart HDR Video Recording 4K at 24 fps, 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps Cinematic video recording with shallow depth of field 4K at 25 fps or 30 fps No 1080p at 30 fps No Extended Dynamic Range Video 60 fps 30 fps 60 fps 30 fps 60 fps 30 fps Dolby Vision HDR Video 60 fps No 60 fps 30 fps No ProRes Video 1080p at 30 fps for 128 GB storage (iPhone 15 Pro only)4K at 30 fps for 256 GB storage and above4K at 60 fps with external recording No 1080p at 30 fps for 128 GB storage4K at 30 fps for 256 GB storage and above No 1080p at 30 fps for 128 GB storage4K at 30 fps for 256 GB storage and above No Log Video Recording Yes No Academy Color Encoding System Yes No Optical Image Stabilization for Video Main, 2x Telephoto and 5x TelephotoSecond generation sensor-shift optical image stabilization for main and 2x telephoto camera, 3D sensor‑shift optical image stabilization with tetraprism design for 5x telephoto camera Main, 2x Telephoto and 3x TelephotoSecond generation sensor-shift optical image stabilization for main and 2x telephoto camera Main, 2x TelephotoSensor-shift optical image stabilization for main and 2x telephoto camera Main, 2x Telephoto and 3x TelephotoSecond generation sensor-shift optical image stabilization for main and 2x telephoto camera Sensor-shift optical image stabilization for main camera Yes Main and TelephotoSensor-shift optical image stabilization for main camera Sensor-shift optical image stabilization for main camera Main and TelephotoSensor-shift optical image stabilization for main camera Main and Telephoto Main Yes Main and Telephoto Main Yes Main and Telephoto Action Mode Yes No Optical Video Zoom 0.5x, 1x, 2x, 5x 0.5x, 1x, 2x, 3x 0.5x, 1x, 2x 0.5x, 1x, 2x, 3x 0.5x, 1x 1x 0.5x, 1x, 3x 0.5x, 1x 0.5x, 1x, 2.5x 0.5x, 1x, 2x 0.5x, 1x 1x 0.5x, 1x, 2x 0.5x, 1x 1x 1x, 2x Digital Video Zoom Up to 15x Up to 9x Up to 6x Up to 9x Up to 3x Up to 9x Up to 3x Up to 7x Up to 6x Up to 3x Up to 6x Up to 3x Up to 6x Slow-motion video 1080p at 120 fps or 240 fps Audio Zoom Yes No Yes No Yes No QuickTake Video Yes iOS 14 and above Time-lapse video with stabilization Yes Cinematic video stabilization 4K, 1080p and 720p 1080p and 720p Stereo Recording Yes Front Camera Camera 12 MP TrueDepth 7 MP FaceTime HD 12 MP TrueDepth 7 MP FaceTime HD 12 MP TrueDepth 7 MP TrueDepth Aperture f/1.9 f/2.2 Autofocus Yes No Portrait Mode Next Generation with Focus and Depth Control With Focus and Depth Control With Depth Control With Focus and Depth Control With Depth Control Portrait Lighting With six effects (Natural, Studio, Contour, Stage, Stage Mono, High‑Key Mono) Night mode Yes No Yes No Deep Fusion Yes No Photonic Engine Yes No Photographic Styles Yes No Animoji and Memoji Yes No Yes No Yes Live Photos Yes Wide color capture Yes Retina Flash Yes Video Recording 4K at 24 fps, 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps 1080p HD at 25 fps or 30 fps 4K at 24 fps, 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps 1080p HD at 25 fps or 30 fps 4K at 24 fps, 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps 1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps Slow-motion video 1080p at 120 fps No 1080p at 120 fps No Extended Dynamic Range Video 30 fps No 30 fps No 30 fps Dolby Vision HDR Video 4K at 60 fps No 4K at 60 fps 4K at 30 fps No ProRes Video 1080p at 30 fps for 128 GB storage (iPhone 15 Pro only)4K at 30 fps for 256 GB storage and above4K at 60 fps with external recording No 1080p at 30 fps for 128 GB storage4K at 30 fps for 256 GB storage and above No 1080p at 30 fps for 128 GB storage4K at 30 fps for 256 GB storage and above No HDR for photos Smart HDR 5 Smart HDR 4 Smart HDR 3 Auto HDR Smart HDR 2 Smart HDR Cinematic video stabilization 4K, 1080p and 720p 1080p and 720p 4K, 1080p and 720p 1080p and 720p 4K, 1080p and 720p 1080p and 720p Auto Image Stabilization Yes FaceTime Yes Audio Playback Spatial Audio Stereo Spatial Audio Stereo Spatial Audio Dolby Atmos Built-in speakers and headphones with Spatial Audio Headphones with Spatial Audio Built-in speakers and headphones with Spatial Audio Headphones with Spatial Audio Built-in speakers and headphones with Spatial Audio 3.5 mm Jack No HAC Rating M3, T4 Compatible with Made for iPhone Hearing Aids Yes Live Listen Yes Materials Front All models have black glass front Back Natural Titanium: Natural Titanium textured matte glass backBlue Titanium: Blue textured matte glass backWhite Titanium: White textured matte glass backBlack Titanium: Black textured matte glass back Pink: Pink color-infused glass backYellow: Yellow color-infused glass backGreen: Green color-infused glass backBlue: Blue color-infused glass backBlack: Black color-infused glass back Silver: Silver textured matte glass backSpace Black: Space Black textured matte glass backGold: Gold textured matte glass backDeep Purple: Deep Purple textured matte glass back Midnight: Black glass backStarlight: White glass back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED glass backPurple: Purple glass backBlue: Blue glass backYellow: Yellow glass back Starlight: Starlight glass backMidnight: Midnight glass back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED glass back Silver: Silver textured matte glass backGraphite: Graphite textured matte glass backGold: Gold textured matte glass backSierra Blue: Sierra Blue textured matte glass backAlpine Green: Alpine Green textured matte glass back Midnight: Black glass backStarlight: White glass back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED glass backPink: Pink glass backBlue: Blue glass backGreen: Green glass back Silver: Silver textured matte glass backGraphite: Graphite textured matte glass backGold: Gold textured matte glass backPacific Blue: Pacific Blue textured matte glass back Black: Black glass backWhite: White glass back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED glass backGreen: Green glass backBlue: Blue glass backPurple: Purple glass back White: White glass backBlack: Black glass back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED glass back Midnight Green: Midnight Green textured matte glass backSpace Gray: Space Gray textured matte glass backSilver: Silver textured matte glass backGold: Gold textured matte glass back White: White glass backBlack: Black glass backPurple: Purple glass backYellow: Yellow glass backGreen: Green glass back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED glass back White: White glass backBlack: Black glass backBlue: Blue glass backYellow: Yellow glass backCoral: Coral glass back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED glass back Silver: Silver glass backGold: Gold glass backSpace Gray: Space Gray glass back Side Natural Titanium: Natural titanium sidesBlue Titanium: Blue titanium sidesWhite Titanium: White titanium sidesBlack Titanium: Black titanium sides Pink: Pink anodized aluminum sidesYellow: Yellow anodized aluminum sidesGreen: Green anodized aluminum sidesBlue: Blue anodized aluminum sidesBlack: Black anodized aluminum sides Silver: Silver stainless steel sidesSpace Black: Space Black stainless steel sidesGold: Gold stainless steel sidesDeep Purple: Deep Purple stainless steel sides Midnight: Black anodized aluminum sidesStarlight: White anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sidesPurple: Purple anodized aluminum sidesBlue: Blue anodized aluminum sidesYellow: Yellow anodized aluminum sides Starlight: Starlight anodized aluminum sidesMidnight: Midnight anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sides Silver: Silver stainless steel sidesGraphite: Graphite stainless steel sidesGold: Gold stainless steel sidesSierra Blue: Sierra Blue stainless steel sidesAlpine Green: Alpine Green stainless steel sides Midnight: Black anodized aluminum sidesStarlight: White anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sidesPink: Pink anodized aluminum sidesBlue: Blue anodized aluminum sidesGreen: Green anodized aluminum sides Silver: Silver stainless steel sidesGraphite: Graphite stainless steel sidesGold: Gold stainless steel sidesPacific Blue: Pacific Blue stainless steel sides Black: Black anodized aluminum sidesWhite: White anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sidesGreen: Green anodized aluminum sidesBlue: Blue anodized aluminum sidesPurple: Purple anodized aluminum sides White: White anodized aluminum sidesBlack: Black anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sides Midnight Green: Midnight Green stainless steel sidesSpace Gray: Space Gray stainless steel sidesSilver: Silver stainless steel sidesGold: Gold stainless steel sides White: White anodized aluminum sidesBlack: Black anodized aluminum sidesPurple: Purple anodized aluminum sidesYellow: Yellow anodized aluminum sidesGreen: Green anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sides White: White anodized aluminum sidesBlack: Black anodized aluminum sidesBlue: Blue anodized aluminum sidesYellow: Yellow anodized aluminum sidesCoral: Coral anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sides Silver: Silver stainless steel sidesGold: Gold stainless steel sidesSpace Gray: Space Gray stainless steel sides Colors Since March 14, 2023: From release to September 7, 2022: Since March 18, 2022: Since April 30, 2021: Power 3.87 V 17.11 W·h (4,422 mA·h) 3.88 V 12.70 W·h (3,274 mA·h) 3.87 V 16.95 W·h (4,383 mA·h) 3.88 V 12.98 W·h (3,349 mA·h) 3.86 V 16.68 W·h (4,323 mA·h) 3.87 V 12.38 W·h (3,200 mA·h) 3.86 V 16.68 W·h (4,325 mA·h) 3.87 V 12.68 W·h (3,279 mA·h) 3.88 V 7.82 W·h (2,018 mA·h) 3.85 V 16.75 W·h (4,352 mA·h) 3.87 V 11.97 W·h (3,095 mA·h) 3.84 V 12.41 W·h (3,227 mA·h) 3.88 V 9.34 W·h (2,406 mA·h) 3.83 V 14.13 W·h (3,687 mA·h) 3.83 V 10.78 W·h (2,815 mA·h) 3.85 V 8.57 W·h (2,227 mA·h) 3.82 V 6.96 W·h (1,821 mA·h) 3.79 V 15.04 W·h (3,969 mA·h) 3.83 V 11.67 W·h (3,046 mA·h) 3.83 V 11.91 W·h (3,110 mA·h) 3.82 V 11.24 W·h (2,942 mA·h) 3.80 V 12.08 W·h (3,179 mA·h) 3.81 V 10.13 W·h (2,659 mA·h) Fast Charging 20 W, up to 50% charge in 30 minutes (20 W adapter sold separately)35 minutes for iPhone 13 Pro Max, iPhone 14 Plus, iPhone 14 Pro Max, iPhone 15 Plus and iPhone 15 Pro Max 20 W, up to 50% charge in 30 minutes (18 W adapter included) 20 W, up to 50% charge in 30 minutes (20 W adapter sold separately) Wireless Charging MagSafe and Qi wireless charging Qi wireless charging MagSafe and Qi wireless charging Qi wireless charging Resistant IP68 (Maximum depth of 6 meters up to 30 minutes) IP67 (Maximum depth of 1 meter up to 30 minutes) IP68 (Maximum depth of 6 meters up to 30 minutes) IP67 (Maximum depth of 1 meter up to 30 minutes) IP68 (Maximum depth of 4 meters up to 30 minutes) IP68 (Maximum depth of 2 meters up to 30 minutes) IP67 (Maximum depth of 1 meter up to 30 minutes) IP68 (Maximum depth of 2 meters up to 30 minutes) Dimensions Height 159.9 mm (6.30 in) 146.6 mm (5.77 in) 160.9 mm (6.33 in) 147.6 mm (5.81 in) 160.7 mm (6.33 in) 147.5 mm (5.81 in) 160.8 mm (6.33 in) 146.7 mm (5.78 in) 138.4 mm (5.45 in) 160.8 mm (6.33 in) 146.7 mm (5.78 in) 131.5 mm (5.18 in) 160.8 mm (6.33 in) 146.7 mm (5.78 in) 131.5 mm (5.18 in) 138.4 mm (5.45 in) 158 mm (6.2 in) 144 mm (5.7 in) 150.9 mm (5.94 in) 157.5 mm (6.20 in) 143.6 mm (5.65 in) Width 76.7 mm (3.02 in) 70.6 mm (2.78 in) 77.8 mm (3.06 in) 71.6 mm (2.82 in) 77.6 mm (3.06 in) 71.5 mm (2.81 in) 78.1 mm (3.07 in) 71.5 mm (2.81 in) 67.3 mm (2.65 in) 78.1 mm (3.07 in) 71.5 mm (2.81 in) 64.2 mm (2.53 in) 78.1 mm (3.07 in) 71.5 mm (2.81 in) 64.2 mm (2.53 in) 67.3 mm (2.65 in) 77.8 mm (3.06 in) 71.4 mm (2.81 in) 75.7 mm (2.98 in) 77.4 mm (3.05 in) 70.9 mm (2.79 in) Depth 8.25 mm (0.32 in) 7.8 mm (0.31 in) 7.85 mm (0.31 in) 7.8 mm (0.31 in) 7.3 mm (0.29 in) 7.65 mm (0.30 in) 7.4 mm (0.29 in) 7.3 mm (0.29 in) 8.1 mm (0.32 in) 8.3 mm (0.33 in) 7.7 mm (0.30 in) Weight 221 g (7.8 oz) 187 g (6.6 oz) 201 g (7.1 oz) 171 g (6.0 oz) 240 g (8.5 oz) 206 g (7.3 oz) 203 g (7.2 oz) 172 g (6.1 oz) 144 g (5.1 oz) 240 g (8.5 oz) 204 g (7.2 oz) 174 g (6.1 oz) 141 g (5.0 oz) 228 g (8.0 oz) 189 g (6.7 oz) 164 g (5.8 oz) 135 g (4.8 oz) 148 g (5.2 oz) 226 g (8.0 oz) 188 g (6.6 oz) 194 g (6.8 oz) 208 g (7.3 oz) 177 g (6.2 oz) Total greenhouse gas emissions 75 kg CO2e 66 kg CO2e 61 kg CO2e 56 kg CO2e 73 kg CO2e 65 kg CO2e 68 kg CO2e 61 kg CO2e 46 kg CO2e 74 kg CO2e 69 kg CO2e 64 kg CO2e 61 kg CO2e 86 kg CO2e 82 kg CO2e 70 kg CO2e 64 kg CO2e 57 kg CO2e 86 kg CO2e 80 kg CO2e 72 kg CO2e 62 kg CO2e 77 kg CO2e 70 kg CO2e Hardware strings iPhone16,2 iPhone16,1 iPhone15,5 iPhone15,4 iPhone15,3 iPhone15,2 iPhone14,8 iPhone14,7 iPhone14,6 iPhone14,3 iPhone14,2 iPhone14,5 iPhone14,4 iPhone13,4 iPhone13,3 iPhone13,2 iPhone13,1 iPhone12,8 iPhone12,5 iPhone12,3 iPhone12,1 iPhone11,8 iPhone11,4iPhone11,6 iPhone11,2 Model number A2849A3105A3106A3108 A2848A3101A3102A3104 A2847A3093A3094A3096 A2846A3089A3090A3092 A2651A2893A2894A2895A2896 A2650A2889A2890A2891A2892 A2632A2885A2886A2887A2888 A2649A2881A2882A2883A2884 A2595A2782A2783A2784A2785 A2484A2641A2644A2645A2643 A2483A2636A2638A2639A2640 A2482A2631A2633A2634A2635 A2481A2626A2628A2629A2630 A2342A2410A2411A2412 A2341A2406A2407A2408 A2172A2402A2403A2404 A2176A2398A2399A2400 A2275A2296A2298 A2161A2218A2220 A2160A2215A2217 A2111A2221A2223 A1984A2105A2106A2107A2108 A1921A2101A2102A2104 A1920A2097A2098A2100 Announced Date September 12, 2023 September 7, 2022 March 8, 2022 September 14, 2021 October 13, 2020 April 15, 2020 September 10, 2019 September 12, 2018 Released Date September 22, 2023 September 16, 2022 October 7, 2022 September 16, 2022 March 18, 2022 September 24, 2021 November 13, 2020 October 23, 2020 November 13, 2020 April 24, 2020 September 20, 2019 October 26, 2018 Discontinued Date In production September 12, 2023 In production September 7, 2022 In production September 12, 2023 September 14, 2021 September 12, 2023 September 7, 2022 64 and 128 GB: March 8, 2022256 GB: September 14, 2021 October 13, 2020 64 and 128 GB: September 7, 2022256 GB: September 14, 2021 64 and 128 GB: September 14, 2021256 GB: September 10, 2019 September 10, 2019 Unsupported Date Supported Unsupported (64-bit CPU, 2013 to 2017 models) Model iPhone X iPhone 8 Plus iPhone 8 iPhone 7 Plus iPhone 7 iPhone SE(1st generation) iPhone 6s Plus iPhone 6s iPhone 6 Plus iPhone 6 iPhone 5s Picture Initial release operating system iOS 11.0.1 iOS 11.0 iOS 10.0 iOS 9.3 iOS 9.0 iOS 8.0 iOS 7.0 Latest release operating system iOS 16.7.8 iOS 15.8.2 iOS 12.5.7 iOS 12.5.7 Display Screen Size 5.85 in (149 mm) (diagonal)5.31 by 2.45 in (135 by 62 mm) 5.5 in (140 mm) (diagonal)4.8 by 2.7 in (122 by 69 mm) 4.7 in (120 mm) (diagonal)4.1 by 2.3 in (104 by 58 mm) 5.5 in (140 mm) (diagonal)4.8 by 2.7 in (122 by 69 mm) 4.7 in (120 mm) (diagonal)4.1 by 2.3 in (104 by 58 mm) 4 in (100 mm) (diagonal)3.5 by 1.9 in (89 by 48 mm) 5.5 in (140 mm) (diagonal)4.8 by 2.7 in (122 by 69 mm) 4.7 in (120 mm) (diagonal)4.1 by 2.3 in (104 by 58 mm) 5.5 in (140 mm) (diagonal)4.8 by 2.7 in (122 by 69 mm) 4.7 in (120 mm) (diagonal)4.1 by 2.3 in (104 by 58 mm) 4 in (100 mm) (diagonal)3.5 by 1.9 in (89 by 48 mm) Backlight — LED-backlit Multi-touch Yes Technology Super Retina HD Display all-screen OLED Retina HD Display widescreen with IPS technology Retina Display widescreen with IPS technology Retina HD Display widescreen with IPS technology Retina Display widescreen with IPS technology Resolution 1125 x 2436 1080 x 1920 750 x 1334 1080 x 1920 750 x 1334 640 x 1136 1080 x 1920 750 x 1334 1080 x 1920 750 x 1334 640 x 1136 Pixel Density (ppi) 458 401 326 401 326 401 326 401 326 Aspect Ratio ~19.5:9 16:9 71:40 (~16:9) 16:9 16:9 71:40 (~16:9) Typical Max brightness ( cd⁄m2) 625 500 HDR Max brightness ( cd⁄m2) — Outdoor Max brightness ( cd⁄m2) — Contrast ratio (typical) 1000000:1 1300:1 1400:1 1300:1 1400:1 800:1 1400:1 1300:1 1300:1 1400:1 800:1 Fingerprint-resistant oleophobic coating Yes Full sRGB Display Yes Wide Color Display (Display P3) Yes No True Tone Display Yes No Night Shift Yes ProMotion Display No Always-On Display No HDR Display Yes No HDR 10 Content Yes No Dolby Vision With HDR Yes No Dynamic Island No Taptic 3D Touch — 3D Touch — Processor Chip Apple A11 Bionic Apple A10 Fusion Apple A9 Apple A8 Apple A7 Technology Node 10 nm 16 nm 16 nm (TSMC) or 14 nm (Samsung) 20 nm 28 nm Total Cores 6 4 (2 usable) 2 High-Performance Cores 2 x Monsoon 2 x Hurricane 2 x Twister 2 x Typhoon 2 x Cyclone Energy-Efficiency Cores 4 x Mistral 2 x Zephyr — Clock Speed 2.39 GHz 2.34 GHz 1.85 GHz 1.4 GHz 1.3 GHz Bit 64-bit Motion Coprocessor Embedded M11 Embedded M10 Embedded M9 M8 M7 Bus width 64-bit Graphics Processor Apple designed 3-core GPU (G10P) PowerVR GT7600 Plus (6-core) PowerVR GT7600 (6-core) PowerVR GX6450 (4-core) PowerVR G6430 (4-core) Neural Engine 2-core Neural Engine(600 BOPS) — Storage 64 GB, 256 GB 64 GB, 128 GB, 256 GB 32 GB, 128 GB, 256 GB 16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB, 128 GB 16 GB, 64 GB, 128 GB 16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB, 128 GB 16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB Storage Type NAND Flash driven by NVMe-based controller that communicates over a PCIe connection NAND Flash (eMMC) RAM 3 GB 2 GB 3 GB 2 GB 1 GB RAM Type LPDDR4X 2133 MHz (34.1 GB/s) LPDDR4 1600 MHz (25.6 GB/s) LPDDR3 800 MHz (12.8 GB/s) Connector Type 8-pin Lightning connector port supporting charging Transmission Speed Up to 0.48 Gbit/s transmission speeds (USB 2.0) External Display Support No Connectivity Wi-Fi (802.11) Wi-Fi 5 (802.11a/b/g/n/ac) Wi-Fi 4 (802.11a/b/g/n)802.11n in both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz MIMO Yes No Yes No Thread networking technology No NFC With Reader Mode in Control Center Yes Apple Pay only No Express Cards Yes No Bluetooth Bluetooth 5.0 Bluetooth 4.2 Bluetooth 4.0 Ultra Wideband chip for spatial awareness No Cellular GSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A (some models)/LTE Advanced GSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A (some models)/LTE GSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A (some models)/LTE Advanced GSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A and Rev. B(some models)/LTE VoLTE Yes No Assisted GPS Yes GLONASS/GNSS Yes BeiDou No SIM card form-factor Single Nano-SIM Secure Authentication Touch ID No Second generation First generation Second generation First generation Face ID Yes No Safety Emergency SOS Yes Crash Detection No Sensors LiDAR sensor No Proximity sensor Yes Three-axis gyro Yes Accelerometer Yes Ambient Light Sensor Yes Barometer Yes No Yes No Rear Camera Camera 12 MP Main12 MP Telephoto 12 MP Main 12 MP Main12 MP Telephoto 12 MP Wide 8 MP Wide Aperture f/1.8 (Main)f/2.4 (Telephoto) f/1.8 (Main)f/2.8 (Telephoto) f/1.8 f/1.8 (Main)f/2.8 (Telephoto) f/1.8 f/2.2 Pixel Size for Wide camera 1.22 μm 1.5 μm Super High Resolution Support No Sensor Size for Wide camera 1/2.93" Optical Image Stabilization Main and Telephoto Main Yes Main Yes No Yes No Yes No Auto Image Stabilization Yes Element Lens Six-element lens (Main and Telephoto) Six-element lens Six-element lens (Main and Telephoto) Six-element lens Five-element lens Night Mode No Deep Fusion No Photonic Engine No Apple ProRAW No Macro mode No Photographic Styles No Optical Zoom 1x, 2x 1x 1x, 2x 1x Digital Zoom Up to 10x Up to 5x Up to 10x Up to 5x Autofocus With Focus Pixels No Panorama Up to 63 MP Up to 43 MP Up to 28 MP Portrait Mode Yes No Yes No Portrait Lighting With five effects (Natural, Studio, Contour, Stage, Stage Mono) No Lens Cover Sapphire crystal lens cover Burst Mode Yes Flash True Tone flash with Slow Sync True Tone flash Live Photos Yes No Wide Color Capture Yes No HDR for photos Auto HDR Yes Video Recording 4K at 24 fps, 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps 4K at 25 fps or 30 fps1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps 1080p HD at 30 fps or 60 fps 1080p HD at 30 fps Cinematic video recording with shallow depth of field No Extended Dynamic Range Video No Dolby Vision HDR Video No ProRes Video No Log Video Recording No Academy Color Encoding System No Optical Image Stabilization for Video Main and Telephoto Main Yes Main Yes No Yes No No Action Mode No Optical Video Zoom 1x, 2x 1x 1x, 2x 1x Digital Video Zoom Up to 6x Up to 3x Up to 6x Up to 3x Slow-motion video 1080p at 120 fps or 240 fps 1080p at 120 fps720p at 240 fps 720p at 120 fps or 240 fps 720p at 120 fps Audio Zoom No QuickTake Video No Time-lapse video with stabilization Yes Cinematic video stabilization 1080p and 720p Yes No Stereo Recording No Front Camera Camera 7 MP TrueDepth 7 MP FaceTime HD 1.2 MP FaceTime HD 5 MP FaceTime HD 1.2 MP FaceTime HD Aperture f/2.2 f/2.4 f/2.2 f/2.4 Autofocus No Portrait Mode Yes No Portrait Lighting With five effects (Natural, Studio, Contour, Stage, Stage Mono) No Night mode No Deep Fusion No Photonic Engine No Photographic Styles No Animoji and Memoji Yes No Live Photos Yes No Wide color capture Yes No Retina Flash Yes No Video Recording 1080p HD at 25 fps or 30 fps 720p at 30 fps Slow-motion video No Extended Dynamic Range Video No Dolby Vision HDR Video No ProRes Video No HDR for photos Auto HDR Yes Cinematic video stabilization No Auto Image Stabilization Yes No FaceTime Yes Audio Playback Stereo Mono Dolby Atmos Headphones with spatial audio No 3.5 mm Jack No Yes HAC Rating M3, T4 Compatible with Made for iPhone Hearing Aids Yes Live Listen Yes Materials Front All models have black glass front Silver: White glass frontGold: White glass frontSpace Gray: Black glass front(PRODUCT)RED: Black glass front Silver: White glass frontGold: White glass frontRose Gold: White glass frontJet Black: Black glass frontBlack: Black glass front(PRODUCT)RED: White glass front Silver: White glass frontGold: White glass frontRose Gold: White glass frontSpace Gray: Black glass front Silver: White glass frontGold: White glass frontSpace Gray: Black glass front Back Silver: Silver glass backSpace Gray: Space Gray glass back Silver: Silver glass backGold: Gold glass backSpace Gray: Space Gray glass back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED glass back Silver: Silver anodized aluminum backGold: Gold anodized aluminum backRose Gold: Rose Gold anodized aluminum backJet Black: Jet Black aluminum backBlack: Black anodized aluminum back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum back Silver: Silver anodized aluminum backGold: Gold anodized aluminum backRose Gold: Rose Gold anodized aluminum backSpace Gray: Space Gray anodized aluminum back Silver: Silver anodized aluminum backGold: Gold anodized aluminum backSpace Gray: Space Gray anodized aluminum back Side Silver: Silver stainless steel sidesSpace Gray: Space Gray stainless steel sides Silver: Silver anodized aluminum sidesGold: Gold anodized aluminum sidesSpace Gray: Space Gray anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sides Silver: Silver anodized aluminum sidesGold: Gold anodized aluminum sidesRose Gold: Rose Gold anodized aluminum sidesJet Black: Jet Black aluminum sidesBlack: Black anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sides Silver: Silver anodized aluminum sidesGold: Gold anodized aluminum sidesRose Gold: Rose Gold anodized aluminum sidesSpace Gray: Space Gray anodized aluminum sides Silver: Silver anodized aluminum sidesGold: Gold anodized aluminum sidesSpace Gray: Space Gray anodized aluminum sides Colors From release to September 12, 2018: From release to September 12, 2018: From release to September 12, 2017: (128 and 256 GB only) From release to September 9, 2015: From release to September 9, 2015, and since March 10, 2017: From release to September 9, 2015: Power 3.81 V 10.35 W·h (2,716 mA·h) 3.82 V 10.28 W·h (2,691 mA·h) 3.82 V 6.96 W·h (1,821 mA·h) 3.82 V 11.10 W·h (2,915 mA·h) 3.80 V 7.45 W·h (1,960 mA·h) 3.82 V 6.21 W·h (1,624 mA·h) 3.80 V 10.45 W·h (2,750 mA·h) 3.82 V 6.55 W·h (1,715 mA·h) 3.8 V 11.1 W·h (2,915 mA·h) 3.8 V 6.91 W·h (1,810 mA·h) 3.8 V 5.92 W·h (1,560 mA·h) Fast Charging 20 W, up to 50% charge in 30 minutes (20 W adapter sold separately) No Wireless Charging Qi wireless charging No Water resistant IP67 (Maximum depth of 1 meter up to 30 minutes) No Dimensions Height 143.6 mm (5.65 in) 158.4 mm (6.24 in) 138.4 mm (5.45 in) 158.2 mm (6.23 in) 138.3 mm (5.44 in) 123.8 mm (4.87 in) 158.2 mm (6.23 in) 138.3 mm (5.44 in) 158.1 mm (6.22 in) 138.1 mm (5.44 in) 123.8 mm (4.87 in) Width 70.9 mm (2.79 in) 78.1 mm (3.07 in) 67.3 mm (2.65 in) 77.9 mm (3.07 in) 67.1 mm (2.64 in) 58.6 mm (2.31 in) 77.9 mm (3.07 in) 67.1 mm (2.64 in) 77.8 mm (3.06 in) 67.0 mm (2.64 in) 58.6 mm (2.31 in) Depth 7.7 mm (0.30 in) 7.5 mm (0.30 in) 7.3 mm (0.29 in) 7.3 mm (0.29 in) 7.1 mm (0.28 in) 7.6 mm (0.30 in) 7.3 mm (0.29 in) 7.1 mm (0.28 in) 7.1 mm (0.28 in) 6.9 mm (0.27 in) 7.6 mm (0.30 in) Weight 174 g (6.1 oz) 202 g (7.1 oz) 148 g (5.2 oz) 188 g (6.6 oz) 138 g (4.9 oz) 113 g (4.0 oz) 192 g (6.8 oz) 143 g (5.0 oz) 172 g (6.1 oz) 129 g (4.6 oz) 112 g (4.0 oz) Total greenhouse gas emissions 79 kg CO2e 68 kg CO2e 57 kg CO2e 67 kg CO2e 56 kg CO2e 45 kg CO2e 63 kg CO2e 54 kg CO2e 110 kg CO2e 95 kg CO2e 65 kg CO2e Hardware strings iPhone10,3iPhone10,6 iPhone10,2iPhone10,5 iPhone10,1iPhone10,4 iPhone9,2iPhone9,4 iPhone9,1iPhone9,3 iPhone8,4 iPhone8,2 iPhone8,1 iPhone7,1 iPhone7,2 iPhone6,1iPhone6,2 Model number A1865A1902A1901 A1864A1897A1898A1899 A1863A1905A1906A1907 A1661A1784A1785 A1660A1778A1779 A1662A1723A1724 A1634A1687A1699A1690 A1633A1688A1700A1691 A1522A1524A1593 A1549A1586A1589 A1533A1453A1457A1530A1518A1528 Announced Date September 12, 2017 September 12, 2017(PRODUCT)RED: April 9, 2018 September 7, 2016 March 21, 2016 September 9, 2015 September 9, 2014 September 10, 2013 Released Date November 3, 2017 September 22, 2017(PRODUCT)RED: April 13, 2018 September 16, 2016(PRODUCT)RED: March 24, 2017 16 and 64 GB: March 31, 201632 and 128 GB: March 21, 2017 16, 64, and 128 GB: September 25, 201532 GB: September 7, 2016 September 19, 201432 GB (iPhone 6 ONLY): March 10, 2017 September 20, 2013 Discontinued Date September 12, 2018 256 GB: September 10, 201964 and 128 GB: April 15, 2020 256 GB: September 12, 201732 and 128 GB: September 10, 2019 16 and 64 GB: March 21, 201732 and 128 GB: September 12, 2018 16 and 64 GB: September 7, 201632 and 128 GB: September 12, 2018 128 GB: September 9, 201516 and 64 GB: September 7, 201632 GB (iPhone 6 ONLY): September 12, 2018 64 GB: September 9, 201416 and 32 GB: March 21, 2016 Unsupported Date Bug fixes only January 23, 2023 Unsupported (32-bit CPU) Model iPhone 5c iPhone 5 iPhone 4s iPhone 4 iPhone 3GS iPhone 3G iPhone Picture Initial release operating system iOS 7.0 iOS 6.0 iOS 5.0 iOS 4.0 (GSM)iOS 4.2.5 (CDMA) iPhone OS 3.0 iPhone OS 2.0 iPhone OS 1.0 Latest release operating system iOS 10.3.3 iOS 10.3.4 iOS 9.3.6 iOS 7.1.2 iOS 6.1.6 iOS 4.2.1 iPhone OS 3.1.3 Display Screen Size 4 in (100 mm) (diagonal)3.5 by 1.9 in (89 by 48 mm) 3.5 in (89 mm) (diagonal)2.9 by 1.9 in (74 by 48 mm) Backlight LED-backlit Multi-touch Yes Technology Retina Display widescreen with IPS technology Widescreen with TN technology Resolution 640 x 1136 640 x 960 320 x 480 Pixel Density (ppi) 326 163 Aspect Ratio 71:40 (~16:9) 3:2 Typical Max brightness ( cd⁄m2) 500 ? HDR Max brightness ( cd⁄m2) — Outdoor Max brightness ( cd⁄m2) — Contrast ratio (typical) 800:1 200:1 Fingerprint-resistant oleophobic coating Yes No Full sRGB Display Yes No Wide Color Display (Display P3) No True Tone Display No Night Shift No ProMotion Display No Always-On Display No HDR Display No HDR 10 Content No Dolby Vision No Dynamic Island No Taptic — Processor Chip Apple A6 Apple A5 Apple A4 Samsung S5PC100 Samsung S5L8900 Technology Node 32 nm 45 nm 65 nm 90 nm Total Cores 2 1 High-Performance Cores 2 x Swift 2 x Cortex-A9 1 x Cortex-A8 ARM 11 Energy-Efficiency Cores — Clock Speed 1.30 GHz 1 GHz(Underclocked to 800 MHz) 800 MHz(Underclocked to 600 MHz) 600 MHz(Underclocked to 412 MHz) Bit 32-bit Motion Coprocessor — Bus width 64-bit 32-bit 16-bit Graphics Processor PowerVR SGX543MP3 PowerVR SGX543MP2 PowerVR SGX535 PowerVR MBX Lite 3D Neural Engine — Storage 8 GB, 16 GB, 32 GB 16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB 8 GB, 16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB 8 GB, 16 GB, 32 GB 8 GB, 16 GB 4 GB, 8 GB, 16 GB Storage Type NAND Flash (eMMC) RAM 1 GB 512 MB 256 MB 128 MB RAM Type LPDDR2 533 MHz (8.53 GB/s) LPDDR2 400 MHz (6.4 GB/s) LPDDR 200 MHz (3.2 GB/s) LPDDR 133 MHz (533 MB/s) Connector 8-pin Lightning connector 30-pin connector Connectivity Wi-Fi (802.11) Wi-Fi 4 (802.11a/b/g/n)802.11n in both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz Wi-Fi 4 (802.11b/g/n)802.11n in 2.4 GHz only Wi-Fi (802.11b/g) MIMO No NFC No Express Cards No Bluetooth Bluetooth 4.0 Bluetooth 2.1 Bluetooth 2.0 Ultra Wideband chip for spatial awareness No Cellular GSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A and Rev. B(some models)/LTE GSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSDPA/HSUPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A GSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSDPA/HSUPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A (CDMA Models only) GSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSDPA GSM/GPRS/EDGE VoLTE No Assisted GPS Yes GLONASS/GNSS Yes No BeiDou No SIM card form-factor Single Nano-SIM Single Micro-SIM Single Mini-SIM Secure Authentication Touch ID No Face ID No Safety Emergency SOS Yes Crash Detection No Sensors LiDAR sensor No Proximity sensor Yes Three-axis gyro Yes No Accelerometer Yes Ambient Light Sensor Yes Barometer No Rear Camera Camera 8 MP Wide 5 MP Wide 3 MP Wide 2 MP Wide Aperture f/2.4 f/2.8 Pixel Size for Wide camera 1.5 μm 1.75 μm ? Sensor Size for Wide camera 1/2.94 ? Optical Image Stabilization No Auto Image Stabilization No Element Lens Five-element lens Four-element lens ? Night Mode No Deep Fusion No Photonic Engine No Apple ProRAW No Macro mode No Photographic Styles No Optical Zoom 1x Digital Zoom Up to 5x Autofocus — Panorama Supported — Portrait Mode No Portrait Lighting No Lens Cover Sapphire crystal lens cover — Burst Mode No Flash LED Flash — Live Photos No Wide Color Capture No HDR for photos No Video Recording 1080p HD at 30 fps 720p HD at 30 fps 480p at 30 fps — Cinematic video recording with shallow depth of field No — Extended Dynamic Range Video No — Dolby Vision HDR Video No — ProRes Video No — Optical Image Stabilization for Video No — Action Mode No — Optical Zoom 1x — Digital Zoom Up to 3x — Slow-motion video No — Audio Zoom No QuickTake Video No Time-lapse video with stabilization No — Cinematic video stabilization No — Stereo Recording No Front Camera Camera 1.2 MP FaceTime HD 0.3 MP — Autofocus No — Aperture f/2.4 ? — Portrait Mode No — Portrait Lighting No — Night mode No — Deep Fusion No — Photonic Engine No — Photographic Styles No — Animoji and Memoji No — Live Photos No — Wide color capture No — Retina Flash No — Video Recording 720p at 30 fps 480p at 30 fps — Slow-motion video No — Extended Dynamic Range Video No — Dolby Vision HDR Video No — ProRes Video No — HDR for photos No — Cinematic video stabilization No — Auto Image Stabilization No — FaceTime Yes — Audio Playback Mono Dolby Atmos No 3.5 mm Jack Yes HAC Rating M3, T4 M3, T4 (GSM Model)M4, T4 (CDMA Model) — M3, T3 (2G)M4, T4 (3G and CDMA Model) — Compatible with Made for iPhone Hearing Aids Yes No Live Listen Yes No Materials Front All models have black glass front White: White glass frontBlack: Black glass front All models have black glass front Back White: White polycarbonate backPink: Pink polycarbonate backGreen: Green polycarbonate backBlue: Blue polycarbonate backYellow: Yellow polycarbonate back White & Silver: Silver anodized aluminum backBlack & Slate: Slate anodized aluminum back White: White glass backBlack: Black glass back White: White plastic backBlack: Black plastic back White anodized aluminum back with black plastic at the bottom area Side White: White polycarbonate sidesPink: Pink polycarbonate sidesGreen: Green polycarbonate sidesBlue: Blue polycarbonate sidesYellow: Yellow polycarbonate sides White & Silver: Silver anodized aluminum sidesBlack & Slate: Slate anodized aluminum sides All models have silver stainless steel side White: White plastic sidesBlack: Black plastic sides White anodized aluminum sides with black plastic at the bottom area Colors : 8, 16, and 32 GB : 16 and 32 GB only : 8 and 16 GB : 16 GB only Power 3.8 V 5.73 W·h (1,510 mA·h) 3.8 V 5.45 W·h (1,440 mA·h) 3.7 V 5.3 W·h (1,432 mA·h) 3.7 V 5.25 W·h (1,420 mA·h) 3.7 V 4.51 W·h (1,219 mA·h) 3.7 V 4.12 W·h (1,150 mA·h) 3.7 V 5.18 W·h (1,400 mA·h) Fast Charging No Wireless Charging No Resistant No Dimensions Height 124.4 mm (4.90 in) 123.8 mm (4.87 in) 115.2 mm (4.54 in) 115.5 mm (4.55 in) 115 mm (4.5 in) Width 59.2 mm (2.33 in) 58.6 mm (2.31 in) 62.1 mm (2.44 in) 61 mm (2.4 in) Depth 8.97 mm (0.353 in) 7.6 mm (0.30 in) 9.3 mm (0.37 in) 12.3 mm (0.48 in) 11.6 mm (0.46 in) Weight 132 g (4.7 oz) 112 g (4.0 oz) 140 g (4.9 oz) 137 g (4.8 oz) 135 g (4.8 oz) 133 g (4.7 oz) 135 g (4.8 oz) Total greenhouse gas emissions 60 kg CO2e 75 kg CO2e 70 kg CO2e55 kg CO2e 45 kg CO2e 55 kg CO2e 55 kg CO2e — Hardware strings iPhone5,3iPhone5,4 iPhone5,1iPhone5,2 iPhone4,1 iPhone3,1iPhone3,2iPhone3,3 iPhone2,1 iPhone1,2 iPhone1,1 Model number A1532A1456A1507A1529A1516A1526 A1428A1429A1442 A1431A1387 A1349A1332 A1325A1303 A1324A1241 A1203 Announced Date September 10, 2013 September 12, 2012 October 4, 2011 June 7, 2010 June 8, 2009 June 9, 2008 September 2006 Released Date 16 and 32 GB: September 20, 20138 GB: March 18, 2014, and September 9, 2014 September 21, 2012 16, 32, and 64 GB: October 14, 20118 GB: September 20, 2013 16 and 32 GB: June 24, 2010CDMA: February 10, 2011White: April 28, 20118 GB: October 14, 2011 16 and 32 GB: June 19, 20098 GB: June 24, 2010 July 11, 2008 4 and 8 GB: June 29, 200716 GB: February 5, 2008 Discontinued Date 16 and 32 GB: September 9, 20148 GB: September 9, 2015 September 10, 2013 32 and 64 GB: September 12, 201216 GB: September 10, 20138 GB: September 9, 2014 16 and 32 GB: October 4, 20118 GB: September 10, 2013 16 and 32 GB: June 24, 20108 GB black: September 12, 2012 16 GB: June 8, 20098 GB black: June 7, 2010 4 GB: September 5, 20078 and 16 GB: July 11, 2008 Unsupported Date September 19, 2017 September 19, 2017July 22, 2019 (GPS Update) September 13, 2016July 22, 2019 (GPS Update) September 17, 2014 February 21, 2014 March 9, 2011 June 21, 2010 iPhone systems-on-chips System-on-chip RAM RAM Type Storage Type Model Highest Supported iOS A17 Pro 8 GB LPDDR5 3200 MHz NVMe NAND iPhone 15 ProiPhone 15 Pro Max iOS 17.5.1 A16 Bionic 6 GB iPhone 15iPhone 15 PlusiPhone 14 ProiPhone 14 Pro Max A15 Bionic LPDDR4X 2133 MHz iPhone 14iPhone 14 PlusiPhone 13 ProiPhone 13 Pro Max 4 GB iPhone 13iPhone 13 miniiPhone SE (3rd gen) A14 Bionic 6 GB iPhone 12 ProiPhone 12 Pro Max 4 GB iPhone 12iPhone 12 mini A13 Bionic iPhone 11iPhone 11 ProiPhone 11 Pro Max 3 GB iPhone SE (2nd gen) A12 Bionic 4 GB iPhone XSiPhone XS Max 3 GB iPhone XR A11 Bionic iPhone 8 PlusiPhone X iOS 16.7.8 2 GB iPhone 8 A10 Fusion 3 GB LPDDR4 1600 MHz iPhone 7 Plus iOS 15.8.2 2 GB iPhone 7 A9 iPhone 6siPhone 6s PlusiPhone SE (1st gen) A8 1 GB LPDDR3 800 MHz eMMC iPhone 6iPhone 6 Plus 12.5.7 A7 iPhone 5s A6 LPDDR2 533 MHz iPhone 5iPhone 5c 10.3.4 (iPhone 5)10.3.3 (iPhone 5c) A5 512 MB LPDDR2 400 MHz iPhone 4s 9.3.6 A4 LPDDR 200 MHz iPhone 4 7.1.2 APL0298 256 MB iPhone 3GS 6.1.6 APL0098 128 MB LPDDR 133 MHz iPhone 3G 4.2.1 iPhone (1st gen) 3.1.3 Timeline Timeline of iPhone models vte See also: Timeline of Apple Inc. products Source: Apple Newsroom Archive See also List of iPad models iOS version history iPod Touch Apple TV Apple Watch iPhone (disambiguation) Telephones portal Notes ^ Despite almost the entirety of its models and its successor being considered obsolete products, Apple still considers the 8 GB model of this phone as a vintage product worldwide according to their website ^ Only the 32 GB model of this phone is listed as a vintage model worldwide according to the Apple website ^ Only the 32 GB model of this phone is listed as a vintage model worldwide according to the Apple website ^ As of April 2024, the Product Red model of this phone is listed as a vintage product worldwide according to the Apple website. ^ As of April 2024, the Product Red model of this phone is listed as a vintage product worldwide according to the Apple website. 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Anderson John Browett Guerrino De Luca Paul Deneve Al Eisenstat Tony Fadell Scott Forstall Ellen Hancock Nancy R. Heinen Ron Johnson David Nagel Peter Oppenheimer Mark Papermaster Jon Rubinstein Bertrand Serlet Bruce Sewell Sina Tamaddon Avie Tevanian Steve Wozniak Board ofdirectorsCurrent Arthur D. Levinson (Chairman) Tim Cook (CEO) James A. Bell Alex Gorsky Al Gore Andrea Jung Ronald D. Sugar Susan L. Wagner Former Mike Markkula (Chairman) John Sculley (Chairman) Steve Jobs (Chairman) Gil Amelio Fred D. Anderson Bill Campbell Mickey Drexler Al Eisenstat Larry Ellison Robert A. Iger Delano Lewis Arthur Rock Eric Schmidt Michael Scott Michael Spindler Edgar S. Woolard Jr. Jerry York Founders Steve Jobs Steve Wozniak Ronald Wayne Italics indicate discontinued products, services, or defunct companies. Category	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of iPad models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_iPad_models"},{"link_name":"Apple TV § Models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_TV#Models"},{"link_name":"Apple Watch § Hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Watch#Hardware"},{"link_name":"iPod Touch § Models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Touch#Models"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhones_6,_7,_8,_SE2_black_-_back_camera_view.jpg"},{"link_name":"iPhone 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_6"},{"link_name":"iPhone 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_7"},{"link_name":"iPhone 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_8"},{"link_name":"iPhone SE (3rd generation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_SE_(3rd_generation)"},{"link_name":"iPhone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone"},{"link_name":"Apple Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"mobile phone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone"},{"link_name":"digital camera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera"},{"link_name":"personal computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"music player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_media_player"},{"link_name":"Steve Jobs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Jobs"},{"link_name":"Face ID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_ID"},{"link_name":"iPhone 15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_15"},{"link_name":"iPhone 15 Pro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_15_Pro"}],"text":"\"List of iOS devices\" redirects here. For iPads, see List of iPad models. For Apple TVs, see Apple TV § Models. For Apple Watches, see Apple Watch § Hardware. For iPod Touch models, see iPod Touch § Models.The backs of an iPhone 6, an iPhone 7, an iPhone 8, and an iPhone SE (3rd generation)The iPhone, developed by Apple Inc., is a line of smartphones that combine a mobile phone, digital camera, and personal computer, music player into one device. Introduced by then-CEO Steve Jobs on January 9, 2007, the iPhone revolutionized the mobile phone industry with its multi-touch interface and lack of physical keyboard. Over the years, Apple has released numerous models, each iteration bringing advancements in hardware, software, and design.The iPhone series has expanded to include various models catering to different user needs and preferences, from entry-level options to high end devices. Key innovations across the generations have included improvements in processing power, camera capabilities, display technology, and battery life, as well as the introduction of new features such as Face ID, advanced augmented reality (AR), and 5G connectivity.As of 2024, the most recent iPhone models are the iPhone 15, iPhone 15 Plus, iPhone 15 Pro, and iPhone 15 Pro Max, released in September 2023.","title":"List of iPhone models"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Comparison of models"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Release dates","title":"Comparison of models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"iPhone 15 Pro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_15_Pro"},{"link_name":"iPhone 15 Pro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_15_Pro"},{"link_name":"iPhone 15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_15"},{"link_name":"iPhone 15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_15"},{"link_name":"iPhone 14 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charging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qi_(standard)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"}],"sub_title":"Supported","text":"Model\n\niPhone 15 Pro Max\n\niPhone 15 Pro\n\niPhone 15 Plus\n\niPhone 15\n\niPhone 14 Pro Max\n\niPhone 14 Pro\n\niPhone 14 Plus\n\niPhone 14\n\niPhone SE(3rd generation)\n\niPhone 13 Pro Max\n\niPhone 13 Pro\n\niPhone 13\n\niPhone 13 Mini\n\niPhone 12 Pro Max\n\niPhone 12 Pro\n\niPhone 12\n\niPhone 12 Mini\n\niPhone SE(2nd generation)\n\niPhone 11 Pro Max\n\niPhone 11 Pro\n\niPhone 11\n\niPhone XR\n\niPhone XS Max\n\niPhone XS\n\n\nPicture\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nInitial release operating system\n\niOS 17.0\n\niOS 16.0\n\niOS 15.4\n\niOS 15.0\n\niOS 14.1\n\niOS 13.4\n\niOS 13.0\n\niOS 12.0\n\n\nLatest release operating system\n\niOS 17.5.1\n\n\nDisplay\n\nScreen Size\n\n6.69 in (170 mm) (diagonal)6.07 by 2.8 in (154 by 71 mm)\n\n6.12 in (155 mm) (diagonal)5.56 by 2.56 in (141 by 65 mm)\n\n6.69 in (170 mm) (diagonal)6.07 by 2.8 in (154 by 71 mm)\n\n6.12 in (155 mm) (diagonal)5.56 by 2.56 in (141 by 65 mm)\n\n6.69 in (170 mm) (diagonal)6.07 by 2.8 in (154 by 71 mm)\n\n6.12 in (155 mm) (diagonal)5.56 by 2.56 in (141 by 65 mm)\n\n6.68 in (170 mm) (diagonal)6.06 by 2.8 in (154 by 71 mm)\n\n6.06 in (154 mm) (diagonal)5.54 by 2.56 in (141 by 65 mm)\n\n4.7 in (120 mm) (diagonal)4.1 by 2.3 in (104 by 58 mm)\n\n6.68 in (170 mm) (diagonal)6.06 by 2.8 in (154 by 71 mm)\n\n6.06 in (154 mm) (diagonal)5.54 by 2.56 in (141 by 65 mm)\n\n5.42 in (138 mm) (diagonal)4.92 by 2.27 in (125 by 58 mm)\n\n6.68 in (170 mm) (diagonal)6.06 by 2.8 in (154 by 71 mm)\n\n6.06 in (154 mm) (diagonal)5.54 by 2.56 in (141 by 65 mm)\n\n5.42 in (138 mm) (diagonal)4.92 by 2.27 in (125 by 58 mm)\n\n4.7 in (120 mm) (diagonal)4.1 by 2.3 in (104 by 58 mm)\n\n6.46 in (164 mm) (diagonal)5.9 by 2.73 in (150 by 69 mm)\n\n5.85 in (149 mm) (diagonal)5.31 by 2.45 in (135 by 62 mm)\n\n6.06 in (154 mm) (diagonal)5.54 by 2.56 in (141 by 65 mm)\n\n6.46 in (164 mm) (diagonal)5.9 by 2.73 in (150 by 69 mm)\n\n5.85 in (149 mm) (diagonal)5.31 by 2.45 in (135 by 62 mm)\n\n\nBacklight\n\n—\n\nLED-backlit\n\n—\n\nLED-backlit\n\n—\n\nLED-backlit\n\n—\n\n\nMulti-touch\n\nYes\n\n\nTechnology\n\nSuper Retina XDR Display all-screen OLED\n\nRetina HD Display widescreen with IPS technology\n\nSuper Retina XDR Display all-screen OLED\n\nRetina HD Display widescreen with IPS technology\n\nSuper Retina XDR Display all-screen OLED\n\nLiquid Retina Display all-screen with IPS technology\n\nSuper Retina HD Display all-screen OLED\n\n\nResolution\n\n1290 x 2796\n\n1179 x 2556\n\n1290 x 2796\n\n1179 x 2556\n\n1290 x 2796\n\n1179 x 2556\n\n1284 x 2778\n\n1170 x 2532\n\n750 x 1334\n\n1284 x 2778\n\n1170 x 2532\n\n1080 x 2340\n\n1284 x 2778\n\n1170 x 2532\n\n1080 x 2340\n\n750 x 1334\n\n1242 x 2688\n\n1125 x 2436\n\n828 x 1792\n\n1242 x 2688\n\n1125 x 2436\n\n\nPixel Density (ppi)\n\n460\n\n458\n\n460\n\n326\n\n458\n\n460\n\n476\n\n458\n\n460\n\n476\n\n326\n\n458\n\n326\n\n458\n\n\nAspect Ratio\n\n~19.5:9\n\n16:9\n\n~19.5:9\n\n16:9\n\n~19.5:9\n\n\nTypical Max brightness ( cd⁄m2)\n\n1000\n\n800\n\n625\n\n1000\n\n800\n\n625\n\n800\n\n625\n\n\nHDR Max brightness ( cd⁄m2)\n\n1600\n\n1200\n\n—\n\n1200\n\n—\n\n1200\n\n—\n\n\nOutdoor Max brightness ( cd⁄m2)\n\n2000\n\n—\n\n\nContrast ratio (typical)\n\n2000000:1\n\n1400:1\n\n2000000:1\n\n1400:1\n\n2000000:1\n\n1400:1\n\n1000000:1\n\n\nFingerprint-resistant oleophobic coating\n\nYes\n\n\nFull sRGB Display\n\nYes\n\n\nWide Color Display (Display P3)\n\nYes\n\n\nTrue Tone Display\n\nYes\n\n\nNight Shift\n\nYes\n\n\nProMotion Display\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nAlways-On Display\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nHDR Display\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\n\nHDR 10 Content\n\nYes\n\n\nDolby Vision\n\nWith HDR\n\nYes\n\nWith HDR\n\nYes\n\nWith HDR\n\nYes\n\nWith HDR\n\n\nDynamic Island\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nTaptic\n\nHaptic Touch\n\n3D Touch\n\n\nProcessor\n\nChip\n\nApple A17 Pro\n\nApple A16 Bionic\n\nApple A15 Bionic\n\nApple A14 Bionic\n\nApple A13 Bionic\n\nApple A12 Bionic\n\n\nTechnology Node\n\n3 nm (N3B)\n\n4 nm (N4P)\n\n5 nm (N5P)\n\n5 nm (N5)\n\n7 nm (N7P)\n\n7 nm (N7)\n\n\nTotal Cores\n\n6\n\n\nHigh-Performance Cores\n\n2 x Coll-P\n\n2 x Everest\n\n2 x Avalanche\n\n2 x Firestorm\n\n2 x Lightning\n\n2 x Vortex\n\n\nEnergy-Efficiency Cores\n\n4 x Coll-E\n\n4 x Sawtooth\n\n4 x Blizzard\n\n4 x Icestorm\n\n4 x Thunder\n\n4 x Tempest\n\n\nClock Speed\n\n3.78 GHz, 2.11 GHz\n\n3.46 GHz, 2.02 GHz\n\n3.23 GHz, 2.02 GHz\n\n3.09 GHz, 1.82 GHz\n\n2.65 GHz, 1.72 GHz\n\n2.49 GHz, 1.59 GHz\n\n\nBit\n\n64-bit\n\n\nMotion Coprocessor\n\nEmbedded in SoC\n\n\nBus width\n\n64-bit\n\n\nGraphics Processor\n\nApple G16P 6-core GPU with hardware ray tracing\n\nApple G15P 5-core GPU\n\nApple G14P 5-core GPU\n\nApple G14P 4-core GPU\n\nApple G14P 5-core GPU\n\nApple G14P 4-core GPU\n\nApple G13P 4-core GPU\n\nApple G12P 4-core GPU\n\nApple G11P 4-core GPU\n\n\nNeural Engine\n\n16-core Neural Engine(35 TOPS)\n\n16-core Neural Engine(17 TOPS)\n\n16-core Neural Engine(15.8 TOPS)\n\n16-core Neural Engine(11 TOPS)\n\n8-core Neural Engine(5.5 TOPS)\n\n8-core Neural Engine(5 TOPS)\n\n\nStorage\n\n256 GB, 512 GB, 1 TB\n\n128 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB, 1 TB\n\n128 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB\n\n128 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB, 1 TB\n\n128 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB\n\n64 GB, 128 GB, 256 GB\n\n128 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB, 1 TB\n\n128 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB\n\n64 GB, 128 GB, 256 GB\n\n64 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB\n\n64 GB, 128 GB, 256 GB\n\n64 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB\n\n\nStorage Type\n\nNAND Flash driven by NVMe-based controller that communicates over a PCIe connection\n\n\nRAM\n\n8 GB\n\n6 GB\n\n4 GB\n\n6 GB\n\n4 GB\n\n6 GB\n\n4 GB\n\n3 GB\n\n4 GB\n\n3 GB\n\n4 GB\n\n\nRAM Type\n\nLPDDR5 3200 MHz (51.2 GB/s)\n\nLPDDR4X 2133 MHz (34.1 GB/s)\n\n\nConnector\n\nType\n\nUSB-C port supporting charging and DisplayPort protocols among others\n\n8-pin Lightning connector port supporting charging\n\n\nTransmission Speed\n\nUp to 10 Gbit/s transmission speeds (USB 3.1 Gen 2)\n\nUp to 0.48 Gbit/s transmission speeds (USB 2.0)\n\n\nExternal Display Support\n\nOne display up to 4K HDR at 60 Hz\n\nNo\n\n\nConnectivity\n\nWi-Fi (802.11)\n\nWi-Fi 6E (802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax)\n\nWi-Fi 6 (802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax)\n\nWi-Fi 5 (802.11a/b/g/n/ac)\n\n\nMIMO\n\nYes\n\n\nThread networking technology\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nNFC\n\nWith Reader Mode in background\n\n\nExpress Cards\n\nWith Power Reserve\n\n\nBluetooth\n\nBluetooth 5.3\n\nBluetooth 5.0\n\n\nUltra Wideband chip for spatial awareness\n\nSecond generation\n\nFirst generation\n\nNo\n\nFirst generation\n\nNo\n\nFirst generation\n\nNo\n\n\nCellular\n\nGSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A (some models)/Gigabit-class LTE/5G (sub-6 GHz and mmWave (some models))\n\nGSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/LTE Advanced/5G (sub-6 GHz)\n\nGSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A (some models)/Gigabit-class LTE/5G (sub-6 GHz and mmWave (some models))\n\nGSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A (some models)/Gigabit-class LTE\n\nGSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A (some models)/LTE Advanced\n\n\nVoLTE\n\nYes\n\n\nAssisted GPS\n\nPrecision Dual-frequency\n\nYes\n\nPrecision Dual-frequency\n\nYes\n\n\nGLONASS/GNSS\n\nPrecision Dual-frequency\n\nYes\n\nPrecision Dual-frequency\n\nYes\n\n\nBeiDou\n\nPrecision Dual-frequency\n\nYes\n\nPrecision Dual-frequency\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nSIM card form-factor\n\nDual SIM with one Nano-SIM and one eSIM, supports dual eSIM\nNo physical SIM card form-factor in U.S. models\n\n\nDual SIM with one Nano-SIM and one eSIM\n\nDual SIM with one Nano-SIM and one eSIM, supports dual eSIM\n\nDual SIM with one Nano-SIM and one eSIM\n\n\nDual Nano-SIM in Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau\n\nSingle Nano-SIM in Mainland China\n\nDual Nano-SIM in Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau\n\nSingle Nano-SIM in Mainland China[2]\n\nDual Nano-SIM in Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau\n\nSingle Nano-SIM in Mainland China[3][4]\n\nDual Nano-SIM in Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau\n\nSingle Nano-SIM in Mainland China\n\n\nSecure Authentication\n\nTouch ID\n\nNo\n\nSecond generation\n\nNo\n\nSecond generation\n\nNo\n\n\nFace ID\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\n\nSafety\n\nEmergency SOS\n\nVia Satellite (selected regions only)[5]\n\nYes\n\n\nCrash Detection\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nSensors\n\nLiDAR sensor\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nProximity sensor\n\nYes\n\n\nThree-axis gyro\n\nHigh dynamic range gyro\n\nYes\n\n\nAccelerometer\n\nHigh-g accelerometer\n\nYes\n\n\nAmbient Light Sensor\n\nYes\n\n\nBarometer\n\nYes\n\n\nRear Camera\n\nCamera\n\n48 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide12 MP 2x Telephoto (Enabled by Quad-pixel)12 MP 5x Telephoto\n\n48 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide12 MP 2x Telephoto (Enabled by Quad-pixel)12 MP 3x Telephoto\n\n48 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide12 MP 2x Telephoto (Enabled by Quad-pixel)\n\n48 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide12 MP 2x Telephoto (Enabled by Quad-pixel)12 MP 3x Telephoto\n\n12 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide\n\n12 MP Main\n\n12 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide12 MP Telephoto\n\n12 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide\n\n12 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide12 MP Telephoto\n\n12 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide\n\n12 MP Main\n\n12 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide12 MP Telephoto\n\n12 MP Main12 MP Ultra Wide\n\n12 MP Main\n\n12 MP Main12 MP Telephoto\n\n\nAperture\n\nf/1.78 (Wide and 2x Telephoto)f/2.2 (Ultra Wide)f/2.8 (3x Telephoto)\n\nf/1.6 (Wide and 2x Telephoto)f/2.4 (Ultra Wide)\n\nf/1.78 (Wide and 2x Telephoto)f/2.2 (Ultra Wide)f/2.8 (3x Telephoto)\n\nf/1.5 (Wide)f/2.4 (Ultra Wide)\n\nf/1.8\n\nf/1.5 (Wide)f/1.8 (Ultra Wide)f/2.8 (Telephoto)\n\nf/1.6 (Wide)f/2.4 (Ultra Wide)\n\nf/1.6 (Wide)f/2.4 (Ultra Wide)f/2.2 (Telephoto)\n\nf/1.6 (Wide)f/2.4 (Ultra Wide)f/2.0 (Telephoto)\n\nf/1.6 (Wide)f/2.4 (Ultra Wide)\n\nf/1.8\n\nf/1.8 (Wide)f/2.4 (Ultra Wide)f/2.0 (Telephoto)\n\nf/1.8 (Wide)f/2.4 (Ultra Wide)\n\nf/1.8\n\nf/1.8 (Wide)f/2.4 (Telephoto)\n\n\nPixel Size for Wide camera\n\n1.22 μm (48 MP)2.44 μm (Quad-pixel 12MP)\n\n1 μm (48 MP)2 μm (Quad-pixel 12MP)\n\n1.22 μm (48 MP)2.44 μm (Quad-pixel 12MP)\n\n1.9 μm\n\n1.22 μm\n\n1.9 μm\n\n1.7 μm\n\n1.4 μm\n\n1.22 μm\n\n1.4 μm\n\n\nSuper High Resolution Support\n\n24 MP (Default)48 MP HEIF and 48 MP ProRAW\n\n24 MP (Default)48 MP HEIF\n\n48 MP HEIF and 48 MP ProRAW\n\nNo\n\n\nSensor Size for Main camera\n\n1/1.28\"\n\n1/1.59\"\n\n1/1.28\"\n\n1/1.65\"\n\n1/2.93\"\n\n1/1.65\"\n\n1/1.88\"\n\n1/2.55\"\n\n1/2.93\"\n\n1/2.55\"\n\n\nOptical Image Stabilization\n\nMain, 2x Telephoto and 5x TelephotoSecond generation sensor-shift optical image stabilization for main and 2x telephoto camera, 3D sensor‑shift optical image stabilization with tetraprism design for 5x telephoto camera\n\nMain, 2x Telephoto and 3x TelephotoSecond generation sensor-shift optical image stabilization for main and 2x telephoto camera\n\nMain, 2x TelephotoSensor-shift optical image stabilization for main and 2x telephoto camera\n\nMain, 2x Telephoto and 3x TelephotoSecond generation sensor-shift optical image stabilization for main and 2x telephoto camera\n\nSensor-shift optical image stabilization for main camera\n\nYes\n\nMain and TelephotoSensor-shift optical image stabilization for main camera\n\nSensor-shift optical image stabilization for main camera\n\nMain and TelephotoSensor-shift optical image stabilization for main camera\n\nMain and Telephoto\n\nMain\n\nYes\n\nMain and Telephoto\n\nMain\n\nYes\n\nMain and Telephoto\n\n\nAuto Image Stabilization\n\nYes\n\n\nElement Lens\n\nSeven-element lens (Main and 2x Telephoto)Six-element lens (Ultra Wide)Four-element hybrid lens with 1 glass and 3 plastics lenses (5x Telephoto)\n\nSeven-element lens (Main and 2x Telephoto)Six-element lens (Ultra Wide and 3x Telephoto)\n\nSeven-element lens (Main and 2x Telephoto)Five-element lens (Ultra Wide)\n\nSeven-element lens (Main and 2x Telephoto)Six-element lens (Ultra Wide and 3x Telephoto)\n\nSeven-element lens (Main)Five-element lens (Ultra Wide)\n\nSix-element lens\n\nSeven-element lens (Main)Six-element lens (Ultra Wide and Telephoto)\n\nSeven-element lens (Main)Five-element lens (Ultra Wide)\n\nSeven-element lens (Main)Six-element lens (Telephoto)Five-element lens (Ultra Wide)\n\nSeven-element lens (Main)Five-element lens (Ultra Wide)\n\nSix-element lens\n\nSix-element lens (Main and Telephoto)Five-element lens (Ultra Wide)\n\nSix-element lens (Main)Five-element lens (Ultra Wide)\n\nSix-element lens\n\nSix-element lens (Main and Telephoto)\n\n\nNight Mode\n\nUltra Wide, Main, 2x Telephoto, 5x Telephoto and Night Mode Portrait\n\nUltra Wide, Main, 2x Telephoto, 3x Telephoto and Night Mode Portrait\n\nUltra Wide and Main\n\nUltra Wide, Main, 2x Telephoto, 3x Telephoto and Night Mode Portrait\n\nUltra Wide and Main\n\nNo\n\nUltra Wide, Main, Telephoto and Night Mode Portrait\n\nUltra Wide and Main\n\nUltra Wide, Main and Night Mode Portrait\n\nUltra Wide and Main\n\nNo\n\nMain only\n\nNo\n\n\nDeep Fusion\n\nUltra Wide, Main, 2x Telephoto and 5x Telephoto\n\nUltra Wide, Main, 2x Telephoto and 3x Telephoto\n\nUltra Wide and Main\n\nUltra Wide, Main, 2x Telephoto and 3x Telephoto\n\nUltra Wide and Main\n\nYes\n\nUltra Wide, Main and Telephoto\n\nUltra Wide and Main\n\nUltra Wide, Main and Telephoto\n\nUltra Wide and Main\n\nNo\n\nMain and Telephoto\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nPhotonic Engine\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nApple ProRAW\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nMacro mode\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nPhotographic Styles\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nOptical Zoom\n\n0.5x, 1x, 2x, 5x\n\n0.5x, 1x, 2x, 3x\n\n0.5x, 1x, 2x\n\n0.5x, 1x, 2x, 3x\n\n0.5x, 1x\n\n1x\n\n0.5x, 1x, 3x\n\n0.5x, 1x\n\n0.5x, 1x, 2.5x\n\n0.5x, 1x, 2x\n\n0.5x, 1x\n\n1x\n\n0.5x, 1x, 2x\n\n0.5x, 1x\n\n1x\n\n1x, 2x\n\n\nDigital Zoom\n\nUp to 25x\n\nUp to 15x\n\nUp to 10x\n\nUp to 15x\n\nUp to 5x\n\nUp to 15x\n\nUp to 5x\n\nUp to 12x\n\nUp to 10x\n\nUp to 5x\n\nUp to 10x\n\nUp to 5x\n\nUp to 10x\n\n\nAutofocus\n\n100% Focus Pixels (Ultra Wide, Main and 2x Telephoto)With Focus Pixels (Telephoto)\n\n100% Focus Pixels (Main only)\n\n100% Focus Pixels (Ultra Wide, Main and 2x Telephoto)With Focus Pixels (Telephoto)\n\n100% Focus Pixels (Main only)\n\nWith Focus Pixels\n\n100% Focus Pixels (Main)With Focus Pixels (Ultra Wide and Telephoto)\n\n100% Focus Pixels (Main only)\n\n100% Focus Pixels (Main)With Focus Pixels (Telephoto)\n\n100% Focus Pixels (Main only)\n\nWith Focus Pixels\n\n100% Focus Pixels (Main only)\n\nWith Focus Pixels\n\n\nPanorama\n\nUp to 63 MP\n\n\nPortrait Mode\n\nNext Generation with Focus and Depth Control\n\nWith Focus and Depth Control\n\nWith Depth Control\n\nWith Focus and Depth Control\n\nWith Depth Control\n\n\nPortrait Lighting\n\nWith six effects (Natural, Studio, Contour, Stage, Stage Mono, High‑Key Mono)\n\nWith three effects (Natural, Studio, Contour)\n\nWith six effects (Natural, Studio, Contour, Stage, Stage Mono, High‑Key Mono)\n\n\nLens Cover\n\nSapphire crystal lens cover\n\n\nBurst Mode\n\nYes\n\n\nFlash\n\nAdaptive True Tone flash\n\nTrue Tone flash\n\nAdaptive True Tone flash\n\nTrue Tone flash\n\nTrue Tone flash with Slow Sync\n\n\nLive Photos\n\nYes\n\n\nWide Color Capture\n\nYes\n\n\nHDR for photos\n\nSmart HDR 5\n\nSmart HDR 4\n\nSmart HDR 3\n\nSmart HDR 2\n\nSmart HDR\n\n\nVideo Recording\n\n4K at 24 fps, 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps\n\n\nCinematic video recording with shallow depth of field\n\n4K at 25 fps or 30 fps\n\nNo\n\n1080p at 30 fps\n\nNo\n\n\nExtended Dynamic Range Video\n\n60 fps\n\n30 fps\n\n60 fps\n\n30 fps\n\n60 fps\n\n30 fps\n\n\nDolby Vision HDR Video\n\n60 fps\n\nNo\n\n60 fps\n\n30 fps\n\nNo\n\n\nProRes Video\n\n1080p at 30 fps for 128 GB storage (iPhone 15 Pro only)4K at 30 fps for 256 GB storage and above4K at 60 fps with external recording\n\nNo\n\n1080p at 30 fps for 128 GB storage4K at 30 fps for 256 GB storage and above\n\nNo\n\n1080p at 30 fps for 128 GB storage4K at 30 fps for 256 GB storage and above\n\nNo\n\n\nLog Video Recording\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nAcademy Color Encoding System\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nOptical Image Stabilization for Video\n\nMain, 2x Telephoto and 5x TelephotoSecond generation sensor-shift optical image stabilization for main and 2x telephoto camera, 3D sensor‑shift optical image stabilization with tetraprism design for 5x telephoto camera\n\nMain, 2x Telephoto and 3x TelephotoSecond generation sensor-shift optical image stabilization for main and 2x telephoto camera\n\nMain, 2x TelephotoSensor-shift optical image stabilization for main and 2x telephoto camera\n\nMain, 2x Telephoto and 3x TelephotoSecond generation sensor-shift optical image stabilization for main and 2x telephoto camera\n\nSensor-shift optical image stabilization for main camera\n\nYes\n\nMain and TelephotoSensor-shift optical image stabilization for main camera\n\nSensor-shift optical image stabilization for main camera\n\nMain and TelephotoSensor-shift optical image stabilization for main camera\n\nMain and Telephoto\n\nMain\n\nYes\n\nMain and Telephoto\n\nMain\n\nYes\n\nMain and Telephoto\n\n\nAction Mode\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nOptical Video Zoom\n\n0.5x, 1x, 2x, 5x\n\n0.5x, 1x, 2x, 3x\n\n0.5x, 1x, 2x\n\n0.5x, 1x, 2x, 3x\n\n0.5x, 1x\n\n1x\n\n0.5x, 1x, 3x\n\n0.5x, 1x\n\n0.5x, 1x, 2.5x\n\n0.5x, 1x, 2x\n\n0.5x, 1x\n\n1x\n\n0.5x, 1x, 2x\n\n0.5x, 1x\n\n1x\n\n1x, 2x\n\n\nDigital Video Zoom\n\nUp to 15x\n\nUp to 9x\n\nUp to 6x\n\nUp to 9x\n\nUp to 3x\n\nUp to 9x\n\nUp to 3x\n\nUp to 7x\n\nUp to 6x\n\nUp to 3x\n\nUp to 6x\n\nUp to 3x\n\nUp to 6x\n\n\nSlow-motion video\n\n1080p at 120 fps or 240 fps\n\n\nAudio Zoom\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nQuickTake Video\n\nYes\n\niOS 14 and above\n\n\nTime-lapse video with stabilization\n\nYes\n\n\nCinematic video stabilization\n\n4K, 1080p and 720p\n\n1080p and 720p\n\n\nStereo Recording\n\nYes\n\n\nFront Camera\n\nCamera\n\n12 MP TrueDepth\n\n7 MP FaceTime HD\n\n12 MP TrueDepth\n\n7 MP FaceTime HD\n\n12 MP TrueDepth\n\n7 MP TrueDepth\n\n\nAperture\n\nf/1.9\n\nf/2.2\n\n\nAutofocus\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nPortrait Mode\n\nNext Generation with Focus and Depth Control\n\nWith Focus and Depth Control\n\nWith Depth Control\n\nWith Focus and Depth Control\n\nWith Depth Control\n\n\nPortrait Lighting\n\nWith six effects (Natural, Studio, Contour, Stage, Stage Mono, High‑Key Mono)\n\n\nNight mode\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nDeep Fusion\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nPhotonic Engine\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nPhotographic Styles\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nAnimoji and Memoji\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\n\nLive Photos\n\nYes\n\n\nWide color capture\n\nYes\n\n\nRetina Flash\n\nYes\n\n\nVideo Recording\n\n4K at 24 fps, 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps\n\n1080p HD at 25 fps or 30 fps\n\n4K at 24 fps, 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps\n\n1080p HD at 25 fps or 30 fps\n\n4K at 24 fps, 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps\n\n1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps\n\n\nSlow-motion video\n\n1080p at 120 fps\n\nNo\n\n1080p at 120 fps\n\nNo\n\n\nExtended Dynamic Range Video\n\n30 fps\n\nNo\n\n30 fps\n\nNo\n\n30 fps\n\n\nDolby Vision HDR Video\n\n4K at 60 fps\n\nNo\n\n4K at 60 fps\n\n4K at 30 fps\n\nNo\n\n\nProRes Video\n\n1080p at 30 fps for 128 GB storage (iPhone 15 Pro only)4K at 30 fps for 256 GB storage and above4K at 60 fps with external recording\n\nNo\n\n1080p at 30 fps for 128 GB storage4K at 30 fps for 256 GB storage and above\n\nNo\n\n1080p at 30 fps for 128 GB storage4K at 30 fps for 256 GB storage and above\n\nNo\n\n\nHDR for photos\n\nSmart HDR 5\n\nSmart HDR 4\n\nSmart HDR 3\n\nAuto HDR\n\nSmart HDR 2\n\nSmart HDR\n\n\nCinematic video stabilization\n\n4K, 1080p and 720p\n\n1080p and 720p\n\n4K, 1080p and 720p\n\n1080p and 720p\n\n4K, 1080p and 720p\n\n1080p and 720p\n\n\nAuto Image Stabilization\n\nYes\n\n\nFaceTime\n\nYes\n\n\nAudio\n\nPlayback\n\nSpatial Audio\n\nStereo\n\nSpatial Audio\n\nStereo\n\nSpatial Audio\n\n\nDolby Atmos\n\nBuilt-in speakers and headphones with Spatial Audio\n\nHeadphones with Spatial Audio[6]\n\nBuilt-in speakers and headphones with Spatial Audio\n\nHeadphones with Spatial Audio\n\nBuilt-in speakers and headphones with Spatial Audio\n\n\n3.5 mm Jack\n\nNo\n\n\nHAC Rating\n\nM3, T4[7][8]\n\n\nCompatible with Made for iPhone Hearing Aids\n\nYes[7][8]\n\n\nLive Listen\n\nYes[7][8]\n\n\nMaterials\n\nFront\n\nAll models have black glass front\n\n\nBack\n\nNatural Titanium: Natural Titanium textured matte glass backBlue Titanium: Blue textured matte glass backWhite Titanium: White textured matte glass backBlack Titanium: Black textured matte glass back\n\nPink: Pink color-infused glass backYellow: Yellow color-infused glass backGreen: Green color-infused glass backBlue: Blue color-infused glass backBlack: Black color-infused glass back\n\nSilver: Silver textured matte glass backSpace Black: Space Black textured matte glass backGold: Gold textured matte glass backDeep Purple: Deep Purple textured matte glass back\n\nMidnight: Black glass backStarlight: White glass back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED glass backPurple: Purple glass backBlue: Blue glass backYellow: Yellow glass back\n\nStarlight: Starlight glass backMidnight: Midnight glass back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED glass back\n\nSilver: Silver textured matte glass backGraphite: Graphite textured matte glass backGold: Gold textured matte glass backSierra Blue: Sierra Blue textured matte glass backAlpine Green: Alpine Green textured matte glass back\n\nMidnight: Black glass backStarlight: White glass back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED glass backPink: Pink glass backBlue: Blue glass backGreen: Green glass back\n\nSilver: Silver textured matte glass backGraphite: Graphite textured matte glass backGold: Gold textured matte glass backPacific Blue: Pacific Blue textured matte glass back\n\nBlack: Black glass backWhite: White glass back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED glass backGreen: Green glass backBlue: Blue glass backPurple: Purple glass back\n\nWhite: White glass backBlack: Black glass back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED glass back\n\nMidnight Green: Midnight Green textured matte glass backSpace Gray: Space Gray textured matte glass backSilver: Silver textured matte glass backGold: Gold textured matte glass back\n\nWhite: White glass backBlack: Black glass backPurple: Purple glass backYellow: Yellow glass backGreen: Green glass back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED glass back\n\nWhite: White glass backBlack: Black glass backBlue: Blue glass backYellow: Yellow glass backCoral: Coral glass back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED glass back\n\nSilver: Silver glass backGold: Gold glass backSpace Gray: Space Gray glass back\n\n\nSide\n\nNatural Titanium: Natural titanium sidesBlue Titanium: Blue titanium sidesWhite Titanium: White titanium sidesBlack Titanium: Black titanium sides\n\nPink: Pink anodized aluminum sidesYellow: Yellow anodized aluminum sidesGreen: Green anodized aluminum sidesBlue: Blue anodized aluminum sidesBlack: Black anodized aluminum sides\n\nSilver: Silver stainless steel sidesSpace Black: Space Black stainless steel sidesGold: Gold stainless steel sidesDeep Purple: Deep Purple stainless steel sides\n\nMidnight: Black anodized aluminum sidesStarlight: White anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sidesPurple: Purple anodized aluminum sidesBlue: Blue anodized aluminum sidesYellow: Yellow anodized aluminum sides\n\nStarlight: Starlight anodized aluminum sidesMidnight: Midnight anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sides\n\nSilver: Silver stainless steel sidesGraphite: Graphite stainless steel sidesGold: Gold stainless steel sidesSierra Blue: Sierra Blue stainless steel sidesAlpine Green: Alpine Green stainless steel sides\n\nMidnight: Black anodized aluminum sidesStarlight: White anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sidesPink: Pink anodized aluminum sidesBlue: Blue anodized aluminum sidesGreen: Green anodized aluminum sides\n\nSilver: Silver stainless steel sidesGraphite: Graphite stainless steel sidesGold: Gold stainless steel sidesPacific Blue: Pacific Blue stainless steel sides\n\nBlack: Black anodized aluminum sidesWhite: White anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sidesGreen: Green anodized aluminum sidesBlue: Blue anodized aluminum sidesPurple: Purple anodized aluminum sides\n\nWhite: White anodized aluminum sidesBlack: Black anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sides\n\nMidnight Green: Midnight Green stainless steel sidesSpace Gray: Space Gray stainless steel sidesSilver: Silver stainless steel sidesGold: Gold stainless steel sides\n\nWhite: White anodized aluminum sidesBlack: Black anodized aluminum sidesPurple: Purple anodized aluminum sidesYellow: Yellow anodized aluminum sidesGreen: Green anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sides\n\nWhite: White anodized aluminum sidesBlack: Black anodized aluminum sidesBlue: Blue anodized aluminum sidesYellow: Yellow anodized aluminum sidesCoral: Coral anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sides\n\nSilver: Silver stainless steel sidesGold: Gold stainless steel sidesSpace Gray: Space Gray stainless steel sides\n\n\nColors\n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n Since March 14, 2023: \n\n \n\n From release to September 7, 2022: \n\n Since March 18, 2022: \n\n \n\n Since April 30, 2021: \n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n\nPower\n\n3.87 V 17.11 W·h (4,422 mA·h) [9]\n\n3.88 V 12.70 W·h (3,274 mA·h)[9]\n\n3.87 V 16.95 W·h (4,383 mA·h)[9]\n\n3.88 V 12.98 W·h (3,349 mA·h)[9]\n\n3.86 V 16.68 W·h (4,323 mA·h)[10]\n\n3.87 V 12.38 W·h (3,200 mA·h)[10]\n\n3.86 V 16.68 W·h (4,325 mA·h)[10]\n\n3.87 V 12.68 W·h (3,279 mA·h)[10]\n\n3.88 V 7.82 W·h (2,018 mA·h)[11]\n\n3.85 V 16.75 W·h (4,352 mA·h)[12]\n\n3.87 V 11.97 W·h (3,095 mA·h)[13]\n\n3.84 V 12.41 W·h (3,227 mA·h)[12]\n\n3.88 V 9.34 W·h (2,406 mA·h)[12]\n\n3.83 V 14.13 W·h (3,687 mA·h)[14]\n\n3.83 V 10.78 W·h (2,815 mA·h)[15]\n\n3.85 V 8.57 W·h (2,227 mA·h)[16]\n\n3.82 V 6.96 W·h (1,821 mA·h)[17]\n\n3.79 V 15.04 W·h (3,969 mA·h)[18]\n\n3.83 V 11.67 W·h (3,046 mA·h)[19]\n\n3.83 V 11.91 W·h (3,110 mA·h)[20]\n\n3.82 V 11.24 W·h (2,942 mA·h)[21]\n\n3.80 V 12.08 W·h (3,179 mA·h)[22]\n\n3.81 V 10.13 W·h (2,659 mA·h)[22]\n\n\nFast Charging\n\n20 W, up to 50% charge in 30 minutes (20 W adapter sold separately)35 minutes for iPhone 13 Pro Max, iPhone 14 Plus, iPhone 14 Pro Max, iPhone 15 Plus and iPhone 15 Pro Max\n\n20 W, up to 50% charge in 30 minutes (18 W adapter included)\n\n20 W, up to 50% charge in 30 minutes (20 W adapter sold separately)\n\n\nWireless Charging\n\nMagSafe and Qi wireless charging\n\nQi wireless charging\n\nMagSafe and Qi wireless charging\n\nQi wireless charging\n\n\nResistant\n\nIP68 (Maximum depth of 6 meters up to 30 minutes)\n\nIP67 (Maximum depth of 1 meter up to 30 minutes)\n\nIP68 (Maximum depth of 6 meters up to 30 minutes)\n\nIP67 (Maximum depth of 1 meter up to 30 minutes)\n\nIP68 (Maximum depth of 4 meters up to 30 minutes)\n\nIP68 (Maximum depth of 2 meters up to 30 minutes)\n\nIP67 (Maximum depth of 1 meter up to 30 minutes)\n\nIP68 (Maximum depth of 2 meters up to 30 minutes)\n\n\nDimensions\n\nHeight\n\n159.9 mm (6.30 in)\n\n146.6 mm (5.77 in)\n\n160.9 mm (6.33 in)\n\n147.6 mm (5.81 in)\n\n160.7 mm (6.33 in)\n\n147.5 mm (5.81 in)\n\n160.8 mm (6.33 in)\n\n146.7 mm (5.78 in)\n\n138.4 mm (5.45 in)\n\n160.8 mm (6.33 in)\n\n146.7 mm (5.78 in)\n\n131.5 mm (5.18 in)\n\n160.8 mm (6.33 in)\n\n146.7 mm (5.78 in)\n\n131.5 mm (5.18 in)\n\n138.4 mm (5.45 in)\n\n158 mm (6.2 in)\n\n144 mm (5.7 in)\n\n150.9 mm (5.94 in)\n\n157.5 mm (6.20 in)\n\n143.6 mm (5.65 in)\n\n\nWidth\n\n76.7 mm (3.02 in)\n\n70.6 mm (2.78 in)\n\n77.8 mm (3.06 in)\n\n71.6 mm (2.82 in)\n\n77.6 mm (3.06 in)\n\n71.5 mm (2.81 in)\n\n78.1 mm (3.07 in)\n\n71.5 mm (2.81 in)\n\n67.3 mm (2.65 in)\n\n78.1 mm (3.07 in)\n\n71.5 mm (2.81 in)\n\n64.2 mm (2.53 in)\n\n78.1 mm (3.07 in)\n\n71.5 mm (2.81 in)\n\n64.2 mm (2.53 in)\n\n67.3 mm (2.65 in)\n\n77.8 mm (3.06 in)\n\n71.4 mm (2.81 in)\n\n75.7 mm (2.98 in)\n\n77.4 mm (3.05 in)\n\n70.9 mm (2.79 in)\n\n\nDepth\n\n8.25 mm (0.32 in)\n\n7.8 mm (0.31 in)\n\n7.85 mm (0.31 in)\n\n7.8 mm (0.31 in)\n\n7.3 mm (0.29 in)\n\n7.65 mm (0.30 in)\n\n7.4 mm (0.29 in)\n\n7.3 mm (0.29 in)\n\n8.1 mm (0.32 in)\n\n8.3 mm (0.33 in)\n\n7.7 mm (0.30 in)\n\n\nWeight\n\n221 g (7.8 oz)\n\n187 g (6.6 oz)\n\n201 g (7.1 oz)\n\n171 g (6.0 oz)\n\n240 g (8.5 oz)\n\n206 g (7.3 oz)\n\n203 g (7.2 oz)\n\n172 g (6.1 oz)\n\n144 g (5.1 oz)\n\n240 g (8.5 oz)\n\n204 g (7.2 oz)\n\n174 g (6.1 oz)\n\n141 g (5.0 oz)\n\n228 g (8.0 oz)\n\n189 g (6.7 oz)\n\n164 g (5.8 oz)\n\n135 g (4.8 oz)\n\n148 g (5.2 oz)\n\n226 g (8.0 oz)\n\n188 g (6.6 oz)\n\n194 g (6.8 oz)\n\n208 g (7.3 oz)\n\n177 g (6.2 oz)\n\n\nTotal greenhouse gas emissions\n\n75 kg CO2e[23]\n\n66 kg CO2e[24]\n\n61 kg CO2e[25]\n\n56 kg CO2e[26]\n\n73 kg CO2e[27]\n\n65 kg CO2e[28]\n\n68 kg CO2e[29]\n\n61 kg CO2e[30]\n\n46 kg CO2e[31]\n\n74 kg CO2e[32]\n\n69 kg CO2e[33]\n\n64 kg CO2e[34]\n\n61 kg CO2e[35]\n\n86 kg CO2e[36]\n\n82 kg CO2e[37]\n\n70 kg CO2e[38]\n\n64 kg CO2e[39]\n\n57 kg CO2e[40]\n\n86 kg CO2e[41]\n\n80 kg CO2e[42]\n\n72 kg CO2e[43]\n\n62 kg CO2e[44]\n\n77 kg CO2e[45]\n\n70 kg CO2e[46]\n\n\nHardware strings\n\niPhone16,2\n\niPhone16,1\n\niPhone15,5\n\niPhone15,4\n\niPhone15,3\n\niPhone15,2\n\niPhone14,8\n\niPhone14,7\n\niPhone14,6\n\niPhone14,3\n\niPhone14,2\n\niPhone14,5\n\niPhone14,4\n\niPhone13,4\n\niPhone13,3\n\niPhone13,2\n\niPhone13,1\n\niPhone12,8\n\niPhone12,5\n\niPhone12,3\n\niPhone12,1\n\niPhone11,8\n\niPhone11,4iPhone11,6\n\niPhone11,2\n\n\nModel number\n\nA2849A3105A3106A3108\n\nA2848A3101A3102A3104\n\nA2847A3093A3094A3096\n\nA2846A3089A3090A3092\n\nA2651A2893A2894A2895A2896\n\nA2650A2889A2890A2891A2892\n\nA2632A2885A2886A2887A2888\n\nA2649A2881A2882A2883A2884\n\nA2595A2782A2783A2784A2785\n\nA2484A2641A2644A2645A2643\n\nA2483A2636A2638A2639A2640\n\nA2482A2631A2633A2634A2635\n\nA2481A2626A2628A2629A2630\n\nA2342A2410A2411A2412\n\nA2341A2406A2407A2408\n\nA2172A2402A2403A2404\n\nA2176A2398A2399A2400\n\nA2275A2296A2298\n\nA2161A2218A2220\n\nA2160A2215A2217\n\nA2111A2221A2223\n\nA1984A2105A2106A2107A2108\n\nA1921A2101A2102A2104\n\nA1920A2097A2098A2100\n\n\nAnnounced Date\n\nSeptember 12, 2023\n\nSeptember 7, 2022\n\nMarch 8, 2022\n\nSeptember 14, 2021\n\nOctober 13, 2020\n\nApril 15, 2020\n\nSeptember 10, 2019\n\nSeptember 12, 2018\n\n\nReleased Date\n\nSeptember 22, 2023\n\nSeptember 16, 2022\n\nOctober 7, 2022\n\nSeptember 16, 2022\n\nMarch 18, 2022\n\nSeptember 24, 2021\n\nNovember 13, 2020\n\nOctober 23, 2020\n\nNovember 13, 2020\n\nApril 24, 2020\n\nSeptember 20, 2019\n\nOctober 26, 2018\n\n\nDiscontinued Date\n\nIn production\n\nSeptember 12, 2023\n\nIn production\n\nSeptember 7, 2022\n\nIn production\n\nSeptember 12, 2023\n\nSeptember 14, 2021\n\nSeptember 12, 2023\n\nSeptember 7, 2022\n\n64 and 128 GB: March 8, 2022256 GB: September 14, 2021\n\nOctober 13, 2020\n\n64 and 128 GB: September 7, 2022256 GB: September 14, 2021\n\n64 and 128 GB: September 14, 2021256 GB: September 10, 2019\n\nSeptember 10, 2019\n\n\nUnsupported Date\n\nSupported","title":"Comparison of models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"iPhone X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_X"},{"link_name":"iPhone 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_8"},{"link_name":"iPhone 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_8"},{"link_name":"iPhone 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_7"},{"link_name":"iPhone 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_7"},{"link_name":"iPhone SE(1st generation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_SE_(1st_generation)"},{"link_name":"iPhone 6s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_6s"},{"link_name":"iPhone 6s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_6s"},{"link_name":"iPhone 6 Plus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_6_Plus"},{"link_name":"iPhone 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_6"},{"link_name":"iPhone 5s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_5s"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_X_vector.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_8_plus_vector.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_8_vector.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_7_Plus_Jet_Black.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_7_Jet_Black.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_SE_in_silver-2.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_6s_Plus_vector.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_6s_vector.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone6Plus.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone6_silver_frontface.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_5s_golden.svg"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"iOS 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_11"},{"link_name":"iOS 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_11"},{"link_name":"iOS 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_10"},{"link_name":"iOS 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_9"},{"link_name":"iOS 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_9"},{"link_name":"iOS 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_8"},{"link_name":"iOS 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_7"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"iOS 16.7.8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_16"},{"link_name":"iOS 15.8.2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_15"},{"link_name":"iOS 12.5.7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_12"},{"link_name":"iOS 12.5.7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_12"},{"link_name":"LED-backlit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED-backlit_LCD_display"},{"link_name":"Super Retina HD Display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina_Display"},{"link_name":"OLED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMOLED"},{"link_name":"Retina HD Display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina_Display"},{"link_name":"IPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPS_panel"},{"link_name":"Retina Display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina_Display"},{"link_name":"IPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPS_panel"},{"link_name":"Retina HD Display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina_Display"},{"link_name":"IPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPS_panel"},{"link_name":"Retina Display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina_Display"},{"link_name":"IPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPS_panel"},{"link_name":"Aspect Ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratio_(image)"},{"link_name":"oleophobic coating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipophobicity"},{"link_name":"Full sRGB Display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRGB"},{"link_name":"Display P3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DCI-P3#Display_P3"},{"link_name":"Apple A11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_A11"},{"link_name":"Apple A10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_A10"},{"link_name":"Apple A9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_A9"},{"link_name":"Apple A8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_A8"},{"link_name":"Apple A7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_A7"},{"link_name":"Embedded M11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_motion_coprocessors"},{"link_name":"Embedded M10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_M10"},{"link_name":"Embedded M9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_M9"},{"link_name":"M8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_M8"},{"link_name":"M7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_M7"},{"link_name":"PowerVR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerVR"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-core_processor"},{"link_name":"PowerVR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerVR"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-core_processor"},{"link_name":"PowerVR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerVR"},{"link_name":"4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-core_processor"},{"link_name":"PowerVR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerVR"},{"link_name":"4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-core_processor"},{"link_name":"8-pin Lightning connector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning_connector"},{"link_name":"USB 2.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB2"},{"link_name":"802.11a/b/g/n/ac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11"},{"link_name":"802.11a/b/g/n","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11"},{"link_name":"Bluetooth 5.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth#Bluetooth_5"},{"link_name":"Bluetooth 4.2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth#Bluetooth_4.2"},{"link_name":"Bluetooth 4.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth#Bluetooth_4.0"},{"link_name":"SIM card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subscriber_identity_module"},{"link_name":"Nano-SIM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subscriber_identity_module#Nano-SIM"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-support-HAC-old-12"},{"link_name":"Hearing Aids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_aid"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-support-HAC-old-12"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-support-HAC-13"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-support-HAC-old-12"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-support-HAC-13"},{"link_name":"(PRODUCT)RED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_Red"},{"link_name":"(PRODUCT)RED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_Red"},{"link_name":"(PRODUCT)RED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_Red"},{"link_name":"(PRODUCT)RED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_Red"},{"link_name":"(PRODUCT)RED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_Red"},{"link_name":"(PRODUCT)RED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_Red"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iPhone_6_plus_teardown-60"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iPhone_6_teardown-61"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iPhone_5s_teardown-62"},{"link_name":"Qi wireless charging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qi_(standard)"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"(PRODUCT)RED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_Red"},{"link_name":"(PRODUCT)RED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_Red"},{"link_name":"(PRODUCT)RED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_Red"}],"sub_title":"Unsupported (64-bit CPU, 2013 to 2017 models)","text":"Model\n\niPhone X\n\niPhone 8 Plus\n\niPhone 8\n\niPhone 7 Plus\n\niPhone 7\n\niPhone SE(1st generation)\n\niPhone 6s Plus\n\niPhone 6s\n\niPhone 6 Plus\n\niPhone 6\n\niPhone 5s\n\n\nPicture\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nInitial release operating system\n\niOS 11.0.1\n\niOS 11.0\n\niOS 10.0\n\niOS 9.3\n\niOS 9.0\n\niOS 8.0\n\niOS 7.0\n\n\nLatest release operating system\n\niOS 16.7.8\n\niOS 15.8.2\n\niOS 12.5.7\n\niOS 12.5.7\n\n\nDisplay\n\nScreen Size\n\n5.85 in (149 mm) (diagonal)5.31 by 2.45 in (135 by 62 mm)\n\n5.5 in (140 mm) (diagonal)4.8 by 2.7 in (122 by 69 mm)\n\n4.7 in (120 mm) (diagonal)4.1 by 2.3 in (104 by 58 mm)\n\n5.5 in (140 mm) (diagonal)4.8 by 2.7 in (122 by 69 mm)\n\n4.7 in (120 mm) (diagonal)4.1 by 2.3 in (104 by 58 mm)\n\n4 in (100 mm) (diagonal)3.5 by 1.9 in (89 by 48 mm)\n\n5.5 in (140 mm) (diagonal)4.8 by 2.7 in (122 by 69 mm)\n\n4.7 in (120 mm) (diagonal)4.1 by 2.3 in (104 by 58 mm)\n\n5.5 in (140 mm) (diagonal)4.8 by 2.7 in (122 by 69 mm)\n\n4.7 in (120 mm) (diagonal)4.1 by 2.3 in (104 by 58 mm)\n\n4 in (100 mm) (diagonal)3.5 by 1.9 in (89 by 48 mm)\n\n\nBacklight\n\n—\n\nLED-backlit\n\n\nMulti-touch\n\nYes\n\n\nTechnology\n\nSuper Retina HD Display all-screen OLED\n\nRetina HD Display widescreen with IPS technology\n\nRetina Display widescreen with IPS technology\n\nRetina HD Display widescreen with IPS technology\n\nRetina Display widescreen with IPS technology\n\n\nResolution\n\n1125 x 2436\n\n1080 x 1920\n\n750 x 1334\n\n1080 x 1920\n\n750 x 1334\n\n640 x 1136\n\n1080 x 1920\n\n750 x 1334\n\n1080 x 1920\n\n750 x 1334\n\n640 x 1136\n\n\nPixel Density (ppi)\n\n458\n\n401\n\n326\n\n401\n\n326\n\n401\n\n326\n\n401\n\n326\n\n\nAspect Ratio\n\n~19.5:9\n\n16:9\n\n71:40 (~16:9)\n\n16:9\n\n16:9\n\n71:40 (~16:9)\n\n\nTypical Max brightness ( cd⁄m2)\n\n625\n\n500\n\n\nHDR Max brightness ( cd⁄m2)\n\n—\n\n\nOutdoor Max brightness ( cd⁄m2)\n\n—\n\n\nContrast ratio (typical)\n\n1000000:1\n\n1300:1\n\n1400:1\n\n1300:1\n\n1400:1\n\n800:1\n\n1400:1\n\n1300:1\n\n1300:1\n\n1400:1\n\n800:1\n\n\nFingerprint-resistant oleophobic coating\n\nYes\n\n\nFull sRGB Display\n\nYes\n\n\nWide Color Display (Display P3)\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nTrue Tone Display\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nNight Shift\n\nYes\n\n\nProMotion Display\n\nNo\n\n\nAlways-On Display\n\nNo\n\n\nHDR Display\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nHDR 10 Content\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nDolby Vision\n\nWith HDR\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nDynamic Island\n\nNo\n\n\nTaptic\n\n3D Touch\n\n—\n\n3D Touch\n\n—\n\n\nProcessor\n\nChip\n\nApple A11 Bionic\n\nApple A10 Fusion\n\nApple A9\n\nApple A8\n\nApple A7\n\n\nTechnology Node\n\n10 nm\n\n16 nm\n\n16 nm (TSMC) or 14 nm (Samsung)\n\n20 nm\n\n28 nm\n\n\nTotal Cores\n\n6\n\n4 (2 usable)\n\n2\n\n\nHigh-Performance Cores\n\n2 x Monsoon\n\n2 x Hurricane\n\n2 x Twister\n\n2 x Typhoon\n\n2 x Cyclone\n\n\nEnergy-Efficiency Cores\n\n4 x Mistral\n\n2 x Zephyr\n\n—\n\n\nClock Speed\n\n2.39 GHz\n\n2.34 GHz\n\n1.85 GHz\n\n1.4 GHz\n\n1.3 GHz\n\n\nBit\n\n64-bit\n\n\nMotion Coprocessor\n\nEmbedded M11\n\nEmbedded M10\n\nEmbedded M9\n\nM8\n\nM7\n\n\nBus width\n\n64-bit\n\n\nGraphics Processor\n\nApple designed 3-core GPU (G10P)\n\nPowerVR GT7600 Plus (6-core)\n\nPowerVR GT7600 (6-core)\n\nPowerVR GX6450 (4-core)\n\nPowerVR G6430 (4-core)\n\n\nNeural Engine\n\n2-core Neural Engine(600 BOPS)\n\n—\n\n\nStorage\n\n64 GB, 256 GB\n\n64 GB, 128 GB, 256 GB\n\n32 GB, 128 GB, 256 GB\n\n16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB, 128 GB\n\n16 GB, 64 GB, 128 GB\n\n16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB, 128 GB\n\n16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB\n\n\nStorage Type\n\nNAND Flash driven by NVMe-based controller that communicates over a PCIe connection\n\nNAND Flash (eMMC)\n\n\nRAM\n\n3 GB\n\n2 GB\n\n3 GB\n\n2 GB\n\n1 GB\n\n\nRAM Type\n\nLPDDR4X 2133 MHz (34.1 GB/s)\n\nLPDDR4 1600 MHz (25.6 GB/s)\n\nLPDDR3 800 MHz (12.8 GB/s)\n\n\nConnector\n\nType\n\n8-pin Lightning connector port supporting charging\n\n\nTransmission Speed\n\nUp to 0.48 Gbit/s transmission speeds (USB 2.0)\n\n\nExternal Display Support\n\nNo\n\n\nConnectivity\n\nWi-Fi (802.11)\n\nWi-Fi 5 (802.11a/b/g/n/ac)\n\nWi-Fi 4 (802.11a/b/g/n)802.11n in both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz\n\n\nMIMO\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nThread networking technology\n\nNo\n\n\nNFC\n\nWith Reader Mode in Control Center\n\nYes\n\nApple Pay only\n\nNo\n\n\nExpress Cards\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nBluetooth\n\nBluetooth 5.0\n\nBluetooth 4.2\n\nBluetooth 4.0\n\n\nUltra Wideband chip for spatial awareness\n\nNo\n\n\nCellular\n\nGSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A (some models)/LTE Advanced\n\nGSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A (some models)/LTE\n\nGSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A (some models)/LTE Advanced\n\nGSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A and Rev. B(some models)/LTE\n\n\nVoLTE\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nAssisted GPS\n\nYes\n\n\nGLONASS/GNSS\n\nYes\n\n\nBeiDou\n\nNo\n\n\nSIM card form-factor\n\nSingle Nano-SIM\n\n\nSecure Authentication\n\nTouch ID\n\nNo\n\nSecond generation\n\nFirst generation\n\nSecond generation\n\nFirst generation\n\n\nFace ID\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nSafety\n\nEmergency SOS\n\nYes\n\n\nCrash Detection\n\nNo\n\n\nSensors\n\nLiDAR sensor\n\nNo\n\n\nProximity sensor\n\nYes\n\n\nThree-axis gyro\n\nYes\n\n\nAccelerometer\n\nYes\n\n\nAmbient Light Sensor\n\nYes\n\n\nBarometer\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nRear Camera\n\nCamera\n\n12 MP Main12 MP Telephoto\n\n12 MP Main\n\n12 MP Main12 MP Telephoto\n\n12 MP Wide\n\n8 MP Wide\n\n\nAperture\n\nf/1.8 (Main)f/2.4 (Telephoto)\n\nf/1.8 (Main)f/2.8 (Telephoto)\n\nf/1.8\n\nf/1.8 (Main)f/2.8 (Telephoto)\n\nf/1.8\n\nf/2.2\n\n\nPixel Size for Wide camera\n\n1.22 μm\n\n1.5 μm\n\n\nSuper High Resolution Support\n\nNo\n\n\nSensor Size for Wide camera\n\n1/2.93\"\n\n\nOptical Image Stabilization\n\nMain and Telephoto\n\nMain\n\nYes\n\nMain\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nAuto Image Stabilization\n\nYes\n\n\nElement Lens\n\nSix-element lens (Main and Telephoto)\n\nSix-element lens\n\nSix-element lens (Main and Telephoto)\n\nSix-element lens\n\nFive-element lens\n\n\nNight Mode\n\nNo\n\n\nDeep Fusion\n\nNo\n\n\nPhotonic Engine\n\nNo\n\n\nApple ProRAW\n\nNo\n\n\nMacro mode\n\nNo\n\n\nPhotographic Styles\n\nNo\n\n\nOptical Zoom\n\n1x, 2x\n\n1x\n\n1x, 2x\n\n1x\n\n\nDigital Zoom\n\nUp to 10x\n\nUp to 5x\n\nUp to 10x\n\nUp to 5x\n\n\nAutofocus\n\nWith Focus Pixels\n\nNo\n\n\nPanorama\n\nUp to 63 MP\n\nUp to 43 MP\n\nUp to 28 MP\n\n\nPortrait Mode\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nPortrait Lighting\n\nWith five effects (Natural, Studio, Contour, Stage, Stage Mono)\n\nNo\n\n\nLens Cover\n\nSapphire crystal lens cover\n\n\nBurst Mode\n\nYes\n\n\nFlash\n\nTrue Tone flash with Slow Sync\n\nTrue Tone flash\n\n\nLive Photos\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nWide Color Capture\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nHDR for photos\n\nAuto HDR\n\nYes\n\n\nVideo Recording\n\n4K at 24 fps, 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps\n\n4K at 25 fps or 30 fps1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps\n\n1080p HD at 30 fps or 60 fps\n\n1080p HD at 30 fps\n\n\nCinematic video recording with shallow depth of field\n\nNo\n\n\nExtended Dynamic Range Video\n\nNo\n\n\nDolby Vision HDR Video\n\nNo\n\n\nProRes Video\n\nNo\n\n\nLog Video Recording\n\nNo\n\n\nAcademy Color Encoding System\n\nNo\n\n\nOptical Image Stabilization for Video\n\nMain and Telephoto\n\nMain\n\nYes\n\nMain\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\nAction Mode\n\nNo\n\n\nOptical Video Zoom\n\n1x, 2x\n\n1x\n\n1x, 2x\n\n1x\n\n\nDigital Video Zoom\n\nUp to 6x\n\nUp to 3x\n\nUp to 6x\n\nUp to 3x\n\n\nSlow-motion video\n\n1080p at 120 fps or 240 fps\n\n1080p at 120 fps720p at 240 fps\n\n720p at 120 fps or 240 fps\n\n720p at 120 fps\n\n\nAudio Zoom\n\nNo\n\n\nQuickTake Video\n\nNo\n\n\nTime-lapse video with stabilization\n\nYes\n\n\nCinematic video stabilization\n\n1080p and 720p\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nStereo Recording\n\nNo\n\n\nFront Camera\n\nCamera\n\n7 MP TrueDepth\n\n7 MP FaceTime HD\n\n1.2 MP FaceTime HD\n\n5 MP FaceTime HD\n\n1.2 MP FaceTime HD\n\n\nAperture\n\nf/2.2\n\nf/2.4\n\nf/2.2\n\nf/2.4\n\n\nAutofocus\n\nNo\n\n\nPortrait Mode\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nPortrait Lighting\n\nWith five effects (Natural, Studio, Contour, Stage, Stage Mono)\n\nNo\n\n\nNight mode\n\nNo\n\n\nDeep Fusion\n\nNo\n\n\nPhotonic Engine\n\nNo\n\n\nPhotographic Styles\n\nNo\n\n\nAnimoji and Memoji\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nLive Photos\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nWide color capture\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nRetina Flash\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nVideo Recording\n\n1080p HD at 25 fps or 30 fps\n\n720p at 30 fps\n\n\nSlow-motion video\n\nNo\n\n\nExtended Dynamic Range Video\n\nNo\n\n\nDolby Vision HDR Video\n\nNo\n\n\nProRes Video\n\nNo\n\n\nHDR for photos\n\nAuto HDR\n\nYes\n\n\nCinematic video stabilization\n\nNo\n\n\nAuto Image Stabilization\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nFaceTime\n\nYes\n\n\nAudio\n\nPlayback\n\nStereo\n\nMono\n\n\nDolby Atmos\n\nHeadphones with spatial audio\n\nNo\n\n\n3.5 mm Jack\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\n\nHAC Rating\n\nM3, T4[7]\n\n\nCompatible with Made for iPhone Hearing Aids\n\nYes[7][8]\n\n\nLive Listen\n\nYes[7][8]\n\n\nMaterials\n\nFront\n\nAll models have black glass front\n\nSilver: White glass frontGold: White glass frontSpace Gray: Black glass front(PRODUCT)RED: Black glass front\n\nSilver: White glass frontGold: White glass frontRose Gold: White glass frontJet Black: Black glass frontBlack: Black glass front(PRODUCT)RED: White glass front\n\nSilver: White glass frontGold: White glass frontRose Gold: White glass frontSpace Gray: Black glass front\n\nSilver: White glass frontGold: White glass frontSpace Gray: Black glass front\n\n\nBack\n\nSilver: Silver glass backSpace Gray: Space Gray glass back\n\nSilver: Silver glass backGold: Gold glass backSpace Gray: Space Gray glass back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED glass back\n\nSilver: Silver anodized aluminum backGold: Gold anodized aluminum backRose Gold: Rose Gold anodized aluminum backJet Black: Jet Black aluminum backBlack: Black anodized aluminum back(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum back\n\nSilver: Silver anodized aluminum backGold: Gold anodized aluminum backRose Gold: Rose Gold anodized aluminum backSpace Gray: Space Gray anodized aluminum back\n\nSilver: Silver anodized aluminum backGold: Gold anodized aluminum backSpace Gray: Space Gray anodized aluminum back\n\n\nSide\n\nSilver: Silver stainless steel sidesSpace Gray: Space Gray stainless steel sides\n\nSilver: Silver anodized aluminum sidesGold: Gold anodized aluminum sidesSpace Gray: Space Gray anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sides\n\nSilver: Silver anodized aluminum sidesGold: Gold anodized aluminum sidesRose Gold: Rose Gold anodized aluminum sidesJet Black: Jet Black aluminum sidesBlack: Black anodized aluminum sides(PRODUCT)RED: (PRODUCT)RED anodized aluminum sides\n\nSilver: Silver anodized aluminum sidesGold: Gold anodized aluminum sidesRose Gold: Rose Gold anodized aluminum sidesSpace Gray: Space Gray anodized aluminum sides\n\nSilver: Silver anodized aluminum sidesGold: Gold anodized aluminum sidesSpace Gray: Space Gray anodized aluminum sides\n\n\nColors\n\n \n\n From release to September 12, 2018: \n\n From release to September 12, 2018: From release to September 12, 2017: (128 and 256 GB only)\n\n \n\n From release to September 9, 2015: \n\n From release to September 9, 2015, and since March 10, 2017: \n\n From release to September 9, 2015: \n\n\nPower\n\n3.81 V 10.35 W·h (2,716 mA·h)[47]\n\n3.82 V 10.28 W·h (2,691 mA·h)[48]\n\n3.82 V 6.96 W·h (1,821 mA·h)[49]\n\n3.82 V 11.10 W·h (2,915 mA·h)[50]\n\n3.80 V 7.45 W·h (1,960 mA·h)[51]\n\n3.82 V 6.21 W·h (1,624 mA·h)[52]\n\n3.80 V 10.45 W·h (2,750 mA·h)[53]\n\n3.82 V 6.55 W·h (1,715 mA·h)[54]\n\n3.8 V 11.1 W·h (2,915 mA·h)[55]\n\n3.8 V 6.91 W·h (1,810 mA·h)[56]\n\n3.8 V 5.92 W·h (1,560 mA·h)[57]\n\n\nFast Charging\n\n20 W, up to 50% charge in 30 minutes (20 W adapter sold separately)\n\nNo\n\n\nWireless Charging\n\nQi wireless charging\n\nNo\n\n\nWater resistant\n\nIP67 (Maximum depth of 1 meter up to 30 minutes)\n\nNo\n\n\nDimensions\n\nHeight\n\n143.6 mm (5.65 in)\n\n158.4 mm (6.24 in)\n\n138.4 mm (5.45 in)\n\n158.2 mm (6.23 in)\n\n138.3 mm (5.44 in)\n\n123.8 mm (4.87 in)\n\n158.2 mm (6.23 in)\n\n138.3 mm (5.44 in)\n\n158.1 mm (6.22 in)\n\n138.1 mm (5.44 in)\n\n123.8 mm (4.87 in)\n\n\nWidth\n\n70.9 mm (2.79 in)\n\n78.1 mm (3.07 in)\n\n67.3 mm (2.65 in)\n\n77.9 mm (3.07 in)\n\n67.1 mm (2.64 in)\n\n58.6 mm (2.31 in)\n\n77.9 mm (3.07 in)\n\n67.1 mm (2.64 in)\n\n77.8 mm (3.06 in)\n\n67.0 mm (2.64 in)\n\n58.6 mm (2.31 in)\n\n\nDepth\n\n7.7 mm (0.30 in)\n\n7.5 mm (0.30 in)\n\n7.3 mm (0.29 in)\n\n7.3 mm (0.29 in)\n\n7.1 mm (0.28 in)\n\n7.6 mm (0.30 in)\n\n7.3 mm (0.29 in)\n\n7.1 mm (0.28 in)\n\n7.1 mm (0.28 in)\n\n6.9 mm (0.27 in)\n\n7.6 mm (0.30 in)\n\n\nWeight\n\n174 g (6.1 oz)\n\n202 g (7.1 oz)\n\n148 g (5.2 oz)\n\n188 g (6.6 oz)\n\n138 g (4.9 oz)\n\n113 g (4.0 oz)\n\n192 g (6.8 oz)\n\n143 g (5.0 oz)\n\n172 g (6.1 oz)\n\n129 g (4.6 oz)\n\n112 g (4.0 oz)\n\n\nTotal greenhouse gas emissions\n\n79 kg CO2e[58]\n\n68 kg CO2e[59]\n\n57 kg CO2e[60]\n\n67 kg CO2e[61]\n\n56 kg CO2e[62]\n\n45 kg CO2e[63]\n\n63 kg CO2e[64]\n\n54 kg CO2e[65]\n\n110 kg CO2e[66]\n\n95 kg CO2e[67]\n\n65 kg CO2e[68]\n\n\nHardware strings\n\niPhone10,3iPhone10,6\n\niPhone10,2iPhone10,5\n\niPhone10,1iPhone10,4\n\niPhone9,2iPhone9,4\n\niPhone9,1iPhone9,3\n\niPhone8,4\n\niPhone8,2\n\niPhone8,1\n\niPhone7,1\n\niPhone7,2\n\niPhone6,1iPhone6,2\n\n\nModel number\n\nA1865A1902A1901\n\nA1864A1897A1898A1899\n\nA1863A1905A1906A1907\n\nA1661A1784A1785\n\nA1660A1778A1779\n\nA1662A1723A1724\n\nA1634A1687A1699A1690\n\nA1633A1688A1700A1691\n\nA1522A1524A1593\n\nA1549A1586A1589\n\nA1533A1453A1457A1530A1518A1528\n\n\nAnnounced Date\n\nSeptember 12, 2017\n\nSeptember 12, 2017(PRODUCT)RED: April 9, 2018\n\nSeptember 7, 2016\n\nMarch 21, 2016\n\nSeptember 9, 2015\n\nSeptember 9, 2014\n\nSeptember 10, 2013\n\n\nReleased Date\n\nNovember 3, 2017\n\nSeptember 22, 2017(PRODUCT)RED: April 13, 2018\n\nSeptember 16, 2016(PRODUCT)RED: March 24, 2017\n\n16 and 64 GB: March 31, 201632 and 128 GB: March 21, 2017\n\n16, 64, and 128 GB: September 25, 201532 GB: September 7, 2016\n\nSeptember 19, 201432 GB (iPhone 6 ONLY): March 10, 2017\n\nSeptember 20, 2013\n\n\nDiscontinued Date\n\nSeptember 12, 2018\n\n256 GB: September 10, 201964 and 128 GB: April 15, 2020\n\n256 GB: September 12, 201732 and 128 GB: September 10, 2019\n\n16 and 64 GB: March 21, 201732 and 128 GB: September 12, 2018\n\n16 and 64 GB: September 7, 201632 and 128 GB: September 12, 2018\n\n128 GB: September 9, 201516 and 64 GB: September 7, 201632 GB (iPhone 6 ONLY): September 12, 2018\n\n64 GB: September 9, 201416 and 32 GB: March 21, 2016\n\n\nUnsupported Date\n\nBug fixes only\n\nJanuary 23, 2023","title":"Comparison of models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"iPhone 5c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_5c"},{"link_name":"iPhone 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_5"},{"link_name":"iPhone 4s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_4s"},{"link_name":"iPhone 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_4"},{"link_name":"iPhone 3GS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_3GS"},{"link_name":"iPhone 3G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_3G"},{"link_name":"iPhone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_(1st_generation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_5C_(blue).svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_5.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_4S_No_shadow.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_4_Mock_No_Shadow_PSD.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_1st_Gen.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_1st_Gen.svg"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"iOS 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_7"},{"link_name":"iOS 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_6"},{"link_name":"iOS 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_5"},{"link_name":"iOS 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_4"},{"link_name":"GSM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM"},{"link_name":"iOS 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_4"},{"link_name":"CDMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_division_multiple_access"},{"link_name":"iPhone OS 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_OS_3"},{"link_name":"iPhone OS 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_OS_2"},{"link_name":"iPhone OS 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_OS_1"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"iOS 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_10"},{"link_name":"iOS 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_10"},{"link_name":"iOS 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_9"},{"link_name":"iOS 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_7"},{"link_name":"iOS 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_6"},{"link_name":"iOS 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_4"},{"link_name":"iPhone OS 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_OS_3"},{"link_name":"LED-backlit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED-backlit_LCD_display"},{"link_name":"Retina Display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina_Display"},{"link_name":"IPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPS_panel"},{"link_name":"TN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display#Twisted_nematic_(TN)"},{"link_name":"Aspect Ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratio_(image)"},{"link_name":"oleophobic coating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipophobicity"},{"link_name":"Full sRGB Display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRGB"},{"link_name":"Display P3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DCI-P3#Display_P3"},{"link_name":"Apple A6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_A6"},{"link_name":"Apple A5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_A5"},{"link_name":"Apple A4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_A4"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3G_S_Processor1-74"},{"link_name":"Cortex-A9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_Cortex-A9"},{"link_name":"Cortex-A8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_Cortex-A8"},{"link_name":"ARM 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM11"},{"link_name":"PowerVR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerVR"},{"link_name":"SGX543MP3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerVR#Series_5_(SGX)"},{"link_name":"PowerVR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerVR"},{"link_name":"SGX543MP2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerVR#Series_5_(SGX)"},{"link_name":"PowerVR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerVR"},{"link_name":"SGX535","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerVR#Series_5_(SGX)"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3G_S_Processor1-74"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A4_Teardown-75"},{"link_name":"PowerVR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerVR"},{"link_name":"MBX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerVR#MBX"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"8-pin Lightning connector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning_connector"},{"link_name":"802.11a/b/g/n","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11"},{"link_name":"802.11b/g/n","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11"},{"link_name":"802.11b/g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11"},{"link_name":"Bluetooth 4.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth#Bluetooth_4.0"},{"link_name":"Bluetooth 2.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth#Bluetooth_2.1_+_EDR"},{"link_name":"Bluetooth 2.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth#Bluetooth_2.0_+_EDR"},{"link_name":"SIM card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subscriber_identity_module"},{"link_name":"Nano-SIM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subscriber_identity_module#Nano-SIM"},{"link_name":"Micro-SIM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subscriber_identity_module#Micro-SIM"},{"link_name":"Mini-SIM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subscriber_identity_module#Mini-SIM"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-support-HAC-old-12"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-support-HAC-old-12"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-support-HAC-old-12"},{"link_name":"Hearing Aids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_aid"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-support-HAC-old-12"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-support-HAC-13"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-support-HAC-old-12"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-support-HAC-13"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iPhone_5c_teardown-77"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iPhone_5_teardown-78"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iPhone_4s_gets_torn_down-79"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iPhone_4_Teardown-80"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3G_S_teardown-81"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3G_battery-82"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IECEE-83"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour"},{"link_name":"mA·h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_hour"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-edepot-84"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"CO2e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"}],"sub_title":"Unsupported (32-bit CPU)","text":"Model\n\niPhone 5c\n\niPhone 5\n\niPhone 4s\n\niPhone 4\n\niPhone 3GS\n\niPhone 3G\n\niPhone\n\n\nPicture\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nInitial release operating system\n\niOS 7.0\n\niOS 6.0\n\niOS 5.0\n\niOS 4.0 (GSM)iOS 4.2.5 (CDMA)\n\niPhone OS 3.0\n\niPhone OS 2.0\n\niPhone OS 1.0\n\n\nLatest release operating system\n\niOS 10.3.3\n\niOS 10.3.4\n\niOS 9.3.6\n\niOS 7.1.2\n\niOS 6.1.6\n\niOS 4.2.1\n\niPhone OS 3.1.3\n\n\nDisplay\n\nScreen Size\n\n4 in (100 mm) (diagonal)3.5 by 1.9 in (89 by 48 mm)\n\n3.5 in (89 mm) (diagonal)2.9 by 1.9 in (74 by 48 mm)\n\n\nBacklight\n\nLED-backlit\n\n\nMulti-touch\n\nYes\n\n\nTechnology\n\nRetina Display widescreen with IPS technology\n\nWidescreen with TN technology\n\n\nResolution\n\n640 x 1136\n\n640 x 960\n\n320 x 480\n\n\nPixel Density (ppi)\n\n326\n\n163\n\n\nAspect Ratio\n\n71:40 (~16:9)\n\n3:2\n\n\nTypical Max brightness ( cd⁄m2)\n\n500\n\n?\n\n\nHDR Max brightness ( cd⁄m2)\n\n—\n\n\nOutdoor Max brightness ( cd⁄m2)\n\n—\n\n\nContrast ratio (typical)\n\n800:1\n\n200:1\n\n\nFingerprint-resistant oleophobic coating\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nFull sRGB Display\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nWide Color Display (Display P3)\n\nNo\n\n\nTrue Tone Display\n\nNo\n\n\nNight Shift\n\nNo\n\n\nProMotion Display\n\nNo\n\n\nAlways-On Display\n\nNo\n\n\nHDR Display\n\nNo\n\n\nHDR 10 Content\n\nNo\n\n\nDolby Vision\n\nNo\n\n\nDynamic Island\n\nNo\n\n\nTaptic\n\n—\n\n\nProcessor\n\nChip\n\nApple A6\n\nApple A5\n\nApple A4\n\nSamsung S5PC100[69]\n\nSamsung S5L8900\n\n\nTechnology Node\n\n32 nm\n\n45 nm\n\n65 nm\n\n90 nm\n\n\nTotal Cores\n\n2\n\n1\n\n\nHigh-Performance Cores\n\n2 x Swift\n\n2 x Cortex-A9\n\n1 x Cortex-A8\n\nARM 11\n\n\nEnergy-Efficiency Cores\n\n—\n\n\nClock Speed\n\n1.30 GHz\n\n1 GHz(Underclocked to 800 MHz)\n\n800 MHz(Underclocked to 600 MHz)\n\n600 MHz(Underclocked to 412 MHz)\n\n\nBit\n\n32-bit\n\n\nMotion Coprocessor\n\n—\n\n\nBus width\n\n64-bit\n\n32-bit\n\n16-bit\n\n\nGraphics Processor\n\nPowerVR SGX543MP3\n\nPowerVR SGX543MP2\n\nPowerVR SGX535[69][70]\n\nPowerVR MBX Lite 3D[71]\n\n\nNeural Engine\n\n—\n\n\nStorage\n\n8 GB, 16 GB, 32 GB\n\n16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB\n\n8 GB, 16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB\n\n8 GB, 16 GB, 32 GB\n\n8 GB, 16 GB\n\n4 GB, 8 GB, 16 GB\n\n\nStorage Type\n\nNAND Flash (eMMC)\n\n\nRAM\n\n1 GB\n\n512 MB\n\n256 MB\n\n128 MB\n\n\nRAM Type\n\nLPDDR2 533 MHz (8.53 GB/s)\n\nLPDDR2 400 MHz (6.4 GB/s)\n\nLPDDR 200 MHz (3.2 GB/s)\n\nLPDDR 133 MHz (533 MB/s)\n\n\nConnector\n\n8-pin Lightning connector\n\n30-pin connector\n\n\nConnectivity\n\nWi-Fi (802.11)\n\nWi-Fi 4 (802.11a/b/g/n)802.11n in both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz\n\nWi-Fi 4 (802.11b/g/n)802.11n in 2.4 GHz only\n\nWi-Fi (802.11b/g)\n\n\nMIMO\n\nNo\n\n\nNFC\n\nNo\n\n\nExpress Cards\n\nNo\n\n\nBluetooth\n\nBluetooth 4.0\n\nBluetooth 2.1\n\nBluetooth 2.0\n\n\nUltra Wideband chip for spatial awareness\n\nNo\n\n\nCellular\n\nGSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSPA+/DC-HSDPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A and Rev. B(some models)/LTE\n\nGSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSDPA/HSUPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A\n\nGSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSDPA/HSUPA/CDMA EV-DO Rev. A (CDMA Models only)\n\nGSM/EDGE/UMTS/HSDPA\n\nGSM/GPRS/EDGE\n\n\nVoLTE\n\nNo\n\n\nAssisted GPS\n\nYes\n\n\nGLONASS/GNSS\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nBeiDou\n\nNo\n\n\nSIM card form-factor\n\nSingle Nano-SIM\n\nSingle Micro-SIM\n\nSingle Mini-SIM\n\n\nSecure Authentication\n\nTouch ID\n\nNo\n\n\nFace ID\n\nNo\n\n\nSafety\n\nEmergency SOS\n\nYes\n\n\nCrash Detection\n\nNo\n\n\nSensors\n\nLiDAR sensor\n\nNo\n\n\nProximity sensor\n\nYes\n\n\nThree-axis gyro\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\nAccelerometer\n\nYes\n\n\nAmbient Light Sensor\n\nYes\n\n\nBarometer\n\nNo\n\n\nRear Camera\n\nCamera\n\n8 MP Wide\n\n5 MP Wide\n\n3 MP Wide\n\n2 MP Wide\n\n\nAperture\n\nf/2.4\n\nf/2.8\n\n\nPixel Size for Wide camera\n\n1.5 μm\n\n1.75 μm\n\n?\n\n\nSensor Size for Wide camera\n\n1/2.94\n\n?\n\n\nOptical Image Stabilization\n\nNo\n\n\nAuto Image Stabilization\n\nNo\n\n\nElement Lens\n\nFive-element lens\n\nFour-element lens\n\n?\n\n\nNight Mode\n\nNo\n\n\nDeep Fusion\n\nNo\n\n\nPhotonic Engine\n\nNo\n\n\nApple ProRAW\n\nNo\n\n\nMacro mode\n\nNo\n\n\nPhotographic Styles\n\nNo\n\n\nOptical Zoom\n\n1x\n\n\nDigital Zoom\n\nUp to 5x\n\n\nAutofocus\n\n—\n\n\nPanorama\n\nSupported\n\n—\n\n\nPortrait Mode\n\nNo\n\n\nPortrait Lighting\n\nNo\n\n\nLens Cover\n\nSapphire crystal lens cover\n\n—\n\n\nBurst Mode\n\nNo\n\n\nFlash\n\nLED Flash\n\n—\n\n\nLive Photos\n\nNo\n\n\nWide Color Capture\n\nNo\n\n\nHDR for photos\n\nNo\n\n\nVideo Recording\n\n1080p HD at 30 fps\n\n720p HD at 30 fps\n\n480p at 30 fps\n\n—\n\n\nCinematic video recording with shallow depth of field\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nExtended Dynamic Range Video\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nDolby Vision HDR Video\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nProRes Video\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nOptical Image Stabilization for Video\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nAction Mode\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nOptical Zoom\n\n1x\n\n—\n\n\nDigital Zoom\n\nUp to 3x\n\n—\n\n\nSlow-motion video\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nAudio Zoom\n\nNo\n\n\nQuickTake Video\n\nNo\n\n\nTime-lapse video with stabilization\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nCinematic video stabilization\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nStereo Recording\n\nNo\n\n\nFront Camera\n\nCamera\n\n1.2 MP FaceTime HD\n\n0.3 MP\n\n—\n\n\nAutofocus\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nAperture\n\nf/2.4\n\n?\n\n—\n\n\nPortrait Mode\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nPortrait Lighting\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nNight mode\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nDeep Fusion\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nPhotonic Engine\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nPhotographic Styles\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nAnimoji and Memoji\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nLive Photos\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nWide color capture\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nRetina Flash\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nVideo Recording\n\n720p at 30 fps\n\n480p at 30 fps\n\n—\n\n\nSlow-motion video\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nExtended Dynamic Range Video\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nDolby Vision HDR Video\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nProRes Video\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nHDR for photos\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nCinematic video stabilization\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nAuto Image Stabilization\n\nNo\n\n—\n\n\nFaceTime\n\nYes\n\n—\n\n\nAudio\n\nPlayback\n\nMono\n\n\nDolby Atmos\n\nNo\n\n\n3.5 mm Jack\n\nYes\n\n\nHAC Rating\n\nM3, T4[7]\n\nM3, T4 (GSM Model)M4, T4 (CDMA Model)[7]\n\n—\n\nM3, T3 (2G)M4, T4 (3G and CDMA Model)[7]\n\n—\n\n\nCompatible with Made for iPhone Hearing Aids\n\nYes[7][8]\n\nNo\n\n\nLive Listen\n\nYes[7][8]\n\nNo\n\n\nMaterials\n\nFront\n\nAll models have black glass front\n\nWhite: White glass frontBlack: Black glass front\n\nAll models have black glass front\n\n\nBack\n\nWhite: White polycarbonate backPink: Pink polycarbonate backGreen: Green polycarbonate backBlue: Blue polycarbonate backYellow: Yellow polycarbonate back\n\nWhite & Silver: Silver anodized aluminum backBlack & Slate: Slate anodized aluminum back\n\nWhite: White glass backBlack: Black glass back\n\nWhite: White plastic backBlack: Black plastic back\n\nWhite anodized aluminum back with black plastic at the bottom area\n\n\nSide\n\nWhite: White polycarbonate sidesPink: Pink polycarbonate sidesGreen: Green polycarbonate sidesBlue: Blue polycarbonate sidesYellow: Yellow polycarbonate sides\n\nWhite & Silver: Silver anodized aluminum sidesBlack & Slate: Slate anodized aluminum sides\n\nAll models have silver stainless steel side\n\nWhite: White plastic sidesBlack: Black plastic sides\n\nWhite anodized aluminum sides with black plastic at the bottom area\n\n\nColors\n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n : 8, 16, and 32 GB : 16 and 32 GB only\n\n : 8 and 16 GB : 16 GB only\n\n \n\n\nPower\n\n3.8 V 5.73 W·h (1,510 mA·h)[72]\n\n3.8 V 5.45 W·h (1,440 mA·h)[73]\n\n3.7 V 5.3 W·h (1,432 mA·h)[74]\n\n3.7 V 5.25 W·h (1,420 mA·h)[75]\n\n3.7 V 4.51 W·h (1,219 mA·h)[76]\n\n3.7 V 4.12 W·h (1,150 mA·h)[77][78]\n\n3.7 V 5.18 W·h (1,400 mA·h)[79]\n\n\nFast Charging\n\nNo\n\n\nWireless Charging\n\nNo\n\n\nResistant\n\nNo\n\n\nDimensions\n\nHeight\n\n124.4 mm (4.90 in)\n\n123.8 mm (4.87 in)\n\n115.2 mm (4.54 in)\n\n115.5 mm (4.55 in)\n\n115 mm (4.5 in)\n\n\nWidth\n\n59.2 mm (2.33 in)\n\n58.6 mm (2.31 in)\n\n62.1 mm (2.44 in)\n\n61 mm (2.4 in)\n\n\nDepth\n\n8.97 mm (0.353 in)\n\n7.6 mm (0.30 in)\n\n9.3 mm (0.37 in)\n\n12.3 mm (0.48 in)\n\n11.6 mm (0.46 in)\n\n\nWeight\n\n132 g (4.7 oz)\n\n112 g (4.0 oz)\n\n140 g (4.9 oz)\n\n137 g (4.8 oz)\n\n135 g (4.8 oz)\n\n133 g (4.7 oz)\n\n135 g (4.8 oz)\n\n\nTotal greenhouse gas emissions\n\n60 kg CO2e[80]\n\n75 kg CO2e[81]\n\n70 kg CO2e[82]55 kg CO2e[83]\n\n45 kg CO2e[84]\n\n55 kg CO2e[85]\n\n55 kg CO2e[86]\n\n—\n\n\nHardware strings\n\niPhone5,3iPhone5,4\n\niPhone5,1iPhone5,2\n\niPhone4,1\n\niPhone3,1iPhone3,2iPhone3,3\n\niPhone2,1\n\niPhone1,2\n\niPhone1,1\n\n\nModel number\n\nA1532A1456A1507A1529A1516A1526\n\nA1428A1429A1442\n\nA1431A1387\n\nA1349A1332\n\nA1325A1303\n\nA1324A1241\n\nA1203\n\n\nAnnounced Date\n\nSeptember 10, 2013\n\nSeptember 12, 2012\n\nOctober 4, 2011\n\nJune 7, 2010\n\nJune 8, 2009\n\nJune 9, 2008\n\nSeptember 2006\n\n\nReleased Date\n\n16 and 32 GB: September 20, 20138 GB: March 18, 2014, and September 9, 2014\n\nSeptember 21, 2012\n\n16, 32, and 64 GB: October 14, 20118 GB: September 20, 2013\n\n16 and 32 GB: June 24, 2010CDMA: February 10, 2011White: April 28, 20118 GB: October 14, 2011\n\n16 and 32 GB: June 19, 20098 GB: June 24, 2010\n\nJuly 11, 2008\n\n4 and 8 GB: June 29, 200716 GB: February 5, 2008\n\n\nDiscontinued Date\n\n16 and 32 GB: September 9, 20148 GB: September 9, 2015\n\nSeptember 10, 2013\n\n32 and 64 GB: September 12, 201216 GB: September 10, 20138 GB: September 9, 2014\n\n16 and 32 GB: October 4, 20118 GB: September 10, 2013\n\n16 and 32 GB: June 24, 20108 GB black: September 12, 2012\n\n16 GB: June 8, 20098 GB black: June 7, 2010\n\n4 GB: September 5, 20078 and 16 GB: July 11, 2008\n\n\nUnsupported Date\n\nSeptember 19, 2017\n\nSeptember 19, 2017July 22, 2019 (GPS Update)\n\nSeptember 13, 2016July 22, 2019 (GPS Update)\n\nSeptember 17, 2014\n\nFebruary 21, 2014\n\nMarch 9, 2011\n\nJune 21, 2010","title":"Comparison of models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A17 Pro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A17_Pro"},{"link_name":"iPhone 15 Pro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_15_Pro"},{"link_name":"iOS 17.5.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_17"},{"link_name":"A16 Bionic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A16_Bionic"},{"link_name":"iPhone 15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_15"},{"link_name":"iPhone 14 Pro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_14_Pro"},{"link_name":"A15 Bionic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A15_Bionic"},{"link_name":"iPhone 14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_14"},{"link_name":"iPhone 13 Pro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_13_Pro"},{"link_name":"iPhone 13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_13"},{"link_name":"iPhone SE (3rd gen)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_SE_(3rd_generation)"},{"link_name":"A14 Bionic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A14_Bionic"},{"link_name":"iPhone 12 Pro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_12_Pro"},{"link_name":"iPhone 12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_12"},{"link_name":"iPhone 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_11"},{"link_name":"iPhone 11 Pro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_11_Pro"},{"link_name":"iPhone XS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_XS"},{"link_name":"iPhone XR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_XR"},{"link_name":"iPhone X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_X"},{"link_name":"iOS 16.7.8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_16"},{"link_name":"iPhone 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_8"},{"link_name":"iOS 15.8.2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_15"},{"link_name":"iPhone 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_7"},{"link_name":"iPhone 6s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_6s"},{"link_name":"iPhone SE (1st gen)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_SE_(1st_generation)"},{"link_name":"iPhone 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_6"},{"link_name":"iPhone 5s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_5s"},{"link_name":"iPhone 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_5"},{"link_name":"iPhone 5c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_5c"},{"link_name":"iPhone 4s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_4s"},{"link_name":"iPhone 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_4"},{"link_name":"iPhone 3GS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_3GS"},{"link_name":"iPhone 3G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_3G"},{"link_name":"iPhone (1st gen)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_(1st_generation)"}],"text":"System-on-chip\n\nRAM\n\nRAM Type\n\nStorage Type\n\nModel\n\nHighest Supported iOS\n\n\nA17 Pro\n\n8 GB\n\nLPDDR5 3200 MHz\n\nNVMe NAND\n\niPhone 15 ProiPhone 15 Pro Max\n\niOS 17.5.1\n\n\nA16 Bionic\n\n6 GB\n\niPhone 15iPhone 15 PlusiPhone 14 ProiPhone 14 Pro Max\n\n\nA15 Bionic\n\nLPDDR4X 2133 MHz\n\niPhone 14iPhone 14 PlusiPhone 13 ProiPhone 13 Pro Max\n\n\n4 GB\n\niPhone 13iPhone 13 miniiPhone SE (3rd gen)\n\n\nA14 Bionic\n\n6 GB\n\niPhone 12 ProiPhone 12 Pro Max\n\n\n4 GB\n\niPhone 12iPhone 12 mini\n\n\nA13 Bionic\n\niPhone 11iPhone 11 ProiPhone 11 Pro Max\n\n\n3 GB\n\niPhone SE (2nd gen)\n\n\nA12 Bionic\n\n4 GB\n\niPhone XSiPhone XS Max\n\n\n3 GB\n\niPhone XR\n\n\nA11 Bionic\n\niPhone 8 PlusiPhone X\n\niOS 16.7.8\n\n\n2 GB\n\niPhone 8\n\n\nA10 Fusion\n\n3 GB\n\nLPDDR4 1600 MHz\n\niPhone 7 Plus\n\niOS 15.8.2\n\n\n2 GB\n\niPhone 7\n\n\nA9\n\niPhone 6siPhone 6s PlusiPhone SE (1st gen)\n\n\nA8\n\n1 GB\n\nLPDDR3 800 MHz\n\neMMC\n\niPhone 6iPhone 6 Plus\n\n12.5.7\n\n\nA7\n\niPhone 5s\n\n\nA6\n\nLPDDR2 533 MHz\n\niPhone 5iPhone 5c\n\n10.3.4 (iPhone 5)10.3.3 (iPhone 5c)\n\n\nA5\n\n512 MB\n\nLPDDR2 400 MHz\n\niPhone 4s\n\n9.3.6\n\n\nA4\n\nLPDDR 200 MHz\n\niPhone 4\n\n7.1.2\n\n\nAPL0298\n\n256 MB\n\niPhone 3GS\n\n6.1.6\n\n\nAPL0098\n\n128 MB\n\nLPDDR 133 MHz\n\niPhone 3G\n\n4.2.1\n\n\niPhone (1st gen)\n\n3.1.3","title":"iPhone systems-on-chips"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Apple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ApplePRlib-92"}],"text":"Source: Apple Newsroom Archive[87]","title":"Timeline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"}],"text":"^ Despite almost the entirety of its models and its successor being considered obsolete products, Apple still considers the 8 GB model of this phone as a vintage product worldwide according to their website\n\n^ Only the 32 GB model of this phone is listed as a vintage model worldwide according to the Apple website\n\n^ Only the 32 GB model of this phone is listed as a vintage model worldwide according to the Apple website\n\n^ As of April 2024, the Product Red model of this phone is listed as a vintage product worldwide according to the Apple website.\n\n^ As of April 2024, the Product Red model of this phone is listed as a vintage product worldwide according to the Apple website.","title":"Notes"}]	[{"image_text":"The backs of an iPhone 6, an iPhone 7, an iPhone 8, and an iPhone SE (3rd generation)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/IPhones_6%2C_7%2C_8%2C_SE2_black_-_back_camera_view.jpg/220px-IPhones_6%2C_7%2C_8%2C_SE2_black_-_back_camera_view.jpg"}]	[{"title":"List of iPad models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_iPad_models"},{"title":"iOS version history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_version_history"},{"title":"iPod Touch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Touch"},{"title":"Apple TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_TV"},{"title":"Apple Watch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Watch"},{"title":"iPhone (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_(disambiguation)"},{"title":"Telephones portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Telephones"}]	[{"reference":"\"Vintage and obsolete products\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instituto_Cervantes	Instituto Cervantes	["1 Functions","2 Academic programme","3 Administration","4 Virtual presence","5 Centro de Formación de Profesores","6 Free translator service","7 Publications","8 Recognition","9 Locations","10 See also","11 References","12 External links"]	Nonprofit organization promoting Spanish culture Instituto CervantesFounded11 May 1991; 33 years ago (1991-05-11)FounderGovernment of SpainTypeCultural institutionLocationAlcalá, 49. MadridArea served Worldwide (45 countries)ProductSpanish cultural and language educationMembers 148,670 students (2019)OwnerGovernment of SpainKey peopleFelipe VI (Honorary President)Ángeles Moreno Bau (Chairwoman)Luis García Montero (Director)Employees 951 (2019)Volunteers 1,240 (2019)Websitewww.Cervantes.es Instituto Cervantes (Spanish: , the Cervantes Institute) is a worldwide nonprofit organization created by the Spanish government in 1991. It is named after Miguel de Cervantes (1547–1616), the author of Don Quixote and perhaps the most important figure in the history of Spanish literature. The Cervantes Institute is the largest organization in the world responsible for promoting the study and the teaching of Spanish language and culture. This organization has branched out to 45 countries with 88 centres devoted to the Spanish and Hispanic American culture and Spanish language. Article 3 of Law 7/1991, of March 21, created the Instituto Cervantes as a government agency. The law explains that the ultimate goals of the Institute are to promote the education, the study and the use of Spanish universally as a second language; to support the methods and activities that would help the process of Spanish language education, and to contribute to the advancement of the Spanish and Hispanic American cultures throughout non-Spanish-speaking countries. Functions Spanish languageA manuscript of the Cantar de mio Cid, 13th century Overview Pronunciation stress Orthography Names History Old Middle Influences Grammar Determiners Nouns gender Pronouns personal object Adjectives Prepositions Verbs conjugation irregular verbs Dialects Andalusian Andean Argentine Belizean Bolivian Canarian Caribbean Central American Chilean Colombian Costa Rican Cuban Dominican Ecuadorian Equatoguinean Guatemalan Honduran Mexican Murcian New Mexican Nicaraguan Paraguay Panamanian Peninsular Peruvian Philippine status Puerto Rican Rioplatense Saharan Salvadoran Standard Uruguayan Venezuelan Dialectology Seseo Yeísmo Voseo Leísmo Loísmo Interlanguages Llanito Jopara Judaeo-Spanish Portuñol Spanglish Castrapo Creoles Roquetas Pidgin Chavacano or Chabacano Palenquero or Palenque Teaching Hispanism RAE Instituto Cervantes vte The functions and services of the Cervantes Institute are: It designs Spanish language courses, offering two kinds of courses: general and special. It offers the Diplomas of Spanish as Foreign Language (DELE) examinations on behalf of the Spanish Ministry of Education. This is an official qualification certifying levels of competence in the Spanish language, and is the only certificate for non-native Spanish speakers that is officially recognised in Spain. The diplomas are subdivided into six levels, each one corresponding to a certain proficiency level as described by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2. It improves the methods of Spanish education. On-line Spanish language learning environment Ex) AVE (Aula Virtual de Español) Creating a social, cultural and educational environment in each centre A student-centred plan, focusing on the dialogues between teacher and student over objectives and contents It supports Hispanists and "Hispanism", which is the study of the culture of Spain and Hispanic America. Sponsors lectures, book presentations, concerts, art exhibitions, The Spain Film Festival and Festival of Flamenco. Supported by other organisations and communities. It organises and promotes the program to spread the Spanish language throughout the world. The institute works with Spain's national radio and television to deliver Spanish language courses. Publications, on-line bibliographies, library holdings, the hosting of major conferences on the state of the Spanish language. It administers the Constitutional and Sociocultural Knowledge of Spain (CCSE) examinations worldwide, which are a legal requirement for the acquisition of Spanish nationality. It establishes libraries and centres. It also publishes the Anuario del español to analyse and report on the situation and development of the Spanish language in different places. It supports the Centro Virtual Cervantes on the internet since 1997. Academic programme General language courses are offered at four different levels: elementary, intermediate, advanced and high advanced. Improving specific language skills, such as reading, speaking, and writing Teaching Spanish for specific purposes, such as business, medical, legal, or translation Learning about the literature and cultures of the Spanish-speaking countries Preparation for Diplomas of Spanish as Foreign Language The Cervantes Institute offers comprehensive Spanish language classes to: Develop the student's ability to use the language in a variety of contexts, paying special attention to the differences of Spanish accents. To provide different resources, including Spanish on-line, to improve the teaching. To allow the students to use any of the facilities of the Cervantes Institute around the world. To issue Spanish language diplomas and certificates Administration Cervantes Institute headquarters, in Madrid The administration of the Cervantes Institute is subdivided into three parts. A commitment and interest in planning the activities and direction of the Institute are managed by a high-profile membership. Patronato (Board of Trustees): The Cervantes Institute is overseen by its governing body, the Patronato. The Patronato normally includes the King of Spain, Felipe VI as the honorary president and the Prime Minister of Spain, as well as representatives from the world of culture and letters in Spain and in the Americas. The executive presidency is held by the Secretaries of State of Education and Science, Culture, the president and vice-president of the Council of Administration, the Director of the institute, 25 elected members from cultural and language institutions. It gives general directions for the activities of the Institute and informs on its annual activities. The Consejo de Administración (Board of Directors) is a management body and approves the general plans and projects of the institute. It consists of representatives from the ministries of Foreign Affairs, Education, Culture and Sport, Treasury, and Home Affairs, as well as from the Patronato. This is presided by the Secretary of State of International Cooperation and consists of two vice-presidents (Undersecretary of the Science and Education Department and the Undersecretary of the Department of Culture), two advisers of the Patronato, and four advisers from the Secretaries of State, Education and Science, Culture and of Economy and Treasury and the Director of the institute. The Director is appointed by the Council of Ministers of Spain. The Director is in charge of guiding the management of the institute, and other pertinent executive and administrative tasks. Virtual presence Centro Virtual Cervantes is an online service that was created in December 1997 by the Instituto Cervantes of Spain to contribute to the diffusion of the Spanish language and Hispanic cultures. It became one of the most important reference sites devoted to Spanish language and culture, having reached an average of over 100,000 visitors a month, including both professionals and the general public. It offers resources and services to teachers, students, translators, journalists and other professionals involved with the Spanish language, and as well as to Hispanists throughout the world, who study Hispanic cultures, and to any person who is interested in the language and Hispanic cultures. It also includes announcements of cultural events (Actos Culturales), four discussion forums, each of which focuses on a specific topic, and the language classroom, Aula de Lengua, designed for both teachers and learners of Spanish. The Instituto Cervantes also has a virtual presence in the 3D virtual world Second Life. Centro de Formación de Profesores On 13 December 2004, the Cervantes Institute formed its Centro de Formación de Profesores in its headquarters, located in Alcalá de Henares, where Cervantes was born. This institution was founded to encourage the teaching of Spanish as a foreign language and to provide useful resources to its members. Throughout the year, it organises the specific activities and programmes for the centre, with several different goals, which include teaching, providing the resources to the teachers to use in their education field, and developing specialised knowledge of the Spanish language for educational purposes. The centre supports the future teachers of Spanish through its 'Master of Education in Spanish as a Foreign Language', in collaboration with the International University Menéndez Pelayo. For teachers already involved in teaching, the Centre provides advanced activities that produce a deeper knowledge, focusing on research or discussion in the classroom, and improving the students’ skills in Spanish language for them to become responsive in any communicational situations. Free translator service The Automatic Translator Service of the Cervantes Institute, "Portal de las Tecnologías Lingüisticas en España", was launched by the Cervantes Institute on 10 January 2005. It is a free service of machine translation sponsored by Telefónica. Since its launch, demand has steadily increased monthly to 55%, and it has performed more than 582,000 free translations. The Cervantes Institute's purpose in creating this service was to facilitate the access of Spanish to those information technology contents developed in other languages, and so people who speak other languages can have access to contents that are only available in Spanish. This service permits translation of texts and text files, as well as web pages, from Spanish to Catalan, French, Galician, English or Portuguese and vice versa. The pairs of language percentages used are as follows: English–Spanish, 23.47% of the total; Spanish–Catalan, 21.12%; Spanish–English, 13.64%; Portuguese–Spanish, 12.63%; Spanish–Portuguese, 10.39%; Catalan–Spanish, 6.48%; Spanish–French, 6.24%, and French–Spanish, 6.03%. Publications Since 1998, the Instituto Cervantes has published the annual El español en el mundo highlighting the state of Spanish in the world, and current trends. This publication also includes the annual report Spanish: A Living Language, which quantitatively analyzes the situation of the Spanish language worldwide.The Instituto has also run the Internet-based Centro Virtual Cervantes since 1997. Recognition In 2005, along with the Alliance française, the Società Dante Alighieri, the British Council, the Goethe-Institut, and the Instituto Camões, the Instituto Cervantes was awarded the Prince of Asturias Award for outstanding achievements in communications and humanities. Locations New York New Delhi Paris Munich Warsaw Sofia The Instituto Cervantes has developed its educational project on a system of local institutions and centres: Centros Cervantes (full-fledged centres) Aulas Cervantes (inside universities with "lecture halls, sometimes with teaching and cultural activity") Centros Acreditados. They are Spanish teaching centers, whose quality has been expressly recognized by the IC, by meeting the requirements established by the ELE Center Accreditation System of the Cervantes Institute. There are 196 centers in Spain (Cadiz, Cordoba, Granada, 22 in Malaga, 9 in Seville, Zaragoza, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Cantabria, Toledo, Avila, Burgos, Salamanca, Soria, Valladolid, 18 in Barcelona, Gerona, 24 in Madrid, Navarra, 6 in Alicante, Castellon, 16 in Valencia, A Coruña, Balearic Islands, Guipuzcoa, Vizcaya.). In Latinoamerica: Argentina (Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Mendoza), Brasil (Caxias do Sul), Chile, Colombia (Barranquilla, Bogota, Cartagena de Indias, 2 in Medellin), Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico (Mexico City, 2 in Guadalajara, 2 in Playa del Carmen), Panama, Uruguay. Outside Iberoamerica: Canada (Edmonton), China (Hong Kong), United Arab Emirates (Dubai), United States (Scottsdale), India (Mumbai), Iran (Teheran), Poland (Wroclaw), Russia (Saint Petersburg), Singapore, Switzerland (Geneva), Turkey (Ankara). A representative list follows, the most recent and complete list can be found at www.cervantes.es. Centros Cervantes Africa Algeria (Algiers, Oran) Egypt (Cairo, Alexandria) Morocco (Casablanca, Fes, Rabat, Tangier, Tétouan, Marrakesh) Tunisia (Tunis) Americas Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Brasília, Salvador, Belo Horizonte, Porto Alegre, Recife, Curitiba) Canada (Calgary - University of Calgary, Toronto United States (Albuquerque, Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, Boston – Harvard University, Seattle – University of Washington) Asia China (Beijing, Shanghai) India (New Delhi) Japan (Tokyo) Philippines (Manila, Makati) South Korea (Seoul) Indonesia (Jakarta) Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur - HELP University) Vietnam (Hanoi - University of Hanoi) Europe Austria (Vienna) Belgium (Brussels) Bulgaria (Sofia) Czech Republic (Prague) France (Bordeaux, Lyon, Paris, Toulouse) Germany (Berlin, Bremen, Frankfurt am Main, Hamburg, Munich) Greece (Athens) – the original Athens Cervantes Institute opened in 1992; in March 2010, Greek-born Queen Sofía of Spain opened its new building. Hungary (Budapest) Ireland (Dublin) – 53°20′31″N 6°15′06″W / 53.341975°N 6.251575°W / 53.341975; -6.251575 Italy (Milan, Naples, Palermo, Rome) Netherlands (Utrecht) Poland (Warsaw, Kraków) Portugal (Lisbon) Romania (Bucharest) Russia (Moscow) Serbia (Belgrade) Sweden (Stockholm) United Kingdom (Leeds, London, Manchester) Croatia (Zagreb - University of Zagreb)) Slovakia (Bratislava - Comenius University) Slovenia (Liubliana) Turkey (Istanbul) West Asia Cyprus (Nicosia) Israel (Tel Aviv) Jordan (Amman) Lebanon (Beirut, Kaslik, Tripoli) Syria (Damascus) Turkey (Istanbul) Oceania Australia (Sydney) See also Alliance française British Council Cultural diplomacy Dante Alighieri Society Dutch Language Union (Taalunie) Goethe-Institut Hispanism Instituto Camões Miguel de Cervantes Prize Panhispanism Public diplomacy Queen Sofía Spanish Institute Viva Festival References ^ a b c "Cervantes Institute in numbers" (PDF). www.cervantes.es. 2019. Retrieved 13 November 2020. ^ Archived December 14, 2007, at the Wayback Machine ^ a b c d e f g "Cervantes homepage". Cervantes.es. Retrieved 2015-08-01. ^ "Instituto Cervantes: Spain's Language and Cultural Center \| Manila Bulletin". Mb.com.ph. 2005-08-25. Archived from the original on 2012-09-08. Retrieved 2012-06-10. ^ "Instituto Cervantes celebrates its 15th year \| Manila Bulletin". Mb.com.ph. 2007-11-06. Archived from the original on 2012-09-04. Retrieved 2012-06-10. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Thinkspain News Feed". Thinkspain.com. Archived from the original on 2012-02-06. Retrieved 2012-06-10. ^ a b "El Pais Edición Impresa". El País. Elpais.com. 1990-05-12. Retrieved 2012-06-10. ^ a b c d e Archived December 31, 2007, at the Wayback Machine ^ Fernández Vítores, David (2023). "El español: una lengua viva. Informe 2023". cvc.cervantes.es (in European Spanish). Madrid: Instituto Cervantes. Retrieved 2023-12-18. ^ cervantes.es (2013) ^ creditacion.cervantes.es ^ cervantes.org External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Instituto Cervantes. Official website Cervantes Institute on Encyclopædia Britannica Spanish and Empire Journals, A review of Centro Virtual Cervantes vteDepartments and agencies of the Government of SpainCabinet President of the Government of Spain First Vice President of the Government of Spain Second Vice President of the Government of Spain Third Vice President of the Government of Spain Office of the Prime Minister Minister of Foreign Affairs, European Union and Cooperation Ministry of the Presidency, Justice and Relations with the Cortes Ministry of Defence Minister of Finance Ministry of the Interior Minister of Transport and Sustainable Mobility Minister of Education, Vocational Training and Sports Minister of Labour and Social Economy Minister of Industry and Tourism Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Minister of Territorial Policy and Democratic Memory Minister for the Ecological Transition and the Demographic Challenge Minister of Housing and Urban Agenda Ministry of Culture Minister of Economy, Trade and Business Ministry of Health Minister of Social Rights, Consumer Affairs and 2030 Agenda Minister of Science, Innovation and Universities Ministry of Equality Ministry of Inclusion, Social Security and Migration Ministry for the Digital Transformation and of the Civil Service Ministry of Youth and Children Spokesperson of the Government Inactive Fourth Vice President of the Government of Spain Ministry of Supply Ministry of Communications Ministry of Overseas Ministry of Information and Tourism Ministry of Consumer Affairs Ministry of Economy and Finance Ministry of Energy, Tourism and Digital Agenda Ministry of Justice Ministry of the Presidency Ministry of Trade Ministry of Transport Ministry of Universities Agencies Bank of Spain National Intelligence Centre National Cryptologic Center Spanish National Research Council National Statistics Institute National Securities Market Commission National Transplant Organization State Meteorological Agency State Vehicle Fleet Spanish Data Protection Agency Spanish Agency for International Development Cooperation Spanish Tax Agency National Agency for Quality Assessment and Accreditation Boletín Oficial del Estado Railway Safety Agency Spanish Aviation Safety and Security Agency Evaluation and Quality Agency State Research Agency Spanish Anti-Doping Agency Department of Homeland Security Intelligence Center for Counter-Terrorism and Organized Crime Maritime Safety and Rescue Society National Sports Council Spanish Agency of Medicines and Medical Devices Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition Food Information and Control Agency Tourism Institute of Spain National Institute for Aerospace Technology Directorate-General for Traffic Labour and Social Security Inspectorate National Institute for Safety and Health at Work Spanish Patent and Trademark Office Spanish Agricultural Guarantee Fund Centre for Political and Constitutional Studies Centre for Sociological Research Patrimonio Nacional Instituto Cervantes National Parks Autonomous Agency Institute for the Elderly and Social Services Institute of Youth Carlos III Health Institute Centre for Energy, Environmental and Technological Research Institute of Women Independent Authority for Fiscal Responsibility Nuclear Safety Council Institute of Cinematography and Audiovisual Arts Spanish Space Agency National Commission on Markets and Competition Spanish Executive Resolution Authority Spanish Agency for the Supervision of Artificial Intelligence vteInternational cultural promotion organizationsAmericas Brazil: Centro Cultural Brasileiro Chile: Image of Chile Colombia: Instituto Caro y Cuervo United States: America House Asia China: Confucius Institute India: Indian Council for Cultural Relations; Samskrita Bharati Japan: Japan Foundation Philippines: Sentro Rizal South Korea: Korea Foundation; Korean Cultural Center; King Sejong Institute Taiwan: Taiwan Academy Turkey: Yunus Emre Institute Europe Andorra: Ramon Llull Foundation Czech Republic: Czech Centres Denmark: Danish Cultural Institute Estonia: Estonian Institute European Union: EUNIC Finland: Finnish Cultural and Academic Institutes France: Alliance Française; Institut Français Germany: Goethe-Institut Greece: Center for the Greek Language; Hellenic Foundation for Culture Hungary: Balassi Institute Ireland: Culture Ireland Italy: Società Dante Alighieri; Istituto Italiano di Cultura Poland: Adam Mickiewicz Institute; Polish Institute Portugal: Instituto Camões Romania: Romanian Cultural Institute Russia: Russkiy Mir Foundation Spain: Instituto Cervantes / Institut Ramon Llull Sweden: Swedish Institute Switzerland: Pro Helvetia Ukraine: Ukrainian Institute United Kingdom: British Council vteLaureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for Communication and HumanitiesPrince of Asturias Award for Communication and Humanities 1981: María Zambrano 1982: Mario Bunge 1983: El País newspaper 1984: Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz 1985: José Ferrater Mora 1986: Grupo Globo 1987: El Espectador and El Tiempo newspapers 1988: Horacio Sáenz Guerrero 1989: Pedro Laín Entralgo and Fondo de Cultura Económica 1990: José Simeón Cañas Central American University 1991: Luis María Anson 1992: Emilio García Gómez 1993: Vuelta magazine by Octavio Paz 1994: Spanish Missions in Rwanda and Burundi 1995: EFE Agency and José Luis López Aranguren 1996: Indro Montanelli and Julián Marías 1997: Václav Havel and CNN 1998: Reinhard Mohn 1999: Caro and Cuervo Institute 2000: Umberto Eco 2001: George Steiner 2002: Hans Magnus Enzensberger 2003: Ryszard Kapuściński and Gustavo Gutiérrez Merino 2004: Jean Daniel 2005: Alliance française, Società Dante Alighieri, British Council, Goethe-Institut, Instituto Cervantes and Instituto Camões 2006: National Geographic Society 2007: Nature and Science journals 2008: Google 2009: National Autonomous University of Mexico 2010: Alain Touraine and Zygmunt Bauman 2011: Royal Society 2012: Shigeru Miyamoto 2013: Annie Leibovitz 2014: Quino Princess of Asturias Award for Communication and Humanities 2015: Emilio Lledó Íñigo 2016: James Nachtwey 2017: Les Luthiers 2018: Alma Guillermoprieto 2019: Museo del Prado 2020: Guadalajara International Book Fair and Hay Festival of Literature & Arts 2021: Gloria Steinem 2022: Adam Michnik 2023: Nuccio Ordine 2024: Marjane Satrapi Authority control databases International ISNI 2 VIAF 2 National Spain France BnF data Catalonia Germany Israel Czech Republic Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[instiˈtuto θerˈβantes]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Spanish"},{"link_name":"nonprofit organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprofit_organization"},{"link_name":"Spanish government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Miguel de Cervantes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes"},{"link_name":"Don Quixote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Quixote"},{"link_name":"Spanish literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_literature"},{"link_name":"Spanish language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language"},{"link_name":"culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Hispanic American culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_culture"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ciweb-3"},{"link_name":"Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Hispanic American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic_America"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Instituto Cervantes (Spanish: [instiˈtuto θerˈβantes], the Cervantes Institute) is a worldwide nonprofit organization created by the Spanish government in 1991.[2] It is named after Miguel de Cervantes (1547–1616), the author of Don Quixote and perhaps the most important figure in the history of Spanish literature. The Cervantes Institute is the largest organization in the world responsible for promoting the study and the teaching of Spanish language and culture.This organization has branched out to 45 countries with 88 centres devoted to the Spanish and Hispanic American culture and Spanish language.[3] Article 3 of Law 7/1991, of March 21, created the Instituto Cervantes as a government agency. The law explains that the ultimate goals of the Institute are to promote the education, the study and the use of Spanish universally as a second language; to support the methods and activities that would help the process of Spanish language education, and to contribute to the advancement of the Spanish and Hispanic American cultures throughout non-Spanish-speaking countries.[4][5]","title":"Instituto Cervantes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Diplomas of Spanish as Foreign Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DELE"},{"link_name":"Spanish Ministry of Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Spain)"},{"link_name":"Common European Framework of Reference for Languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_European_Framework_of_Reference_for_Languages"},{"link_name":"Aula Virtual de Español","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aula_Virtual_de_Espa%C3%B1ol&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thinkspain_News_Feed-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thinkspain_News_Feed-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thinkspain_News_Feed-6"},{"link_name":"Hispanists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanist"},{"link_name":"Hispanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanism"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ciweb-3"},{"link_name":"national radio and television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RTVE"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thinkspain_News_Feed-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thinkspain_News_Feed-6"},{"link_name":"Constitutional and Sociocultural Knowledge of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//examenes.cervantes.es/es/ccse/examen"},{"link_name":"Centro Virtual Cervantes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Virtual_presence"}],"text":"The functions and services of the Cervantes Institute are:It designs Spanish language courses, offering two kinds of courses: general and special.\nIt offers the Diplomas of Spanish as Foreign Language (DELE) examinations on behalf of the Spanish Ministry of Education. This is an official qualification certifying levels of competence in the Spanish language, and is the only certificate for non-native Spanish speakers that is officially recognised in Spain. The diplomas are subdivided into six levels, each one corresponding to a certain proficiency level as described by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2.\nIt improves the methods of Spanish education.\nOn-line Spanish language learning environment Ex) AVE (Aula Virtual de Español)[6]\nCreating a social, cultural and educational environment in each centre[6]\nA student-centred plan, focusing on the dialogues between teacher and student over objectives and contents[6]\nIt supports Hispanists and \"Hispanism\", which is the study of the culture of Spain and Hispanic America.\nSponsors lectures, book presentations, concerts, art exhibitions, The Spain Film Festival and Festival of Flamenco. Supported by other organisations and communities.[3]\nIt organises and promotes the program to spread the Spanish language throughout the world.\nThe institute works with Spain's national radio and television to deliver Spanish language courses.[6]\nPublications, on-line bibliographies, library holdings, the hosting of major conferences on the state of the Spanish language.[6]\nIt administers the Constitutional and Sociocultural Knowledge of Spain (CCSE) examinations worldwide, which are a legal requirement for the acquisition of Spanish nationality.\nIt establishes libraries and centres.\nIt also publishes the Anuario del español to analyse and report on the situation and development of the Spanish language in different places.\nIt supports the Centro Virtual Cervantes on the internet since 1997.","title":"Functions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ciweb-3"}],"text":"General language courses are offered at four different levels: elementary, intermediate, advanced and high advanced.[3]Improving specific language skills, such as reading, speaking, and writing\nTeaching Spanish for specific purposes, such as business, medical, legal, or translation\nLearning about the literature and cultures of the Spanish-speaking countries\nPreparation for Diplomas of Spanish as Foreign LanguageThe Cervantes Institute offers comprehensive Spanish language classes to:Develop the student's ability to use the language in a variety of contexts, paying special attention to the differences of Spanish accents.\nTo provide different resources, including Spanish on-line, to improve the teaching.\nTo allow the students to use any of the facilities of the Cervantes Institute around the world.\nTo issue Spanish language diplomas and certificates","title":"Academic programme"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Banco_Espa%C3%B1ol_del_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata_(Madrid)_05.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cervantes Institute headquarters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADo_de_La_Plata_Bank"},{"link_name":"Madrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrid"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thinkspain_News_Feed-6"},{"link_name":"King of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Felipe VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felipe_VI"},{"link_name":"Prime Minister of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thinkspain_News_Feed-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thinkspain_News_Feed-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thinkspain_News_Feed-6"},{"link_name":"Council of Ministers of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Spain)"}],"text":"Cervantes Institute headquarters, in MadridThe administration of the Cervantes Institute is subdivided into three parts. A commitment and interest in planning the activities and direction of the Institute are managed by a high-profile membership.[6]Patronato (Board of Trustees): The Cervantes Institute is overseen by its governing body, the Patronato. The Patronato normally includes the King of Spain, Felipe VI as the honorary president and the Prime Minister of Spain, as well as representatives from the world of culture and letters in Spain and in the Americas.[6] The executive presidency is held by the Secretaries of State of Education and Science, Culture, the president and vice-president of the Council of Administration, the Director of the institute, 25 elected members from cultural and language institutions. It gives general directions for the activities of the Institute and informs on its annual activities.[6]\nThe Consejo de Administración (Board of Directors) is a management body and approves the general plans and projects of the institute. It consists of representatives from the ministries of Foreign Affairs, Education, Culture and Sport, Treasury, and Home Affairs, as well as from the Patronato. This is presided by the Secretary of State of International Cooperation and consists of two vice-presidents (Undersecretary of the Science and Education Department and the Undersecretary of the Department of Culture), two advisers of the Patronato, and four advisers from the Secretaries of State, Education and Science, Culture and of Economy and Treasury and the Director of the institute.[6]\nThe Director is appointed by the Council of Ministers of Spain. The Director is in charge of guiding the management of the institute, and other pertinent executive and administrative tasks.","title":"Administration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-El_Pais_Edici%C3%B3n_Impresa-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ciweb-3"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-El_Pais_Edici%C3%B3n_Impresa-7"},{"link_name":"Second Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Life"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Centro Virtual Cervantes is an online service that was created in December 1997 by the Instituto Cervantes of Spain to contribute to the diffusion of the Spanish language and Hispanic cultures. It became one of the most important reference sites devoted to Spanish language and culture, having reached an average of over 100,000 visitors a month, including both professionals and the general public.[7] It offers resources and services to teachers, students, translators, journalists and other professionals involved with the Spanish language, and as well as to Hispanists throughout the world, who study Hispanic cultures, and to any person who is interested in the language and Hispanic cultures.[3] It also includes announcements of cultural events (Actos Culturales), four discussion forums, each of which focuses on a specific topic, and the language classroom, Aula de Lengua, designed for both teachers and learners of Spanish.[7] The Instituto Cervantes also has a virtual presence in the 3D virtual world Second Life.[citation needed]","title":"Virtual presence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alcalá de Henares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcal%C3%A1_de_Henares"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ciweb-3"}],"text":"On 13 December 2004, the Cervantes Institute formed its Centro de Formación de Profesores in its headquarters, located in Alcalá de Henares, where Cervantes was born. This institution was founded to encourage the teaching of Spanish as a foreign language and to provide useful resources to its members. Throughout the year, it organises the specific activities and programmes for the centre, with several different goals, which include teaching, providing the resources to the teachers to use in their education field, and developing specialised knowledge of the Spanish language for educational purposes. The centre supports the future teachers of Spanish through its 'Master of Education in Spanish as a Foreign Language', in collaboration with the International University Menéndez Pelayo. For teachers already involved in teaching, the Centre provides advanced activities that produce a deeper knowledge, focusing on research or discussion in the classroom, and improving the students’ skills in Spanish language for them to become responsive in any communicational situations.[3]","title":"Centro de Formación de Profesores"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ciweb-3"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica.com-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica.com-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica.com-8"},{"link_name":"information technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica.com-8"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ciweb-3"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica.com-8"}],"text":"The Automatic Translator Service of the Cervantes Institute, \"Portal de las Tecnologías Lingüisticas en España\", was launched by the Cervantes Institute on 10 January 2005.[3][8] It is a free service of machine translation sponsored by Telefónica. Since its launch, demand has steadily increased monthly to 55%,[8] and it has performed more than 582,000 free translations.[8] The Cervantes Institute's purpose in creating this service was to facilitate the access of Spanish to those information technology contents developed in other languages, and so people who speak other languages can have access to contents that are only available in Spanish.[8] This service permits translation of texts and text files, as well as web pages, from Spanish to Catalan, French, Galician, English or Portuguese and vice versa.[3] The pairs of language percentages used are as follows: English–Spanish, 23.47% of the total; Spanish–Catalan, 21.12%; Spanish–English, 13.64%; Portuguese–Spanish, 12.63%; Spanish–Portuguese, 10.39%; Catalan–Spanish, 6.48%; Spanish–French, 6.24%, and French–Spanish, 6.03%.[8]","title":"Free translator service"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"}],"text":"Since 1998, the Instituto Cervantes has published the annual El español en el mundo highlighting the state of Spanish in the world, and current trends. This publication also includes the annual report Spanish: A Living Language,[9] which quantitatively analyzes the situation of the Spanish language worldwide.The Instituto has also run the Internet-based Centro Virtual Cervantes since 1997.","title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alliance française","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance_fran%C3%A7aise"},{"link_name":"Società Dante Alighieri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante_Alighieri_Society"},{"link_name":"British Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Council"},{"link_name":"Goethe-Institut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethe-Institut"},{"link_name":"Instituto Camões","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instituto_Cam%C3%B5es"},{"link_name":"Prince of Asturias Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_of_Asturias_Awards"}],"text":"In 2005, along with the Alliance française, the Società Dante Alighieri, the British Council, the Goethe-Institut, and the Instituto Camões, the Instituto Cervantes was awarded the Prince of Asturias Award for outstanding achievements in communications and humanities.","title":"Recognition"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Instituto_Cervantes_213_E49_jeh.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Instituto_Cervantes_Delhi.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Institut_Cervantes.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Instituto_Cervantes_en_Munich.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Instituto_Cervantes_Varsovia_1.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CervInstSF.jpg"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"Cadiz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadiz"},{"link_name":"Cordoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain"},{"link_name":"Granada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granada"},{"link_name":"Malaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaga"},{"link_name":"Seville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seville"},{"link_name":"Zaragoza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaragoza"},{"link_name":"Santa Cruz de Tenerife","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Cruz_de_Tenerife"},{"link_name":"Cantabria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantabria"},{"link_name":"Toledo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo,_Spain"},{"link_name":"Avila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avila"},{"link_name":"Burgos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgos"},{"link_name":"Salamanca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamanca"},{"link_name":"Soria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soria"},{"link_name":"Valladolid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valladolid"},{"link_name":"Barcelona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelona"},{"link_name":"Gerona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerona,_Spain"},{"link_name":"Madrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrid"},{"link_name":"Navarra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navarra"},{"link_name":"Alicante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alicante"},{"link_name":"Castellon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Castell%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Valencia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valencia"},{"link_name":"A Coruña","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Coru%C3%B1a"},{"link_name":"Balearic Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balearic_Islands"},{"link_name":"Guipuzcoa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guipuzcoa"},{"link_name":"Vizcaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biscay"},{"link_name":"Latinoamerica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinoamerica"},{"link_name":"Argentina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Buenos Aires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires"},{"link_name":"Cordoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Argentina"},{"link_name":"Mendoza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendoza,_Argentina"},{"link_name":"Brasil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brasil"},{"link_name":"Caxias do Sul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caxias_do_Sul"},{"link_name":"Chile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile"},{"link_name":"Colombia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia"},{"link_name":"Barranquilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barranquilla"},{"link_name":"Bogota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogota"},{"link_name":"Cartagena de Indias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartagena_de_Indias"},{"link_name":"Medellin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medellin"},{"link_name":"Costa Rica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costa_Rica"},{"link_name":"Ecuador","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecuador"},{"link_name":"Guatemala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guatemala"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Mexico City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico_City"},{"link_name":"Guadalajara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalajara"},{"link_name":"Playa del Carmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playa_del_Carmen"},{"link_name":"Panama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama"},{"link_name":"Uruguay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruguay"},{"link_name":"Iberoamerica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberoamerica"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Edmonton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonton"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"United Arab Emirates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates"},{"link_name":"Dubai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Scottsdale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottsdale,_Arizona"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Mumbai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Teheran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teheran"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"Wroclaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wroclaw"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Saint Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Ankara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankara"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"www.cervantes.es","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.cervantes.es/sobre_instituto_cervantes/direcciones_contacto/sedes_mundo.htm"},{"link_name":"Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa"},{"link_name":"Algeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria"},{"link_name":"Algiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algiers"},{"link_name":"Oran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oran"},{"link_name":"Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt"},{"link_name":"Cairo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo"},{"link_name":"Alexandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria"},{"link_name":"Morocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco"},{"link_name":"Casablanca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casablanca"},{"link_name":"Fes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fes"},{"link_name":"Rabat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabat"},{"link_name":"Tangier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangier"},{"link_name":"Tétouan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9touan"},{"link_name":"Marrakesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrakesh"},{"link_name":"Tunisia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia"},{"link_name":"Tunis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunis"},{"link_name":"Americas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"São Paulo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo"},{"link_name":"Brasília","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bras%C3%ADlia"},{"link_name":"Salvador","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvador,_Bahia"},{"link_name":"Belo Horizonte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belo_Horizonte"},{"link_name":"Porto Alegre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porto_Alegre"},{"link_name":"Recife","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recife"},{"link_name":"Curitiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curitiba"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Calgary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calgary"},{"link_name":"University of Calgary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Calgary"},{"link_name":"Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Albuquerque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albuquerque,_New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"Seattle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle"},{"link_name":"University of Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washington"},{"link_name":"Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Beijing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing"},{"link_name":"Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"New Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhi"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"},{"link_name":"Manila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manila"},{"link_name":"Makati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makati"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"},{"link_name":"Seoul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seoul"},{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Jakarta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakarta"},{"link_name":"Malaysia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia"},{"link_name":"Kuala Lumpur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur"},{"link_name":"HELP University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HELP_University"},{"link_name":"Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam"},{"link_name":"Hanoi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanoi"},{"link_name":"University of Hanoi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Hanoi"},{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"},{"link_name":"Vienna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna"},{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"Brussels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels"},{"link_name":"Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria"},{"link_name":"Sofia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofia"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic"},{"link_name":"Prague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prague"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Bordeaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bordeaux"},{"link_name":"Lyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyon"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"Toulouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toulouse"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin"},{"link_name":"Bremen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremen"},{"link_name":"Frankfurt am Main","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt"},{"link_name":"Hamburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg"},{"link_name":"Munich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens"},{"link_name":"Queen Sofía of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Sof%C3%ADa_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary"},{"link_name":"Budapest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Dublin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin"},{"link_name":"53°20′31″N 6°15′06″W / 53.341975°N 6.251575°W / 53.341975; -6.251575","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Instituto_Cervantes&params=53.341975_N_6.251575_W_region:IE_type:landmark_scale:2000_source:wikimapia"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan"},{"link_name":"Naples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naples"},{"link_name":"Palermo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palermo"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Utrecht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utrecht"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"Warsaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw"},{"link_name":"Kraków","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w"},{"link_name":"Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal"},{"link_name":"Lisbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisbon"},{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania"},{"link_name":"Bucharest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucharest"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow"},{"link_name":"Serbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbia"},{"link_name":"Belgrade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"Stockholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Leeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leeds"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instituto_Cervantes,_Manchester"},{"link_name":"Croatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatia"},{"link_name":"Zagreb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zagreb"},{"link_name":"University of Zagreb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Zagreb"},{"link_name":"Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia"},{"link_name":"Bratislava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bratislava"},{"link_name":"Comenius University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comenius_University"},{"link_name":"Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Liubliana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liubliana"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Istanbul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul"},{"link_name":"West Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Asia"},{"link_name":"Cyprus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus"},{"link_name":"Nicosia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicosia"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel"},{"link_name":"Tel Aviv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv"},{"link_name":"Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan"},{"link_name":"Amman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amman"},{"link_name":"Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Beirut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beirut"},{"link_name":"Kaslik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaslik"},{"link_name":"Tripoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripoli,_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria"},{"link_name":"Damascus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Istanbul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul"},{"link_name":"Oceania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceania"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney"}],"text":"New YorkNew DelhiParisMunichWarsawSofiaThe Instituto Cervantes has developed its educational project on a system of local institutions and centres:[10]Centros Cervantes (full-fledged centres)\nAulas Cervantes (inside universities with \"lecture halls, sometimes with teaching and cultural activity\")\nCentros Acreditados. They are Spanish teaching centers, whose quality has been expressly recognized by the IC, by meeting the requirements established by the ELE Center Accreditation System of the Cervantes Institute. There are 196 centers in Spain (Cadiz, Cordoba, Granada, 22 in Malaga, 9 in Seville, Zaragoza, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Cantabria, Toledo, Avila, Burgos, Salamanca, Soria, Valladolid, 18 in Barcelona, Gerona, 24 in Madrid, Navarra, 6 in Alicante, Castellon, 16 in Valencia, A Coruña, Balearic Islands, Guipuzcoa, Vizcaya.). In Latinoamerica: Argentina (Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Mendoza), Brasil (Caxias do Sul), Chile, Colombia (Barranquilla, Bogota, Cartagena de Indias, 2 in Medellin), Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico (Mexico City, 2 in Guadalajara, 2 in Playa del Carmen), Panama, Uruguay. Outside Iberoamerica: Canada (Edmonton), China (Hong Kong), United Arab Emirates (Dubai), United States (Scottsdale), India (Mumbai), Iran (Teheran), Poland (Wroclaw), Russia (Saint Petersburg), Singapore, Switzerland (Geneva), Turkey (Ankara).[11]A representative list follows, the most recent and complete list can be found at www.cervantes.es.Centros Cervantes\nAfrica\n Algeria (Algiers, Oran)\n Egypt (Cairo, Alexandria)\n Morocco (Casablanca, Fes, Rabat, Tangier, Tétouan, Marrakesh)\n Tunisia (Tunis)\nAmericas\n Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Brasília, Salvador, Belo Horizonte, Porto Alegre, Recife, Curitiba)\n Canada (Calgary - University of Calgary, Toronto[12]\n United States (Albuquerque, Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, Boston – Harvard University, Seattle – University of Washington)\nAsia\n China (Beijing, Shanghai)\n India (New Delhi)\n Japan (Tokyo)\n Philippines (Manila, Makati)\n South Korea (Seoul)\n Indonesia (Jakarta)\n Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur - HELP University)\n Vietnam (Hanoi - University of Hanoi)\nEurope\n Austria (Vienna)\n Belgium (Brussels)\n Bulgaria (Sofia)\n Czech Republic (Prague)\n France (Bordeaux, Lyon, Paris, Toulouse)\n Germany (Berlin, Bremen, Frankfurt am Main, Hamburg, Munich)\n Greece (Athens) – the original Athens Cervantes Institute opened in 1992; in March 2010, Greek-born Queen Sofía of Spain opened its new building.\n Hungary (Budapest)\n Ireland (Dublin) – 53°20′31″N 6°15′06″W / 53.341975°N 6.251575°W / 53.341975; -6.251575\n Italy (Milan, Naples, Palermo, Rome)\n Netherlands (Utrecht)\n Poland (Warsaw, Kraków)\n Portugal (Lisbon)\n Romania (Bucharest)\n Russia (Moscow)\n Serbia (Belgrade)\n Sweden (Stockholm)\n United Kingdom (Leeds, London, Manchester)\n Croatia (Zagreb - University of Zagreb))\n Slovakia (Bratislava - Comenius University)\n Slovenia (Liubliana)\n Turkey (Istanbul)\nWest Asia\n Cyprus (Nicosia)\n Israel (Tel Aviv)\n Jordan (Amman)\n Lebanon (Beirut, Kaslik, Tripoli)\n Syria (Damascus)\n Turkey (Istanbul)\nOceania\n Australia (Sydney)","title":"Locations"}]	[{"image_text":"Cervantes Institute headquarters, in Madrid","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Banco_Espa%C3%B1ol_del_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata_%28Madrid%29_05.jpg/280px-Banco_Espa%C3%B1ol_del_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata_%28Madrid%29_05.jpg"},{"image_text":"New York","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Instituto_Cervantes_213_E49_jeh.jpg/170px-Instituto_Cervantes_213_E49_jeh.jpg"},{"image_text":"New Delhi","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Instituto_Cervantes_Delhi.jpg/220px-Instituto_Cervantes_Delhi.jpg"},{"image_text":"Paris","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Institut_Cervantes.jpg/170px-Institut_Cervantes.jpg"},{"image_text":"Munich","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Instituto_Cervantes_en_Munich.JPG/170px-Instituto_Cervantes_en_Munich.JPG"},{"image_text":"Warsaw","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Instituto_Cervantes_Varsovia_1.JPG/220px-Instituto_Cervantes_Varsovia_1.JPG"},{"image_text":"Sofia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/CervInstSF.jpg/220px-CervInstSF.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Alliance française","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance_fran%C3%A7aise"},{"title":"British Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Council"},{"title":"Cultural diplomacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_diplomacy"},{"title":"Dante Alighieri Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante_Alighieri_Society"},{"title":"Dutch Language Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Language_Union"},{"title":"Goethe-Institut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethe-Institut"},{"title":"Hispanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanism"},{"title":"Instituto Camões","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instituto_Cam%C3%B5es"},{"title":"Miguel de Cervantes Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes_Prize"},{"title":"Panhispanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panhispanism"},{"title":"Public diplomacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_diplomacy"},{"title":"Queen Sofía Spanish Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Sof%C3%ADa_Spanish_Institute"},{"title":"Viva Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viva_Festival"}]	[{"reference":"\"Cervantes Institute in numbers\" (PDF). www.cervantes.es. 2019. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP_splicing	Delayed binding	["1 References"]	Delayed binding, also called TCP connection splicing, is the postponement of the connection between the client and the server in order to obtain sufficient information to make a routing decision. Some application switches and routers delay binding the client session to the server until the proper handshakes are complete so as to prevent denial-of-service attacks. References ^ Kopparapu, Chandra (2002-01-25). "Server Load Balancing: Advanced Concepts". Load Balancing Servers, Firewalls, and Caches (1st ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 60 – 64. ISBN 0-471-41550-2. ^ Syme, Matthew; Goldie, Philip (2003-07-12). "Content-Aware Server Load Balancing". Optimizing Network Performance with Content Switching: Server, Firewall and Cache Load Balancing. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. p. 115. ISBN 0-13-101468-4. This computer networking article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Delayed binding"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Kopparapu, Chandra (2002-01-25). \"Server Load Balancing: Advanced Concepts\". Load Balancing Servers, Firewalls, and Caches (1st ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 60 – 64. ISBN 0-471-41550-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/loadbalancingser00kopp_218","url_text":"Load Balancing Servers, Firewalls, and Caches"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoboken,_New_Jersey","url_text":"Hoboken, New Jersey"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons","url_text":"John Wiley & Sons"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/loadbalancingser00kopp_218/page/n74","url_text":"60"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-41550-2","url_text":"0-471-41550-2"}]},{"reference":"Syme, Matthew; Goldie, Philip (2003-07-12). \"Content-Aware Server Load Balancing\". Optimizing Network Performance with Content Switching: Server, Firewall and Cache Load Balancing. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. p. 115. ISBN 0-13-101468-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Saddle_River,_New_Jersey","url_text":"Upper Saddle River, New Jersey"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prentice_Hall","url_text":"Prentice Hall"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-101468-4","url_text":"0-13-101468-4"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/loadbalancingser00kopp_218","external_links_name":"Load Balancing Servers, Firewalls, and Caches"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/loadbalancingser00kopp_218/page/n74","external_links_name":"60"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Delayed_binding&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._Satyanarayanan	Mahadev Satyanarayanan	["1 Education","2 Andrew File System","3 Coda File System","4 Odyssey: Application-aware Adaptation for Mobile Applications","5 Aura: Cloud Offload for IoT","6 References","7 External links"]	Indian experimental computer scientist This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately from the article and its talk page, especially if potentially libelous.Find sources: "Mahadev Satyanarayanan" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Mahadev Satyanarayanan (Satya)Born1953Alma materCarnegie Mellon University (Ph.D.), IIT Madras (M.Tech., B.Tech.)Known forAndrew File SystemCoda File SystemMobile ComputingEdge ComputingAwardsACM Software System AwardACM SIGOPS Hall of Fame AwardACM SIGMOBILE Test-of-Time AwardACM FellowIEEE FellowScientific careerFieldsEdge Computing, Mobile Computing, Internet of Things, Distributed File SystemsInstitutionsCarnegie Mellon UniversityThesisA methodology for modeling storage systems and its application to a network file system (1983)Doctoral advisorWilliam Wulf, George G. Robertson Websitehttps://www.cs.cmu.edu/~satya/ Mahadev "Satya" Satyanarayanan is an Indian experimental computer scientist, an ACM and IEEE fellow, and the Carnegie Group Professor of Computer Science at Carnegie Mellon University (CMU). He is credited with many advances in edge computing, distributed systems, mobile computing, pervasive computing, and the Internet of Things. His research focus is on performance, scalability, availability, and trust challenges in computing systems from the cloud to the mobile edge. His work on the Andrew File System (AFS) was recognized with the ACM Software System Award in 2016 and the ACM SIGOPS Hall of Fame Award in 2008 for its influence and impact. His work on disconnected operation in the Coda File System received the ACM SIGOPS Hall of Fame Award in 2015 and the inaugural ACM SIGMOBILE Test-of-Time Award in 2016. Education He has a bachelor's and master's degree from the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, in 1975 and 1977, and his Ph.D. in computer science from CMU in 1983. Andrew File System Satya was a project lead for Coda. It also inspired the creation of Maginatics, a startup company advised by Satya that provides cloud-sourced network-attached storage for distributed environments. The NFS v4 network file system protocol standard has been extensively informed by the lessons of AFS. In 2016, AFS was honored with the prestigious ACM Software System Award. Coda File System In 1987, Satya began work on the Coda File System to address a fundamental shortcoming of AFS-like systems. Odyssey: Application-aware Adaptation for Mobile Applications In the mid-1990s, Satya initiated the Odyssey project to explore how operating systems should be extended to support future mobile applications. Aura: Cloud Offload for IoT In the late 1990s, Satya initiated the Aura Project in collaboration with CMU faculty colleagues David Garlan, Raj Reddy, Peter Steenkiste, Dan Siewiorek and Asim Smailagic. References ^ "Mahadev Satyanarayanan". awards.acm.org. Retrieved 2018-03-18. ^ "IEEE Fellows Directory - Chronological Listing". services27.ieee.org. Retrieved 2018-03-18. ^ "Mahadev Satyanarayanan \| Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science". www.cs.cmu.edu. 2015-10-15. Retrieved 2018-03-18. ^ "With Sync Solved, Dropbox Squares Off With Apple's iCloud". WIRED. Retrieved 2018-03-18. ^ "Mahadev Satyanarayanan". awards.acm.org. Retrieved 2018-03-18. External links Mahadev Satyanarayanan's Home Page Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany Israel United States Netherlands Academics Association for Computing Machinery 2 CiNii DBLP Google Scholar Mathematics Genealogy Project ORCID Scopus Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer scientist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_scientist"},{"link_name":"ACM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"IEEE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Carnegie Mellon University (CMU)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_Mellon_University"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"edge computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_computing"},{"link_name":"distributed systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_Systems"},{"link_name":"mobile computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_computing"},{"link_name":"pervasive computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pervasive_computing"},{"link_name":"Internet of Things","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_of_Things"},{"link_name":"cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"mobile edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_edge_computing"},{"link_name":"Andrew File System (AFS)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_File_System"},{"link_name":"ACM Software System Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACM_Software_System_Award"},{"link_name":"ACM SIGOPS Hall of Fame Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACM_SIGOPS#Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"Coda File System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coda_(file_system)"},{"link_name":"ACM SIGOPS Hall of Fame Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACM_SIGOPS#Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"ACM SIGMOBILE Test-of-Time Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIGMOBILE"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Mahadev \"Satya\" Satyanarayanan is an Indian experimental computer scientist, an ACM[1] and IEEE[2] fellow, and the Carnegie Group Professor of Computer Science at Carnegie Mellon University (CMU).[3]He is credited with many advances in edge computing, distributed systems, mobile computing, pervasive computing, and the Internet of Things. His research focus is on performance, scalability, availability, and trust challenges in computing systems from the cloud to the mobile edge.His work on the Andrew File System (AFS) was recognized with the ACM Software System Award in 2016 and the ACM SIGOPS Hall of Fame Award in 2008 for its influence and impact. His work on disconnected operation in the Coda File System received the ACM SIGOPS Hall of Fame Award in 2015 and the inaugural ACM SIGMOBILE Test-of-Time Award in 2016.[citation needed]","title":"Mahadev Satyanarayanan"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Indian Institute of Technology, Madras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Institute_of_Technology_Madras"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"He has a bachelor's and master's degree from the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, in 1975 and 1977, and his Ph.D. in computer science from CMU in 1983.[citation needed]","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Coda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coda_(file_system)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Satya was a project lead for Coda.[4] It also inspired the creation of Maginatics, a startup company advised by Satya that provides cloud-sourced network-attached storage for distributed environments. The NFS v4 network file system protocol standard has been extensively informed by the lessons of AFS. In 2016, AFS was honored with the prestigious ACM Software System Award.[5]","title":"Andrew File System"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Coda File System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coda_(file_system)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"In 1987, Satya began work on the Coda File System to address a fundamental shortcoming of AFS-like systems.[citation needed]","title":"Coda File System"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"In the mid-1990s, Satya initiated the Odyssey project to explore how operating systems should be extended to support future mobile applications.[citation needed]","title":"Odyssey: Application-aware Adaptation for Mobile Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"David Garlan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Garlan"},{"link_name":"Raj Reddy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raj_Reddy"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"In the late 1990s, Satya initiated the Aura Project in collaboration with CMU faculty colleagues David Garlan, Raj Reddy, Peter Steenkiste, Dan Siewiorek and Asim Smailagic.[citation needed]","title":"Aura: Cloud Offload for IoT"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"Mahadev Satyanarayanan\". awards.acm.org. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_recording	Sound recording and reproduction	["1 Early history","2 Phonautograph","3 Phonograph","3.1 Cylinder","3.2 Disc","4 Electrical","5 Optical and magnetic","5.1 Tape","6 Stereo and hi-fi","7 Audio components","8 Digital","8.1 Software","9 Legal status","9.1 United States","9.2 United Kingdom","10 See also","11 Notes","12 References","13 Further reading","14 External links"]	Recording of sound and playing it back "Sound recorder" redirects here. For the audio recording program computer software, see Windows Voice Recorder. Frances Densmore and Blackfoot chief Mountain Chief working on a recording project of the Bureau of American Ethnology (1916). Sound recording and reproduction is the electrical, mechanical, electronic, or digital inscription and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. The two main classes of sound recording technology are analog recording and digital recording. Acoustic analog recording is achieved by a microphone diaphragm that senses changes in atmospheric pressure caused by acoustic sound waves and records them as a mechanical representation of the sound waves on a medium such as a phonograph record (in which a stylus cuts grooves on a record). In magnetic tape recording, the sound waves vibrate the microphone diaphragm and are converted into a varying electric current, which is then converted to a varying magnetic field by an electromagnet, which makes a representation of the sound as magnetized areas on a plastic tape with a magnetic coating on it. Analog sound reproduction is the reverse process, with a larger loudspeaker diaphragm causing changes to atmospheric pressure to form acoustic sound waves. Digital recording and reproduction converts the analog sound signal picked up by the microphone to a digital form by the process of sampling. This lets the audio data be stored and transmitted by a wider variety of media. Digital recording stores audio as a series of binary numbers (zeros and ones) representing samples of the amplitude of the audio signal at equal time intervals, at a sample rate high enough to convey all sounds capable of being heard. A digital audio signal must be reconverted to analog form during playback before it is amplified and connected to a loudspeaker to produce sound. Early history Mechanical organ, 1650 See also: History of sound recording Long before sound was first recorded, music was recorded—first by written music notation, then also by mechanical devices (e.g., wind-up music boxes, in which a mechanism turns a spindle, which plucks metal tines, thus reproducing a melody). Automatic music reproduction traces back as far as the 9th century, when the Banū Mūsā brothers invented the earliest known mechanical musical instrument, in this case, a hydropowered (water-powered) organ that played interchangeable cylinders. According to Charles B. Fowler, this "... cylinder with raised pins on the surface remained the basic device to produce and reproduce music mechanically until the second half of the nineteenth century." Carvings in the Rosslyn Chapel from the 1560s may represent an early attempt to record the Chladni patterns produced by sound in stone representations, although this theory has not been conclusively proved. In the 14th century, a mechanical bell-ringer controlled by a rotating cylinder was introduced in Flanders. Similar designs appeared in barrel organs (15th century), musical clocks (1598), barrel pianos (1805), and music boxes (c. 1800). A music box is an automatic musical instrument that produces sounds by the use of a set of pins placed on a revolving cylinder or disc so as to pluck the tuned teeth (or lamellae) of a steel comb. The fairground organ, developed in 1892, used a system of accordion-folded punched cardboard books. The player piano, first demonstrated in 1876, used a punched paper scroll that could store a long piece of music. The most sophisticated of the piano rolls were "hand-played," meaning that they were duplicates from a master roll which had been created on a special piano, which punched holes in the master as a live performer played the song. Thus, the roll represented a recording of the actual performance of an individual, not just the more common method of punching the master roll through transcription of the sheet music. This technology to record a live performance onto a piano roll was not developed until 1904. Piano rolls were in continuous mass production from 1896 to 2008. A 1908 U.S. Supreme Court copyright case noted that, in 1902 alone, there were between 70,000 and 75,000 player pianos manufactured, and between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000 piano rolls produced. Phonautograph Main article: Phonautograph Au Clair de la Lune This 1860 phonautogram by Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville is the earliest known recording of a person singing. Problems playing this file? See media help. The first device that could record actual sounds as they passed through the air (but could not play them back—the purpose was only visual study) was the phonautograph, patented in 1857 by Parisian inventor Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville. The earliest known recordings of the human voice are phonautograph recordings, called phonautograms, made in 1857. They consist of sheets of paper with sound-wave-modulated white lines created by a vibrating stylus that cut through a coating of soot as the paper was passed under it. An 1860 phonautogram of "Au Clair de la Lune", a French folk song, was played back as sound for the first time in 2008 by scanning it and using software to convert the undulating line, which graphically encoded the sound, into a corresponding digital audio file. Phonograph Thomas Edison's work on two other innovations, the telegraph and the telephone, led to the development of the phonograph. Edison was working on a machine in 1877 that would transcribe telegraphic signals onto paper tape, which could then be transferred over the telegraph again and again. The phonograph was both in a cylinder and a disc form. Cylinder "Kham Hom" ("Sweet Words") Phonograph cylinder recording of Siamese (Thai) musicians visiting Berlin, Germany in 1900 Problems playing this file? See media help. On April 30, 1877, French poet, humorous writer and inventor Charles Cros submitted a sealed envelope containing a letter to the Academy of Sciences in Paris fully explaining his proposed method, called the paleophone. Though no trace of a working paleophone was ever found, Cros is remembered by some historians as an early inventor of a sound recording and reproduction machine. The first practical sound recording and reproduction device was the mechanical phonograph cylinder, invented by Thomas Edison in 1877 and patented in 1878. The invention soon spread across the globe and over the next two decades the commercial recording, distribution, and sale of sound recordings became a growing new international industry, with the most popular titles selling millions of units by the early 1900s. A process for mass-producing duplicate wax cylinders by molding instead of engraving them was put into effect in 1901. The development of mass-production techniques enabled cylinder recordings to become a major new consumer item in industrial countries and the cylinder was the main consumer format from the late 1880s until around 1910. Disc Recording of Bell's voice on a wax disc in 1885, identified in 2013 Emile Berliner with disc record gramophone The next major technical development was the invention of the gramophone record, generally credited to Emile Berliner and patented in 1887, though others had demonstrated similar disk apparatus earlier, most notably Alexander Graham Bell in 1881. Discs were easier to manufacture, transport and store, and they had the additional benefit of being marginally louder than cylinders. Sales of the gramophone record overtook the cylinder ca. 1910, and by the end of World War I the disc had become the dominant commercial recording format. Edison, who was the main producer of cylinders, created the Edison Disc Record in an attempt to regain his market. The double-sided (nominally 78 rpm) shellac disc was the standard consumer music format from the early 1910s to the late 1950s. In various permutations, the audio disc format became the primary medium for consumer sound recordings until the end of the 20th century. Although there was no universally accepted speed, and various companies offered discs that played at several different speeds, the major recording companies eventually settled on a de facto industry standard of nominally 78 revolutions per minute. The specified speed was 78.26 rpm in America and 77.92 rpm throughout the rest of the world. The difference in speeds was due to the difference in the cycle frequencies of the AC electricity that powered the stroboscopes used to calibrate recording lathes and turntables. The nominal speed of the disc format gave rise to its common nickname, the "seventy-eight" (though not until other speeds had become available). Discs were made of shellac or similar brittle plastic-like materials, played with needles made from a variety of materials including mild steel, thorn, and even sapphire. Discs had a distinctly limited playing life that varied depending on how they were manufactured. Earlier, purely acoustic methods of recording had limited sensitivity and frequency range. Mid-frequency range notes could be recorded, but very low and very high frequencies could not. Instruments such as the violin were difficult to transfer to disc. One technique to deal with this involved using a Stroh violin which uses a conical horn connected to a diaphragm that in turn is connected to the violin bridge. The horn was no longer needed once electrical recording was developed. The long-playing 331⁄3 rpm microgroove LP record, was developed at Columbia Records and introduced in 1948. The short-playing but convenient 7-inch (18 cm) 45 rpm microgroove vinyl single was introduced by RCA Victor in 1949. In the US and most developed countries, the two new vinyl formats completely replaced 78 rpm shellac discs by the end of the 1950s, but in some corners of the world, the 78 lingered on far into the 1960s. Vinyl was much more expensive than shellac, one of the several factors that made its use for 78 rpm records very unusual, but with a long-playing disc the added cost was acceptable. The compact 45 format required very little material. Vinyl offered improved performance, both in stamping and in playback. Vinyl records were, over-optimistically, advertised as "unbreakable". They were not, but they were much less fragile than shellac, which had itself once been touted as "unbreakable" compared to wax cylinders. Electrical Further information: Music technology (electric) RCA-44, a classic ribbon microphone introduced in 1932. Similar units were widely used for recording and broadcasting in the 1940s and are occasionally still used today. Sound recording began as a purely mechanical process. Except for a few crude telephone-based recording devices with no means of amplification, such as the telegraphone, it remained so until the 1920s. Between the invention of the phonograph in 1877 and the first commercial digital recordings in the early 1970s, arguably the most important milestone in the history of sound recording was the introduction of what was then called electrical recording, in which a microphone was used to convert the sound into an electrical signal that was amplified and used to actuate the recording stylus. This innovation eliminated the "horn sound" resonances characteristic of the acoustical process, produced clearer and more full-bodied recordings by greatly extending the useful range of audio frequencies, and allowed previously unrecordable distant and feeble sounds to be captured. During this time, several radio-related developments in electronics converged to revolutionize the recording process. These included improved microphones and auxiliary devices such as electronic filters, all dependent on electronic amplification to be of practical use in recording. In 1906, Lee De Forest invented the Audion triode vacuum tube, an electronic valve that could amplify weak electrical signals. By 1915, it was in use in long-distance telephone circuits that made conversations between New York and San Francisco practical. Refined versions of this tube were the basis of all electronic sound systems until the commercial introduction of the first transistor-based audio devices in the mid-1950s. During World War I, engineers in the United States and Great Britain worked on ways to record and reproduce, among other things, the sound of a German U-boat for training purposes. Acoustical recording methods of the time could not reproduce the sounds accurately. The earliest results were not promising. The first electrical recording issued to the public, with little fanfare, was of November 11, 1920, funeral service for The Unknown Warrior in Westminster Abbey, London. The recording engineers used microphones of the type used in contemporary telephones. Four were discreetly set up in the abbey and wired to recording equipment in a vehicle outside. Although electronic amplification was used, the audio was weak and unclear, as only possible in those circumstances. For several years, this little-noted disc remained the only issued electrical recording. Several record companies and independent inventors, notably Orlando Marsh, experimented with equipment and techniques for electrical recording in the early 1920s. Marsh's electrically recorded Autograph Records were already being sold to the public in 1924, a year before the first such offerings from the major record companies, but their overall sound quality was too low to demonstrate any obvious advantage over traditional acoustical methods. Marsh's microphone technique was idiosyncratic and his work had little if any impact on the systems being developed by others. Telephone industry giant Western Electric had research laboratories with material and human resources that no record company or independent inventor could match. They had the best microphone, a condenser type developed there in 1916 and greatly improved in 1922, and the best amplifiers and test equipment. They had already patented an electromechanical recorder in 1918, and in the early 1920s, they decided to intensively apply their hardware and expertise to developing two state-of-the-art systems for electronically recording and reproducing sound: one that employed conventional discs and another that recorded optically on motion picture film. Their engineers pioneered the use of mechanical analogs of electrical circuits and developed a superior "rubber line" recorder for cutting the groove into the wax master in the disc recording system. By 1924, such dramatic progress had been made that Western Electric arranged a demonstration for the two leading record companies, the Victor Talking Machine Company and the Columbia Phonograph Company. Both soon licensed the system and both made their earliest published electrical recordings in February 1925, but neither actually released them until several months later. To avoid making their existing catalogs instantly obsolete, the two long-time archrivals agreed privately not to publicize the new process until November 1925, by which time enough electrically recorded repertory would be available to meet the anticipated demand. During the next few years, the lesser record companies licensed or developed other electrical recording systems. By 1929 only the budget label Harmony was still issuing new recordings made by the old acoustical process. Comparison of some surviving Western Electric test recordings with early commercial releases indicates that the record companies artificially reduced the frequency range of recordings so they would not overwhelm non-electronic playback equipment, which reproduced very low frequencies as an unpleasant rattle and rapidly wore out discs with strongly recorded high frequencies. Optical and magnetic Singer Tatjana Angelini recording the Swedish voice of Snow White in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, 1938 In the 1920s, Phonofilm and other early motion picture sound systems employed optical recording technology, in which the audio signal was graphically recorded on photographic film. The amplitude variations comprising the signal were used to modulate a light source which was imaged onto the moving film through a narrow slit, allowing the signal to be photographed as variations in the density or width of a sound track. The projector used a steady light and a photodetector to convert these variations back into an electrical signal, which was amplified and sent to loudspeakers behind the screen. Optical sound became the standard motion picture audio system throughout the world and remains so for theatrical release prints despite attempts in the 1950s to substitute magnetic soundtracks. Currently, all release prints on 35 mm movie film include an analog optical soundtrack, usually stereo with Dolby SR noise reduction. In addition, an optically recorded digital soundtrack in Dolby Digital or Sony SDDS form is likely to be present. An optically recorded timecode is also commonly included to synchronize CDROMs that contain a DTS soundtrack. This period also saw several other historic developments including the introduction of the first practical magnetic sound recording system, the magnetic wire recorder, which was based on the work of Danish inventor Valdemar Poulsen. Magnetic wire recorders were effective, but the sound quality was poor, so between the wars, they were primarily used for voice recording and marketed as business dictating machines. In 1924, a German engineer, Kurt Stille, improved the Telegraphone with an electronic amplifier. The following year, Ludwig Blattner began work that eventually produced the Blattnerphone, which used steel tape instead of wire. The BBC started using Blattnerphones in 1930 to record radio programs. In 1933, radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi's company purchased the rights to the Blattnerphone, and newly developed Marconi-Stille recorders were installed in the BBC's Maida Vale Studios in March 1935. The tape used in Blattnerphones and Marconi-Stille recorders was the same material used to make razor blades, and not surprisingly the fearsome Marconi-Stille recorders were considered so dangerous that technicians had to operate them from another room for safety. Because of the high recording speeds required, they used enormous reels about one meter in diameter, and the thin tape frequently broke, sending jagged lengths of razor steel flying around the studio. Tape Magnetic audio tapes: acetate base (left) and polyester base (right) Main article: Tape recorder Magnetic tape recording uses an amplified electrical audio signal to generate analogous variations of the magnetic field produced by a tape head, which impresses corresponding variations of magnetization on the moving tape. In playback mode, the signal path is reversed, the tape head acting as a miniature electric generator as the varyingly magnetized tape passes over it. The original solid steel ribbon was replaced by a much more practical coated paper tape, but acetate soon replaced paper as the standard tape base. Acetate has fairly low tensile strength and if very thin it will snap easily, so it was in turn eventually superseded by polyester. This technology, the basis for almost all commercial recording from the 1950s to the 1980s, was developed in the 1930s by German audio engineers who also rediscovered the principle of AC biasing (first used in the 1920s for wire recorders), which dramatically improved the frequency response of tape recordings. The K1 Magnetophon was the first practical tape recorder, developed by AEG in Germany in 1935. The technology was further improved just after World War II by American audio engineer John T. Mullin with backing from Bing Crosby Enterprises. Mullin's pioneering recorders were modifications of captured German recorders. In the late 1940s, the Ampex company produced the first tape recorders commercially available in the US. A typical Compact Cassette Magnetic tape brought about sweeping changes in both radio and the recording industry. Sound could be recorded, erased and re-recorded on the same tape many times, sounds could be duplicated from tape to tape with only minor loss of quality, and recordings could now be very precisely edited by physically cutting the tape and rejoining it. Within a few years of the introduction of the first commercial tape recorder—the Ampex 200 model, launched in 1948—American musician-inventor Les Paul had invented the first multitrack tape recorder, ushering in another technical revolution in the recording industry. Tape made possible the first sound recordings totally created by electronic means, opening the way for the bold sonic experiments of the Musique Concrète school and avant-garde composers like Karlheinz Stockhausen, which in turn led to the innovative pop music recordings of artists such as the Beatles and the Beach Boys. The ease and accuracy of tape editing, as compared to the cumbersome disc-to-disc editing procedures previously in some limited use, together with tape's consistently high audio quality finally convinced radio networks to routinely prerecord their entertainment programming, most of which had formerly been broadcast live. Also, for the first time, broadcasters, regulators and other interested parties were able to undertake comprehensive audio logging of each day's radio broadcasts. Innovations like multitracking and tape echo allowed radio programs and advertisements to be produced to a high level of complexity and sophistication. The combined impact with innovations such as the endless loop broadcast cartridge led to significant changes in the pacing and production style of radio program content and advertising. Stereo and hi-fi See also: Stereophonic sound and High fidelity In 1881, it was noted during experiments in transmitting sound from the Paris Opera that it was possible to follow the movement of singers on the stage if earpieces connected to different microphones were held to the two ears. This discovery was commercialized in 1890 with the Théâtrophone system, which operated for over forty years until 1932. In 1931, Alan Blumlein, a British electronics engineer working for EMI, designed a way to make the sound of an actor in a film follow his movement across the screen. In December 1931, he submitted a patent application including the idea, and in 1933 this became UK patent number 394,325. Over the next two years, Blumlein developed stereo microphones and a stereo disc-cutting head, and recorded a number of short films with stereo soundtracks. In the 1930s, experiments with magnetic tape enabled the development of the first practical commercial sound systems that could record and reproduce high-fidelity stereophonic sound. The experiments with stereo during the 1930s and 1940s were hampered by problems with synchronization. A major breakthrough in practical stereo sound was made by Bell Laboratories, who in 1937 demonstrated a practical system of two-channel stereo, using dual optical sound tracks on film. Major movie studios quickly developed three-track and four-track sound systems, and the first stereo sound recording for a commercial film was made by Judy Garland for the MGM movie Listen, Darling in 1938. The first commercially released movie with a stereo soundtrack was Walt Disney's Fantasia, released in 1940. The 1941 release of Fantasia used the Fantasound sound system. This system used a separate film for the sound, synchronized with the film carrying the picture. The sound film had four double-width optical soundtracks, three for left, center, and right audio—and a fourth as a "control" track with three recorded tones that controlled the playback volume of the three audio channels. Because of the complex equipment this system required, Disney exhibited the movie as a roadshow, and only in the United States. Regular releases of the movie used standard mono optical 35 mm stock until 1956, when Disney released the film with a stereo soundtrack that used the Cinemascope four-track magnetic sound system. German audio engineers working on magnetic tape developed stereo recording by 1941. Of 250 stereophonic recordings made during WW2, only three survive: Beethoven's 5th Piano Concerto with Walter Gieseking and Arthur Rother, a Brahms Serenade, and the last movement of Bruckner's 8th Symphony with Von Karajan. Other early German stereophonic tapes are believed to have been destroyed in bombings. Not until Ampex introduced the first commercial two-track tape recorders in the late 1940s did stereo tape recording become commercially feasible. Despite the availability of multitrack tape, stereo did not become the standard system for commercial music recording for some years, and remained a specialist market during the 1950s. EMI (UK) was the first company to release commercial stereophonic tapes. They issued their first Stereosonic tape in 1954. Others quickly followed, under the His Master's Voice (HMV) and Columbia labels. 161 Stereosonic tapes were released, mostly classical music or lyric recordings. RCA imported these tapes into the USA. Although some HMV tapes released in the USA cost up to $15, two-track stereophonic tapes were more successful in America during the second half of the 1950s. The history of stereo recording changed after the late 1957 introduction of the Westrex stereo phonograph disc, which used the groove format developed earlier by Blumlein. Decca Records in England came out with FFRR (Full Frequency Range Recording) in the 1940s, which became internationally accepted as a worldwide standard for higher-quality recording on vinyl records. The Ernest Ansermet recording of Igor Stravinsky's Petrushka was key in the development of full frequency range records and alerting the listening public to high fidelity in 1946. Until the mid-1960s, record companies mixed and released most popular music in monophonic sound. From mid-1960s until the early 1970s, major recordings were commonly released in both mono and stereo. Recordings originally released only in mono have been rerendered and released in stereo using a variety of techniques from remixing to pseudostereo. Audio components Main article: High fidelity § Modularity The replacement of the relatively fragile vacuum tube by the smaller, rugged and efficient transistor also accelerated the sale of consumer high-fidelity sound systems from the 1960s onward. In the 1950s, most record players were monophonic and had relatively low sound quality. Few consumers could afford high-quality stereophonic sound systems. In the 1960s, American manufacturers introduced a new generation of modular hi-fi components — separate turntables, pre-amplifiers, amplifiers, both combined as integrated amplifiers, tape recorders, and other ancillary equipment like the graphic equalizer, which could be connected together to create a complete home sound system. These developments were rapidly taken up by major Japanese electronics companies, which soon flooded the world market with relatively affordable, high-quality transistorized audio components. By the 1980s, corporations like Sony had become world leaders in the music recording and playback industry. Digital Main article: Digital recording See also: Pulse-code modulation, Digital audio, Hard disk recorder, and Digital audio workstation Graphical representation of a sound wave in analog (red) and 4-bit digital (blue) The advent of digital sound recording and later the compact disc (CD) in 1982 brought significant improvements in the quality and durability of recordings. The CD initiated another massive wave of change in the consumer music industry, with vinyl records effectively relegated to a small niche market by the mid-1990s. The record industry fiercely resisted the introduction of digital systems, fearing wholesale piracy on a medium able to produce perfect copies of original released recordings. A digital sound recorder from Sony The most recent and revolutionary developments have been in digital recording, with the development of various uncompressed and compressed digital audio file formats, processors capable and fast enough to convert the digital data to sound in real time, and inexpensive mass storage. This generated new types of portable digital audio players. The minidisc player, using ATRAC compression on small, re-writeable discs was introduced in the 1990s, but became obsolescent as solid-state non-volatile flash memory dropped in price. As technologies that increase the amount of data that can be stored on a single medium, such as Super Audio CD, DVD-A, Blu-ray Disc, and HD DVD became available, longer programs of higher quality fit onto a single disc. Sound files are readily downloaded from the Internet and other sources, and copied onto computers and digital audio players. Digital audio technology is now used in all areas of audio, from casual use of music files of moderate quality to the most demanding professional applications. New applications such as internet radio and podcasting have appeared. Technological developments in recording, editing, and consuming have transformed the record, movie and television industries in recent decades. Audio editing became practicable with the invention of magnetic tape recording, but technologies like MIDI, sound synthesis and digital audio workstations allow greater control and efficiency for composers and artists. Digital audio techniques and mass storage have reduced recording costs such that high-quality recordings can be produced in small studios. Today, the process of making a recording is separated into tracking, mixing and mastering. Multitrack recording makes it possible to capture signals from several microphones, or from different takes to tape, disc or mass storage allowing previously unavailable flexibility in the mixing and mastering stages. Software There are many different digital audio recording and processing programs running under several computer operating systems for all purposes, ranging from casual users and serious amateurs working on small projects to professional sound engineers who are recording albums, film scores and doing sound design for video games. Digital dictation software for recording and transcribing speech has different requirements; intelligibility and flexible playback facilities are priorities, while a wide frequency range and high audio quality are not. Legal status In copyright law, a phonogram or sound recording is a work that results from the fixation of sounds in a medium. The notice of copyright in a phonogram uses the sound recording copyright symbol, which the Geneva Phonograms Convention defines as ℗ (the letter P in a full circle). This usually accompanies the copyright notice for the underlying musical composition, which uses the ordinary © symbol. The recording is separate from the song, so copyright for a recording usually belongs to the record company. It is less common for an artist or producer to hold these rights. Copyright for recordings has existed since 1972, while copyright for musical composition, or songs, has existed since 1831. Disputes over sampling and beats are ongoing. United States United States copyright law defines "sound recordings" as "works that result from the fixation of a series of musical, spoken, or other sounds" other than an audiovisual work's soundtrack. Prior to the Sound Recording Amendment (SRA), which took effect in 1972, copyright in sound recordings was handled at the state level. Federal copyright law preempts most state copyright laws but allows state copyright in sound recordings to continue for one full copyright term after the SRA's effective date, which means 2067. United Kingdom Since 1934, copyright law in Great Britain has treated sound recordings (or phonograms) differently from musical works. The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 defines a sound recording as (a) a recording of sounds, from which the sounds may be reproduced, or (b) a recording of the whole or any part of a literary, dramatic or musical work, from which sounds reproducing the work or part may be produced, regardless of the medium on which the recording is made or the method by which the sounds are reproduced or produced. It thus covers vinyl records, tapes, compact discs, digital audiotapes, and MP3s that embody recordings. See also Record production portal International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives Notes ^ The earliest known surviving electrical recording was made on a telegraphone magnetic recorder at the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris. It includes brief comments by Emperor Franz Joseph and the audio quality, ignoring dropouts and some noise of later origin, is comparable to that of a contemporary telephone. ^ In 1925 the laboratories reformed into Bell Telephone Laboratories and under the shared ownership of American Telephone & Telegraph Company and Western Electric. ^ Ironically, the introduction of "talkies" was spearheaded by The Jazz Singer (1927), which used the Vitaphone sound-on-disc system rather than an optical soundtrack. ^ The Audio Engineering Society has issued all these recordings on CD. Varèse Sarabande had released the Beethoven Concerto on LP, and it has been reissued on CD several times since. References ^ Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967), "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments", Music Educators Journal, 54 (2), MENC_ The National Association for Music Education: 45–49, doi:10.2307/3391092, JSTOR 3391092, S2CID 190524140 ^ Koetsier, Teun (2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators". Mechanism and Machine Theory. 36 (5). Elsevier: 589–603. doi:10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2. ^ Mitchell, Thomas (2006). Rosslyn Chapel: The Music of the Cubes. Diversions Books. ISBN 0-9554629-0-8. ^ "Tune into the Da Vinci coda". The Scotsman. April 26, 2006. Archived from the original on November 13, 2011. Retrieved November 5, 2011. ^ "History of the Pianola - Piano Players". The Pianola Institute. Archived from the original on May 27, 2017. Retrieved May 24, 2017. ^ "The day the music died - News - The Buffalo News". June 10, 2011. Archived from the original on June 10, 2011. Retrieved May 24, 2017. ^ White-Smith Music Pub. Co. v. Apollo Co.209 U.S. 1 (1908) ^ a b "First Sounds". FirstSounds.ORG. March 27, 2008. Archived from the original on December 31, 2017. Retrieved May 24, 2017. ^ Jody Rosen (March 27, 2008). "Researchers Play Tune Recorded Before Edison". The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 1, 2017. Retrieved February 23, 2017. ^ "L'impression du son", Revue de la BNF, no. 33, Bibliothèque nationale de France, 2009, ISBN 9782717724301, archived from the original on September 28, 2015 ^ "Origins of Sound Recording: Charles Cros - Thomas Edison National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved April 14, 2022. ^ "Patent Images". patimg1.uspto.gov. Archived from the original on October 30, 2017. Retrieved May 24, 2017. ^ History of the Cylinder Phonograph, Library of Congress, archived from the original on August 19, 2016, retrieved November 6, 2018 ^ Thompson, Clive. "How the Phonograph Changed Music Forever". Smithsonian. Retrieved April 14, 2022. ^ "Inventing Entertainment: The Early Motion Pictures and Sound Recordings of the Edison Companies". Library of Congress. Retrieved April 21, 2023. ^ U.S. patent 372,786 Gramophone (horizontal recording), original filed May 1887, refiled September 1887, issued November 8, 1887 ^ "Early Sound Recording Collection and Sound Recovery Project". Smithsonian. Archived from the original on April 23, 2013. Retrieved April 26, 2013. ^ Copeland, Peter (2008). Manual of Analogue Audio Restoration Techniques (PDF). London: The British Library. pp. 89–90. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 22, 2015. Retrieved December 16, 2015. ^ Jenkins, Amanda (April 13, 2019). "Inside the Archival Box: The First Long-Playing Disc \| Now See Hear!". blogs.loc.gov. Retrieved April 14, 2022. ^ Allan Sutton, When Did Marsh Laboratories Begin to Make Electrical Recordings?, archived from the original on March 3, 2016 ^ "A brief summary of E. C. Wente's development of the condenser microphone and of the Western Electric sound recording project as a whole". IEEE Transactions on Education. 35 (4). November 1992. Archived from the original on February 24, 2012. Retrieved July 24, 2015. ^ Maxfield, J. P. and H. C. Harrison. Methods of high-quality recording and reproducing of speech based on telephone research. Bell System Technical Journal, July 1926, 493–523. ^ Steven Schoenherr (November 5, 2002), The History of Magnetic Recording ^ "The Blattnerphone". Orbem.co.uk. January 10, 2010. Archived from the original on April 10, 2014. Retrieved May 24, 2017. ^ "The Marconi-Stille Recorder - Page 1". Orbem.co.uk. February 20, 2008. Archived from the original on July 3, 2013. Retrieved May 24, 2017. ^ Gordon, Mumma. "Recording". Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. Retrieved February 20, 2015. ^ GB patent 394325, Alan Dower Blumlein, "Improvements in and relating to Sound-transmission, Sound-recording and Sound-reproducing Systems.", issued 1933-06-14, assigned to Alan Dower Blumlein and Musical Industries, Limited ^ "New Sound Effects Achieved in Film", The New York Times, Oct. 12, 1937, p. 27. ^ "Decca's (ffrr) Frequency Series - History Of Vinyl 1". Vinylrecordscollector.co.uk. Archived from the original on June 21, 2002. Retrieved May 24, 2017. ^ Kees Schouhamer Immink (March 1991). "The future of digital audio recording". Journal of the Audio Engineering Society. 47: 171–172. Keynote address was presented to the 104th Convention of the Audio Engineering Society in Amsterdam during the society's golden anniversary celebration on May 17, 1998. ^ a b Hull, Geoffrey (2010). The Music Business and Recording Industry. Routledge. ISBN 978-0203843192. ^ 17 U.S.C. § 101 ^ Pub. L. No. 92-140, § 3, 85 Stat. 391, 392 (1971) ^ 17 U.S.C. § 301(c) ^ Gramophone Co., Ltd. v. Stephen Carwardine Co 1 Ch 450 Further reading Encyclopedia of Recorded Sound (2 Vols.) (2nd ed.). Routledge. 2005 . Barlow, Sanna Morrison. Mountain Singing: the Story of Gospel Recordings in the Philippines. Hong Kong: Alliance Press, 1952. 352 p. Coleman, Mark, Playback: from the Victrola to MP3, 100 years of music, machines, and money, Da Capo Press, 2003. Gaisberg, Frederick W. (1977). Andrew Farkas (ed.). The Music Goes Round. New Haven: Ayer. ISBN 9780405096785. Gronow, Pekka, "The Record Industry: The Growth of a Mass Medium", Popular Music, Vol. 3, Producers and Markets (1983), pp. 53–75, Cambridge University Press. Gronow, Pekka, and Saunio, Ilpo, "An International History of the Recording Industry", , London; New York : Cassell, 1998. ISBN 0-304-70173-4 Lipman, Samuel,"The House of Music: Art in an Era of Institutions", 1984. See the chapter on "Getting on Record", pp. 62–75, about the early record industry and Fred Gaisberg and Walter Legge and FFRR (Full Frequency Range Recording). Millard, Andre J., "America on record : a history of recorded sound", Cambridge; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-521-47544-9 Millard, Andre J., " From Edison to the iPod", UAB Reporter, 2005, University of Alabama at Birmingham. Milner, Greg, "Perfecting Sound Forever: An Aural History of Recorded Music", Faber & Faber; 1 edition (June 9, 2009) ISBN 978-0-571-21165-4. Cf. p. 14 on H. Stith Bennett and "recording consciousness". Read, Oliver, and Walter L. Welch, From Tin Foil to Stereo: Evolution of the Phonograph, Second ed., Indianapolis, Ind.: H.W. Same & Co., 1976. N.B.: This is an historical account of the development of sound recording technology. ISBN 0-672-21205-6 pbk. Read, Oliver, The Recording and Reproduction of Sound, Indianapolis, Ind.: H.W. Sams & Co., 1952. N.B.: This is a pioneering engineering account of sound recording technology. "Recording Technology History: notes revised July 6, 2005, by Steven Schoenherr" at the Wayback Machine (archived March 12, 2010), San Diego University St-Laurent, Gilles, "Notes on the Degradation of Sound Recordings", National Library News, vol. 13, no. 1 (Jan. 1991), p. 1, 3–4. McWilliams, Jerry. The Preservation and Restoration of Sound Recordings. Nashville, Tenn.: American Association for State and Local History, 1979. ISBN 0-910050-41-4 Weir, Bob, et al. Century of Sound: 100 Years of Recorded Sound, 1877-1977. Executive writer, Bob Weir; project staff writers, Brian Gorman, Jim Simons, Marty Melhuish. : Produced by Studio 123, cop. 1977. N.B.: Published on the occasion of an exhibition commemorating the centennial of recorded sound, held at the fairground of the annual Canadian National Exhibition, Toronto, Ont., as one of the C.N.E.'s 1977 events. Without ISBN External links Wikiquote has quotations related to recording. Oral history of recorded sound Interviews with practitioners in all areas of the recording industry. British Library Archival Sound Recordings – tens of thousands of recordings showcasing audio history from 19th century wax cylinders to the present day. British Library History of Recorded Sound. New York Public Library Noise in the Groove – A podcast about the history of the phonograph, gramophone, and sound recording/reproduction. Audio Engineering online course under Creative Commons Licence Recorded Music at A History of Central Florida Podcast Millard, Andre, "Edison's Tone Tests and the Ideal of Perfect Reproduction", Lost and Found Sound, interview on National Public Radio. Will Straw; Helmut Kallmann; Edward B. Moogk. "Recorded sound production". Encyclopedia of Music in Canada. Retrieved August 19, 2019.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) vteMusic technologyMusic technology Mechanical Electrical Electronic and digital Sound recording Audio channel Mixing console Binaural recording Digital audio workstation (DAW) Effects unit Equalizer Headphones Microphone Microphone preamplifier Monitor speaker Multitrack recording Music production Music sequencer Outboard gear Recording media Phonograph record Magnetic tape Compact cassette Compact disc DAT Hard disk MiniDisc MP3 Opus Analog recording 8-track cartridge Amplifier Cassette deck Comparison of analog and digital recording Experimental musical instrument Phonograph Player piano Reel-to-reel audio tape recording Tape recorder Playback transducers Loudspeaker Headphones Monitor speaker PA system Sound reinforcement system Speaker enclosure Subwoofer Digital audio Digital recording Digital signal processing Live music Mixing console Bass amplifier Effects unit Foldback Guitar amplifier Keyboard amplifier PA system Reverb Sound reinforcement system Electronic music Chiptune Circuit bending Drum machine Electronic drums Electronic musical instrument MIDI MIDI controller Music workstation Sampler Sequencer Sound module Synthesizer Theremin Software Digital audio editor Digital audio workstation GarageBand ProTools Scorewriter Software effect processor Software sampler Software synthesizer Professions Audio engineer DJ Guitar technician Mixing engineer Monitor engineer Piano tuner Record producer Re-recording mixer Sound designer Sound follower Sound operator Sound recording engineer Tape op People and organizations Audio Engineering Society Goji Electronics Institute of Broadcast Sound Lejaren Hiller IRCAM Max Mathews Musical Electronics Library Professional Lighting and Sound Association Robert Moog SMPTE STEIM Related topics Audiophile High fidelity Home audio Home cinema Music store Professional audio store New Interfaces for Musical Expression (NIME) Vehicle audio Record production portal vtePhysical audio recording formatsMechanical Music box cylinder or disc (9th century) Mechanical cuckoo (early 17th century) Punched card (1881) Music roll (1883) AnalogGrooved surface Phonautogram (1857) Grooved cylinder Phonograph cylinder (1877) Graphophone/Dictaphone cylinder (1887) Perfected phonograph/Ediphone (1888) Salon cylinder (1890s) Stentor cylinder (1890s) Le Céleste cylinder (1890s) Gold moulded record (1902) Indestructible record (1907) Amberol record (1908) Blue Amberol record (1912) Paradis cylinder (1913) Grooved disc Phonograph record (1889) Pathé disc (1905) Diamond disc (1912) Pathé Actuelle (1920) Edison Voicewriter (late 1940s) SoundScriber (1945) Audograph (1945) Long play (1948) Highway Hi-Fi (1956) Bandai 8ban (2004) Grooved tape Tefiphon/Teficord (early 1930s), Tefifon Dictabelt (1947) Sound-on-film Phonofilm (1919) Tri-Ergon (1922) Movietone (1926) Photophone (1929) Fantasound (1940) Loose magnetic wire Wire recording (1898) Magnetic wire cartridge Lorenz Textophon (1942) US Army RD-11B/GNQ-1 (1944) Cosmos Industries MX-303A/ANQ-1 (1944) RCA MI-12875 (1947) RCA MI-12877 (1947) Peirce 265B (1951) Peirce 330/360 (1951) Protona Minifon P51 (1951) Protona Minifon P55 (1955) Protona Minifon special (1961) Crouzet-Jaeger cartridge (1962) Magnetic surface Magnetic stripe card (1900) Telefunken magnetic disc (1945) Thermionic Products Recordon (1948) Record Maker Pye (1953) Synchrofax (1959) Audio High Density (1978) Loose (reel-to-reel) magnetic tape Blattnerphone (1928) Magnetophon (1935) 1/4" tape (1949) 1/2" tape (1953) Fullcoat magfilm (1953) Stripe magfilm (1953) 1" tape (1957) 2" tape (1967) 3/4" tape (1969) 3" tape (1978) Magnetic tape cartridge Optaphon (1951) Cousino Echo-matic (1952) Mohawk Message repeater cartridge (1953) Stenorette (1954) Mohawk Midgetape RL (1955) Dictaphone Dictet (1957) Rediffusion Reditune (1957) Saba Sabafon (1958) RCA tape cartridge (1958) Philips EL 3581 (1958) Protona Attaché (1959) Fidelipac (1959) Cousino MR-9000 (1960) IBM Magnabelt (1961) Dictaphone Travel master (1961) Nippon Electronic Vity cassette (1961) Grundig Cassette LFH 0084 (1962) Orrtronic Tapette (1962) 3M Scotch (1962) Cousino Echo-matic II (1962) Stereo-Pak (1962) Philips EL 3583 (1963) Compact cassette (1963) Grundig En3 (1964) Sabamobil (1964) 8-track (1964) Micro pack 35 (1964) Assmann-Stuzzi Memocord (1965) Cantata 700 (1965) DC-International (1965) Nippon Electronic Memo-call (1965) PlayTape (1966) Muntz Stereo Mini-twin (1967) Grundig DeJ614 (1968) Microcassette (1969) Sanyo Tape cartridge (1969) HiPac (1971) Steno-Cassette (1971) Stenorette DL (1972) Capitol Records Audiopak (1972) Elcaset (1976) Bandai micro cartridge (late 1980s) Picocassette (1985) Pocket Rockers (1988) Analog-to-digital converter Soundstream (1976) X80/ProDigi (1980) DASH (1982) PCM adaptor (1982) DA-88/DTRS (1993) DigitalMagnetic tape cartridge Digital Audio Tape (1987) NT (1992) Digital Compact Cassette (1992) Sound-on-film DD (1986) CDS (1990) SDDS (1993) Optical disc Compact Disc Digital Audio (1982) Philips CD-BGM (1989) MiniDisc (1992) DTS (1993) HDCD (1995) Super Audio CD (1999) DVD-Audio (2000) DataPlay (2002) Hi-MD (2004) DualDisc (2004) BD-Audio (2008) HFPA (2013) MQA-CD (2014) Electronic circuit Sound chip (late 1970s) MP3 player (1996) HitClips (2000) Yaboom Box (1999) Takara E-kara (2001) Toymax VJ Starz (2002) USB flash drive (2004) MicroSD (2007) Hybrid Mini-cassette (1967) U-matic (1971) Pioneer Artists Compact LaserDisc (1986) CD Video (1987) ADAT (1991) Timecode vinyl (2001) VinylDisc (2007) Authority control databases: National France BnF data Israel United States Latvia	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Windows Voice Recorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Voice_Recorder"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Frances 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For the audio recording program computer software, see Windows Voice Recorder.Frances Densmore and Blackfoot chief Mountain Chief working on a recording project of the Bureau of American Ethnology (1916).Sound recording and reproduction is the electrical, mechanical, electronic, or digital inscription and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. The two main classes of sound recording technology are analog recording and digital recording.Acoustic analog recording is achieved by a microphone diaphragm that senses changes in atmospheric pressure caused by acoustic sound waves and records them as a mechanical representation of the sound waves on a medium such as a phonograph record (in which a stylus cuts grooves on a record). In magnetic tape recording, the sound waves vibrate the microphone diaphragm and are converted into a varying electric current, which is then converted to a varying magnetic field by an electromagnet, which makes a representation of the sound as magnetized areas on a plastic tape with a magnetic coating on it. Analog sound reproduction is the reverse process, with a larger loudspeaker diaphragm causing changes to atmospheric pressure to form acoustic sound waves.Digital recording and reproduction converts the analog sound signal picked up by the microphone to a digital form by the process of sampling. This lets the audio data be stored and transmitted by a wider variety of media. Digital recording stores audio as a series of binary numbers (zeros and ones) representing samples of the amplitude of the audio signal at equal time intervals, at a sample rate high enough to convey all sounds capable of being heard. A digital audio signal must be reconverted to analog form during playback before it is amplified and connected to a loudspeaker to produce sound.","title":"Sound recording and reproduction"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dukirch.gif"},{"link_name":"History of sound recording","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sound_recording"},{"link_name":"sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound"},{"link_name":"music notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_notation"},{"link_name":"music boxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_box"},{"link_name":"melody","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody"},{"link_name":"Banū Mūsā","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ban%C5%AB_M%C5%ABs%C4%81"},{"link_name":"hydropowered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydropower"},{"link_name":"organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_(music)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fowler_45%E2%80%9349-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koetsier-2"},{"link_name":"Rosslyn Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosslyn_Chapel"},{"link_name":"Chladni patterns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chladni_patterns"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Flanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flanders"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"barrel organs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel_organ"},{"link_name":"musical clocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_clock"},{"link_name":"barrel pianos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel_piano"},{"link_name":"music boxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_box"},{"link_name":"musical instrument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_instrument"},{"link_name":"lamellae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamellophone"},{"link_name":"fairground organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairground_organ"},{"link_name":"player piano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Player_piano"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"U.S. Supreme Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Mechanical organ, 1650See also: History of sound recordingLong before sound was first recorded, music was recorded—first by written music notation, then also by mechanical devices (e.g., wind-up music boxes, in which a mechanism turns a spindle, which plucks metal tines, thus reproducing a melody). Automatic music reproduction traces back as far as the 9th century, when the Banū Mūsā brothers invented the earliest known mechanical musical instrument, in this case, a hydropowered (water-powered) organ that played interchangeable cylinders. According to Charles B. Fowler, this \"... cylinder with raised pins on the surface remained the basic device to produce and reproduce music mechanically until the second half of the nineteenth century.\"[1][2]Carvings in the Rosslyn Chapel from the 1560s may represent an early attempt to record the Chladni patterns produced by sound in stone representations, although this theory has not been conclusively proved.[3][4]In the 14th century, a mechanical bell-ringer controlled by a rotating cylinder was introduced in Flanders.[citation needed] Similar designs appeared in barrel organs (15th century), musical clocks (1598), barrel pianos (1805), and music boxes (c. 1800). A music box is an automatic musical instrument that produces sounds by the use of a set of pins placed on a revolving cylinder or disc so as to pluck the tuned teeth (or lamellae) of a steel comb.The fairground organ, developed in 1892, used a system of accordion-folded punched cardboard books. The player piano, first demonstrated in 1876, used a punched paper scroll that could store a long piece of music. The most sophisticated of the piano rolls were \"hand-played,\" meaning that they were duplicates from a master roll which had been created on a special piano, which punched holes in the master as a live performer played the song. Thus, the roll represented a recording of the actual performance of an individual, not just the more common method of punching the master roll through transcription of the sheet music. This technology to record a live performance onto a piano roll was not developed until 1904. Piano rolls were in continuous mass production from 1896 to 2008.[5][6] A 1908 U.S. Supreme Court copyright case noted that, in 1902 alone, there were between 70,000 and 75,000 player pianos manufactured, and between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000 piano rolls produced.[7]","title":"Early history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Au Clair de la Lune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1860-Scott-Au-Clair-de-la-Lune-05-09.ogg"},{"link_name":"phonautogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonautogram"},{"link_name":"Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard-L%C3%A9on_Scott_de_Martinville"},{"link_name":"media help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Media"},{"link_name":"sounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound"},{"link_name":"phonautograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonautograph"},{"link_name":"Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard-L%C3%A9on_Scott_de_Martinville"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-firstsounds-8"},{"link_name":"Au Clair de la Lune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Au_Clair_de_la_Lune_(song)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-firstsounds-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT2008-9"}],"text":"Au Clair de la Lune\n\nThis 1860 phonautogram by Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville is the earliest known recording of a person singing.\nProblems playing this file? See media help.The first device that could record actual sounds as they passed through the air (but could not play them back—the purpose was only visual study) was the phonautograph, patented in 1857 by Parisian inventor Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville. The earliest known recordings of the human voice are phonautograph recordings, called phonautograms, made in 1857.[8] They consist of sheets of paper with sound-wave-modulated white lines created by a vibrating stylus that cut through a coating of soot as the paper was passed under it. An 1860 phonautogram of \"Au Clair de la Lune\", a French folk song, was played back as sound for the first time in 2008 by scanning it and using software to convert the undulating line, which graphically encoded the sound, into a corresponding digital audio file.[8][9]","title":"Phonautograph"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Thomas Edison's work on two other innovations, the telegraph and the telephone, led to the development of the phonograph. Edison was working on a machine in 1877 that would transcribe telegraphic signals onto paper tape, which could then be transferred over the telegraph again and again. The phonograph was both in a cylinder and a disc form.[citation needed]","title":"Phonograph"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Kham Hom\" (\"Sweet Words\")","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kham_Hom_-_Sweet_Words.ogg"},{"link_name":"Phonograph cylinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph_cylinder"},{"link_name":"Siamese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siam"},{"link_name":"media help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Media"},{"link_name":"Charles Cros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Cros"},{"link_name":"Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RBNF-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"phonograph cylinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph_cylinder"},{"link_name":"Thomas Edison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Edison"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Cylinder","text":"\"Kham Hom\" (\"Sweet Words\")\n\nPhonograph cylinder recording of Siamese (Thai) musicians visiting Berlin, Germany in 1900\nProblems playing this file? See media help.On April 30, 1877, French poet, humorous writer and inventor Charles Cros submitted a sealed envelope containing a letter to the Academy of Sciences in Paris fully explaining his proposed method, called the paleophone.[10] Though no trace of a working paleophone was ever found, Cros is remembered by some historians as an early inventor of a sound recording and reproduction machine.[11]The first practical sound recording and reproduction device was the mechanical phonograph cylinder, invented by Thomas Edison in 1877 and patented in 1878.[12][13] The invention soon spread across the globe and over the next two decades the commercial recording, distribution, and sale of sound recordings became a growing new international industry, with the most popular titles selling millions of units by the early 1900s.[14] A process for mass-producing duplicate wax cylinders by molding instead of engraving them was put into effect in 1901.[15] The development of mass-production techniques enabled cylinder recordings to become a major new consumer item in industrial countries and the cylinder was the main consumer format from the late 1880s until around 1910.[citation needed]","title":"Phonograph"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[more details]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volta_Laboratory_and_Bureau#Bell's_voice"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emile_Berliner_with_phonograph.jpg"},{"link_name":"gramophone record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_record"},{"link_name":"Emile Berliner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Berliner"},{"link_name":"by whom?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Alexander Graham Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smiths1-17"},{"link_name":"gramophone record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_record"},{"link_name":"Edison Disc Record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edison_Disc_Record"},{"link_name":"stroboscopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroboscope"},{"link_name":"recording lathes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_cutting_lathe"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Stroh violin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroh_violin"},{"link_name":"LP record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LP_record"},{"link_name":"Columbia Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Records"},{"link_name":"single","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_(music)"},{"link_name":"RCA Victor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA_Victor"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Disc","text":"Recording of Bell's voice on a wax disc in 1885, identified in 2013 [more details]Emile Berliner with disc record gramophoneThe next major technical development was the invention of the gramophone record, generally credited to Emile Berliner[by whom?] and patented in 1887,[16] though others had demonstrated similar disk apparatus earlier, most notably Alexander Graham Bell in 1881.[17] Discs were easier to manufacture, transport and store, and they had the additional benefit of being marginally louder than cylinders. Sales of the gramophone record overtook the cylinder ca. 1910, and by the end of World War I the disc had become the dominant commercial recording format. Edison, who was the main producer of cylinders, created the Edison Disc Record in an attempt to regain his market. The double-sided (nominally 78 rpm) shellac disc was the standard consumer music format from the early 1910s to the late 1950s. In various permutations, the audio disc format became the primary medium for consumer sound recordings until the end of the 20th century.Although there was no universally accepted speed, and various companies offered discs that played at several different speeds, the major recording companies eventually settled on a de facto industry standard of nominally 78 revolutions per minute. The specified speed was 78.26 rpm in America and 77.92 rpm throughout the rest of the world. The difference in speeds was due to the difference in the cycle frequencies of the AC electricity that powered the stroboscopes used to calibrate recording lathes and turntables.[18] The nominal speed of the disc format gave rise to its common nickname, the \"seventy-eight\" (though not until other speeds had become available). Discs were made of shellac or similar brittle plastic-like materials, played with needles made from a variety of materials including mild steel, thorn, and even sapphire. Discs had a distinctly limited playing life that varied depending on how they were manufactured.Earlier, purely acoustic methods of recording had limited sensitivity and frequency range. Mid-frequency range notes could be recorded, but very low and very high frequencies could not. Instruments such as the violin were difficult to transfer to disc. One technique to deal with this involved using a Stroh violin which uses a conical horn connected to a diaphragm that in turn is connected to the violin bridge. The horn was no longer needed once electrical recording was developed.The long-playing 331⁄3 rpm microgroove LP record, was developed at Columbia Records and introduced in 1948. The short-playing but convenient 7-inch (18 cm) 45 rpm microgroove vinyl single was introduced by RCA Victor in 1949. In the US and most developed countries, the two new vinyl formats completely replaced 78 rpm shellac discs by the end of the 1950s, but in some corners of the world, the 78 lingered on far into the 1960s.[19] Vinyl was much more expensive than shellac, one of the several factors that made its use for 78 rpm records very unusual, but with a long-playing disc the added cost was acceptable. The compact 45 format required very little material. Vinyl offered improved performance, both in stamping and in playback. Vinyl records were, over-optimistically, advertised as \"unbreakable\". They were not, but they were much less fragile than shellac, which had itself once been touted as \"unbreakable\" compared to wax cylinders.","title":"Phonograph"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Music technology (electric)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_technology_(electric)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RCA_44_of_CBS_20071104.png"},{"link_name":"ribbon microphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribbon_microphone"},{"link_name":"telegraphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraphone"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"digital recordings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_recording"},{"link_name":"microphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphone"},{"link_name":"electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics"},{"link_name":"amplification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier"},{"link_name":"Lee De Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Forest"},{"link_name":"Audion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audion"},{"link_name":"triode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triode"},{"link_name":"transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"German U-boat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_U-boat"},{"link_name":"The Unknown Warrior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Unknown_Warrior"},{"link_name":"Westminster Abbey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Abbey"},{"link_name":"Orlando Marsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando_Marsh"},{"link_name":"Autograph Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autograph_Records"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Western Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Electric"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Victor Talking Machine Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Talking_Machine_Company"},{"link_name":"Columbia Phonograph Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Records"},{"link_name":"Harmony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmony_Records"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Further information: Music technology (electric)RCA-44, a classic ribbon microphone introduced in 1932. Similar units were widely used for recording and broadcasting in the 1940s and are occasionally still used today.Sound recording began as a purely mechanical process. Except for a few crude telephone-based recording devices with no means of amplification, such as the telegraphone,[a] it remained so until the 1920s. Between the invention of the phonograph in 1877 and the first commercial digital recordings in the early 1970s, arguably the most important milestone in the history of sound recording was the introduction of what was then called electrical recording, in which a microphone was used to convert the sound into an electrical signal that was amplified and used to actuate the recording stylus. This innovation eliminated the \"horn sound\" resonances characteristic of the acoustical process, produced clearer and more full-bodied recordings by greatly extending the useful range of audio frequencies, and allowed previously unrecordable distant and feeble sounds to be captured. During this time, several radio-related developments in electronics converged to revolutionize the recording process. These included improved microphones and auxiliary devices such as electronic filters, all dependent on electronic amplification to be of practical use in recording.In 1906, Lee De Forest invented the Audion triode vacuum tube, an electronic valve that could amplify weak electrical signals. By 1915, it was in use in long-distance telephone circuits that made conversations between New York and San Francisco practical. Refined versions of this tube were the basis of all electronic sound systems until the commercial introduction of the first transistor-based audio devices in the mid-1950s.During World War I, engineers in the United States and Great Britain worked on ways to record and reproduce, among other things, the sound of a German U-boat for training purposes. Acoustical recording methods of the time could not reproduce the sounds accurately. The earliest results were not promising.The first electrical recording issued to the public, with little fanfare, was of November 11, 1920, funeral service for The Unknown Warrior in Westminster Abbey, London. The recording engineers used microphones of the type used in contemporary telephones. Four were discreetly set up in the abbey and wired to recording equipment in a vehicle outside. Although electronic amplification was used, the audio was weak and unclear, as only possible in those circumstances. For several years, this little-noted disc remained the only issued electrical recording.Several record companies and independent inventors, notably Orlando Marsh, experimented with equipment and techniques for electrical recording in the early 1920s. Marsh's electrically recorded Autograph Records were already being sold to the public in 1924, a year before the first such offerings from the major record companies, but their overall sound quality was too low to demonstrate any obvious advantage over traditional acoustical methods. Marsh's microphone technique was idiosyncratic and his work had little if any impact on the systems being developed by others.[20]Telephone industry giant Western Electric had research laboratories[b] with material and human resources that no record company or independent inventor could match. They had the best microphone, a condenser type developed there in 1916 and greatly improved in 1922,[21] and the best amplifiers and test equipment. They had already patented an electromechanical recorder in 1918, and in the early 1920s, they decided to intensively apply their hardware and expertise to developing two state-of-the-art systems for electronically recording and reproducing sound: one that employed conventional discs and another that recorded optically on motion picture film. Their engineers pioneered the use of mechanical analogs of electrical circuits and developed a superior \"rubber line\" recorder for cutting the groove into the wax master in the disc recording system.[22]By 1924, such dramatic progress had been made that Western Electric arranged a demonstration for the two leading record companies, the Victor Talking Machine Company and the Columbia Phonograph Company. Both soon licensed the system and both made their earliest published electrical recordings in February 1925, but neither actually released them until several months later. To avoid making their existing catalogs instantly obsolete, the two long-time archrivals agreed privately not to publicize the new process until November 1925, by which time enough electrically recorded repertory would be available to meet the anticipated demand. During the next few years, the lesser record companies licensed or developed other electrical recording systems. By 1929 only the budget label Harmony was still issuing new recordings made by the old acoustical process.Comparison of some surviving Western Electric test recordings with early commercial releases indicates that the record companies artificially reduced the frequency range of recordings so they would not overwhelm non-electronic playback equipment, which reproduced very low frequencies as an unpleasant rattle and rapidly wore out discs with strongly recorded high frequencies.[citation needed]","title":"Electrical"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Framf%C3%B6r_en_inspelningsapparat_st%C3%A5r_Tatjana_Angelini.jpg"},{"link_name":"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_White_and_the_Seven_Dwarfs_(1937_film)"},{"link_name":"Phonofilm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonofilm"},{"link_name":"optical recording","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound-on-film"},{"link_name":"projector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movie_projector"},{"link_name":"photodetector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodetector"},{"link_name":"loudspeakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudspeaker"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"35 mm movie film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/35_mm_movie_film"},{"link_name":"Dolby SR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolby_SR"},{"link_name":"magnetic wire recorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire_recorder"},{"link_name":"Valdemar Poulsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valdemar_Poulsen"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Ludwig Blattner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Blattner"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"Guglielmo Marconi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi"},{"link_name":"Maida Vale Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maida_Vale_Studios"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"Singer Tatjana Angelini recording the Swedish voice of Snow White in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, 1938In the 1920s, Phonofilm and other early motion picture sound systems employed optical recording technology, in which the audio signal was graphically recorded on photographic film. The amplitude variations comprising the signal were used to modulate a light source which was imaged onto the moving film through a narrow slit, allowing the signal to be photographed as variations in the density or width of a sound track. The projector used a steady light and a photodetector to convert these variations back into an electrical signal, which was amplified and sent to loudspeakers behind the screen.[c] Optical sound became the standard motion picture audio system throughout the world and remains so for theatrical release prints despite attempts in the 1950s to substitute magnetic soundtracks. Currently, all release prints on 35 mm movie film include an analog optical soundtrack, usually stereo with Dolby SR noise reduction. In addition, an optically recorded digital soundtrack in Dolby Digital or Sony SDDS form is likely to be present. An optically recorded timecode is also commonly included to synchronize CDROMs that contain a DTS soundtrack.This period also saw several other historic developments including the introduction of the first practical magnetic sound recording system, the magnetic wire recorder, which was based on the work of Danish inventor Valdemar Poulsen. Magnetic wire recorders were effective, but the sound quality was poor, so between the wars, they were primarily used for voice recording and marketed as business dictating machines. In 1924, a German engineer, Kurt Stille, improved the Telegraphone with an electronic amplifier.[23] The following year, Ludwig Blattner began work that eventually produced the Blattnerphone,[24] which used steel tape instead of wire. The BBC started using Blattnerphones in 1930 to record radio programs. In 1933, radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi's company purchased the rights to the Blattnerphone, and newly developed Marconi-Stille recorders were installed in the BBC's Maida Vale Studios in March 1935.[25] The tape used in Blattnerphones and Marconi-Stille recorders was the same material used to make razor blades, and not surprisingly the fearsome Marconi-Stille recorders were considered so dangerous that technicians had to operate them from another room for safety. Because of the high recording speeds required, they used enormous reels about one meter in diameter, and the thin tape frequently broke, sending jagged lengths of razor steel flying around the studio.","title":"Optical and magnetic"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Magnetic-tape-acetate-vs-polyester-backing.jpg"},{"link_name":"Magnetic tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tape"},{"link_name":"tape head","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_head"},{"link_name":"electric generator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_generator"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"AC biasing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_bias"},{"link_name":"wire recorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire_recorder"},{"link_name":"Magnetophon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetophon"},{"link_name":"John T. Mullin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_T._Mullin"},{"link_name":"Bing Crosby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bing_Crosby"},{"link_name":"Ampex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampex"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Side_A,_TDK_D-C60_20041220.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ampex 200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ampex_200&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Les Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Paul"},{"link_name":"multitrack tape recorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multitrack_tape_recorder"},{"link_name":"Musique Concrète","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musique_Concr%C3%A8te"},{"link_name":"Karlheinz Stockhausen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlheinz_Stockhausen"},{"link_name":"the Beatles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles"},{"link_name":"the Beach Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beach_Boys"},{"link_name":"tape echo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delay_(audio_effect)"},{"link_name":"broadcast cartridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_cartridge"}],"sub_title":"Tape","text":"Magnetic audio tapes: acetate base (left) and polyester base (right)Magnetic tape recording uses an amplified electrical audio signal to generate analogous variations of the magnetic field produced by a tape head, which impresses corresponding variations of magnetization on the moving tape. In playback mode, the signal path is reversed, the tape head acting as a miniature electric generator as the varyingly magnetized tape passes over it.[26] The original solid steel ribbon was replaced by a much more practical coated paper tape, but acetate soon replaced paper as the standard tape base. Acetate has fairly low tensile strength and if very thin it will snap easily, so it was in turn eventually superseded by polyester. This technology, the basis for almost all commercial recording from the 1950s to the 1980s, was developed in the 1930s by German audio engineers who also rediscovered the principle of AC biasing (first used in the 1920s for wire recorders), which dramatically improved the frequency response of tape recordings. The K1 Magnetophon was the first practical tape recorder, developed by AEG in Germany in 1935. The technology was further improved just after World War II by American audio engineer John T. Mullin with backing from Bing Crosby Enterprises. Mullin's pioneering recorders were modifications of captured German recorders. In the late 1940s, the Ampex company produced the first tape recorders commercially available in the US.A typical Compact CassetteMagnetic tape brought about sweeping changes in both radio and the recording industry. Sound could be recorded, erased and re-recorded on the same tape many times, sounds could be duplicated from tape to tape with only minor loss of quality, and recordings could now be very precisely edited by physically cutting the tape and rejoining it.Within a few years of the introduction of the first commercial tape recorder—the Ampex 200 model, launched in 1948—American musician-inventor Les Paul had invented the first multitrack tape recorder, ushering in another technical revolution in the recording industry. Tape made possible the first sound recordings totally created by electronic means, opening the way for the bold sonic experiments of the Musique Concrète school and avant-garde composers like Karlheinz Stockhausen, which in turn led to the innovative pop music recordings of artists such as the Beatles and the Beach Boys.The ease and accuracy of tape editing, as compared to the cumbersome disc-to-disc editing procedures previously in some limited use, together with tape's consistently high audio quality finally convinced radio networks to routinely prerecord their entertainment programming, most of which had formerly been broadcast live. Also, for the first time, broadcasters, regulators and other interested parties were able to undertake comprehensive audio logging of each day's radio broadcasts. Innovations like multitracking and tape echo allowed radio programs and advertisements to be produced to a high level of complexity and sophistication. The combined impact with innovations such as the endless loop broadcast cartridge led to significant changes in the pacing and production style of radio program content and advertising.","title":"Optical and magnetic"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stereophonic sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereophonic_sound"},{"link_name":"High fidelity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_fidelity"},{"link_name":"Théâtrophone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2trophone"},{"link_name":"Alan Blumlein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Blumlein"},{"link_name":"EMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMI"},{"link_name":"UK patent number 394,325","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_patent_number_394,325"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"stereophonic sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereophonic_sound"},{"link_name":"Bell Laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Laboratories"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Judy Garland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy_Garland"},{"link_name":"MGM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGM"},{"link_name":"Listen, Darling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listen,_Darling"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Fantasia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasia_(1940_film)"},{"link_name":"Fantasound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasound"},{"link_name":"Cinemascope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinemascope"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Ampex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampex"},{"link_name":"His Master's Voice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/His_Master%27s_Voice"},{"link_name":"Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Records"},{"link_name":"Decca Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decca_Records"},{"link_name":"FFRR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FFRR_technique"},{"link_name":"Ernest Ansermet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ansermet"},{"link_name":"Igor Stravinsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky"},{"link_name":"Petrushka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrushka_(ballet)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"pseudostereo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudostereo"}],"text":"See also: Stereophonic sound and High fidelityIn 1881, it was noted during experiments in transmitting sound from the Paris Opera that it was possible to follow the movement of singers on the stage if earpieces connected to different microphones were held to the two ears. This discovery was commercialized in 1890 with the Théâtrophone system, which operated for over forty years until 1932. In 1931, Alan Blumlein, a British electronics engineer working for EMI, designed a way to make the sound of an actor in a film follow his movement across the screen. In December 1931, he submitted a patent application including the idea, and in 1933 this became UK patent number 394,325.[27] Over the next two years, Blumlein developed stereo microphones and a stereo disc-cutting head, and recorded a number of short films with stereo soundtracks.In the 1930s, experiments with magnetic tape enabled the development of the first practical commercial sound systems that could record and reproduce high-fidelity stereophonic sound. The experiments with stereo during the 1930s and 1940s were hampered by problems with synchronization. A major breakthrough in practical stereo sound was made by Bell Laboratories, who in 1937 demonstrated a practical system of two-channel stereo, using dual optical sound tracks on film.[28] Major movie studios quickly developed three-track and four-track sound systems, and the first stereo sound recording for a commercial film was made by Judy Garland for the MGM movie Listen, Darling in 1938.[citation needed] The first commercially released movie with a stereo soundtrack was Walt Disney's Fantasia, released in 1940. The 1941 release of Fantasia used the Fantasound sound system. This system used a separate film for the sound, synchronized with the film carrying the picture. The sound film had four double-width optical soundtracks, three for left, center, and right audio—and a fourth as a \"control\" track with three recorded tones that controlled the playback volume of the three audio channels. Because of the complex equipment this system required, Disney exhibited the movie as a roadshow, and only in the United States. Regular releases of the movie used standard mono optical 35 mm stock until 1956, when Disney released the film with a stereo soundtrack that used the Cinemascope four-track magnetic sound system.German audio engineers working on magnetic tape developed stereo recording by 1941. Of 250 stereophonic recordings made during WW2, only three survive: Beethoven's 5th Piano Concerto with Walter Gieseking and Arthur Rother, a Brahms Serenade, and the last movement of Bruckner's 8th Symphony with Von Karajan.[d] Other early German stereophonic tapes are believed to have been destroyed in bombings. Not until Ampex introduced the first commercial two-track tape recorders in the late 1940s did stereo tape recording become commercially feasible. Despite the availability of multitrack tape, stereo did not become the standard system for commercial music recording for some years, and remained a specialist market during the 1950s. EMI (UK) was the first company to release commercial stereophonic tapes. They issued their first Stereosonic tape in 1954. Others quickly followed, under the His Master's Voice (HMV) and Columbia labels. 161 Stereosonic tapes were released, mostly classical music or lyric recordings. RCA imported these tapes into the USA. Although some HMV tapes released in the USA cost up to $15, two-track stereophonic tapes were more successful in America during the second half of the 1950s.The history of stereo recording changed after the late 1957 introduction of the Westrex stereo phonograph disc, which used the groove format developed earlier by Blumlein. Decca Records in England came out with FFRR (Full Frequency Range Recording) in the 1940s, which became internationally accepted as a worldwide standard for higher-quality recording on vinyl records. The Ernest Ansermet recording of Igor Stravinsky's Petrushka was key in the development of full frequency range records and alerting the listening public to high fidelity in 1946.[29]Until the mid-1960s, record companies mixed and released most popular music in monophonic sound. From mid-1960s until the early 1970s, major recordings were commonly released in both mono and stereo. Recordings originally released only in mono have been rerendered and released in stereo using a variety of techniques from remixing to pseudostereo.","title":"Stereo and hi-fi"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"vacuum tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"link_name":"transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"high-fidelity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_fidelity"},{"link_name":"graphic equalizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic_equalizer"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"}],"text":"The replacement of the relatively fragile vacuum tube by the smaller, rugged and efficient transistor also accelerated the sale of consumer high-fidelity sound systems from the 1960s onward. In the 1950s, most record players were monophonic and had relatively low sound quality. Few consumers could afford high-quality stereophonic sound systems. In the 1960s, American manufacturers introduced a new generation of modular hi-fi components — separate turntables, pre-amplifiers, amplifiers, both combined as integrated amplifiers, tape recorders, and other ancillary equipment like the graphic equalizer, which could be connected together to create a complete home sound system. These developments were rapidly taken up by major Japanese electronics companies, which soon flooded the world market with relatively affordable, high-quality transistorized audio components. By the 1980s, corporations like Sony had become world leaders in the music recording and playback industry.","title":"Audio components"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pulse-code modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-code_modulation"},{"link_name":"Digital audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio"},{"link_name":"Hard disk recorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_recorder"},{"link_name":"Digital audio workstation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio_workstation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pcm.svg"},{"link_name":"digital sound recording","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_recording"},{"link_name":"compact disc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc"},{"link_name":"vinyl records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_record"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sony-pcm-m10.jpg"},{"link_name":"audio file formats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_file_format"},{"link_name":"processors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor"},{"link_name":"real time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_computing"},{"link_name":"mass storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_storage"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"portable digital audio players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_digital_audio_player"},{"link_name":"minidisc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minidisc"},{"link_name":"ATRAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATRAC"},{"link_name":"flash memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory"},{"link_name":"Super Audio CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Audio_CD"},{"link_name":"DVD-A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD-A"},{"link_name":"Blu-ray Disc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc"},{"link_name":"HD DVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD_DVD"},{"link_name":"downloaded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Download"},{"link_name":"internet radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_radio"},{"link_name":"podcasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podcasting"},{"link_name":"record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_industry"},{"link_name":"movie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_industry"},{"link_name":"television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television"},{"link_name":"Audio editing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_engineering"},{"link_name":"magnetic tape recording","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tape_recording"},{"link_name":"MIDI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIDI"},{"link_name":"sound synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_synthesis"},{"link_name":"digital audio workstations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio_workstation"},{"link_name":"mass storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_storage"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hull2010-35"},{"link_name":"mixing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_mixing_(recorded_music)"},{"link_name":"mastering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_mastering"},{"link_name":"Multitrack recording","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multitrack_recording"},{"link_name":"takes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take"}],"text":"See also: Pulse-code modulation, Digital audio, Hard disk recorder, and Digital audio workstationGraphical representation of a sound wave in analog (red) and 4-bit digital (blue)The advent of digital sound recording and later the compact disc (CD) in 1982 brought significant improvements in the quality and durability of recordings. The CD initiated another massive wave of change in the consumer music industry, with vinyl records effectively relegated to a small niche market by the mid-1990s. The record industry fiercely resisted the introduction of digital systems, fearing wholesale piracy on a medium able to produce perfect copies of original released recordings.A digital sound recorder from SonyThe most recent and revolutionary developments have been in digital recording, with the development of various uncompressed and compressed digital audio file formats, processors capable and fast enough to convert the digital data to sound in real time, and inexpensive mass storage.[30]\nThis generated new types of portable digital audio players. The minidisc player, using ATRAC compression on small, re-writeable discs was introduced in the 1990s, but became obsolescent as solid-state non-volatile flash memory dropped in price. As technologies that increase the amount of data that can be stored on a single medium, such as Super Audio CD, DVD-A, Blu-ray Disc, and HD DVD became available, longer programs of higher quality fit onto a single disc. Sound files are readily downloaded from the Internet and other sources, and copied onto computers and digital audio players. Digital audio technology is now used in all areas of audio, from casual use of music files of moderate quality to the most demanding professional applications. New applications such as internet radio and podcasting have appeared.Technological developments in recording, editing, and consuming have transformed the record, movie and television industries in recent decades. Audio editing became practicable with the invention of magnetic tape recording, but technologies like MIDI, sound synthesis and digital audio workstations allow greater control and efficiency for composers and artists. Digital audio techniques and mass storage have reduced recording costs such that high-quality recordings can be produced in small studios.[31]Today, the process of making a recording is separated into tracking, mixing and mastering. Multitrack recording makes it possible to capture signals from several microphones, or from different takes to tape, disc or mass storage allowing previously unavailable flexibility in the mixing and mastering stages.","title":"Digital"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"sound engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_engineer"},{"link_name":"video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_games"},{"link_name":"Digital dictation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_dictation"}],"sub_title":"Software","text":"There are many different digital audio recording and processing programs running under several computer operating systems for all purposes, ranging from casual users and serious amateurs working on small projects to professional sound engineers who are recording albums, film scores and doing sound design for video games.Digital dictation software for recording and transcribing speech has different requirements; intelligibility and flexible playback facilities are priorities, while a wide frequency range and high audio quality are not.","title":"Digital"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sound recording copyright symbol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_recording_copyright_symbol"},{"link_name":"Geneva Phonograms Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Phonograms_Convention"},{"link_name":"sampling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(music)"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hull2010-35"}],"text":"In copyright law, a phonogram or sound recording is a work that results from the fixation of sounds in a medium. The notice of copyright in a phonogram uses the sound recording copyright symbol, which the Geneva Phonograms Convention defines as ℗ (the letter P in a full circle). This usually accompanies the copyright notice for the underlying musical composition, which uses the ordinary © symbol.The recording is separate from the song, so copyright for a recording usually belongs to the record company. It is less common for an artist or producer to hold these rights. Copyright for recordings has existed since 1972, while copyright for musical composition, or songs, has existed since 1831. Disputes over sampling and beats[clarification needed] are ongoing.[31]","title":"Legal status"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"sub_title":"United States","text":"United States copyright law defines \"sound recordings\" as \"works that result from the fixation of a series of musical, spoken, or other sounds\" other than an audiovisual work's soundtrack.[32] Prior to the Sound Recording Amendment (SRA),[33] which took effect in 1972, copyright in sound recordings was handled at the state level. Federal copyright law preempts most state copyright laws but allows state copyright in sound recordings to continue for one full copyright term after the SRA's effective date,[34] which means 2067.","title":"Legal status"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"musical works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_work"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright,_Designs_and_Patents_Act_1988"},{"link_name":"compact discs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc"}],"sub_title":"United Kingdom","text":"Since 1934, copyright law in Great Britain has treated sound recordings (or phonograms) differently from musical works.[35] The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 defines a sound recording as (a) a recording of sounds, from which the sounds may be reproduced, or (b) a recording of the whole or any part of a literary, dramatic or musical work, from which sounds reproducing the work or part may be produced, regardless of the medium on which the recording is made or the method by which the sounds are reproduced or produced. It thus covers vinyl records, tapes, compact discs, digital audiotapes, and MP3s that embody recordings.","title":"Legal status"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"telegraphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraphone"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-22"},{"link_name":"American Telephone & Telegraph Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-25"},{"link_name":"talkies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_film"},{"link_name":"The Jazz Singer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jazz_Singer"},{"link_name":"Vitaphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitaphone"},{"link_name":"sound-on-disc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound-on-disc"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-32"},{"link_name":"Audio Engineering Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_Engineering_Society"},{"link_name":"CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc"},{"link_name":"Varèse Sarabande","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Var%C3%A8se_Sarabande"}],"text":"^ The earliest known surviving electrical recording was made on a telegraphone magnetic recorder at the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris. It includes brief comments by Emperor Franz Joseph and the audio quality, ignoring dropouts and some noise of later origin, is comparable to that of a contemporary telephone.\n\n^ In 1925 the laboratories reformed into Bell Telephone Laboratories and under the shared ownership of American Telephone & Telegraph Company and Western Electric.\n\n^ Ironically, the introduction of \"talkies\" was spearheaded by The Jazz Singer (1927), which used the Vitaphone sound-on-disc system rather than an optical soundtrack.\n\n^ The Audio Engineering Society has issued all these recordings on CD. Varèse Sarabande had released the Beethoven Concerto on LP, and it has been reissued on CD several times since.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Encyclopedia of Recorded Sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Recorded_Sound"},{"link_name":"Playback: from the Victrola to MP3, 100 years of music, machines, and money","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=8xe0hjGqZ6YC"},{"link_name":"Gaisberg, Frederick W.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Gaisberg"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780405096785","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780405096785"},{"link_name":"\"The Record Industry: The Growth of a Mass Medium\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=EkPIO2UZnEUC&pg=PA108"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-304-70173-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-304-70173-4"},{"link_name":"Walter Legge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Legge"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-47544-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-47544-9"},{"link_name":"\" From Edison to the iPod\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20100312213800/http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/recording/notes.html"},{"link_name":"University of Alabama at Birmingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Alabama_at_Birmingham"},{"link_name":"\"Perfecting Sound Forever: An Aural History of Recorded Music\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=KuPkMAsPDQQC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-571-21165-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-571-21165-4"},{"link_name":"recording consciousness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recording_consciousness"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-672-21205-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-672-21205-6"},{"link_name":"\"Recording Technology History: notes revised July 6, 2005, by Steven Schoenherr\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20100312213800/http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/recording/notes.html"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"San Diego University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_San_Diego"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-910050-41-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-910050-41-4"}],"text":"Encyclopedia of Recorded Sound (2 Vols.) (2nd ed.). Routledge. 2005 [1993].\nBarlow, Sanna Morrison. Mountain Singing: the Story of Gospel Recordings in the Philippines. Hong Kong: Alliance Press, 1952. 352 p.\nColeman, Mark, Playback: from the Victrola to MP3, 100 years of music, machines, and money, Da Capo Press, 2003.\nGaisberg, Frederick W. (1977). Andrew Farkas (ed.). The Music Goes Round. New Haven: Ayer. ISBN 9780405096785.\nGronow, Pekka, \"The Record Industry: The Growth of a Mass Medium\", Popular Music, Vol. 3, Producers and Markets (1983), pp. 53–75, Cambridge University Press.\nGronow, Pekka, and Saunio, Ilpo, \"An International History of the Recording Industry\", [translated from the Finnish by Christopher Moseley], London; New York : Cassell, 1998. ISBN 0-304-70173-4\nLipman, Samuel,\"The House of Music: Art in an Era of Institutions\", 1984. See the chapter on \"Getting on Record\", pp. 62–75, about the early record industry and Fred Gaisberg and Walter Legge and FFRR (Full Frequency Range Recording).\nMillard, Andre J., \"America on record : a history of recorded sound\", Cambridge; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-521-47544-9\nMillard, Andre J., \" From Edison to the iPod\", UAB Reporter, 2005, University of Alabama at Birmingham.\nMilner, Greg, \"Perfecting Sound Forever: An Aural History of Recorded Music\", Faber & Faber; 1 edition (June 9, 2009) ISBN 978-0-571-21165-4. Cf. p. 14 on H. Stith Bennett and \"recording consciousness\".\nRead, Oliver, and Walter L. Welch, From Tin Foil to Stereo: Evolution of the Phonograph, Second ed., Indianapolis, Ind.: H.W. Same & Co., 1976. N.B.: This is an historical account of the development of sound recording technology. ISBN 0-672-21205-6 pbk.\nRead, Oliver, The Recording and Reproduction of Sound, Indianapolis, Ind.: H.W. Sams & Co., 1952. N.B.: This is a pioneering engineering account of sound recording technology.\n\"Recording Technology History: notes revised July 6, 2005, by Steven Schoenherr\" at the Wayback Machine (archived March 12, 2010), San Diego University\nSt-Laurent, Gilles, \"Notes on the Degradation of Sound Recordings\", National Library [of Canada] News, vol. 13, no. 1 (Jan. 1991), p. 1, 3–4.\nMcWilliams, Jerry. The Preservation and Restoration of Sound Recordings. Nashville, Tenn.: American Association for State and Local History, 1979. ISBN 0-910050-41-4\nWeir, Bob, et al. Century of Sound: 100 Years of Recorded Sound, 1877-1977. Executive writer, Bob Weir; project staff writers, Brian Gorman, Jim Simons, Marty Melhuish. [Toronto?]: Produced by Studio 123, cop. 1977. N.B.: Published on the occasion of an exhibition commemorating the centennial of recorded sound, held at the fairground of the annual Canadian National Exhibition, Toronto, Ont., as one of the C.N.E.'s 1977 events. Without ISBN","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"Frances Densmore and Blackfoot chief Mountain Chief working on a recording project of the Bureau of American Ethnology (1916).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg/220px-Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mechanical organ, 1650","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Dukirch.gif/170px-Dukirch.gif"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Recording of Bell's voice on a wax disc in 1885, identified in 2013 [more details]"},{"image_text":"Emile Berliner with disc record gramophone","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Emile_Berliner_with_phonograph.jpg/220px-Emile_Berliner_with_phonograph.jpg"},{"image_text":"RCA-44, a classic ribbon microphone introduced in 1932. Similar units were widely used for recording and broadcasting in the 1940s and are occasionally still used today.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/RCA_44_of_CBS_20071104.png/220px-RCA_44_of_CBS_20071104.png"},{"image_text":"Singer Tatjana Angelini recording the Swedish voice of Snow White in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, 1938","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Framf%C3%B6r_en_inspelningsapparat_st%C3%A5r_Tatjana_Angelini.jpg/220px-Framf%C3%B6r_en_inspelningsapparat_st%C3%A5r_Tatjana_Angelini.jpg"},{"image_text":"Magnetic audio tapes: acetate base (left) and polyester base (right)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Magnetic-tape-acetate-vs-polyester-backing.jpg/220px-Magnetic-tape-acetate-vs-polyester-backing.jpg"},{"image_text":"A typical Compact Cassette","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Side_A%2C_TDK_D-C60_20041220.jpg/220px-Side_A%2C_TDK_D-C60_20041220.jpg"},{"image_text":"Graphical representation of a sound wave in analog (red) and 4-bit digital (blue)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Pcm.svg/150px-Pcm.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A digital sound recorder from Sony","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Sony-pcm-m10.jpg/220px-Sony-pcm-m10.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Record production portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Record_production"},{"title":"International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Association_of_Sound_and_Audiovisual_Archives"}]	[{"reference":"Fowler, Charles B. 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Elsevier: 589–603. doi:10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0094-114X%2801%2900005-2","url_text":"10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2"}]},{"reference":"Mitchell, Thomas (2006). Rosslyn Chapel: The Music of the Cubes. Diversions Books. ISBN 0-9554629-0-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9554629-0-8","url_text":"0-9554629-0-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Tune into the Da Vinci coda\". The Scotsman. April 26, 2006. Archived from the original on November 13, 2011. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Forster_(mathematician)	William Forster (mathematician)	["1 The Circles of Proportion","1.1 Forster's account","1.2 Oughtred's admonition to Forster","1.3 Richard Delamaine's claim","2 Biographical notices","3 References"]	English mathematician William Forster (fl. 1630–1673) was an English mathematician living in London, a pupil of the celebrated mathematician and astronomer clergyman William Oughtred (1574-1660). He is best known for his book, a translation and edition of Oughtred's treatise entitled The Circles of Proportion. Oughtred invented horizontal and circular forms of the slide rule, and Forster persuaded his master to let him translate his writings about their form and use, and to publish them. The publication resulted in a controversy, because another student of Oughtred's, Richard Delamain the elder, during the two years (1630-32) in which Forster was preparing the book, brought out two treatises on the same subject claiming the inventions as his own, and addressing himself to royal patronage. Forster's work was dedicated to that eminent intellectual, Sir Kenelm Digby (1603-1665), and the account of Oughtred's claim is found in Forster's Preface, or Letter of Dedication. Following the invention or discovery of logarithms by John Napier, in his Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio of 1614, the translation of that work by Edward Wright (1561-1615), and Henry Briggs's Arithmetica Logarithmica of 1624, the development of the slide rule had an important impact on the teaching of mathematics. The Circles of Proportion Forster, of whose life little is known, stated in 1632 that he owed his initiation and whole progress in the mathematical sciences to his worthy friend and teacher, Mr. William Oughtred. Oughtred himself described how he had trained Forster in precepts before letting him become familiar with instruments:"As I did to Delamain and to some others, so I did to William Forster: I freely gave him my helpe and instruction in these faculties: only this was the difference, I had the very first moulding (as I may say) of this latter: But Delamain was already corrupted with doting upon Instruments, and quite lost from ever being made an Artist: I suffered not William Forster for some time so much as speake of any Instrument, except only the Globe it selfe; and to explicate, and worke the questions of the Sphaere, by the way of the Analemma: which also himselfe did describe for the present occasion. And this my restraint from such pleasing avocations, and holding him to the strictnesse of precept, brought forth this fruit, that in short time, even by his owne skill, he could not onely use any Instrument he should see, but also was able to delineate the like, and devise others: yet for all this my severe hand I saw him obliquely to glaunce his eye upon such Instrumentary practices: whereat I being jealous, lest I should lose my labour, and he his end, which was Art: I brake out into that admonition which in his Epistle Dedicatory to Sir Kenelme Digby he (I thinke in my very formall words) setteth downe." Forster's account While staying at Oughtred's residence at Albury, Surrey during the long vacation of 1630, Forster asked him about an instrument he had heard of, a Ruler to find numbers, sines and tangents. This instrument was said to be six feet long (like the instrument called "Mr Gunter's Ruler"), and was used with a pair of beam compasses. Oughtred told him that that was a poor invention, and difficult to use. "But", said he, "seeing you are taken with such mechanicall wayes of Instruments, I will shew you what devises I haue had by mee these many yeares." He first showed to Forster a rule (a "horizontal instrument") consisting of two straight rulers used together without the need for compasses, and secondly a circular slide rule consisting of a circle or ring so marked, with another moveable circle upon it. (These could be used for delineating sundials upon any kind of plane and for demonstrating astronomical principles.) Forster was strongly impressed, and told Oughtred he was surprised that he should have kept these valuable inventions hidden for "so many yeares", both from the world, and from himself, to whom his teacher had otherwise been so liberal in explaining the aspects and mysteries of his Art. Oughtred's admonition to Forster Oughtred replied:"That the true way of Art is not by Instruments, but by Demonstration: and that it is a preposterous course of vulgar Teachers, to begin with Instruments, and not with the Sciences, and so in-stead of Artists, to make their Schollers only doers of tricks, and as it were Iuglers: to the despite of Art, losse of precious time, and betraying of willing and industrious wits, unto ignorance, and idlenesse. That the use of Instruments is indeed excellent, if a man be an Artist: but contemptible, being set and opposed to Art. And lastly, that he meant to commend to me, the skill of Instruments, but first he would have me well instructed in the Sciences." According to Forster's Letter of Dedication (addressed to Sir Kenelm Digby), Oughtred claimed to have projected the "Horizontall Instrument" about thirty years previously (i.e. around 1600), and showed Forster his many notes and instructions for the use of both instruments, mainly written in Latin. Forster persuaded him to make them public, and was given the author's permission to translate and publish Oughtred's treatise as The Circles of Proportion and the Horizontall Instrument. Both invented, and the uses of both written in Latine by Mr. W. O. Translated into English and set forth for the publique benefit by William Forster (1632, another edition in 1639). Richard Delamaine's claim This project (Forster also noted), while he was carefully working on it (1630-1632), "another to whom the Author in a loving confidence discovered this intent, using more hast then good speed, went about to preocupate ; of which untimely birth, and preventing (if not circumventing) forwardnesse, I say no more: but advise the studious Reader, onely so farre to trust, as he shal be sure doth agree to truth and Art." This led to a dispute over the claimed invention, between Forster, Oughtred, and Richard Delamaine the elder, another of Oughtred's students. The anticipatative works were Delamain's Grammelogia, or, The mathematical ring extracted from the logarythmes, and projected circular (printed 1631, dedicated to King Charles I), and his The Making, Description, and Use of a small portable Instrument called a Horizontall Quadrant (printed 1632, dedicated to the Lord Brudenell, Baron of Stonton). According to Oughtred, Delamain was bringing him the printed sheets of his works as they were being prepared, and disregarded Oughtred's criticisms of them. It was in an address To the courteous and benevolent Reader, prefixed to the two volumes bound together, that Delamain took the bait of criticism, writing:"Too great and too loose an aspertion hath bin cast upon me about these things, which I never thought in the least title when I first writ upon this Invention, or my name so to come to the worlds rumor as it hath since the last publication of this Logarythmall projection Circular; howsoever, here is my comfort, the guiltlesnesse and innocency of my cause, which may teach me, and others carefulnesse hereafter, how and what we publish to the world, seeing there are such carpers, and maligners even of the most usefull and best things, yea, such busie bodies who marre that which others make, who scorne to have a second, knowing all things and admiring nothing but themselves, such who have stings like Bees, and Arrowes alwayes ready to shoot against these whom they dislike, such who while they will needs have many callings neglect their owne; sharpe wittie cryticks, Diogenes like, snarling at others, and not looking home unto themselves, but by all meanes endevouring to take away the mantle of peace, and rent the seamelesse coate of love and amitie. If things be not done well by others then they triumph and send forth their invectives, if well, they professe it nothing, and cannot passe without their censure. To speake ill of a man upon knowledge shewes want of Charity; but to raise a scandall upon a bare supposition, and to act it in Print, argueth little humanity, lesse Christianity..." Oughtred responded at length in his Just Apologie (c. 1634), setting forth his own biography to show his precedence in the matter, and noting "Onely I will soberly tell you that William Forster, whom you call a Parrat speaking he cannot tell what, is a farre more grounded Artist in all parts of the Mathematicks then is R. D: and better knoweth what belongeth to demonstration then R. D. doth: as may soone bee tryed." Biographical notices Following the dedicatory epistle to The Circles of Proportion was printed a short notice: "Thos that desire farther instructions in the use of thes Instruments or other parts of the Mathematiques may repaire to W Forster at the Red bull ouer against St Clements Church yard with out Temple bar"; from which it is inferred that he lived and taught mathematics there. The parish of St Clement's lies partly in the City and partly in Westminster: being outside Temple Bar, the sign of the Red Bull was in Westminster. In 1667 Forster published Forster's Arithmetick, intended for merchants and accountants. It was republished in 1673, with an engraved portrait of the author, This work shows Forster using the Rule of Multiplication based upon the symbol "X", said to have been introduced by Oughtred. A new edition by Henry Coley appeared in 1686; this suggests that Forster died between the publication of the second and third editions. References ^ F. Cajori, William Oughtred, A Great Seventeenth-Century Teacher of Mathematics (The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago/London 1916), at pp. 48-49 and pp. 88-89 (Internet Archive). ^ a b c d Higton, H. K. "Forster, William (fl. 1627–1673)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/9921. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ a b Goodwin, Gordon (1889). "Forster, William (fl.1632)" . In Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 20. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 24. ^ T. Gardiner, 'Rigorous thinking and the use of instruments', The Mathematical Gazette vol. 76 no. 475: "The Use of the History of Mathematics in the teaching of Mathematics" (The Mathematical Association, March 1992), pp. 179-81. ^ a b c d e f "To the Honourable and Renowned for vertue, learning, and true valour, Sir Kenelme Digbye, Knight (dated 1632)", in W. Oughtred, ed. W. Forster, The Circles of Proportion and the Horizontall Instrvment. The former shewing the maner how to work proportions both simple and compound: and the ready and easy resolving of quæstions both in arithmetic, geometrie, & astronomie: and is newly increased with an additament for navigation. All which rules may also be wrought with the penne by arithmetic, and the canon of triangles. The latter teaching how to work most quæstions, which may be performed by the globe: and to delineat dialls upon any kind of plaine. Both invented, and the vses of both written in Latine by Mr. W. O. Translated into English and set forth for the publique benefit by William Forster (Printed by Augustine Mathewes, and are to bee sold by Nic: Bourne at the Royall Exchange, London 1632, second issue 1633), unpaginated front matter (Umich/eebo). ^ a b c (W. Oughtred), To the English gentrie, and all others studious of the mathematicks which shall bee readers hereof. The Just Apologie of Wil: Oughtred, against the slaunderous insimulations of Richard Delamain, in a pamphlet called Grammelogia, or The Mathematicall Ring, or Mirifica Logarithmorum Projectio Circularis (A. Mathewes, London ?1634). Full text at Umich/eebo. ^ a b David Eugene Smith, A Source Book in Mathematics (Courier Corporation, 2012), p. 160. ^ A.J. Turner, 'William Oughtred, Richard Delamain and the Horizontal Instrument in seventeenth-century England', Annali dell'Istituto e Museo di storia della scienza di Firenze vol. 6 pt. 2 (1981), pp. 99-125. ^ Full text at Umich/eebo. ^ (London: Printed for Richard Hawkins and are to be sold at his shop in Chancery lane neere Sarjants Inne, 1632). Full text at Umich/eebo. ^ 'To the courteous and benevolent Reader', in Delamaine, Grammelogia, unpaginated front matter (Umich/eebo). ^ W. Forster, Forster's Arithmetick: Explaining the Grounds and Principles of that Art, Both in Whole Numbers and Fractions. By Such Plain, Easie and Familiar Rules and Precepts, that Any Person, of a Reasonable Capacity, May (in a Short Time) Attain to a Competent Proficiency Therin, Without the Help of Any Tutor (Printed by John Streater, and are to be sold by George Sawbridge, at the Bible on Ludgate-Hill, London 1673). Full pageviews at Google with engraved portrait opposite title. ^ Forster's Arithmetick (1673), at pp. 43-44 and pp. 113-14 (Google). Authority control databases International VIAF WorldCat National United States	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fl.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floruit"},{"link_name":"William Oughtred","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Oughtred"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"slide rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule"},{"link_name":"Richard Delamain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Delamain"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-odnb-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dnb00-3"},{"link_name":"Kenelm Digby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenelm_Digby"},{"link_name":"John Napier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Napier"},{"link_name":"Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirifici_Logarithmorum_Canonis_Descriptio"},{"link_name":"Edward Wright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Wright_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"Henry Briggs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Briggs_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"William Forster (fl. 1630–1673) was an English mathematician living in London, a pupil of the celebrated mathematician and astronomer clergyman William Oughtred (1574-1660).[1] He is best known for his book, a translation and edition of Oughtred's treatise entitled The Circles of Proportion. Oughtred invented horizontal and circular forms of the slide rule, and Forster persuaded his master to let him translate his writings about their form and use, and to publish them. The publication resulted in a controversy, because another student of Oughtred's, Richard Delamain the elder, during the two years (1630-32) in which Forster was preparing the book, brought out two treatises on the same subject claiming the inventions as his own, and addressing himself to royal patronage.[2][3] Forster's work was dedicated to that eminent intellectual, Sir Kenelm Digby (1603-1665), and the account of Oughtred's claim is found in Forster's Preface, or Letter of Dedication. Following the invention or discovery of logarithms by John Napier, in his Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio of 1614, the translation of that work by Edward Wright (1561-1615), and Henry Briggs's Arithmetica Logarithmica of 1624, the development of the slide rule had an important impact on the teaching of mathematics.[4]","title":"William Forster (mathematician)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William Oughtred","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Oughtred"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Epistle-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-justapol-6"}],"text":"Forster, of whose life little is known, stated in 1632 that he owed his initiation and whole progress in the mathematical sciences to his worthy friend and teacher, Mr. William Oughtred.[5] Oughtred himself described how he had trained Forster in precepts before letting him become familiar with instruments:\"As I did to Delamain and to some others, so I did to William Forster: I freely gave him my helpe and instruction in these faculties: only this was the difference, I had the very first moulding (as I may say) of this latter: But Delamain was already corrupted with doting upon Instruments, and quite lost from ever being made an Artist: I suffered not William Forster for some time so much as speake of any Instrument, except only the Globe it selfe; and to explicate, and worke the questions of the Sphaere, by the way of the Analemma: which also himselfe did describe for the present occasion. And this my restraint from such pleasing avocations, and holding him to the strictnesse of precept, brought forth this fruit, that in short time, even by his owne skill, he could not onely use any Instrument he should see, but also was able to delineate the like, and devise others: yet for all this my severe hand I saw him obliquely to glaunce his eye upon such Instrumentary practices: whereat I being jealous, lest I should lose my labour, and he his end, which was Art: I brake out into that admonition which in his Epistle Dedicatory to Sir Kenelme Digby he (I thinke in my very formall words) setteth downe.\"[6]","title":"The Circles of Proportion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Albury, Surrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albury,_Surrey"},{"link_name":"sines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_and_cosine"},{"link_name":"tangents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangent"},{"link_name":"beam compasses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam_compass"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Epistle-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Epistle-5"}],"sub_title":"Forster's account","text":"While staying at Oughtred's residence at Albury, Surrey during the long vacation of 1630, Forster asked him about an instrument he had heard of, a Ruler to find numbers, sines and tangents. 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Forster was strongly impressed, and told Oughtred he was surprised that he should have kept these valuable inventions hidden for \"so many yeares\", both from the world, and from himself, to whom his teacher had otherwise been so liberal in explaining the aspects and mysteries of his Art.[5]","title":"The Circles of Proportion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Epistle-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Epistle-5"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smith-7"}],"sub_title":"Oughtred's admonition to Forster","text":"Oughtred replied:\"That the true way of Art is not by Instruments, but by Demonstration: and that it is a preposterous course of vulgar Teachers, to begin with Instruments, and not with the Sciences, and so in-stead of Artists, to make their Schollers only doers of tricks, and as it were Iuglers: to the despite of Art, losse of precious time, and betraying of willing and industrious wits, unto ignorance, and idlenesse. That the use of Instruments is indeed excellent, if a man be an Artist: but contemptible, being set and opposed to Art. And lastly, that he meant to commend to me, the skill of Instruments, but first he would have me well instructed in the Sciences.\"[5]According to Forster's Letter of Dedication (addressed to Sir Kenelm Digby), Oughtred claimed to have projected the \"Horizontall Instrument\" about thirty years previously (i.e. around 1600), and showed Forster his many notes and instructions for the use of both instruments, mainly written in Latin. Forster persuaded him to make them public, and was given the author's permission to translate and publish Oughtred's treatise as The Circles of Proportion and the Horizontall Instrument. Both invented, and the uses of both written in Latine by Mr. W. O. Translated into English and set forth for the publique benefit by William Forster (1632, another edition in 1639).[5][7]","title":"The Circles of Proportion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Epistle-5"},{"link_name":"Richard Delamaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Delamaine"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-odnb-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smith-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Charles I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Lord Brudenell, Baron of Stonton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Brudenell,_1st_Earl_of_Cardigan"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-justapol-6"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-justapol-6"}],"sub_title":"Richard Delamaine's claim","text":"This project (Forster also noted), while he was carefully working on it (1630-1632), \"another to whom the Author in a loving confidence discovered this intent, using more hast then good speed, went about to preocupate [i.e., anticipate]; of which untimely birth, and preventing (if not circumventing) forwardnesse, I say no more: but advise the studious Reader, onely so farre to trust, as he shal be sure doth agree to truth and Art.\"[5] This led to a dispute over the claimed invention, between Forster, Oughtred, and Richard Delamaine the elder, another of Oughtred's students.[2][7][8]The anticipatative works were Delamain's Grammelogia, or, The mathematical ring extracted from the logarythmes, and projected circular (printed 1631, dedicated to King Charles I),[9] and his The Making, Description, and Use of a small portable Instrument called a Horizontall Quadrant (printed 1632, dedicated to the Lord Brudenell, Baron of Stonton).[10] According to Oughtred, Delamain was bringing him the printed sheets of his works as they were being prepared, and disregarded Oughtred's criticisms of them.[6]It was in an address To the courteous and benevolent Reader, prefixed to the two volumes bound together, that Delamain took the bait of criticism, writing:\"Too great and too loose an aspertion hath bin cast upon me about these things, which I never thought in the least title when I first writ upon this Invention, or my name so to come to the worlds rumor as it hath since the last publication of this Logarythmall projection Circular; howsoever, here is my comfort, the guiltlesnesse and innocency of my cause, which may teach me, and others carefulnesse hereafter, how and what we publish to the world, seeing there are such carpers, and maligners even of the most usefull and best things, yea, such busie bodies who marre that which others make, who scorne to have a second, knowing all things and admiring nothing but themselves, such who have stings like Bees, and Arrowes alwayes ready to shoot against these whom they dislike, such who while they will needs have many callings neglect their owne; sharpe wittie cryticks, Diogenes like, snarling at others, and not looking home unto themselves, but by all meanes endevouring to take away the mantle of peace, and rent the seamelesse coate of love and amitie. If things be not done well by others then they triumph and send forth their invectives, if well, they professe it nothing, and cannot passe without their censure. To speake ill of a man upon knowledge shewes want of Charity; but to raise a scandall upon a bare supposition, and to act it in Print, argueth little humanity, lesse Christianity...\"[11]Oughtred responded at length in his Just Apologie (c. 1634), setting forth his own biography to show his precedence in the matter, and noting \"Onely I will soberly tell you that William Forster, whom you call a Parrat speaking he cannot tell what, is a farre more grounded Artist in all parts of the Mathematicks then is R. D: and better knoweth what belongeth to demonstration then R. D. doth: as may soone bee tryed.\"[6]","title":"The Circles of Proportion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"St Clements Church yard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Clement_Danes"},{"link_name":"Temple bar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_Bar,_London"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dnb00-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-odnb-2"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Henry Coley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Coley"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-odnb-2"}],"text":"Following the dedicatory epistle to The Circles of Proportion was printed a short notice: \"Thos that desire farther instructions in the use of thes Instruments or other parts of the Mathematiques may repaire to W Forster at the Red bull ouer against St Clements Church yard with out Temple bar\"; from which it is inferred that he lived and taught mathematics there.[3][2] The parish of St Clement's lies partly in the City and partly in Westminster: being outside Temple Bar, the sign of the Red Bull was in Westminster.In 1667 Forster published Forster's Arithmetick, intended for merchants and accountants. It was republished in 1673, with an engraved portrait of the author,[12] This work shows Forster using the Rule of Multiplication based upon the symbol \"X\", said to have been introduced by Oughtred.[13] A new edition by Henry Coley appeared in 1686; this suggests that Forster died between the publication of the second and third editions.[2]","title":"Biographical notices"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Higton, H. K. \"Forster, William (fl. 1627–1673)\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/9921.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F9921","url_text":"10.1093/ref:odnb/9921"}]},{"reference":"Goodwin, Gordon (1889). \"Forster, William (fl.1632)\" . In Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 20. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relic_species	Relict (biology)	["1 Definition","2 Examples","3 Relevance","4 See also","5 References"]	A taxon that was more prevalent in the past but is still extant In biogeography and paleontology, a relict is a population or taxon of organisms that was more widespread or more diverse in the past. A relictual population is a population currently inhabiting a restricted area whose range was far wider during a previous geologic epoch. Similarly, a relictual taxon is a taxon (e.g. species or other lineage) which is the sole surviving representative of a formerly diverse group. Definition A relict (or relic) plant or animal is a taxon that persists as a remnant of what was once a diverse and widespread population. Relictualism occurs when a widespread habitat or range changes and a small area becomes cut off from the whole. A subset of the population is then confined to the available hospitable area, and survives there while the broader population either shrinks or evolves divergently. This phenomenon differs from endemism in that the range of the population was not always restricted to the local region. In other words, the species or group did not necessarily arise in that small area, but rather was stranded, or insularized, by changes over time. The agent of change could be anything from competition from other organisms, continental drift, or climate change such as an ice age. When a relict is representative of taxa found in the fossil record, and yet is still living, such an organism is sometimes referred to as a living fossil. However, a relict need not be currently living. An evolutionary relict is any organism that was characteristic of the flora or fauna of one age and that persisted into a later age, with the later age being characterized by newly evolved flora or fauna significantly different from those that came before. Examples The population of the Siberian columbine in the Central Siberian Plateau is considered a quaternary relict. A notable example is the thylacine of Tasmania, a relict marsupial carnivore that survived into modern times on an island, whereas the rest of its species on mainland Australia had gone extinct between 3000 and 2000 years ago. Another example is Omma, a genus of beetle with a fossil record extending back over 200 million years to the Late Triassic and found worldwide during the Jurassic and Cretaceous, now confined to a single living species in Australia. Another relict from the Triassic is Pholadomya, a common clam genus during the Mesozoic, now confined to a single rare species in the Caribbean. An example from the fossil record would be a specimen of Nimravidae, an extinct branch of carnivores in the mammalian evolutionary tree, if said specimen came from Europe in the Miocene epoch. If that was the case, the specimen would represent, not the main population, but a last surviving remnant of the nimravid lineage. These carnivores were common and widespread in the previous epoch, the Oligocene, and disappeared when the climate changed and woodlands were replaced by savanna. They persisted in Europe in the last remaining forests as a relict of the Oligocene: a relict species in a relict habitat. An example of divergent evolution creating relicts is found in the shrews of the islands off the coast of Alaska, namely the Pribilof Island shrew and the St. Lawrence Island shrew. These species are apparently relicts of a time when the islands were connected to the mainland, and these species were once conspecific with a more widespread species, now the cinereus shrew, the three populations having diverged through speciation. In botany, an example of an ice age relict plant population is the Snowdon lily, notable as being precariously rare in Wales. The Welsh population is confined to the north-facing slopes of Snowdonia, where climatic conditions are apparently similar to ice age Europe. Some have expressed concern that the warming climate will cause the lily to die out in Great Britain. Other populations of the same plant can be found in the Arctic and in the mountains of Europe and North America, where it is known as the common alplily. While the extirpation of a geographically disjunct population of a relict species may be of regional conservation concern, outright extinction at the species level may occur in this century of rapid climate change if geographic range occupied by a relict species has already contracted to the degree that it is narrowly endemic. For this reason, the traditional conservation tool of translocation has recently been reframed as assisted migration of narrowly endemic, critically endangered species that are already (or soon expected) to experience climate change beyond their levels of tolerance. Two examples of critically endangered relict species for which assisted migration projects are already underway are the western swamp tortoise of Australia and a subcanopy conifer tree in the United States called Florida Torreya. A well-studied botanical example of a relictual taxon is Ginkgo biloba, the last living representative of Ginkgoales that is restricted to China in the wild. Ginkgo trees had a diverse and widespread northern distribution during the Mesozoic, but are not known from the fossil record after the Pliocene other than G. biloba. The Saimaa ringed seal (Phoca hispida saimensis) is an endemic subspecies, a relict of last ice age that lives only in Finland in the landlocked and fragmented Saimaa freshwater lake complex. Nowadays the population has less than 400 individuals, which poses a threat to its survival. Another example is the relict leopard frog once found throughout Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and Colorado, but now only found at Lake Mead National Recreation Area in Nevada and Arizona. Relevance The concept of relictualism is useful in understanding the ecology and conservation status of populations that have become insularized, meaning confined to one small area or multiple small areas with no chance of movement between populations. Insularization makes a population vulnerable to forces that can lead to extinction, such as disease, inbreeding, habitat destruction, competition from introduced species, and global warming. Consider the case of the white-eyed river martin, a very localized species of bird found only in Southeast Asia, and extremely rare, if not already extinct. Its closest and only surviving living relative is the African river martin, also very localized in central Africa. These two species are the only known members of the subfamily Pseudochelidoninae, and their widely disjunct populations suggest they are relict populations of a more common and widespread ancestor. Known to science only since 1968, it seems to have disappeared. Studies have been done on relict populations in isolated mountain and valley habitats in western North America, where the basin and range topography creates areas that are insular in nature, such as forested mountains surrounded by inhospitable desert, called sky islands. Such situations can serve as refuges for certain Pleistocene relicts, such as Townsend's pocket gopher, while at the same time creating barriers for biological dispersal. Studies have shown that such insular habitats have a tendency toward decreasing species richness. This observation has significant implications for conservation biology, because habitat fragmentation can also lead to the insularization of stranded populations. So-called "relics of cultivation" are plant species that were grown in the past for various purposes (medicinal, food, dyes, etc.), but are no longer utilized. They are naturalized and can be found at archaeological sites. See also Living fossil References ^ Habel, Jan C.; Assmann, Thorsten; Schmitt, Thomas; Avise, John C. (2010). "Relict Species: From Past to Future". In Habel, Jan Christian; Assmann, Thorsten (eds.). Relict species: Phylogeography and Conservation Biology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 1–5. ISBN 9783540921608. ^ Ziman, Svetlana N.; Keener, Carl S. (1989). "Geographical Analysis of the Family Ranunculaceae". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 76 (4). Missouri Botanical Garden: 1021. doi:10.2307/2399690. JSTOR 2399690. ^ a b Quammen, David (2004). The Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in An Age of Extinctions. New York: Scribner. pp. 287–288, 436–447, 631. ISBN 978-0-684-82712-4. ^ Prothero, Donald R. (2006). After the Dinosaurs: The Age of Mammals. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp. 9, 132–134, 160, 174, 176, 198, 222–233. ISBN 978-0-253-34733-6. ^ a b Wilson, Don; Ruff, Sue (1999). The Smithsonian Book of North American Mammals. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 20, 27–30. ISBN 978-1-56098-845-8. ^ Brown, Paul (27 March 2003). "Global warming threatens Snowdonian plant". Guardian. London: Guardian Unlimited. Retrieved 9 April 2011. ^ Thomas, Chris D (May 2011). "Translocation of species, climate change, and the end of trying to recreate past ecological communities" (PDF). Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 26 (5): 216–221. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2011.02.006. PMID 21411178. ^ Dalrymple, Sarah (16 July 2021). "Why climate change is forcing conservationists to be more ambitious: by moving threatened species to pastures new". The Conversation. Retrieved 26 July 2022. ^ Zhou, Zhiyan; Zheng, Shaolin (2003). "Palaeobiology: The missing link in Ginkgo evolution". Nature. 423 (6942): 821–2. Bibcode:2003Natur.423..821Z. doi:10.1038/423821a. PMID 12815417. S2CID 4342303. ^ Julie Jalalpour; Matt Malkin; Peter Poon; Liz Rehrmann; Jerry Yu (1997). "Ginkgoales: Fossil Record". University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 3 June 2008. ^ Palo, J.U.; Hyvärinen, H.; Helle, E.; Mäkinen, H.S.; Väinölä, R. (March 2003). "Postglacial loss of microsatellite variation in the landlocked Lake Saimaa ringed seal". Conservation Genetics. 4 (2): 117–128. doi:10.1023/A:1023303109701. eISSN 1572-9737. ISSN 1566-0621. S2CID 25621332. ^ "Saimaa Ringed Seal". WWF Finland. Retrieved 2019-01-30. ^ Turner, Angela K.; Rose, Chris (1989). Swallows & Martins. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. pp. 5, 34, 85–87. ISBN 978-0-395-51174-9. ^ Harris, Larry D. (1984). The Fragmented Forest: Island Biogeography Theory and the Preservation of Biotic Diversity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 71–92. ISBN 978-0-226-31763-2. ^ Celka Z., Drapikowska M. 2008. Relics of cultivation in Central Europe: Malva alcea L. as an example. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. Volume 17, Supplement 1, 251-255, doi:10.1007/s00334-008-0151-0	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"biogeography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeography"},{"link_name":"paleontology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontology"},{"link_name":"population","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population"},{"link_name":"taxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon"},{"link_name":"range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_(biology)"},{"link_name":"geologic epoch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"In biogeography and paleontology, a relict is a population or taxon of organisms that was more widespread or more diverse in the past. A relictual population is a population currently inhabiting a restricted area whose range was far wider during a previous geologic epoch. Similarly, a relictual taxon is a taxon (e.g. species or other lineage) which is the sole surviving representative of a formerly diverse group.[1]","title":"Relict (biology)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"taxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon"},{"link_name":"evolves divergently","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergent_evolution"},{"link_name":"endemism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism"},{"link_name":"competition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition_(biology)"},{"link_name":"continental drift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_drift"},{"link_name":"climate change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)"},{"link_name":"ice age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age"},{"link_name":"fossil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil"},{"link_name":"living fossil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Living_fossil"}],"text":"A relict (or relic) plant or animal is a taxon that persists as a remnant of what was once a diverse and widespread population. Relictualism occurs when a widespread habitat or range changes and a small area becomes cut off from the whole. A subset of the population is then confined to the available hospitable area, and survives there while the broader population either shrinks or evolves divergently. This phenomenon differs from endemism in that the range of the population was not always restricted to the local region. In other words, the species or group did not necessarily arise in that small area, but rather was stranded, or insularized, by changes over time. The agent of change could be anything from competition from other organisms, continental drift, or climate change such as an ice age.When a relict is representative of taxa found in the fossil record, and yet is still living, such an organism is sometimes referred to as a living fossil. However, a relict need not be currently living. An evolutionary relict is any organism that was characteristic of the flora or fauna of one age and that persisted into a later age, with the later age being characterized by newly evolved flora or fauna significantly different from those that came before.","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Icones_selectae_plantarum_quas_in_systemate_universali_(Tab._047).jpg"},{"link_name":"Siberian columbine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberian_columbine"},{"link_name":"Central Siberian Plateau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Siberian_Plateau"},{"link_name":"quaternary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"thylacine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thylacine"},{"link_name":"marsupial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsupial"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quammen-3"},{"link_name":"Omma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omma"},{"link_name":"Pholadomya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pholadomya"},{"link_name":"Nimravidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimravidae"},{"link_name":"carnivores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivora"},{"link_name":"Miocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miocene"},{"link_name":"Oligocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligocene"},{"link_name":"climate changed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Pribilof Island shrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pribilof_Island_shrew"},{"link_name":"St. Lawrence Island shrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Lawrence_Island_shrew"},{"link_name":"cinereus shrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinereus_shrew"},{"link_name":"speciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speciation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smithsonian-5"},{"link_name":"botany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany"},{"link_name":"Snowdon lily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowdon_lily"},{"link_name":"Snowdonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowdonia"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"disjunct population","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disjunct_distribution"},{"link_name":"climate change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change"},{"link_name":"endemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism"},{"link_name":"translocation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_translocation"},{"link_name":"assisted migration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assisted_migration"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"western swamp tortoise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_swamp_turtle"},{"link_name":"Florida Torreya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torreya_taxifolia"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dalrymple-8"},{"link_name":"Ginkgo biloba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginkgo_biloba"},{"link_name":"Ginkgoales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginkgoales"},{"link_name":"Mesozoic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoic"},{"link_name":"Pliocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliocene"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZhouZheng-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ucmp-10"},{"link_name":"Saimaa ringed seal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saimaa_ringed_seal"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"Saimaa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saimaa"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"relict leopard frog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relict_leopard_frog"},{"link_name":"Nevada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada"},{"link_name":"Arizona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona"},{"link_name":"Utah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah"},{"link_name":"Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado"},{"link_name":"Lake Mead National Recreation Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Mead_National_Recreation_Area"}],"text":"The population of the Siberian columbine in the Central Siberian Plateau is considered a quaternary relict.[2]A notable example is the thylacine of Tasmania, a relict marsupial carnivore that survived into modern times on an island, whereas the rest of its species on mainland Australia had gone extinct between 3000 and 2000 years ago.[3]Another example is Omma, a genus of beetle with a fossil record extending back over 200 million years to the Late Triassic and found worldwide during the Jurassic and Cretaceous, now confined to a single living species in Australia. Another relict from the Triassic is Pholadomya, a common clam genus during the Mesozoic, now confined to a single rare species in the Caribbean.An example from the fossil record would be a specimen of Nimravidae, an extinct branch of carnivores in the mammalian evolutionary tree, if said specimen came from Europe in the Miocene epoch. If that was the case, the specimen would represent, not the main population, but a last surviving remnant of the nimravid lineage. These carnivores were common and widespread in the previous epoch, the Oligocene, and disappeared when the climate changed and woodlands were replaced by savanna. They persisted in Europe in the last remaining forests as a relict of the Oligocene: a relict species in a relict habitat.[4]An example of divergent evolution creating relicts is found in the shrews of the islands off the coast of Alaska, namely the Pribilof Island shrew and the St. Lawrence Island shrew. These species are apparently relicts of a time when the islands were connected to the mainland, and these species were once conspecific with a more widespread species, now the cinereus shrew, the three populations having diverged through speciation.[5]In botany, an example of an ice age relict plant population is the Snowdon lily, notable as being precariously rare in Wales. The Welsh population is confined to the north-facing slopes of Snowdonia, where climatic conditions are apparently similar to ice age Europe. Some have expressed concern that the warming climate will cause the lily to die out in Great Britain.[6] Other populations of the same plant can be found in the Arctic and in the mountains of Europe and North America, where it is known as the common alplily.While the extirpation of a geographically disjunct population of a relict species may be of regional conservation concern, outright extinction at the species level may occur in this century of rapid climate change if geographic range occupied by a relict species has already contracted to the degree that it is narrowly endemic. For this reason, the traditional conservation tool of translocation has recently been reframed as assisted migration of narrowly endemic, critically endangered species that are already (or soon expected) to experience climate change beyond their levels of tolerance.[7] Two examples of critically endangered relict species for which assisted migration projects are already underway are the western swamp tortoise of Australia and a subcanopy conifer tree in the United States called Florida Torreya.[8]A well-studied botanical example of a relictual taxon is Ginkgo biloba, the last living representative of Ginkgoales that is restricted to China in the wild. Ginkgo trees had a diverse and widespread northern distribution during the Mesozoic, but are not known from the fossil record after the Pliocene other than G. biloba.[9][10]The Saimaa ringed seal (Phoca hispida saimensis) is an endemic subspecies, a relict of last ice age that lives only in Finland in the landlocked and fragmented Saimaa freshwater lake complex.[11] Nowadays the population has less than 400 individuals, which poses a threat to its survival.[12]Another example is the relict leopard frog once found throughout Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and Colorado, but now only found at Lake Mead National Recreation Area in Nevada and Arizona.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"conservation status","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_status"},{"link_name":"extinction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction"},{"link_name":"inbreeding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inbreeding"},{"link_name":"habitat destruction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction"},{"link_name":"introduced species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduced_species"},{"link_name":"global warming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming"},{"link_name":"white-eyed river martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-eyed_river_martin"},{"link_name":"African river martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_river_martin"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"basin and range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basin_and_range"},{"link_name":"sky islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky_island"},{"link_name":"refuges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugium_(population_biology)"},{"link_name":"Pleistocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleistocene"},{"link_name":"Townsend's pocket gopher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townsend%27s_pocket_gopher"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smithsonian-5"},{"link_name":"biological dispersal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_dispersal"},{"link_name":"species richness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_richness"},{"link_name":"habitat fragmentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quammen-3"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"The concept of relictualism is useful in understanding the ecology and conservation status of populations that have become insularized, meaning confined to one small area or multiple small areas with no chance of movement between populations. Insularization makes a population vulnerable to forces that can lead to extinction, such as disease, inbreeding, habitat destruction, competition from introduced species, and global warming. Consider the case of the white-eyed river martin, a very localized species of bird found only in Southeast Asia, and extremely rare, if not already extinct. Its closest and only surviving living relative is the African river martin, also very localized in central Africa. These two species are the only known members of the subfamily Pseudochelidoninae, and their widely disjunct populations suggest they are relict populations of a more common and widespread ancestor. Known to science only since 1968, it seems to have disappeared.[13]Studies have been done on relict populations in isolated mountain and valley habitats in western North America, where the basin and range topography creates areas that are insular in nature, such as forested mountains surrounded by inhospitable desert, called sky islands. Such situations can serve as refuges for certain Pleistocene relicts, such as Townsend's pocket gopher,[5] while at the same time creating barriers for biological dispersal. Studies have shown that such insular habitats have a tendency toward decreasing species richness. This observation has significant implications for conservation biology, because habitat fragmentation can also lead to the insularization of stranded populations.[3][14]So-called \"relics of cultivation\"[15] are plant species that were grown in the past for various purposes (medicinal, food, dyes, etc.), but are no longer utilized. They are naturalized and can be found at archaeological sites.","title":"Relevance"}]	[{"image_text":"The population of the Siberian columbine in the Central Siberian Plateau is considered a quaternary relict.[2]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Icones_selectae_plantarum_quas_in_systemate_universali_%28Tab._047%29.jpg/220px-Icones_selectae_plantarum_quas_in_systemate_universali_%28Tab._047%29.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Living fossil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Living_fossil"}]	[{"reference":"Habel, Jan C.; Assmann, Thorsten; Schmitt, Thomas; Avise, John C. (2010). \"Relict Species: From Past to Future\". In Habel, Jan Christian; Assmann, Thorsten (eds.). Relict species: Phylogeography and Conservation Biology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 1–5. ISBN 9783540921608.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vMTCbd_7qWUC&pg=PA1","url_text":"\"Relict Species: From Past to Future\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783540921608","url_text":"9783540921608"}]},{"reference":"Ziman, Svetlana N.; Keener, Carl S. (1989). \"Geographical Analysis of the Family Ranunculaceae\". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 76 (4). Missouri Botanical Garden: 1021. doi:10.2307/2399690. JSTOR 2399690.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2399690","url_text":"\"Geographical Analysis of the Family Ranunculaceae\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missouri_Botanical_Garden","url_text":"Missouri Botanical Garden"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2399690","url_text":"10.2307/2399690"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2399690","url_text":"2399690"}]},{"reference":"Quammen, David (2004). The Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in An Age of Extinctions. New York: Scribner. pp. 287–288, 436–447, 631. ISBN 978-0-684-82712-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Quammen","url_text":"Quammen, David"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/songofdodoisland00quam/page/287","url_text":"The Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in An Age of Extinctions"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons","url_text":"Scribner"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/songofdodoisland00quam/page/287","url_text":"287–288, 436–447, 631"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82712-4","url_text":"978-0-684-82712-4"}]},{"reference":"Prothero, Donald R. (2006). After the Dinosaurs: The Age of Mammals. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp. 9, 132–134, 160, 174, 176, 198, 222–233. ISBN 978-0-253-34733-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_University_Press","url_text":"Indiana University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34733-6","url_text":"978-0-253-34733-6"}]},{"reference":"Wilson, Don; Ruff, Sue (1999). The Smithsonian Book of North American Mammals. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 20, 27–30. ISBN 978-1-56098-845-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/smithsonianbooko0000unse/page/20","url_text":"The Smithsonian Book of North American Mammals"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution_Press","url_text":"Smithsonian Institution Press"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/smithsonianbooko0000unse/page/20","url_text":"20, 27–30"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56098-845-8","url_text":"978-1-56098-845-8"}]},{"reference":"Brown, Paul (27 March 2003). \"Global warming threatens Snowdonian plant\". Guardian. London: Guardian Unlimited. Retrieved 9 April 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/uk_news/story/0,3604,922734,00.html","url_text":"\"Global warming threatens Snowdonian plant\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guardian_Unlimited","url_text":"Guardian Unlimited"}]},{"reference":"Thomas, Chris D (May 2011). \"Translocation of species, climate change, and the end of trying to recreate past ecological communities\" (PDF). Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 26 (5): 216–221. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2011.02.006. PMID 21411178.","urls":[{"url":"https://bio.research.ucsc.edu/~barrylab/classes/climate_change/ThomasTREE2011.pdf","url_text":"\"Translocation of species, climate change, and the end of trying to recreate past ecological communities\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2011.02.006","url_text":"10.1016/j.tree.2011.02.006"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21411178","url_text":"21411178"}]},{"reference":"Dalrymple, Sarah (16 July 2021). \"Why climate change is forcing conservationists to be more ambitious: by moving threatened species to pastures new\". The Conversation. Retrieved 26 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theconversation.com/why-climate-change-is-forcing-conservationists-to-be-more-ambitious-by-moving-threatened-species-to-pastures-new-163749","url_text":"\"Why climate change is forcing conservationists to be more ambitious: by moving threatened species to pastures new\""}]},{"reference":"Zhou, Zhiyan; Zheng, Shaolin (2003). \"Palaeobiology: The missing link in Ginkgo evolution\". Nature. 423 (6942): 821–2. Bibcode:2003Natur.423..821Z. doi:10.1038/423821a. PMID 12815417. S2CID 4342303.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.423..821Z","url_text":"2003Natur.423..821Z"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F423821a","url_text":"10.1038/423821a"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12815417","url_text":"12815417"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4342303","url_text":"4342303"}]},{"reference":"Julie Jalalpour; Matt Malkin; Peter Poon; Liz Rehrmann; Jerry Yu (1997). \"Ginkgoales: Fossil Record\". University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 3 June 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/seedplants/ginkgoales/ginkgofr.html","url_text":"\"Ginkgoales: Fossil Record\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley","url_text":"University of California, Berkeley"}]},{"reference":"Palo, J.U.; Hyvärinen, H.; Helle, E.; Mäkinen, H.S.; Väinölä, R. (March 2003). \"Postglacial loss of microsatellite variation in the landlocked Lake Saimaa ringed seal\". Conservation Genetics. 4 (2): 117–128. doi:10.1023/A:1023303109701. eISSN 1572-9737. ISSN 1566-0621. S2CID 25621332.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1023303109701","url_text":"10.1023/A:1023303109701"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"eISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1572-9737","url_text":"1572-9737"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1566-0621","url_text":"1566-0621"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25621332","url_text":"25621332"}]},{"reference":"\"Saimaa Ringed Seal\". WWF Finland. Retrieved 2019-01-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://wwf.fi/en/saimaaringedseal/","url_text":"\"Saimaa Ringed Seal\""}]},{"reference":"Turner, Angela K.; Rose, Chris (1989). Swallows & Martins. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. pp. 5, 34, 85–87. ISBN 978-0-395-51174-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/swallowsmartinsi00turn/page/5","url_text":"Swallows & Martins"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin","url_text":"Houghton Mifflin"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/swallowsmartinsi00turn/page/5","url_text":"5, 34, 85–87"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-51174-9","url_text":"978-0-395-51174-9"}]},{"reference":"Harris, Larry D. (1984). The Fragmented Forest: Island Biogeography Theory and the Preservation of Biotic Diversity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 71–92. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khata	Khata	["1 History","2 Uses and types","3 Explanatory notes","4 References","5 External links"]	Traditional ceremonial scarf in South Asia This article is about the Tibetan scarf. For the khata cottages in Slavic-speaking countries, see izba. KhataA Tibetan khataTibetan nameTibetanཁ་བཏགས་TranscriptionsWyliekha btagsTHLkha takTibetan PinyinkatakMongolian nameMongolian CyrillicхадагHindi nameHindiखतक 13th Dalai Lama of Tibet in 1932 A khata or khatag also (Khada)( kadhar: ka = white , dhar = scarf ) is a buddhist offering scarf in Himalayan Buddhism and in tengerism. It is widely used by the Tibetan,Nepalese , Bhutanese, Ladakhi, Mongolian, and Buryat on various occasions. It originated in Tibetan culture and is common in cultures and countries where Tibetan Buddhism is practiced or has strong influence. The practice of using khatas has influenced people of other communities too who are in close relation to these communities. It is predominantly used in Tibet, followed by other parts of the world. It is a symbol of honour and respect. It is used in Tibetan religious ceremony, ceremonial and traditional dances of etc., It is offered in monasteries and temples. It holds religious and cultural significance. History Tibetan people used to give animal skins as gifts because there was no silk in Tibet. According to the Bon historical record, people would put sheep wool around their necks during the time of the ninth king, Degong Jayshi, and head for some religious rituals. This tradition was passed down from that moment onwards. People began making scarves and using silk over time. So, the scarf replaced the plain sheep's wool and people put scarves on the neck and head. Uses and types The khata symbolizes purity and compassion and is worn or presented with incense at many ceremonial occasions, including births, weddings, funerals, graduations and the arrival or departure of guests. When given as a farewell gesture it symbolizes a safe journey. When given to arriving guests it symbolizes welcome. They were usually made of silk but now much more commonly cotton or polyester. Tibetan khatas are usually white, symbolising the pure heart of the giver, though it is quite common to find yellow-gold khata as well. Tibetan, Nepali, and Bhutanese khatas feature the ashtamangala. There are also special multi-colored khatas. Mongolian khatas are usually blue, symbolizing the blue sky. In Mongolia, khatas are also often tied to ovoos, suvargas, or special trees and rocks. Blue khatas tied to a stone stele at the former Manjusri Monastery, Mongolia, which was destroyed by Mongolian communists in 1937 Explanatory notes ^ Tibetan: ཁ་བཏགས་; Dzongkha: དར་, dhar, Mongolian: ᠬᠠᠳᠠᠭ хадаг, IPA: , khadag or hatag; Nepali: खतक khada; simplified Chinese: 哈达; traditional Chinese: 哈達; pinyin: hādá/hǎdá. References ^ Das, Sarat Chandra (1902). Rockhill., William Woodville (ed.). Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet. London: Royal Geographical Society. p. 32. OCLC 557688339. ... handing him a scarf (khatag), I expressed the hope that we might meet next year. ^ 现代汉语词典(第七版) . 北京. Beijing: 商务印书馆. The Commercial Press. 1 September 2016. p. 505. ISBN 978-7-100-12450-8. 【哈达】 hǎdá ^ 现代汉语规范词典(第3版) . 北京. Beijing: 外语教学与研究出版社. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. May 2014. p. 507. ISBN 978-7-513-54562-4. 【哈达】 hǎdá ^ "教育部《重編國語辭典修訂本》2021". ^ "The Eternal Blue Sky" (PDF). Hoop. 2014. Retrieved 2016-06-19. ^ Staff. "Khata/Tibet "roof of the world"". Oracle ThinkQuest Education Foundation. Retrieved 2010-02-04. External links Media related to Khata / Haddak at Wikimedia Commons vteTibet articlesHistoryOverviews Timeline List of rulers European exploration Historical money Chronology Prehistory (Neolithic) Zhangzhung Yarlung dynasty Empire (7th–9th century) Timeline List of emperors Lönchen Relations with Tang (618–907) Era of Fragmentation (9th–13th century) Guge kingdom Tsongkha Relations with Song (960–1279) Yuan dynasty rule (1270–1350) Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs Phagmodrupa dynasty Relations with Ming (1368–1644) Rinpungpa dynasty Tsangpa dynasty Ganden Phodrang Kashag Khoshut Khanate Qing dynasty rule (1720–1912) Lifan Yuan List of Qing ambans Post-Qing to 1950 Tibetan Army People's Republic of China (PRC) rule PRC annexation political leaders Wars andconflicts Tibetan attack on Songzhou Battle of Dafei River Mongol invasions of Tibet Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal war Battle of Dartsedo Battle of the Salween River Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720) Jinchuan campaigns Lhasa riot of 1750 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Tibetan Border (1954) 70,000 Character Petition (1962) Memorandum on Genuine Autonomy (2008) Geography Flora Fauna Environment Mountains Kailash Lhotse / Changtse Namcha Barwa Tanggula Rivers Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon Rongbuk Glacier Tibetan Plateau Changtang Nature Reserve Valleys Traditional regions Amdo Kham Ü-Tsang Ngari Politics Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) Central Tibetan Administration Parliament Etymology of Tibet Foreign relations Human rights LGBT Patron and priest relationship Golden Urn Tibet Area Independence movement Serfdom controversy Serfs' Emancipation Day Sovereignty debate CIA Tibetan program India–Tibet relations Government Regional Government TAR People's Government TAR People's Congress Economy Postage and postal history Qinghai-Tibet Highway Qinghai–Tibet railway Society Education Languages Religion Bon Tibetan Buddhism Sakya Imperial Preceptor Dpon-chen Nyingma Kagyu Jonang Gelug Ganden Tripa Dalai Lama list Lhamo La-tso Panchen Lama list Catholicism Islam Sinicization Social classes Tibetan people Changpa Yolmo Diaspora Names Culture Art rugs thangka tsakli sand mandala wall paintings Calendar Cuisine Dzong architecture Emblem Festivals Flag Historical and cultural sites Khata (ceremonial scarf) Literature Annals Chronicle writers Music Tibetology Traditional medicine OutlineIndex Category vteMongolia articlesHistory Timeline Prehistoric Mongolia Proto-Mongols Xiongnu Xianbei Rouran Khaganate Eastern Turkic Khaganate Liao dynasty Medieval tribes Mongol Empire Yuan dynasty Northern Yuan dynasty Four Oirat Dzungar Khanate Qing rule 1911 Revolution Bogd Khanate Chinese occupation Soviet intervention 1921 Revolution Mongolian People's Republic World War II 1990 Revolution Modern Mongolia Geography Borders Cities Ulaanbaatar Historical cities and towns Climate Environmental issues Fauna Birds Mammals Flora Gobi Desert Grassland Lakes Khövsgöl Uvs Mountains Altai Khangai Khentii National parks Rivers Selenga Orkhon Politics Constitution State Great Khural (parliament) President Prime Minister Government (cabinet) Judiciary Supreme Court Constitutional Court Administrative divisions Elections Foreign relations Third neighbor policy Human rights LGBT Law enforcement Military Chief of General Staff Political parties Economy Agriculture Banking Companies Stock Exchange Tögrög (currency) Telecommunications Tourism Transportation Society Demographics Mongols Khalkha Buryats Oirats Southern Mongols Education Health Language Prostitution Public holidays List of Mongolians Sex trafficking Women Writing systems Culture Architecture Biyelgee (dance) Cinema Cuisine Goyol Fashion Festival Horse culture Literature Media Traditional medicine Music Naadam (festival) Religion Tsagaan Sar (New Year's Day) Sport OutlineIndex Category vteCulture of Asia Sovereign states Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Cambodia China Cyprus East Timor (Timor-Leste) Egypt Georgia India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan North Korea South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Oman Pakistan Philippines Qatar Russia Saudi Arabia Singapore Sri Lanka Syria Tajikistan Thailand Turkey Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen States withlimited recognition Abkhazia Northern Cyprus Palestine South Ossetia Taiwan Dependencies andother territories British Indian Ocean Territory Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Hong Kong Macau Category Asia portal This Tibet-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte This Mongolia-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"izba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izba"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:13th_Dalai_Lama_in_1932.jpg"},{"link_name":"13th Dalai Lama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13th_Dalai_Lama"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"scarf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarf"},{"link_name":"Himalayan Buddhism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayan_Buddhism"},{"link_name":"tengerism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengerism"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"},{"link_name":"Tibetan culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_culture"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"This article is about the Tibetan scarf. For the khata cottages in Slavic-speaking countries, see izba.13th Dalai Lama of Tibet in 1932A khata or khatag[1][a] also (Khada)( kadhar: ka = white , dhar = scarf ) is a buddhist offering scarf in Himalayan Buddhism and in tengerism.[5][better source needed] It is widely used by the Tibetan,Nepalese , Bhutanese, Ladakhi, Mongolian, and Buryat on various occasions. It originated in Tibetan culture[citation needed] and is common in cultures and countries where Tibetan Buddhism is practiced or has strong influence. The practice of using khatas has influenced people of other communities too who are in close relation to these communities. It is predominantly used in Tibet, followed by other parts of the world. It is a symbol of honour and respect. It is used in Tibetan religious ceremony, ceremonial and traditional dances of etc., It is offered in monasteries and temples. It holds religious and cultural significance.","title":"Khata"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bon"}],"text":"Tibetan people used to give animal skins as gifts because there was no silk in Tibet. According to the Bon historical record, people would put sheep wool around their necks during the time of the ninth king, Degong Jayshi, and head for some religious rituals. This tradition was passed down from that moment onwards. People began making scarves and using silk over time. So, the scarf replaced the plain sheep's wool and people put scarves on the neck and head.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"silk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk"},{"link_name":"white","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KhartaRoof-7"},{"link_name":"yellow-gold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_(color)"},{"link_name":"Tibetan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet"},{"link_name":"Nepali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"Bhutanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhutan"},{"link_name":"ashtamangala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashtamangala"},{"link_name":"Mongolian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia"},{"link_name":"blue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue"},{"link_name":"blue sky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky_blue"},{"link_name":"ovoos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovoo"},{"link_name":"suvargas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stupa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Manzushir_Khiid_149194575_f9e5350702_o.jpg"},{"link_name":"Manjusri Monastery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manjusri_Monastery"},{"link_name":"Mongolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia"},{"link_name":"communists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism"}],"text":"The khata symbolizes purity and compassion and is worn or presented with incense at many ceremonial occasions, including births, weddings, funerals, graduations and the arrival or departure of guests. When given as a farewell gesture it symbolizes a safe journey. When given to arriving guests it symbolizes welcome. They were usually made of silk but now much more commonly cotton or polyester. Tibetan khatas are usually white, symbolising the pure heart of the giver,[6] though it is quite common to find yellow-gold khata as well. Tibetan, Nepali, and Bhutanese khatas feature the ashtamangala. There are also special multi-colored khatas. Mongolian khatas are usually blue, symbolizing the blue sky. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Poliakoff	Stephen Poliakoff	["1 Early life","2 Professional life","2.1 Theatre","2.2 Television and cinema","3 Personal life","4 Works","4.1 Stage plays","4.2 Films","4.3 Television dramas and films","5 Prizes and awards","6 References","7 External links"]	British playwright, director, scriptwriter (b. 1952) This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (June 2019) Stephen PoliakoffCBE, FRSLStephen Poliakoff, May 2008Born (1952-12-01) 1 December 1952 (age 71)Holland Park, London, EnglandEducationMarlborough House School Westminster SchoolAlma materKing's College, CambridgeOccupation(s)Playwright, director, screenwriterSpouseSandy Welch (m. 1983)Children2Parent(s)Alexander Poliakoff Ina MontaguRelativesSir Martyn Poliakoff (brother)Websitewww.stephenpoliakoff.com Stephen Poliakoff CBE, FRSL (born 1 December 1952) is a British playwright, director and screenwriter. In 2006 Gerard Gilbert of The Independent described him as the UK's "pre-eminent TV dramatist" who had "inherited Dennis Potter's crown". Early life Poliakoff was born in Holland Park, West London, to Ina (née Montagu) and Alexander Poliakoff. His father was a Russian-Jewish immigrant and his mother was a British Jew. His maternal grandfather had bought 16th-century mansion Great Fosters, and his maternal great-grandfather was Samuel Montagu, 1st Baron Swaythling. The second of four children, he was sent at a young age to Marlborough House School, which he hated. He then attended Westminster School, where he attracted sufficient attention for Granny, a play he wrote and directed, to be reviewed in The Times newspaper. After Westminster, he went to King's College, Cambridge to read history but left after two years, later recalling Cambridge as "a stuffy place" and the history course as "shockingly bad". Professional life Theatre Poliakoff continued to write stage plays, becoming writer-in-residence for the National Theatre at the age of 24, but he became increasingly interested in the medium of television, with Stronger Than the Sun (1977 – BBC1 Play for Today), Bloody Kids (1980 – ATV) directed by Stephen Frears, Caught on a Train (1980 – BBC2 Playhouse) starring Peggy Ashcroft, and Soft Targets (1982 – Play for Today). There were also TV adaptations of his stage plays Hitting Town (1976 – Thames Television/ITV Plays for Britain) and City Sugar (1978 – Scottish Television / ITV The Sunday Drama). These two plays were among his earliest big successes. Poliakoff's theatre, although well received critically, has never achieved a great level of attention from the critics, apart from their reviews. This has been attributed to the ambiguity of his politics. His approach towards political issues has been described as individual in nature rather than generalising. Some of the recurring themes in his works have been recognised as environmental pollution, due to human intervention, both rural and urban. Most of his plays portray contemporary Britain. He is scared of and fascinated by fascism. He said: "I'm writing about what's happening now, about people searching for beliefs in what is no longer a religious country, and about how individuals of charisma and power can polarise things." A full length study of his work, Stephen Poliakoff: On Stage and Screen, was published in 2011 by Robin Nelson. Nearly all of Poliakoff's plays premiered in London, four at the National Theatre, four at the Royal Shakespeare Company and at the Almeida, Hampstead, Bush and Royal Court. Three of his plays have transferred to the West End. Many of the plays have been performed across Europe and also in the US, Australia and Japan. In 1976, Poliakoff won the Evening Standard Most Promising Playwright Award for Hitting Town and City Sugar and in 1997 he won the Critic's Circle Best Play Award for the National Theatre production of Blinded By The Sun. Television and cinema Poliakoff's first feature film was Runners, directed by Charles Sturridge, starring James Fox, Jane Asher and Kate Hardie. It received a limited theatrical release in 1983 before being shown in Channel 4's Film on Four slot. His directorial debut was the much-lauded and now rare Hidden City (1988), premiered at the Venice Film Festival and starring Charles Dance, Richard E. Grant and Cassie Stuart. His television career continued with She's Been Away (1989) starring Peggy Ashcroft and also winning awards at Venice, before a return to film with Close My Eyes (1991), starring Clive Owen, Saskia Reeves and Alan Rickman in an elaborate reworking of the incest theme that had been central to Hitting Town (1976), followed by Century (1994), with Owen, Dance and Miranda Richardson. Less successful were Food of Love (1997) with Grant, Nathalie Baye and Joe McGann and The Tribe (1998) starring Joely Richardson and Jeremy Northam, the latter eventually screened on BBC Two in the absence of a cinema distribution deal where it achieved extremely high viewing figures and was immediately repeated. He subsequently returned to his favoured form, television, this time choosing a flexible serial format resulting in the acclaimed and Prix Italia-winning Shooting the Past (1999), the fresh critical and audience success of Perfect Strangers (2001), a family drama starring Matthew Macfadyen, Michael Gambon and Lindsay Duncan and The Lost Prince (2003), a single drama recognised with an Emmy award rare for a non-American production. The film also featured Miranda Richardson in a Golden Globe-nominated performance as Queen Mary of Teck. Michael Gambon, Gina McKee, Tom Hollander and Bill Nighy appeared in major roles. Late 2005 saw the one-off drama Friends and Crocodiles (2006) starring Damian Lewis and Jodhi May, with its overlapping companion piece, Gideon's Daughter (2006), starring Bill Nighy, Miranda Richardson and Emily Blunt, appearing early the following year. The latter won a Peabody Award in April 2007, with Golden Globes for Nighy and Blunt. In 2005, he renewed recent criticisms of BBC scheduling and commissioning policy, arguing that the reintroduction of a regular evening slot for one-off plays on BBC1 would provide the re-invigoration of drama output that has become a priority for the corporation. Joe's Palace was screened on 4 November 2007 on BBC One and Capturing Mary was screened on BBC Two on 12 November 2007. The Culture Show also screened a Poliakoff special, including an interview between Poliakoff and Mark Kermode and a new TV play, A Real Summer, on 10 November. Glorious 39, starring Romola Garai, Bill Nighy and Julie Christie, premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2009 and was released in the UK that November. In 2011, Poliakoff wrote a seven-minute short film, Astonish Me, to celebrate WWF's 50th anniversary. Starring Bill Nighy and Gemma Arterton, the film was shown in Odeon Cinemas in August 2011 and made available on the WWF website and YouTube. In February and March 2013, Dancing on the Edge, a five-part series which followed the fortunes of a black jazz band in 1930s London, was broadcast by the BBC, and also later won a Golden Globe. In November/December 2016, his seven-part series Close to the Enemy was transmitted on BBC Two. Close to the Enemy is set in a bombed-out London in the aftermath of the Second World War. Poliakoff wrote and directed Summer of Rockets, a semi-autobiographical six-part series broadcast by the BBC in June 2019. It is set in 1958, just as the UK is testing its first hydrogen bomb, and focuses on a Russian Jewish hearing aid inventor (Toby Stephens) who goes to work for MI5. It also stars Keeley Hawes, Linus Roache, and Timothy Spall. Personal life Stephen Poliakoff lives in London and is married to fellow scriptwriter Sandy Welch, with whom he has two children. He was awarded a CBE in the Queen's Birthday Honours list 2007. His brother, Sir Martyn Poliakoff, a research chemist and lecturer, is a Fellow of the Royal Society, being, until November 2016, its Foreign Secretary and vice-president. He is also the presenter of a YouTube educational series on chemistry, The Periodic Table of Videos. Poliakoff's paternal grandfather, Joseph, was a Russian Jew who experienced first-hand the effects of the communist revolution in Russia from the family's Moscow flat across from the Kremlin. Near starvation after the revolution, he was given a government job as a district telephone inspector from an admiring commissar and he helped build Moscow's first automatic telephone exchange. He then fled with his family from the Soviet Union to the UK in 1924. Joseph Poliakoff was an inventor of electrical devices whose many inventions included a selenium photograph telephony shutter in 1899 (US patent 700,100, 26 August 1901), which, along with electrical sound amplification, allowed for synchronised audio on film, the radio volume control, a magnetic induction loop that allowed hearing-impaired people to hear in auditoriums or theatres, and the paging beeper. He also founded the Multitone Electric Company of London in 1931 that produced hearing aid devices with their most prestigious customer being Winston Churchill. Joseph's experiences under the Bolsheviks inspired Poliakoff's 1984 play Breaking the Silence. Several of these attributes (such as the pager, and hearing aids, including Churchill's) were ascribed to the lead character in Summer of Rockets. Works Stage plays All London except where otherwise stated: Pretty Boy Royal Court Theatre, June 1972 Berlin Days Little Theatre, 1973 Sad Beat Up Little Theatre, 1974 The Carnation Gang Bush Theatre, 1974 Clever Soldiers Hampstead Theatre, 1974 Heroes Royal Court Theatre, July 1975 Hitting Town Bush Theatre, 1975 City Sugar Bush Theatre, October 1975; Comedy Theatre, March 1976; Phoenix Theatre (New York), January 1978 Strawberry Fields Young Vic, August 1976; NT Cottesloe, 1977; Manhattan Theatre Club (New York), May 1978 Shout Across the River RSC at the Donmar Warehouse, 1978; Phoenix Theatre (New York), December 1979 American Days ICA, June 1979; Manhattan Theatre Club (New York), December 1980 The Summer Party Crucible Theatre, Sheffield 1980 Favourite Nights Lyric Theatre Hammersmith, November 1981 Breaking the Silence Pit Theatre, RSC Barbican, November 1984; transferred to the Mermaid Theatre 1985 Coming in to Land National Theatre Lyttelton, January 1987 Playing With Trains Pit Theatre, RSC Barbican, November 1989 Sienna Red Peter Hall Company, May 1992 Sweet Panic (also directed) Hampstead Theatre, February 1996 Blinded by the Sun National Theatre Cottesloe, September 1996 Talk of the City (also directed) RSC Swan, Stratford 1998; Young Vic February 1999 Remember This National Theatre Lyttelton, October 1999 Sweet Panic revival (also directed) Duke of York’s Theatre, November 2003 My City (also directed) Almeida Theatre, September 2011 Films Runners (director Charles Sturridge, 1983) Hidden City (1988) Close My Eyes (1991) Century (1993) Food of Love (1997) Glorious 39 (2009) Astonish Me (short) (director Charles Sturridge, 2011) Television dramas and films All (originally) made for British television unless otherwise stated. Hitting Town (1976) (ITV play, on Plays for Britain DVD, adapted from the stage play of the same name) Stronger than the Sun (1977) (part of Play for Today series) City Sugar (1978) (part of Sunday Drama series) Bloody Kids (director Stephen Frears, 1979) Caught on a Train (1980) Soft Targets (1982) (part of Play for Today series) Termeszet (Hungary, 1981) Doppelte Welt, Die (West Germany, 1985) She's Been Away (1989) Frontiers (co-written with Sandy Welch, 1996) The Tribe (1998) Shooting the Past (1999) Perfect Strangers (2001) The Lost Prince (2003) Friends and Crocodiles (2006) Gideon's Daughter (2006) A Real Summer (2007) Joe's Palace (2007) Capturing Mary (2007) Dancing on the Edge (2013) Close to the Enemy (2016) Summer of Rockets (2019) Prizes and awards Poliakoff has received the following awards: Evening Standard Award for Most Promising Playwright (1976) BAFTA (Best Single Television Drama) (1980) Evening Standard Award for Best Film (1992) Critics' Circle Award for Best New Stage Play (1996) Royal Television Society Award (1999) Prix Italia (1999) International Television Festival Cinema Tour Ecran (1999) BAFTA (Dennis Potter Writer's Award) (2001) Peabody Award (2002) Royal Television Society Award Best Writer (2002) Royal Television Society Award Best Drama Serial (2002) BANFF Award (2002) South Bank Show Award (2004) EMMY Award (2005) Peabody Award (2006) CBE (2007) References ^ Bloomsbury.com. "Stephen Poliakoff on Stage and Screen". Bloomsbury Publishing. Archived from the original on 28 September 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ Gilbert, Gerard (6 January 2006). "Stephen Poliakoff: TV's foremost writer". The Independent. Archived from the original on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 1 August 2020. ^ "BFI Screenonline: Poliakoff, Stephen (1952–) Biography". Archived from the original on 8 March 2017. ^ "Stephen Poliakoff Biography (1952?-)". Archived from the original on 4 February 2010. ^ Rocker, Simon (16 May 2019). "Stephen Poliakoff: My new BBC drama is my most personal yet". The Jewish Chronicle. London. ^ Sale, Jonathan (6 May 1999). "Passed/Failed: Stephen Poliakoff". The Independent. Archived from the original on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 1 August 2020. ^ "Stronger Than The Sun (1977)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "Bloody Kids (1979)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ "Soft Targets (1982)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ a b "Hitting Town (1976)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "City Sugar (1978)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ a b c "Stephen Poliakoff – Literature". literature.britishcouncil.org. Archived from the original on 7 August 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016. ^ "Theatre Plays". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ a b c Peacock, D. Keith (1984). "The Fascination of Fascism: The Plays of Stephen Poliakoff". Modern Drama. 27 (4): 494–505. doi:10.3138/md.27.4.494. S2CID 162295614. ^ Robin Nelson. "Stephen Poliakoff on Stage and Screen". Bloomsbury Publishing. Archived from the original on 28 September 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2017. ^ "Stephen Poliakoff: Bring back true grit". The Independent. 20 November 2013. Archived from the original on 16 January 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2017. ^ "Hidden City (1987)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "She's Been Away (1989)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "Close My Eyes (1991)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "Century (1994)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "The Tribe (1998)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "Prix Italia". IMDb. ^ "Shooting The Past (1999)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "Perfect Strangers (2001)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "The Lost Prince (2003)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "Friends And Crocodiles (2006)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "Gideon's Daughter (2006)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "Joe's Palace (2007)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "Capturing Mary (2007)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "A Real Summer (2007)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ "BBC – Press Office – Stephen Poliakoff dramas for 2007". Archived from the original on 11 July 2007. ^ "Glorious '39 (2009)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "Win tickets to see Stephen Poliakoff's WWF film – competition". the Guardian. 18 July 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2016. ^ "Dancing On The Edge (2013)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "Dancing on the edge, IMDB". IMDB. 2014. Archived from the original on 15 March 2016. Retrieved 31 December 2015. ^ "Close To The Enemy (2016)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. ^ "BBC Media Centre, report on Close To The Enemy". BBC. Summer 2015. Archived from the original on 29 October 2016. ^ "Close To The Enemy (2016)". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ "Stephen Poliakoff is back on BBC2 with Summer of Rockets". radiotimes.com. Archived from the original on 21 October 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2018. ^ Wiseman, Andreas (14 May 2018). "Toby Stephens, Keeley Hawes, Linus Roache & Timothy Spall Lead BBC Two Cold War Drama 'Summer Of Rockets'". ^ "BBC NEWS – Entertainment – Rushdie and Eavis lead honours". 16 June 2007. Archived from the original on 7 December 2008. ^ "Martyn Poliakoff Biography, The Royal Society". Archived from the original on 18 August 2015. ^ "The Royal Society, the Foreign Secretary, and International Relations". Science & Diplomacy. Archived from the original on 26 March 2015. ^ "Professor says World Cup trophy cannot be solid gold". BBC. 12 June 2010. Archived from the original on 10 April 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2015. ^ a b Poliakoff, Stephen (28 May 2008). "Ringside at the revolution". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 4 November 2016. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ Wroe, Nicholas (27 November 2009). "A life in drama: Stephen Poliakoff". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 12 August 2016. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ New Scientist. Reed Business Information. 12 January 1978. ^ Periodic Videos (27 October 2016), Geissler Tubes – Periodic Table of Videos, archived from the original on 19 July 2017, retrieved 12 January 2017 ^ Western Electrician. Vol. 30. Electrician Publishing Company. 1902. p. 382. Retrieved 26 January 2017. ^ The Electrical World and Engineer. McGraw Publishing Company. 1 January 1901. ^ "Induction Loops Around the World......Where are we? – Part I–Robert Traynor–Hearing International". hearinghealthmatters.org. 30 November 2011. Archived from the original on 3 November 2016. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ US 2252641, Oswald, Barber Sneath & Poliakoff, Joseph, "Method of and apparatus for the transmission of speech and other sounds", published 12 August 1941 ^ a b Garvey, Alison (9 May 2011). "Marketing Content Company: Multitone, the inventor of the first paging system celebrates its 80th birthday today". Marketing Content Company. Archived from the original on 4 November 2016. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ "History of T-Coils—General Information". www.hearingaidmuseum.com. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ Breaking the Silence, Stephen Poliakoff, Methuen Drama, 1984, Author's note, page v. ^ "Astonish Me – WWF-UK's 50th Anniversary Film". www.stephenpoliakoff.com. 30 November 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2019. ^ "HITTING TOWN (1976)". STEPHEN POLIAKOFF. Retrieved 28 June 2023. ^ "STRONGER THAN THE SUN (1977)". STEPHEN POLIAKOFF. Retrieved 28 June 2023. ^ "CITY SUGAR (1978)". STEPHEN POLIAKOFF. Retrieved 28 June 2023. ^ "SOFT TARGETS (1982)". STEPHEN POLIAKOFF. Retrieved 28 June 2023. ^ "A REAL SUMMER (2007)". STEPHEN POLIAKOFF. Retrieved 28 June 2023. External links Stephen Poliakoff Official Website Stephen Poliakoff at IMDb Stephen Poliakoff at the Internet Off-Broadway Database Poliakoff on Film, BBC, 2003. vteFilms and TV series directed by Stephen Poliakoff Hidden City (1988) Close My Eyes (1991) Century (1993) Food of Love (1997) The Tribe (1998) Shooting the Past (1999) Perfect Strangers (2001) The Lost Prince (2003) Friends and Crocodiles (2006) Gideon's Daughter (2006) Joe's Palace (2007) Capturing Mary (2007) Glorious 39 (2009) Dancing on the Edge (2013) Close to the Enemy (2016) Summer of Rockets (2019) Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway France BnF data Germany Israel United States Czech Republic Australia Korea Netherlands Poland Academics CiNii People Deutsche Biographie Other SNAC IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"FRSL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Literature"},{"link_name":"playwright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playwright"},{"link_name":"director","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_director"},{"link_name":"screenwriter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screenwriter"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"The Independent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent"},{"link_name":"Dennis Potter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Potter"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Stephen Poliakoff CBE, FRSL (born 1 December 1952) is a British playwright, director and screenwriter.[1] In 2006 Gerard Gilbert of The Independent described him as the UK's \"pre-eminent TV dramatist\" who had \"inherited Dennis Potter's crown\".[2]","title":"Stephen Poliakoff"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Holland Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland_Park"},{"link_name":"Alexander Poliakoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Poliakoff"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Russian-Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian-Jewish"},{"link_name":"British Jew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Jews"},{"link_name":"Great Fosters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Fosters"},{"link_name":"Samuel Montagu, 1st Baron Swaythling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Montagu,_1st_Baron_Swaythling"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Marlborough House School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlborough_House_School"},{"link_name":"Westminster School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_School"},{"link_name":"The Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times"},{"link_name":"King's College, Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Poliakoff was born in Holland Park, West London, to Ina (née Montagu) and Alexander Poliakoff.[3][4] His father was a Russian-Jewish immigrant and his mother was a British Jew. His maternal grandfather had bought 16th-century mansion Great Fosters, and his maternal great-grandfather was Samuel Montagu, 1st Baron Swaythling.[5]The second of four children, he was sent at a young age to Marlborough House School, which he hated. He then attended Westminster School, where he attracted sufficient attention for Granny, a play he wrote and directed, to be reviewed in The Times newspaper. After Westminster, he went to King's College, Cambridge to read history but left after two years, later recalling Cambridge as \"a stuffy place\" and the history course as \"shockingly bad\".[6]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Professional life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_National_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"BBC1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC1"},{"link_name":"Play for Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_for_Today"},{"link_name":"ATV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_TeleVision"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Stephen Frears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Frears"},{"link_name":"Caught on a Train","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caught_on_a_Train"},{"link_name":"BBC2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC2"},{"link_name":"Peggy Ashcroft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peggy_Ashcroft"},{"link_name":"Play for Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_for_Today"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Thames Television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thames_Television"},{"link_name":"ITV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITV_(TV_network)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hitting_Town_1976-10"},{"link_name":"Scottish Television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Television"},{"link_name":"ITV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITV_(TV_network)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-14"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-12"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-14"},{"link_name":"fascism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"National Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_National_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Royal Shakespeare Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Company"},{"link_name":"Almeida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almeida_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Hampstead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampstead_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Bush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Royal Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Court_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Evening Standard Most Promising Playwright Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evening_Standard_Theatre_Awards"},{"link_name":"Critic's Circle Best Play Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critics%27_Circle_Theatre_Award"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Theatre","text":"Poliakoff continued to write stage plays, becoming writer-in-residence for the National Theatre at the age of 24, but he became increasingly interested in the medium of television, with Stronger Than the Sun[7] (1977 – BBC1 Play for Today), Bloody Kids (1980 – ATV)[8] directed by Stephen Frears, Caught on a Train (1980 – BBC2 Playhouse) starring Peggy Ashcroft, and Soft Targets (1982 – Play for Today).[9] There were also TV adaptations of his stage plays Hitting Town (1976 – Thames Television/ITV Plays for Britain)[10] and City Sugar (1978 – Scottish Television / ITV The Sunday Drama).[11] These two plays were among his earliest big successes.[12][13]Poliakoff's theatre, although well received critically, has never achieved a great level of attention from the critics, apart from their reviews. This has been attributed to the ambiguity of his politics.[14] His approach towards political issues has been described as individual in nature rather than generalising.[12] Some of the recurring themes in his works have been recognised as[14] environmental pollution, due to human intervention, both rural and urban. Most of his plays portray contemporary Britain. He is scared of and fascinated by fascism. He said: \"I'm writing about what's happening now, about people searching for beliefs in what is no longer a religious country, and about how individuals of charisma and power can polarise things.\"[14]A full length study of his work, Stephen Poliakoff: On Stage and Screen, was published in 2011 by Robin Nelson.[15]Nearly all of Poliakoff's plays premiered in London, four at the National Theatre, four at the Royal Shakespeare Company and at the Almeida, Hampstead, Bush and Royal Court. Three of his plays have transferred to the West End. Many of the plays have been performed across Europe and also in the US, Australia and Japan.In 1976, Poliakoff won the Evening Standard Most Promising Playwright Award for Hitting Town and City Sugar and in 1997 he won the Critic's Circle Best Play Award for the National Theatre production of Blinded By The Sun.[16]","title":"Professional life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"feature film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_film"},{"link_name":"Charles Sturridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sturridge"},{"link_name":"James Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Fox"},{"link_name":"Jane Asher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Asher"},{"link_name":"Kate Hardie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Hardie"},{"link_name":"Channel 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_4"},{"link_name":"Film on Four","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_on_Four"},{"link_name":"Hidden City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_City_(film)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Venice Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"Charles Dance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dance"},{"link_name":"Richard E. Grant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_E._Grant"},{"link_name":"She's Been Away","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She%27s_Been_Away"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Peggy Ashcroft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peggy_Ashcroft"},{"link_name":"Close My Eyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_My_Eyes_(film)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Clive Owen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clive_Owen"},{"link_name":"Saskia Reeves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saskia_Reeves"},{"link_name":"Alan Rickman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Rickman"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hitting_Town_1976-10"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Miranda Richardson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda_Richardson"},{"link_name":"Nathalie Baye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathalie_Baye"},{"link_name":"Joe McGann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_McGann"},{"link_name":"The Tribe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tribe_(1998_film)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Joely Richardson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joely_Richardson"},{"link_name":"Jeremy Northam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Northam"},{"link_name":"BBC Two","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Two"},{"link_name":"Prix Italia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prix_Italia"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Shooting the Past","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shooting_the_Past"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Perfect Strangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_Strangers_(miniseries)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Matthew Macfadyen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Macfadyen"},{"link_name":"Michael Gambon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Gambon"},{"link_name":"Lindsay Duncan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindsay_Duncan"},{"link_name":"The Lost Prince","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_Prince"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Emmy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy"},{"link_name":"Miranda Richardson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda_Richardson"},{"link_name":"Golden Globe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe"},{"link_name":"Mary of Teck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_of_Teck"},{"link_name":"Michael Gambon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Gambon"},{"link_name":"Gina McKee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gina_McKee"},{"link_name":"Tom Hollander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Hollander"},{"link_name":"Bill Nighy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Nighy"},{"link_name":"Friends and Crocodiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends_and_Crocodiles"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Damian Lewis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damian_Lewis"},{"link_name":"Jodhi May","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jodhi_May"},{"link_name":"Gideon's Daughter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gideon%27s_Daughter"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Bill Nighy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Nighy"},{"link_name":"Miranda Richardson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda_Richardson"},{"link_name":"Emily Blunt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily_Blunt"},{"link_name":"Peabody Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peabody_Award"},{"link_name":"Golden Globes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"plays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_(theatre)"},{"link_name":"BBC1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_One"},{"link_name":"Joe's Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%27s_Palace"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"BBC One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_One"},{"link_name":"Capturing Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capturing_Mary"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"BBC Two","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Two"},{"link_name":"The Culture Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Culture_Show"},{"link_name":"Mark Kermode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Kermode"},{"link_name":"A Real Summer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.stephenpoliakoff.com/a-real-summer-2007/"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Glorious 39","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glorious_39"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Romola Garai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romola_Garai"},{"link_name":"Bill Nighy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Nighy"},{"link_name":"Julie Christie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Christie"},{"link_name":"Toronto International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_International_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"WWF's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature"},{"link_name":"Bill Nighy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Nighy"},{"link_name":"Gemma Arterton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma_Arterton"},{"link_name":"Odeon Cinemas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odeon_Cinemas"},{"link_name":"WWF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature"},{"link_name":"YouTube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Dancing on the Edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancing_on_the_Edge_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"Golden Globe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Close to the Enemy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_to_the_Enemy"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"BBC Two","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Two"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Summer of Rockets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_of_Rockets"},{"link_name":"Russian Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia"},{"link_name":"Toby Stephens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toby_Stephens"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Keeley Hawes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keeley_Hawes"},{"link_name":"Linus Roache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Roache"},{"link_name":"Timothy Spall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Spall"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"sub_title":"Television and cinema","text":"Poliakoff's first feature film was Runners, directed by Charles Sturridge, starring James Fox, Jane Asher and Kate Hardie. It received a limited theatrical release in 1983 before being shown in Channel 4's Film on Four slot. His directorial debut was the much-lauded and now rare Hidden City (1988),[17] premiered at the Venice Film Festival and starring Charles Dance, Richard E. Grant and Cassie Stuart. His television career continued with She's Been Away (1989)[18] starring Peggy Ashcroft and also winning awards at Venice, before a return to film with Close My Eyes (1991),[19] starring Clive Owen, Saskia Reeves and Alan Rickman in an elaborate reworking of the incest theme that had been central to Hitting Town (1976),[10] followed by Century (1994),[20] with Owen, Dance and Miranda Richardson. Less successful were Food of Love (1997) with Grant, Nathalie Baye and Joe McGann and The Tribe (1998)[21] starring Joely Richardson and Jeremy Northam, the latter eventually screened on BBC Two in the absence of a cinema distribution deal where it achieved extremely high viewing figures and was immediately repeated.He subsequently returned to his favoured form, television, this time choosing a flexible serial format resulting in the acclaimed and Prix Italia-winning[22] Shooting the Past (1999),[23] the fresh critical and audience success of Perfect Strangers (2001),[24] a family drama starring Matthew Macfadyen, Michael Gambon and Lindsay Duncan and The Lost Prince (2003),[25] a single drama recognised with an Emmy award rare for a non-American production. The film also featured Miranda Richardson in a Golden Globe-nominated performance as Queen Mary of Teck. Michael Gambon, Gina McKee, Tom Hollander and Bill Nighy appeared in major roles. Late 2005 saw the one-off drama Friends and Crocodiles (2006)[26] starring Damian Lewis and Jodhi May, with its overlapping companion piece, Gideon's Daughter (2006),[27] starring Bill Nighy, Miranda Richardson and Emily Blunt, appearing early the following year. The latter won a Peabody Award in April 2007, with Golden Globes for Nighy and Blunt.In 2005, he renewed recent criticisms of BBC scheduling and commissioning policy, arguing that the reintroduction of a regular evening slot for one-off plays on BBC1 would provide the re-invigoration of drama output that has become a priority for the corporation.Joe's Palace[28] was screened on 4 November 2007 on BBC One and Capturing Mary[29] was screened on BBC Two on 12 November 2007. The Culture Show also screened a Poliakoff special, including an interview between Poliakoff and Mark Kermode and a new TV play, A Real Summer,[30] on 10 November.[31]Glorious 39,[32] starring Romola Garai, Bill Nighy and Julie Christie, premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2009 and was released in the UK that November.In 2011, Poliakoff wrote a seven-minute short film, Astonish Me, to celebrate WWF's 50th anniversary. Starring Bill Nighy and Gemma Arterton, the film was shown in Odeon Cinemas in August 2011 and made available on the WWF website and YouTube.[33]In February and March 2013, Dancing on the Edge,[34] a five-part series which followed the fortunes of a black jazz band in 1930s London, was broadcast by the BBC, and also later won a Golden Globe.[35]In November/December 2016, his seven-part series Close to the Enemy[36] was transmitted on BBC Two.[37] Close to the Enemy[38] is set in a bombed-out London in the aftermath of the Second World War.Poliakoff wrote and directed Summer of Rockets, a semi-autobiographical six-part series broadcast by the BBC in June 2019. It is set in 1958, just as the UK is testing its first hydrogen bomb, and focuses on a Russian Jewish hearing aid inventor (Toby Stephens) who goes to work for MI5.[39] It also stars Keeley Hawes, Linus Roache, and Timothy Spall.[40]","title":"Professional life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sandy Welch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandy_Welch"},{"link_name":"CBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"Queen's Birthday Honours list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_Birthday_Honours_List"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Martyn Poliakoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martyn_Poliakoff"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"The Periodic Table of Videos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Periodic_Table_of_Videos"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Poliakoff"},{"link_name":"Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow"},{"link_name":"Kremlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kremlin"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theguardian.com-45"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theguardian.com-45"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-google-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"paging beeper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pager"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mccinternational.blogspot.com-53"},{"link_name":"hearing aid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_aid"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Winston Churchill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mccinternational.blogspot.com-53"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"text":"Stephen Poliakoff lives in London and is married to fellow scriptwriter Sandy Welch, with whom he has two children. He was awarded a CBE in the Queen's Birthday Honours list 2007.[41]His brother, Sir Martyn Poliakoff, a research chemist and lecturer, is a Fellow of the Royal Society,[42] being, until November 2016, its Foreign Secretary and vice-president.[43] He is also the presenter of a YouTube educational series on chemistry, The Periodic Table of Videos.[44]Poliakoff's paternal grandfather, Joseph, was a Russian Jew who experienced first-hand the effects of the communist revolution in Russia from the family's Moscow flat across from the Kremlin.[45] Near starvation after the revolution, he was given a government job as a district telephone inspector from an admiring commissar and he helped build Moscow's first automatic telephone exchange.[45] He then fled with his family from the Soviet Union to the UK in 1924.[46][47]Joseph Poliakoff was an inventor of electrical devices[48] whose many inventions included a selenium photograph telephony shutter in 1899 (US patent 700,100, 26 August 1901),[49][50] which, along with electrical sound amplification, allowed for synchronised audio on film, the radio volume control, a magnetic induction loop that allowed hearing-impaired people to hear in auditoriums or theatres,[51][52] and the paging beeper.[53] He also founded the Multitone Electric Company of London in 1931 that produced hearing aid devices[54] with their most prestigious customer being Winston Churchill.[53] Joseph's experiences under the Bolsheviks inspired Poliakoff's 1984 play Breaking the Silence.[55] Several of these attributes (such as the pager, and hearing aids, including Churchill's) were ascribed to the lead character in Summer of Rockets.","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Royal Court Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Court_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Bush Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Hampstead Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampstead_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Royal Court Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Court_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Hitting Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitting_Town_(1975)"},{"link_name":"Bush Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_Theatre"},{"link_name":"City Sugar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Sugar"},{"link_name":"Bush Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Phoenix Theatre (New York)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_Theatre_(New_York)"},{"link_name":"Strawberry Fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strawberry_Fields_(play)"},{"link_name":"Young Vic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Vic"},{"link_name":"NT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_National_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Cottesloe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottesloe_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Manhattan Theatre Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Theatre_Club"},{"link_name":"Shout Across the River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shout_Across_the_River_(1978)"},{"link_name":"Donmar Warehouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donmar_Warehouse"},{"link_name":"ICA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Contemporary_Arts"},{"link_name":"Manhattan Theatre Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Theatre_Club"},{"link_name":"Crucible Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucible_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Lyric Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyric_Theatre_(Hammersmith)"},{"link_name":"RSC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Company"},{"link_name":"Barbican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbican_Centre"},{"link_name":"Mermaid Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mermaid_Theatre"},{"link_name":"National Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_National_Theatre"},{"link_name":"RSC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Company"},{"link_name":"Barbican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbican_Centre"},{"link_name":"Peter Hall Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Hall_Company"},{"link_name":"Hampstead Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampstead_Theatre"},{"link_name":"National Theatre Cottesloe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_National_Theatre"},{"link_name":"RSC Swan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Company"},{"link_name":"Young Vic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Vic"},{"link_name":"National Theatre Lyttelton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_National_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Duke of York’s Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_York%27s_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Almeida Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almeida_Theatre"}],"sub_title":"Stage plays","text":"All London except where otherwise stated:Pretty Boy Royal Court Theatre, June 1972\nBerlin Days Little Theatre, 1973\nSad Beat Up Little Theatre, 1974\nThe Carnation Gang Bush Theatre, 1974\nClever Soldiers Hampstead Theatre, 1974\nHeroes Royal Court Theatre, July 1975\nHitting Town Bush Theatre, 1975\nCity Sugar Bush Theatre, October 1975; Comedy Theatre, March 1976; Phoenix Theatre (New York), January 1978\nStrawberry Fields Young Vic, August 1976; NT Cottesloe, 1977; Manhattan Theatre Club (New York), May 1978\nShout Across the River RSC at the Donmar Warehouse, 1978; Phoenix Theatre (New York), December 1979\nAmerican Days ICA, June 1979; Manhattan Theatre Club (New York), December 1980\nThe Summer Party Crucible Theatre, Sheffield 1980\nFavourite Nights Lyric Theatre Hammersmith, November 1981\nBreaking the Silence Pit Theatre, RSC Barbican, November 1984; transferred to the Mermaid Theatre 1985\nComing in to Land National Theatre Lyttelton, January 1987\nPlaying With Trains Pit Theatre, RSC Barbican, November 1989\nSienna Red Peter Hall Company, May 1992\nSweet Panic (also directed) Hampstead Theatre, February 1996\nBlinded by the Sun National Theatre Cottesloe, September 1996\nTalk of the City (also directed) RSC Swan, Stratford 1998; Young Vic February 1999\nRemember This National Theatre Lyttelton, October 1999\nSweet Panic revival (also directed) Duke of York’s Theatre, November 2003\nMy City (also directed) Almeida Theatre, September 2011","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charles Sturridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sturridge"},{"link_name":"Hidden City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_City_(film)"},{"link_name":"Close My Eyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_My_Eyes_(film)"},{"link_name":"Century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century_(film)"},{"link_name":"Glorious 39","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glorious_39"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"}],"sub_title":"Films","text":"Runners (director Charles Sturridge, 1983)\nHidden City (1988)\nClose My Eyes (1991)\nCentury (1993)\nFood of Love (1997)\nGlorious 39 (2009)\nAstonish Me[56] (short) (director Charles Sturridge, 2011)","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hitting Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitting_Town_(1975)"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Play for Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_for_Today"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Bloody Kids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloody_Kids"},{"link_name":"Stephen Frears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Frears"},{"link_name":"Caught on a Train","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caught_on_a_Train"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"She's Been Away","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She%27s_Been_Away"},{"link_name":"Frontiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontiers_(1996_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Sandy Welch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandy_Welch"},{"link_name":"The Tribe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tribe_(1998_film)"},{"link_name":"Shooting the Past","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shooting_the_Past"},{"link_name":"Perfect Strangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_Strangers_(TV_serial)"},{"link_name":"The Lost Prince","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_Prince"},{"link_name":"Friends and Crocodiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends_and_Crocodiles"},{"link_name":"Gideon's Daughter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gideon%27s_Daughter"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Joe's Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%27s_Palace"},{"link_name":"Capturing Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capturing_Mary"},{"link_name":"Dancing on the Edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancing_on_the_Edge_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Close to the Enemy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_to_the_Enemy"},{"link_name":"Summer of Rockets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_of_Rockets"}],"sub_title":"Television dramas and films","text":"All (originally) made for British television unless otherwise stated.Hitting Town (1976) (ITV play, on Plays for Britain DVD, adapted from the stage play of the same name) [57]\nStronger than the Sun (1977) (part of Play for Today series) [58]\nCity Sugar (1978) (part of Sunday Drama series) [59]\nBloody Kids (director Stephen Frears, 1979)\nCaught on a Train (1980)\nSoft Targets (1982) (part of Play for Today series) [60]\nTermeszet (Hungary, 1981)\nDoppelte Welt, Die (West Germany, 1985)\nShe's Been Away (1989)\nFrontiers (co-written with Sandy Welch, 1996)\nThe Tribe (1998)\nShooting the Past (1999)\nPerfect Strangers (2001)\nThe Lost Prince (2003)\nFriends and Crocodiles (2006)\nGideon's Daughter (2006)\nA Real Summer (2007) [61]\nJoe's Palace (2007)\nCapturing Mary (2007)\nDancing on the Edge (2013)\nClose to the Enemy (2016)\nSummer of Rockets (2019)","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-12"},{"link_name":"Evening Standard Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evening_Standard_Theatre_Awards"},{"link_name":"BAFTA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAFTA"},{"link_name":"Evening Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evening_Standard_(London)"},{"link_name":"Critics' Circle Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critics%27_Circle_Theatre_Award"},{"link_name":"Royal Television Society Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Television_Society"},{"link_name":"Prix Italia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prix_Italia"},{"link_name":"BAFTA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Academy_of_Film_and_Television_Arts"},{"link_name":"Dennis Potter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Potter"},{"link_name":"Peabody Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peabody_Award"},{"link_name":"Royal Television Society Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Television_Society"},{"link_name":"Royal Television Society Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Television_Society"},{"link_name":"South Bank Show Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Bank_Show_Award"},{"link_name":"EMMY Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy_Award"},{"link_name":"Peabody Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peabody_Award"},{"link_name":"CBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBE"}],"text":"Poliakoff has received the following awards:[12]Evening Standard Award for Most Promising Playwright (1976)\nBAFTA (Best Single Television Drama) (1980)\nEvening Standard Award for Best Film (1992)\nCritics' Circle Award for Best New Stage Play (1996)\nRoyal Television Society Award (1999)\nPrix Italia (1999)\nInternational Television Festival Cinema Tour Ecran (1999)\nBAFTA (Dennis Potter Writer's Award) (2001)\nPeabody Award (2002)\nRoyal Television Society Award Best Writer (2002)\nRoyal Television Society Award Best Drama Serial (2002)\nBANFF Award (2002)\nSouth Bank Show Award (2004)\nEMMY Award (2005)\nPeabody Award (2006)\nCBE (2007)","title":"Prizes and awards"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Bloomsbury.com. \"Stephen Poliakoff on Stage and Screen\". Bloomsbury Publishing. Archived from the original on 28 September 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/stephen-poliakoff-on-stage-and-screen-9781408145920/","url_text":"\"Stephen Poliakoff on Stage and Screen\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170928060231/https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/stephen-poliakoff-on-stage-and-screen-9781408145920/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Gilbert, Gerard (6 January 2006). \"Stephen Poliakoff: TV's foremost writer\". The Independent. Archived from the original on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 1 August 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/stephen-poliakoff-tvs-foremost-writer-521735.html","url_text":"\"Stephen Poliakoff: TV's foremost writer\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220525/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/stephen-poliakoff-tvs-foremost-writer-521735.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"BFI Screenonline: Poliakoff, Stephen (1952–) Biography\". Archived from the original on 8 March 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/510844/index.html","url_text":"\"BFI Screenonline: Poliakoff, Stephen (1952–) Biography\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170308053129/http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/510844/index.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Stephen Poliakoff Biography (1952?-)\". Archived from the original on 4 February 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.filmreference.com/film/16/Stephen-Poliakoff.html","url_text":"\"Stephen Poliakoff Biography (1952?-)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100204105419/http://www.filmreference.com/film/16/Stephen-Poliakoff.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Rocker, Simon (16 May 2019). \"Stephen Poliakoff: My new BBC drama is my most personal yet\". The Jewish Chronicle. London.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thejc.com/culture/tv/stephen-poliakoff-new-bbc-drama-summer-of-rockets-1.484227","url_text":"\"Stephen Poliakoff: My new BBC drama is my most personal yet\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jewish_Chronicle","url_text":"The Jewish Chronicle"}]},{"reference":"Sale, Jonathan (6 May 1999). \"Passed/Failed: Stephen Poliakoff\". The Independent. Archived from the original on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 1 August 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/passedfailed-stephen-poliakoff-1091736.html","url_text":"\"Passed/Failed: Stephen Poliakoff\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220525/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/passedfailed-stephen-poliakoff-1091736.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Stronger Than The Sun (1977)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/new-page-1/","url_text":"\"Stronger Than The Sun (1977)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113112837/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/new-page-1/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Bloody Kids (1979)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/bloody-kids-1980/","url_text":"\"Bloody Kids (1979)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113110843/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/bloody-kids-1980/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Soft Targets (1982)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/soft-targets-1982/","url_text":"\"Soft Targets (1982)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113112836/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/soft-targets-1982/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Hitting Town (1976)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/hitting-town-1976/","url_text":"\"Hitting Town (1976)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113110846/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/hitting-town-1976/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"City Sugar (1978)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/new-page/","url_text":"\"City Sugar (1978)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113110224/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/new-page/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Stephen Poliakoff – Literature\". literature.britishcouncil.org. Archived from the original on 7 August 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://literature.britishcouncil.org/writer/stephen-poliakoff","url_text":"\"Stephen Poliakoff – Literature\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160807090158/https://literature.britishcouncil.org/writer/stephen-poliakoff","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Theatre Plays\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/theatre-plays/","url_text":"\"Theatre Plays\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113111018/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/theatre-plays/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Peacock, D. Keith (1984). \"The Fascination of Fascism: The Plays of Stephen Poliakoff\". Modern Drama. 27 (4): 494–505. doi:10.3138/md.27.4.494. S2CID 162295614.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3138%2Fmd.27.4.494","url_text":"10.3138/md.27.4.494"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162295614","url_text":"162295614"}]},{"reference":"Robin Nelson. \"Stephen Poliakoff on Stage and Screen\". Bloomsbury Publishing. Archived from the original on 28 September 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/stephen-poliakoff-on-stage-and-screen-9781408145920/","url_text":"\"Stephen Poliakoff on Stage and Screen\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170928060231/https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/stephen-poliakoff-on-stage-and-screen-9781408145920/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Stephen Poliakoff: Bring back true grit\". The Independent. 20 November 2013. Archived from the original on 16 January 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/features/stephen-poliakoff-bring-back-true-grit-8950264.html","url_text":"\"Stephen Poliakoff: Bring back true grit\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170116175222/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/features/stephen-poliakoff-bring-back-true-grit-8950264.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Hidden City (1987)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/hidden-city-1987/","url_text":"\"Hidden City (1987)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113110116/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/hidden-city-1987/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"She's Been Away (1989)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/shes-been-away-1989/","url_text":"\"She's Been Away (1989)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113112839/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/shes-been-away-1989/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Close My Eyes (1991)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/close-my-eyes-1991/","url_text":"\"Close My Eyes (1991)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113112450/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/close-my-eyes-1991/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Century (1994)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/century-1993/","url_text":"\"Century (1994)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113111522/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/century-1993/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Tribe (1998)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/the-tribe/","url_text":"\"The Tribe (1998)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113112133/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/the-tribe/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Prix Italia\". IMDb.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/Prix_Italia/1999","url_text":"\"Prix Italia\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMDb","url_text":"IMDb"}]},{"reference":"\"Shooting The Past (1999)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/shooting-the-past-1999/","url_text":"\"Shooting The Past (1999)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113110848/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/shooting-the-past-1999/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Perfect Strangers (2001)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/perfect-strangers-2001/","url_text":"\"Perfect Strangers (2001)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113111258/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/perfect-strangers-2001/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Lost Prince (2003)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/the-lost-prince-2003/","url_text":"\"The Lost Prince (2003)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113110222/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/the-lost-prince-2003/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Friends And Crocodiles (2006)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/friends-and-crocodiles-2005/","url_text":"\"Friends And Crocodiles (2006)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113110524/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/friends-and-crocodiles-2005/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Gideon's Daughter (2006)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/gideons-daughter-2005/","url_text":"\"Gideon's Daughter (2006)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113110113/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/gideons-daughter-2005/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Joe's Palace (2007)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/joes-palace-2007/","url_text":"\"Joe's Palace (2007)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113111716/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/joes-palace-2007/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Capturing Mary (2007)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/capturing-mary-2007/","url_text":"\"Capturing Mary (2007)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113112452/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/capturing-mary-2007/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"A Real Summer (2007)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/a-real-summer-2007/","url_text":"\"A Real Summer (2007)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113112325/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/a-real-summer-2007/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"BBC – Press Office – Stephen Poliakoff dramas for 2007\". Archived from the original on 11 July 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2006/11_november/09/poliakoff.shtml","url_text":"\"BBC – Press Office – Stephen Poliakoff dramas for 2007\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070711074742/http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2006/11_november/09/poliakoff.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Glorious '39 (2009)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/glorious-39-2009/","url_text":"\"Glorious '39 (2009)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113110319/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/glorious-39-2009/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Win tickets to see Stephen Poliakoff's WWF film – competition\". the Guardian. 18 July 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/environment/competition/2011/jul/18/wwf-stephen-poliakoff-film-competition","url_text":"\"Win tickets to see Stephen Poliakoff's WWF film – competition\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160314213442/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/competition/2011/jul/18/wwf-stephen-poliakoff-film-competition","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Dancing On The Edge (2013)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/dancing-on-the-edge-2013/","url_text":"\"Dancing On The Edge (2013)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113112131/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/dancing-on-the-edge-2013/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Dancing on the edge, IMDB\". IMDB. 2014. Archived from the original on 15 March 2016. Retrieved 31 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2163315/?ref_=nm_flmg_wr_2","url_text":"\"Dancing on the edge, IMDB\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160315140555/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt2163315/?ref_=nm_flmg_wr_2","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Close To The Enemy (2016)\". Stephen Poliakoff Official Website. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/close-to-the-enemy-2016/","url_text":"\"Close To The Enemy (2016)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170113112620/http://www.stephenpoliakoff.com/close-to-the-enemy-2016/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"BBC Media Centre, report on Close To The Enemy\". BBC. Summer 2015. 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Retrieved 12 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://hearinghealthmatters.org/hearinginternational/2011/induction-loops-around-the-world-where-are-we-part-i/","url_text":"\"Induction Loops Around the World......Where are we? – Part I–Robert Traynor–Hearing International\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161103215618/http://hearinghealthmatters.org/hearinginternational/2011/induction-loops-around-the-world-where-are-we-part-i/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Garvey, Alison (9 May 2011). \"Marketing Content Company: Multitone, the inventor of the first paging system celebrates its 80th birthday today\". Marketing Content Company. Archived from the original on 4 November 2016. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolux	Electrolux	["1 History","1.1 Sales company to major manufacturer","1.2 Mergers and acquisitions","1.3 2000 to present","2 Notable products","3 Brands","3.1 Americas","3.2 Europe","3.3 Oceania","3.4 Middle East","3.5 Global/other","4 Slogan","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]	Swedish multinational home appliance manufacturer This article is about the home appliance manufacturer. For the separated professional appliance manufacturer, see Electrolux Professional. This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (April 2024) Electrolux ABThe Electrolux wordmark and logo, designed by Prophet in 2015, incorporates the Carlo Vivarelli-designed symbol from 1961.Electrolux headquarters in StockholmCompany typePublicly traded aktiebolagTraded asNasdaq Stockholm: ELUX BISINSE0000103806SE0000103814IndustryHome appliancesFounded1919; 105 years ago (1919)HeadquartersStockholm, SwedenArea servedWorldwideKey peopleStaffan Bohman (Chairman)Jonas Samuelson (President & CEO)ProductsMajor appliances and small appliancesBrandsAEG, Electrolux, Electrolux Grand Cuisine, Electrolux Professional, Eureka, Frigidaire, Molteni, Westinghouse, Zanussi.Revenue 134.880 billion kr (2022)Operating income –215 million kr (2022)Net income –1.320 billion kr (2022)Total assets 127.102 billion kr (2022)Total equity 16.449 billion kr (2022)OwnerInvestor AB (16.4%; 28.4% votes)Number of employees51,000 (2022)Websitewww.electrolux.comwww.electroluxgroup.com Logo and wordmark (1961–2015) Electrolux AB (Swedish: ) is a Swedish multinational home appliance manufacturer, headquartered in Stockholm. It is consistently ranked the world's second largest appliance maker by units sold, after Whirlpool. Electrolux products sell under a variety of brand names (including its own), and are primarily major appliances and vacuum cleaners intended for home consumer use. Electrolux has a primary listing on the Stockholm Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the OMX Stockholm 30 index. History The Autoluxlamp, a kerosene lamp manufactured by Lux and used in railway stations around the world in the early 20th century The company originates from a merger of two companies—Lux AB and Svenska Elektron AB, the former an established manufacturer and the latter a younger company founded by a former vacuum salesman who had also been an employee of the former firm. The origins of Electrolux are closely tied to the vacuum, but today it also makes major appliances. Vacuum cleaner designed by Lurelle Guild c. 1937 Brooklyn Museum Electrolux made an initial public offering on the London Stock Exchange in 1928 (it was delisted in 2010) and another on the Stockholm Stock Exchange in 1930. As of 2010 its shares trade on the NASDAQ OMX Nordic Market and over-the-counter. Electrolux is an OMX Nordic 40 constituent stock. Sales company to major manufacturer In 1919, a Svenska Elektron AB acquisition, Elektromekaniska AB, became Elektrolux (the spelling was changed to Electrolux in 1957). It initially sold Lux branded vacuum cleaners in several European countries. In 1923, the company acquired AB Arctic and subsequently added absorption refrigerators to its product line. Other appliances soon followed, including washing machines in 1951, dishwashers in 1959, and food service equipment in 1962. Mergers and acquisitions The company has often and regularly expanded through mergers and acquisitions. While Electrolux had bought several companies before the 1960s, that decade saw the beginnings of a new wave of M&A activity. The company bought ElektroHelios, Norwegian Elektra, Danish Atlas, Finnish Slev, and Flymo, et al., in the nine years from 1960 to 1969. It sold its American subsidiary to Consolidated Foods and exited the American market in 1968, only returning in 1974 when Electrolux acquired Eureka-Williams from National Union, one of the oldest names in the vacuum cleaner industry. Electrolux sold its vacuum cleaners using the Eureka brand name in North America until 2004. This style of growth continued through the 1990s, seeing Electrolux purchase scores of companies including, for a time, Husqvarna. Hans Werthén , President and later chairman of the board, led the strategic core of an increasingly decentralized Electrolux—and was instrumental to its rapid growth. While attempts to cut costs, centralise administration, and wring out economies of scale from Electrolux's operations were made in the 1960s and 1970s with the focus so firmly on growth, further company-wide restructuring efforts only began in the late 1990s. 2000 to present In North America, the Electrolux name was long used by vacuum cleaner manufacturer Aerus LLC, originally established to sell Swedish Electrolux products. In 2000, Aerus transferred trademark rights back to the Electrolux Group, and ceased using the Electrolux name in 2004. Conversely, Electrolux-made vacuums carried the Eureka brand name, which Electrolux continued to use while also selling Electrolux branded vacuums after 2000. Electrolux USA customer service maintains a database of Electrolux made vacuums and provides a link to Aerus's website for the convenience of owners of Electrolux branded Aerus vacuums. Keith McLoughlin took over as president and CEO on January 1, 2011, and became the company's first non Swedish chief executive. In August 2011, Electrolux acquired from Sigdo Koppers the Chilean appliance manufacturer CTI obtaining several brands with the purchase including: Fensa, Gafa, Mademsa and Somela. On February 6, 2017, Electrolux announced that it had agreed to acquire Anova Applied Electronics, Inc., the U.S.-based provider of the Anova Precision Cooker. On March 23, 2020, Electrolux completed the spin-off of its professional division, which the separated company incorporated as Electrolux Professional AB. In September 2023, it was announced Electrolux has sold its refrigerator manufacturing facility in Nyíregyháza to the Malmö-headquartered heat pump systems and technology company, Qvantum for €38 million. Notable products Electrolux Assistent, 1940 1919: The Lux vacuum is the first product Electrolux sells. 1925: D, Electrolux's first refrigerator, is an absorption model. 1937: Electrolux model 30 vacuum is unveiled. 1940: Assistent (Swedish for assistant), the company's only wartime consumer product, is a mixer/food processor. 1941: Charlton Automatic rifle Electrolux SMLE Model Lee–Enfield A replacement of the bren gun for the home guard soldiers, made from out-of-service Lee-Enfields. New Zealander Philip Charlton, a car mechanic, designed the gun in Australia. 1951: W 20, Electrolux's first home washing machine, is manufactured in Gothenburg, Sweden. 1959: D 10, the company's first dishwasher, is a counter top model nicknamed "round jar". 2001: Launch of the Electrolux Trilobite, a robotic vacuum cleaner. Brands An Electrolux canister vacuum cleaner Electrolux sells under a wide variety of brand names worldwide. Most of them were acquired through mergers and acquisitions and only do business in a single country or geographic area. The following is an incomplete list. Americas Anova Applied Electronics, Inc., provider of the Anova Precision Cooker Electrolux ICON, premium consumer appliance brand sold in the US Eureka, American consumer vacuum cleaner brand, Sold to Midea, China in 2016 Fensa, Chilean consumer appliance brand, widely available in Latin America. Frigidaire, major appliance manufacturer. Gafa, Argentinean appliance manufacturer. Gibson, refrigerator and air conditioning manufacturer Mademsa, Chilean home appliance brand Philco, former U.S. consumer electronics and appliance manufacturer for appliances, though brand name is also used separately for electronics by Philips Sanitaire, commercial product division of Eureka Somela, Chilean home appliance brand, available throughout Latin America Tappan, former U.S. appliance manufacturer Viking Range, major appliance manufacturer. White-Westinghouse, former U.S. appliance manufacturer Europe Arthur Martin AEG Atlas (Denmark) Corberó (Spain) Elektro Helios, manufacturer of consumer appliances for the Swedish market Faure, French consumer appliance maker Lehel, consumer appliance brand sold in Hungary and elsewhere. Acquired in 1991, the brand has not been in use since 1999. Marynen/Marijnen, consumer product brand sold in the Netherlands Parkinson Cowan, cooking appliances (United Kingdom) Progress, vacuum cleaner brand sold throughout Europe REX-Electrolux, Italian appliance manufacturer Rosenlew, Finnish consumer product brand sold in Nordic countries Samus, Romanian producer of cooking stoves headquartered in Satu Mare Voss, premium consumer cooking appliance and equipment supplier in Denmark and elsewhere Zanker, consumer kitchen appliance brand sold in central Europe Zanussi, Italian appliance manufacturer that became part of Electrolux in 1984 Zanussi Professional, professional kitchen equipment manufacturer Zoppas, consumer products brand sold in Italy Oceania Dishlex, a budget friendly dishwasher brand sold in Australia (discontinued in August 2021) Kelvinator, an air conditioning and fridge freezer brand sold in Australia, India and elsewhere Simpson, previously sold Kitchen and laundry appliances, now they only sell laundry appliances. They are a brand sold in Australia and New Zealand. (discontinued in July 2022) Westinghouse, a kitchen and laundry appliance brand in Australia licensed from Westinghouse Electric Corp to Electrolux Home Products Pty Ltd. Middle East King, Israeli kitchen appliance brand made by REX-Electrolux, an Italian Electrolux subsidiary. Olympic Group, home appliance brand in Egypt Global/other Arthur Martin-Electrolux Beam, Electrolux's central vacuum brand Castor Chef Dito, professional food processing equipment Electrolux Professional Frigidaire, full range major appliance brand sold globally Juno-Electrolux, premium consumer kitchen appliance brand Molteni, professional stoves Tornado, vacuum cleaners and other consumer products Therma Tricity Bendix Volta, vacuum cleaner brand sold in Australia, Sweden and elsewhere Note: This list does not include brands such as Kenmore, IKEA and John Lewis, which may sell Electrolux produced appliances but are not owned by or affiliated with Electrolux, as Electrolux acts as an OEM for these brands. Slogan The company's international slogan is "Shape living for the better". In the past it was "Thinking of you". In the 1960s the company successfully marketed vacuums in the United Kingdom with the slogan "Nothing sucks like an Electrolux". In the United States, it was frequently assumed that using this slogan was a brand blunder. In fact, the informal American meaning of the word sucks was already well known at the time in the United Kingdom, and the company hoped the slogan, with its possible double entendre, would gain attention. In Indonesia, the Electrolux previous slogan was "Kalau saja semua seawet Electrolux" (English: If only all are as durable as Electrolux). See also Companies portal Constructor Group AS, a former Electrolux subsidiary not involved in major appliance manufacture References ^ "ELUX A, Electrolux A, (SE0000103806) - Nasdaq". www.nasdaqomxnordic.com. ^ "ELUX B, Electrolux B, (SE0000103814) - Nasdaq". www.nasdaqomxnordic.com. ^ a b c d e f g "Annual Report 2022" (PDF). AB Electrolux. pp. 19, 22. ^ "Electrolux Group Headquarter". Electrolux. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "Major Appliances Millionaires Club - new 2010 company rankings". euromonitor.com. Euromonitor International. December 3, 2010. Archived from the original on 12 May 2014. Retrieved 9 May 2014. ^ "National consumer brands; Electrolux Group". Electrolux.com. Archived from the original on 2010-05-28. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ a b Gantz, Carroll (2012). The Vacuum Cleaner: A History. McFarland. ISBN 9780786465521. ^ "Electrolux delisted from the London Stock Exchange; Electrolux Group". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ a b c "History 1920-1929 \| Electrolux Group". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ a b c "Growth and industrial design; Electrolux Group". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "The Electrolux share \| Electrolux Group". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-09-02. ^ a b "Founding an international company; Electrolux Group". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Elektrolux becomes Electrolux; Electrolux Group". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Revolutionary products; Electrolux Group". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ a b c "History 1950-1959 \| Electrolux Group". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ a b c "History 1960-1969 \| Electrolux Group". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Eureka Williams Electrolux". ^ a b c d "A new president with new strategies \| Electrolux Group". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-09-05. ^ "History 1970-1979 \| Electrolux Group". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-09-05. ^ "History 1990-1999 \| Electrolux Group". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-09-05. ^ "Aerus Llc". companydatabase.org. Archived from the original on July 25, 2011. Retrieved January 8, 2011. ^ Kitchen Appliances Manufacturers Best Kitchen Brand in India ^ "Electrolux acquires Chilean appliance company CTI \| Electrolux Group". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2013-05-07. ^ a b "Terms and Conditions & Privacy Policy \| Anova Culinary". Anova Culinary. Retrieved 2017-03-07. ^ a b "Electrolux To Acquire Fast Growing Smart Kitchen Appliance Company Anova" (PDF). ElectroluxGroup.com. Electrolux. 6 February 2017. ^ a b Svajian, Stephen (6 February 2017). "Everybody Has A Seat At The Table". AnovaCulinary.com. Anova. ^ "Nasdaq Stockholm welcomes Electrolux Professional to the Main Market". 2020-03-23. Retrieved 2021-12-05. ^ "Qvantum acquires manufacturing facility from Electrolux". evertiq.com. 2023. Retrieved 2023-09-19. ^ "Svensk Köksmaskin Hushållsassistent Köksassistent Kitchen machine Kitchen Assistant - Bäst i Test". Assistent Original. Archived from the original on 2010-07-20. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "History 1940-1949 \| Electrolux Group". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Trilobite 2.0". Trilobite.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-09-02. ^ "Official Electrolux ICON Site - Electrolux ICON Appliances". Electroluxicon.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Eureka". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-10-12. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Gibson acquired by Hupp Corporation as of April 30, 1956". Brand, Appellate Case Law. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Somela - Exportaciones". Chile: Somela.cl. Archived from the original on 2013-05-21. Retrieved 2013-05-07. ^ Danish Wikipedia article "Atlas(virksomhed)" ^ "Elektro Helios". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-10-12. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Faure". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-10-13. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Marijnen". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-10-13. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Progress". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2011-05-03. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Rex Electrolux". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-08-18. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Rosenlew". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-10-12. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ David Turnock, Edward Elgar, 2009, The Transition from Communism to the European Union: Restructuring Romanian Industry and Agriculture Since 1990, p. 141 ^ "Voss-Electrolux". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-10-12. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Zanker". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-10-12. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Electrolux / 90 Years of Innovation and Design". Singapore: Electrolux Singapore. Archived from the original on 2017-10-20. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Zanussi Professional". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-08-05. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Zoppas". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-08-14. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "About Dishlex". dishlex.com.au. Archived from the original on 2016-10-21. Retrieved 2015-10-26. ^ "Home". Kelvinator Commercial. ^ "Simpson". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-10-13. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "About Westinghouse". www.westinghouse.com.au. Australia. Retrieved 2016-08-26. ^ "Beam". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-10-13. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Dito-Electrolux". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-08-27. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Frigidaire". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-10-12. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Juno-Electrolux". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-09-03. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Molteni". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-08-27. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Tornado". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-10-12. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Volta". Brand. Electrolux Group. Archived from the original on 2010-10-13. Retrieved 2010-08-31. ^ "Vac from the Sea". Electrolux.se. 2011-12-10. Archived from the original on 2013-05-07. Retrieved 2013-05-07. ^ *Nothing sucks like an ad myth \|adland.tv Archived 2011-07-21 at the Wayback Machine Game over, here are the Ad Trivia Quiz answers \|adland.tv Archived 2011-08-09 at the Wayback Machine Snark Hunting \|Nothing sucks like an Electrolux ^ "The Project Gutenberg Etext of The New Hacker's Dictionary version 4.2.2". Gutenberg.org. Archived from the original on September 26, 2009. Retrieved 2013-05-07. External links Media related to Electrolux (company) at Wikimedia Commons Official website Official group website Official group website North Macedonia American Electrolux - The Beginning, and the Early Years by Charles Richard Lester Macedonia Electrolux - The Beginning, and the Early Years by Dimche Palenzo Electrolux vteElectroluxBrands, divisions and subsidiariesCurrent AEG Anova Culinary Eureka Frigidaire Gibson Appliance Kelvinator Lehel Parkinson Cowan Philco Rosenlew Simpson Tappan White-Westinghouse Zanussi Former Diamant Boart1 Electrolux Professional1 Husqvarna1 White Consolidated Industries2 Products Electrolux Trilobite People Keith McLoughlin Marcus Wallenberg Other Electrolux v AWU The Cube 1Sold or demerged 2Now integrated into other Electrolux divisions or subsidiaries Category vteHome appliance brands Amica Arçelik Arctic Beko Dawlance Defy Grundig Ariston Bertazzoni Bialetti Bissell Braun Breville Group Breville Kambrook Bork BSH Balay Bosch Constructa Gaggenau Neff Pitsos Profilo Siemens Thermador Bticino Colston-Ariston Cuisinart Danby De Dietrich Remeha De'Longhi Kenwood Dualit Dustbot Dyson Edesa Electrolux AEG Anova Frigidaire Kelvinator Lehel Parkinson Cowan White-Westinghouse Zanussi Elica Faema Fulgor Gaggia Giacomini Gree Haceb Haier Candy Fisher & Paykel GE Hoover Hotpoint Hamilton Beach Proctor Silex Havells Hisense Asko Gorenje Kelon IKEA InSinkErator iRobot Roomba Scooba JS Global Lifestyle Joyoung Kenmore Khind-Mistral Kleenmaid LG Liebherr Lofra Mabe Magic Bullet Magic Chef Medion Middleby AGA La Cornue Rangemaster Rayburn Viking Midea Eureka Miele Mitsubishi Moffat Morphy Richards Newell Crock-Pot Holmes Mr. Coffee Oster Sunbeam Olympic OXO Panasonic KDK Sanyo Pars Khazar Peerless-Premier Pensonic Philips Pyramis Saeco Samsung Dacor SEB Krups Moulinex Rowenta Supor Tefal Servis SharkNinja Sharp Sisil Skyworth Smeg Snowa Spectrum Black+Decker George Foreman Remington Russell Hobbs Toastmaster Sub-Zero Tiger Vestel Vestfrost Finlux Videocon Voltas Vorwerk West Bend Whirlpool Admiral Amana Bauknecht Hotpoint Indesit Inglis Jenn-Air KitchenAid Maytag Winia Zojirushi Zyliss vte OMX Stockholm 30 companies of Sweden ABB Alfa Laval Assa Abloy AstraZeneca Atlas Copco Autoliv Boliden Electrolux Ericsson Essity Evolution Gaming Getinge AB Hennes & Mauritz Hexagon AB Investor AB Kinnevik Nordea Sandvik SCA SEB Skanska Sinch SKF Skanska Svenska Handelsbanken Swedbank Swedish Match Tele2 Telia Volvo Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 National France BnF data Germany United States Czech Republic	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Electrolux Professional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolux_Professional"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Electrolux_logo.svg"},{"link_name":"[ɛˈlɛ̂kːtrʊˌlɵks, ɛlɛktrʊˈlɵks]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Swedish"},{"link_name":"Swedish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"multinational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_corporation"},{"link_name":"home appliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_appliance"},{"link_name":"Stockholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Whirlpool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpool_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"major appliances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_appliance"},{"link_name":"vacuum cleaners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_cleaner"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Stockholm Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"OMX Stockholm 30","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OMX_Stockholm_30"}],"text":"This article is about the home appliance manufacturer. For the separated professional appliance manufacturer, see Electrolux Professional.Logo and wordmark (1961–2015)Electrolux AB (Swedish: [ɛˈlɛ̂kːtrʊˌlɵks, ɛlɛktrʊˈlɵks]) is a Swedish multinational home appliance manufacturer, headquartered in Stockholm.[4] It is consistently ranked the world's second largest appliance maker by units sold, after Whirlpool.[5]Electrolux products sell under a variety of brand names (including its own), and are primarily major appliances and vacuum cleaners intended for home consumer use.[6] Electrolux has a primary listing on the Stockholm Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the OMX Stockholm 30 index.","title":"Electrolux"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Autoluxlampa.jpg"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-book-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lurelle_Guild._Vacuum_Cleaner,_ca._1937..jpg"},{"link_name":"Lurelle Guild","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lurelle_Guild"},{"link_name":"Brooklyn Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum"},{"link_name":"initial public offering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_public_offering"},{"link_name":"London Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"delisted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delisted"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Stockholm Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-d-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mix-10"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrolux&action=edit"},{"link_name":"over-the-counter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over-the-counter_(finance)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"OMX Nordic 40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OMX_Nordic_40"}],"text":"The Autoluxlamp, a kerosene lamp manufactured by Lux and used in railway stations around the world in the early 20th centuryThe company originates from a merger of two companies—Lux AB and Svenska Elektron AB, the former an established manufacturer and the latter a younger company founded by a former vacuum salesman who had also been an employee of the former firm.[7] The origins of Electrolux are closely tied to the vacuum, but today it also makes major appliances.Vacuum cleaner designed by Lurelle Guild c. 1937 Brooklyn MuseumElectrolux made an initial public offering on the London Stock Exchange in 1928 (it was delisted in 2010)[8] and another on the Stockholm Stock Exchange in 1930.[9][10]As of 2010[update] its shares trade on the NASDAQ OMX Nordic Market and over-the-counter.[11] Electrolux is an OMX Nordic 40 constituent stock.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-book-7"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hist-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dishwasher-13"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hist-12"},{"link_name":"absorption refrigerators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_refrigerator"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-d-9"},{"link_name":"washing machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_machine"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-d10-15"},{"link_name":"dishwashers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dishwasher"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-d10-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sixties-16"}],"sub_title":"Sales company to major manufacturer","text":"In 1919, a Svenska Elektron AB acquisition,[7] Elektromekaniska AB, became Elektrolux[12] (the spelling was changed to Electrolux in 1957).[13] It initially sold Lux branded vacuum cleaners in several European countries.[12]In 1923, the company acquired AB Arctic and subsequently added absorption refrigerators to its product line.[14][9] Other appliances soon followed, including washing machines in 1951,[15] dishwashers in 1959,[15] and food service equipment in 1962.[16]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mergers and acquisitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sixties-16"},{"link_name":"Consolidated Foods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara_Lee_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Eureka-Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka_(company)"},{"link_name":"National Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Union_Electric_Corporation&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pres-18"},{"link_name":"Husqvarna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husqvarna_AB"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pres-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Hans Werthén","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hans_Werth%C3%A9n&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"sv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Werth%C3%A9n"},{"link_name":"economies of scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economies_of_scale"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sixties-16"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pres-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pres-18"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-restructure-20"}],"sub_title":"Mergers and acquisitions","text":"The company has often and regularly expanded through mergers and acquisitions.While Electrolux had bought several companies before the 1960s, that decade saw the beginnings of a new wave of M&A activity. The company bought ElektroHelios, Norwegian Elektra, Danish Atlas, Finnish Slev, and Flymo, et al., in the nine years from 1960 to 1969.[16] It sold its American subsidiary to Consolidated Foods and exited the American market in 1968, only returning in 1974 when Electrolux acquired Eureka-Williams from National Union, one of the oldest names in the vacuum cleaner industry. Electrolux sold its vacuum cleaners using the Eureka brand name in North America until 2004.[17]This style of growth continued through the 1990s, seeing Electrolux purchase scores[18] of companies including, for a time, Husqvarna.[18][19]Hans Werthén [sv], President and later chairman of the board, led the strategic core of an increasingly decentralized Electrolux—and was instrumental to its rapid growth.While attempts to cut costs, centralise administration, and wring out economies of scale from Electrolux's operations were made in the 1960s and 1970s[16][18] with the focus so firmly on growth,[18] further company-wide restructuring efforts only began in the late 1990s.[20]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"vacuum cleaner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_cleaner"},{"link_name":"Aerus LLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerus_LLC"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"brand name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand_name"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Sigdo Koppers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigdo_Koppers"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Anova Applied Electronics, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anova_Culinary"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ElectroluxAnova1-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ElectroluxAnova2-26"},{"link_name":"spin-off","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_spin-off"},{"link_name":"Electrolux Professional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolux_Professional"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Nyíregyháza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ny%C3%ADregyh%C3%A1za"},{"link_name":"Malmö","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malm%C3%B6"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"2000 to present","text":"In North America, the Electrolux name was long used by vacuum cleaner manufacturer Aerus LLC, originally established to sell Swedish Electrolux products. In 2000, Aerus transferred trademark rights back to the Electrolux Group, and ceased using the Electrolux name in 2004.[21]Conversely, Electrolux-made vacuums carried the Eureka brand name, which Electrolux continued to use while also selling Electrolux branded vacuums after 2000. Electrolux USA customer service maintains a database of Electrolux made vacuums and provides a link to Aerus's website for the convenience of owners of Electrolux branded Aerus vacuums.[22]Keith McLoughlin took over as president and CEO on January 1, 2011, and became the company's first non Swedish chief executive.In August 2011, Electrolux acquired from Sigdo Koppers the Chilean appliance manufacturer CTI obtaining several brands with the purchase including: Fensa, Gafa, Mademsa and Somela.[23]On February 6, 2017, Electrolux announced that it had agreed to acquire Anova Applied Electronics, Inc.,[24] the U.S.-based provider of the Anova Precision Cooker.[25][26]On March 23, 2020, Electrolux completed the spin-off of its professional division, which the separated company incorporated as Electrolux Professional AB.[27]In September 2023, it was announced Electrolux has sold its refrigerator manufacturing facility in Nyíregyháza to the Malmö-headquartered heat pump systems and technology company, Qvantum for €38 million.[28]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Electrolux_Assistent.jpg"},{"link_name":"absorption model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_refrigerator"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-d-9"},{"link_name":"Assistent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolux_Ankarsrum_Assistent"},{"link_name":"wartime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mix-10"},{"link_name":"mixer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixer_(cooking)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"food processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_processor"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Electrolux SMLE Model Lee–Enfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrolux_SMLE_Model_Lee%E2%80%93Enfield&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"washing machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_machine"},{"link_name":"Gothenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothenburg"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mix-10"},{"link_name":"dishwasher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dishwasher"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-d10-15"},{"link_name":"Electrolux Trilobite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolux_Trilobite"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"Electrolux Assistent, 19401919: The Lux vacuum is the first product Electrolux sells.\n1925: D, Electrolux's first refrigerator, is an absorption model.[9]\n1937: Electrolux model 30 vacuum is unveiled.\n1940: Assistent (Swedish for assistant), the company's only wartime consumer product,[10] is a mixer[29]/food processor.[30]\n1941: Charlton Automatic rifle Electrolux SMLE Model Lee–Enfield A replacement of the bren gun for the home guard soldiers, made from out-of-service Lee-Enfields. New Zealander Philip Charlton, a car mechanic, designed the gun in Australia.\n1951: W 20, Electrolux's first home washing machine, is manufactured in Gothenburg, Sweden.[10]\n1959: D 10, the company's first dishwasher, is a counter top model nicknamed \"round jar\".[15]\n2001: Launch of the Electrolux Trilobite, a robotic vacuum cleaner.[31]","title":"Notable products"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Electrolux_Vacuum_Cleaner.jpg"},{"link_name":"mergers and acquisitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions"}],"text":"An Electrolux canister vacuum cleanerElectrolux sells under a wide variety of brand names worldwide. Most of them were acquired through mergers and acquisitions and only do business in a single country or geographic area. The following is an incomplete list.","title":"Brands"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anova Applied Electronics, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anova_Culinary"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ElectroluxAnova1-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ElectroluxAnova2-26"},{"link_name":"US","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_America"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Eureka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka_(vacuum_cleaner)"},{"link_name":"American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_America"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Frigidaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frigidaire"},{"link_name":"Gibson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibson_Appliance"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Philco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philco"},{"link_name":"Philips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips"},{"link_name":"Eureka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka_(vacuum_cleaner)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Tappan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tappan_(brand)"},{"link_name":"U.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_America"},{"link_name":"Viking Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Range"},{"link_name":"White-Westinghouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-Westinghouse"},{"link_name":"U.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_America"}],"sub_title":"Americas","text":"Anova Applied Electronics, Inc.,[24] provider of the Anova Precision Cooker[25][26]\nElectrolux ICON, premium consumer appliance brand sold in the US[32]\nEureka, American consumer vacuum cleaner brand, Sold to Midea, China in 2016[33]\nFensa, Chilean consumer appliance brand, widely available in Latin America.\nFrigidaire, major appliance manufacturer.\nGafa, Argentinean appliance manufacturer.\nGibson, refrigerator and air conditioning manufacturer[34]\nMademsa, Chilean home appliance brand\nPhilco, former U.S. consumer electronics and appliance manufacturer for appliances, though brand name is also used separately for electronics by Philips\nSanitaire, commercial product division of Eureka\nSomela, Chilean home appliance brand, available throughout Latin America[35]\nTappan, former U.S. appliance manufacturer\nViking Range, major appliance manufacturer.\nWhite-Westinghouse, former U.S. appliance manufacturer","title":"Brands"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"AEG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AEG_(German_company)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Swedish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Lehel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehel_(appliances)"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Parkinson Cowan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson_Cowan"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Rosenlew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosenlew"},{"link_name":"Nordic countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_countries"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Romanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania"},{"link_name":"Satu Mare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satu_Mare"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"central Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Europe"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Zanussi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanussi"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"sub_title":"Europe","text":"Arthur Martin\nAEG\nAtlas (Denmark)[36]\nCorberó (Spain)\nElektro Helios, manufacturer of consumer appliances for the Swedish market[37]\nFaure, French consumer appliance maker[38]\nLehel, consumer appliance brand sold in Hungary and elsewhere. Acquired in 1991, the brand has not been in use since 1999.\nMarynen/Marijnen, consumer product brand sold in the Netherlands[39]\nParkinson Cowan, cooking appliances (United Kingdom)\nProgress, vacuum cleaner brand sold throughout Europe[40]\nREX-Electrolux, Italian appliance manufacturer[41]\nRosenlew, Finnish consumer product brand sold in Nordic countries[42]\nSamus, Romanian producer of cooking stoves headquartered in Satu Mare[43]\nVoss, premium consumer cooking appliance and equipment supplier in Denmark and elsewhere[44]\nZanker, consumer kitchen appliance brand sold in central Europe[45]\nZanussi, Italian appliance manufacturer that became part of Electrolux in 1984 [46]\nZanussi Professional, professional kitchen equipment manufacturer[47]\nZoppas, consumer products brand sold in Italy[48]","title":"Brands"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Kelvinator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvinator"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Simpson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simpson_(appliance_manufacturer)"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"sub_title":"Oceania","text":"Dishlex, a budget friendly dishwasher brand sold in Australia (discontinued in August 2021)[49]\nKelvinator, an air conditioning and fridge freezer brand sold in Australia, India and elsewhere[50]\nSimpson, previously sold Kitchen and laundry appliances, now they only sell laundry appliances. They are a brand sold in Australia and New Zealand. (discontinued in July 2022) [51]\nWestinghouse, a kitchen and laundry appliance brand in Australia licensed from Westinghouse Electric Corp to Electrolux Home Products Pty Ltd.[52]","title":"Brands"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Olympic Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_Group"}],"sub_title":"Middle East","text":"King, Israeli kitchen appliance brand made by REX-Electrolux, an Italian Electrolux subsidiary.[citation needed]\nOlympic Group, home appliance brand in Egypt","title":"Brands"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"central vacuum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_vacuum"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Frigidaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frigidaire"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"stoves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stove"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Kenmore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenmore_(brand)"},{"link_name":"IKEA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IKEA"},{"link_name":"John Lewis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lewis_(department_store)"},{"link_name":"OEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_Equipment_Manufacturer"}],"sub_title":"Global/other","text":"Arthur Martin-Electrolux\nBeam, Electrolux's central vacuum brand[53]\nCastor\nChef\nDito, professional food processing equipment[54]\nElectrolux Professional\nFrigidaire, full range major appliance brand sold globally[55]\nJuno-Electrolux, premium consumer kitchen appliance brand[56]\nMolteni, professional stoves[57]\nTornado, vacuum cleaners and other consumer products[58]\nTherma\nTricity Bendix\nVolta, vacuum cleaner brand sold in Australia, Sweden and elsewhere[59]Note: This list does not include brands such as Kenmore, IKEA and John Lewis, which may sell Electrolux produced appliances but are not owned by or affiliated with Electrolux, as Electrolux acts as an OEM for these brands.","title":"Brands"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"slogan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slogan"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"brand blunder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand_blunder"},{"link_name":"double entendre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_entendre"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The company's international slogan is \"Shape living for the better\". In the past it was \"Thinking of you\".[60]In the 1960s the company successfully marketed vacuums in the United Kingdom with the slogan \"Nothing sucks like an Electrolux\".[61]\nIn the United States, it was frequently assumed that using this slogan was a brand blunder. In fact, the informal American meaning of the word sucks was already well known at the time in the United Kingdom, and the company hoped the slogan, with its possible double entendre, would gain attention.[62]In Indonesia, the Electrolux previous slogan was \"Kalau saja semua seawet Electrolux\" (English: If only all are as durable as Electrolux).[citation needed]","title":"Slogan"}]	[{"image_text":"Logo and wordmark (1961–2015)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Electrolux_logo.svg/220px-Electrolux_logo.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The Autoluxlamp, a kerosene lamp manufactured by Lux and used in railway stations around the world in the early 20th century","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Autoluxlampa.jpg/170px-Autoluxlampa.jpg"},{"image_text":"Vacuum cleaner designed by Lurelle Guild c. 1937 Brooklyn Museum","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Lurelle_Guild._Vacuum_Cleaner%2C_ca._1937..jpg/220px-Lurelle_Guild._Vacuum_Cleaner%2C_ca._1937..jpg"},{"image_text":"Electrolux Assistent, 1940","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Electrolux_Assistent.jpg/150px-Electrolux_Assistent.jpg"},{"image_text":"An Electrolux canister vacuum cleaner","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Electrolux_Vacuum_Cleaner.jpg/220px-Electrolux_Vacuum_Cleaner.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Companies portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Companies"},{"title":"Constructor Group AS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructor_Group_AS"}]	[{"reference":"\"ELUX A, Electrolux A, (SE0000103806) - Nasdaq\". www.nasdaqomxnordic.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nasdaqomxnordic.com/aktier/microsite?Instrument=SSE80","url_text":"\"ELUX A, Electrolux A, (SE0000103806) - Nasdaq\""}]},{"reference":"\"ELUX B, Electrolux B, (SE0000103814) - Nasdaq\". www.nasdaqomxnordic.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nasdaqomxnordic.com/shares/microsite?Instrument=SSE81","url_text":"\"ELUX B, Electrolux B, (SE0000103814) - Nasdaq\""}]},{"reference":"\"Annual Report 2022\" (PDF). AB Electrolux. pp. 19, 22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.electroluxgroup.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2023/02/electrolux-ab-electrolux-publishes-2022-annual-report-230223.pdf","url_text":"\"Annual Report 2022\""}]},{"reference":"\"Electrolux Group Headquarter\". Electrolux. Retrieved 8 May 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://group.electrolux.com/en/electrolux-group-headquarter-17256/","url_text":"\"Electrolux Group Headquarter\""}]},{"reference":"\"Major Appliances Millionaires Club - new 2010 company rankings\". euromonitor.com. Euromonitor International. December 3, 2010. Archived from the original on 12 May 2014. Retrieved 9 May 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140512224524/http://blog.euromonitor.com/2010/12/major-appliances-millionaires-club-new-2010-company-rankings.html","url_text":"\"Major Appliances Millionaires Club - new 2010 company rankings\""},{"url":"http://blog.euromonitor.com/2010/12/major-appliances-millionaires-club-new-2010-company-rankings.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"National consumer brands; Electrolux Group\". Electrolux.com. Archived from the original on 2010-05-28. Retrieved 2010-08-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100528164808/http://www.electrolux.com/national_consumer_brands.aspx","url_text":"\"National consumer brands; Electrolux Group\""},{"url":"http://www.electrolux.com/national_consumer_brands.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Gantz, Carroll (2012). The Vacuum Cleaner: A History. McFarland. ISBN 9780786465521.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NaVGk3HBUdkC&q=Svenska%20Elektron%20AB&pg=PA83","url_text":"The Vacuum Cleaner: A History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780786465521","url_text":"9780786465521"}]},{"reference":"\"Electrolux delisted from the London Stock Exchange; Electrolux Group\". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31.","urls":[{"url":"http://group.electrolux.com/en/electrolux-delisted-from-the-london-stock-exchange-2-1554/","url_text":"\"Electrolux delisted from the London Stock Exchange; Electrolux Group\""}]},{"reference":"\"History 1920-1929 \| Electrolux Group\". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31.","urls":[{"url":"http://group.electrolux.com/en/history-1920-1929-737/","url_text":"\"History 1920-1929 \| Electrolux Group\""}]},{"reference":"\"Growth and industrial design; Electrolux Group\". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31.","urls":[{"url":"http://group.electrolux.com/en/growth-and-industrial-design-688/","url_text":"\"Growth and industrial design; Electrolux Group\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Electrolux share \| Electrolux Group\". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-09-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://group.electrolux.com/en/the-electrolux-share-368/","url_text":"\"The Electrolux share \| Electrolux Group\""}]},{"reference":"\"Founding an international company; Electrolux Group\". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31.","urls":[{"url":"http://group.electrolux.com/en/founding-an-international-company-666/","url_text":"\"Founding an international company; Electrolux Group\""}]},{"reference":"\"Elektrolux becomes Electrolux; Electrolux Group\". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31.","urls":[{"url":"http://group.electrolux.com.mk/en/elektrolux-becomes-electrolux-693/","url_text":"\"Elektrolux becomes Electrolux; Electrolux Group\""}]},{"reference":"\"Revolutionary products; Electrolux Group\". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31.","urls":[{"url":"http://group.electrolux.com/en/revolutionary-products-683/","url_text":"\"Revolutionary products; Electrolux Group\""}]},{"reference":"\"History 1950-1959 \| Electrolux Group\". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31.","urls":[{"url":"http://group.electrolux.com/en/history-1950-1959-748/","url_text":"\"History 1950-1959 \| Electrolux Group\""}]},{"reference":"\"History 1960-1969 \| Electrolux Group\". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-08-31.","urls":[{"url":"http://group.electrolux.com/en/history-1960-1969-752/","url_text":"\"History 1960-1969 \| Electrolux Group\""}]},{"reference":"\"Eureka Williams Electrolux\".","urls":[{"url":"https://mchistory.org/research/finding-aids/collection/eureka-williams-electrolux","url_text":"\"Eureka Williams Electrolux\""}]},{"reference":"\"A new president with new strategies \| Electrolux Group\". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-09-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://group.electrolux.com/en/a-new-president-with-new-strategies-703/","url_text":"\"A new president with new strategies \| Electrolux Group\""}]},{"reference":"\"History 1970-1979 \| Electrolux Group\". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-09-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://group.electrolux.com/en/history-1970-1979-756/","url_text":"\"History 1970-1979 \| Electrolux Group\""}]},{"reference":"\"History 1990-1999 \| Electrolux Group\". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2010-09-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://group.electrolux.com/en/history-1990-1999-764/","url_text":"\"History 1990-1999 \| Electrolux Group\""}]},{"reference":"\"Aerus Llc\". companydatabase.org. Archived from the original on July 25, 2011. Retrieved January 8, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110725191058/http://companydatabase.org/c/retail-department-stores/home-personal-care-products/quality-life/air-water/aerus-llc.html","url_text":"\"Aerus Llc\""},{"url":"http://companydatabase.org/c/retail-department-stores/home-personal-care-products/quality-life/air-water/aerus-llc.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Electrolux acquires Chilean appliance company CTI \| Electrolux Group\". Group.electrolux.com. Retrieved 2013-05-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://group.electrolux.com/en/electrolux-acquires-chilean-appliance-company-cti-11433/","url_text":"\"Electrolux acquires Chilean appliance company CTI \| Electrolux Group\""}]},{"reference":"\"Terms and Conditions & Privacy Policy \| Anova Culinary\". Anova Culinary. Retrieved 2017-03-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://anovaculinary.com/pages/terms/","url_text":"\"Terms and Conditions & Privacy Policy \| Anova Culinary\""}]},{"reference":"\"Electrolux To Acquire Fast Growing Smart Kitchen Appliance Company Anova\" (PDF). ElectroluxGroup.com. Electrolux. 6 February 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.electroluxgroup.com/en/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2017/02/press-release-electrolux-to-acquire-fast-growing-smart-kitchen-appliance-company-anova.pdf","url_text":"\"Electrolux To Acquire Fast Growing Smart Kitchen Appliance Company Anova\""}]},{"reference":"Svajian, Stephen (6 February 2017). \"Everybody Has A Seat At The Table\". AnovaCulinary.com. Anova.","urls":[{"url":"https://anovaculinary.com/everybody-seat-table/","url_text":"\"Everybody Has A Seat At The Table\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nasdaq Stockholm welcomes Electrolux Professional to the Main Market\". 2020-03-23. Retrieved 2021-12-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.finanznachrichten.de/nachrichten-2020-03/49174306-nasdaq-nordic-nasdaq-stockholm-welcomes-electrolux-professional-to-the-main-market-252.htm","url_text":"\"Nasdaq Stockholm welcomes Electrolux Professional to the Main Market\""}]},{"reference":"\"Qvantum acquires manufacturing facility from Electrolux\". evertiq.com. 2023. Retrieved 2023-09-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://evertiq.com/news/54362","url_text":"\"Qvantum acquires manufacturing facility from Electrolux\""}]},{"reference":"\"Svensk Köksmaskin Hushållsassistent Köksassistent Kitchen machine Kitchen Assistant - Bäst i Test\". Assistent Original. Archived from the original on 2010-07-20. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koobface	Koobface	["1 Infection","2 Hoax warnings","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]	Network worm attacking Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X and Linux platforms KoobfaceAlias OSX/Koobface.A (Intego) W32/Koobfa-Gen (Sophos) W32.Koobface.A (Symantec) W32/Koobface.worm (McAfee) WORM_KOOBFACE.DC (Trend Micro) Win32/Koobface (CA, Inc.) Worm.KoobFace (Malwarebytes) Net-Worm.Win32.Koobface.a (Kaspersky) Worm/Win32.Koobface (Penda) Worm/Win32.Koobface (Norton) Worm/Win32.Koobface (Webroot) Worm/Win32.Koobface (Avast) TypeComputer wormSubtypeMalwareOriginRussia Koobface is a network worm that attacks Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux platforms. This worm originally targeted users of networking websites like Facebook, Skype, Yahoo Messenger, and email websites such as GMail, Yahoo Mail, and AOL Mail. It also targets other networking websites, such as MySpace, Twitter, and it can infect other devices on the same local network. Technical support scammers also fraudulently claim to their intended victims that they have a Koobface infection on their computer by using fake popups and using built-in Windows programs. Infection Koobface ultimately attempts, upon successful infection, to gather login information for FTP sites, Facebook, Skype, and other social media platforms, and any sensitive financial data as well. It then uses compromised computers to build a peer-to-peer botnet. A compromised computer contacts other compromised computers to receive commands in a peer-to-peer fashion. The botnet is used to install additional pay-per-install malware on the compromised computer and hijack search queries to display advertisements. Its peer-to-peer topology is also used to show fake messages to other users for the purpose of expanding the botnet. It was first detected in December 2008 and a more potent version appeared in March 2009. A study by the Information Warfare Monitor, a joint collaboration from SecDev Group and the Citizen Lab in the Munk School of Global Affairs at the University of Toronto, has revealed that the operators of this scheme have generated over $2 million in revenue from June 2009 to June 2010. Koobface originally spread by delivering Facebook messages to people who are "friends" of a Facebook user whose computer had already been infected. Upon receipt, the message directs the recipients to a third-party website (or another Koobface infected PC), where they are prompted to download what is purported to be an update of the Adobe Flash player. If they download and execute the file, Koobface can infect their system. It can then commandeer the computer's search engine use and direct it to contaminated websites. There can also be links to the third-party website on the Facebook wall of the friend the message came from sometimes having comments like LOL or YOUTUBE. If the link is opened the trojan virus will infect the computer and the PC will become a Zombie or Host Computer. Among the components downloaded by Koobface are a DNS filter program that blocks access to well known security websites and a proxy tool that enables the attackers to abuse the infected PC. At one time the Koobface gang also used Limbo, a password stealing program. Several variants of the worm have been identified: Worm:Win32/Koobface.gen!F Net-Worm.Win32.Koobface.a, which attacks MySpace Net-Worm.Win32.Koobface.b, which attacks Facebook WORM_KOOBFACE.DC, which attacks Twitter W32/Koobfa-Gen, which attacks Facebook, MySpace, hi5, Bebo, Friendster, myYearbook, Tagged, Netlog, Badoo and fubar W32.Koobface.D OSX/Koobface.A, a Mac version which spreads via social networks such as Facebook, MySpace and Twitter. In January 2012, the New York Times reported that Facebook was planning to share information about the Koobface gang, and name those it believed were responsible. Investigations by German researcher Jan Droemer and the University of Alabama at Birmingham's Center for Information Assurance and Joint Forensics Research were said to have helped uncover the identities of those responsible. Facebook finally revealed the names of the suspects behind the worm on January 17, 2012. They include Stanislav Avdeyko (leDed), Alexander Koltyshev (Floppy), Anton Korotchenko (KrotReal), Roman P. Koturbach (PoMuc), Svyatoslav E. Polichuck (PsViat and PsycoMan). They are based in St. Petersburg, Russia. The group is sometimes referred to as Ali Baba & 4 with Stanislav Avdeyko as the leader. The investigation also connected Avdeyko with CoolWebSearch spyware. Hoax warnings The Koobface threat is also the subject of many hoax warnings designed to trick social networking users into spreading misinformation across the Internet. Various anti-scam websites such as Snopes.com and ThatsNonsense.com have recorded many instances where alarmist messages designed to fool and panic Facebook users have begun to circulate prolifically using the widely publicized Koobface threat as bait. Other misconceptions have spread regarding the Koobface threat, including the false assertion that accepting "hackers" as Facebook friends will infect a victim's computer with Koobface, or that Facebook applications are themselves Koobface threats. These claims are untrue. Other rumours assert that Koobface is much more dangerous than other examples of malware and has the ability to delete all of your computer files and "burn your hard disk." However, these rumours are inspired by earlier fake virus warning hoaxes and remain false. See also Computing Trojan horse Trojan.Win32.DNSChanger Facebook malware Malware analysis References ^ Lucian Constantin (28 October 2010). "New Koobface Variant Infects Linux Systems". softpedia. Retrieved 3 February 2015. ^ Lucian Constantin (30 October 2010). "Linux Java-Based Trojan Might Have Been an Accident". softpedia. Retrieved 3 February 2015. ^ "More Information About the Koobface Trojan Horse for Mac". The Mac Security Blog. 29 October 2010. Retrieved 20 January 2012. ^ "US-CERT Malicious Code Targeting Social Networking Site Users, added March 4, 2009, at 11:53 am". Archived from the original on 12 May 2009. Retrieved 18 June 2009. ^ "Twitter Status - Koobface malware attack". twitter.com. Retrieved 3 February 2015. ^ Marks, Ellen (7 June 2015). "Fake tech support warning targets Apple users". Albuquerque Journal. ^ Ricca, Aaron (6 April 2016). "Warnings are out there, but people keep falling for scams". The Kingman Daily Miner. Archived from the original on 9 April 2016. ^ Jensen, Dreama (26 February 2016). "Woman almost falls for computer scam". South Bend Tribune. ^ a b Koobface: Inside a Crimeware Network Archived 2012-09-14 at the Wayback Machine ^ "What Is the Koobface Virus?". www.kaspersky.com. 13 January 2021. Retrieved 21 November 2021. ^ "W32.Koobface". Symantec. Archived from the original on 9 December 2008. Retrieved 3 February 2015. ^ Keizer, Gregg (2 March 2009). "Koobface worm to users: Be my Facebook friend". Computerworld. Retrieved 31 August 2009. ^ "Worm:Win32/Koobface.gen!F". microsoft.com. Microsoft. Retrieved 3 February 2015. ^ "Koobface malware distribution technique - automatic user account creation on FaceBook, Twitter, BlogSpot and others". Archived from the original on 28 March 2010. Retrieved 12 August 2009. ^ "WORM_KOOBFACE". trendmicro.com. Retrieved 3 February 2015. ^ "Sophos stops new version of Koobface social networking worm". Naked Security. Retrieved 3 February 2015. ^ The Allure of Social Networking, describes Win32/Koobface affecting multiple social networks as described on CA's Security Advisor Research blog Archived 2011-07-22 at the Wayback Machine ^ "W32.Koobface.D". Symantec. Archived from the original on 15 August 2009. Retrieved 3 February 2015. ^ "Intego Security Memo: Trojan Horse OSX/Koobface.A Affects Mac OS X Mac – Koobface Variant Spreads via Facebook, Twitter and More - The Mac Security Blog". The Mac Security Blog. 27 October 2010. Retrieved 3 February 2015. ^ Web Gang Operating in the Open ^ a b "The Koobface malware gang – exposed! - Naked Security". Naked Security. 12 January 2012. Retrieved 3 February 2015. ^ "Facebook credits UAB with stopping international cyber criminals, donates $250,000 to school". AL.com. 22 October 2012. Retrieved 3 February 2015. ^ Protalinski, Emil (17 January 2012). "Facebook exposes hackers behind Koobface worm". ZDNet. Retrieved 20 January 2012. ^ a b Koobface - What is it Really? article at ThatsNonsense.com, Retrieved on 26 January 2011 ^ Koobface article at snopes.com website, Retrieved on 30 December 2010 External links The Koobface malware gang - exposed!, research by Jan Droemer and Dirk Kollberg. The Real Face of KOOBFACE, analysis by Trend Micro. Researchers Take Down Koobface Servers, Slashdot article. vteBotnetsNotable botnets 3ve Akbot Asprox Bagle BASHLITE Bredolab Cutwail Conficker Donbot Festi Grum Gumblar Kelihos Koobface Kraken Lethic Mariposa Mega-D Mirai Metulji Nitol Rustock Sality Slenfbot Srizbi Storm TDL-4 Torpig Virut Vulcanbot Waledac ZeroAccess Zeus Main articles Browser security Computer virus Computer worm Malbot Internet security Malware Man-in-the-browser Network security Operation: Bot Roast Trojan horse vteHacking in the 2000s ← 1990s Timeline 2010s → Incidents2004 Titan Rain (2003–2006) Operation Firewall 2005 Sony BMG copy protection rootkit scandal 2007 Cyberattacks on Estonia Operation: Bot Roast 2008 Project Chanology Cyberattacks on Georgia Sarah Palin email hack US military cyberattack 2009 Operation Troy Operation Aurora (findings published in 2010) WebcamGate (2008–2010) Groups Anonymous associated events Avalanche GNAA 0x1fe GhostNet PLA Unit 61398 RBN ShadowCrew TeamLoosh World of Hell Sandworm Individuals AKill Jeanson James Ancheta SilenZ Dshocker Digerati str0ke (milw0rm) Lil Hacker BadB camZero Coolio Cyxymu diabl0 Albert Gonzalez Sven Jaschan Dan Kaminsky Samy Kamkar Dmitry Sklyarov Stakkato Darknets Bluehell IRC Hacking forums ryan1918 unkn0wn.eu darksun.ws Vulnerabilitiesdiscovered Shatter attack (2002) Kaminsky DNS cache poisoning (2008) sslstrip (2009) Malware2000 ILOVEYOU Pikachu 2001 Anna Kournikova Code Red Nimda Klez 2002 Simile 2003 SQL Slammer Welchia Sobig Gruel Graybird Blaster 2004 Bagle NetSky Sasser Mydoom 2005 PGPCoder Samy Sony rootkit 2006 Rustock ZLOB Clickbot Stration 2007 Storm ZeuS Black Energy 1 2008 Asprox Agent.btz Mariposa 2009 Conficker Koobface Waledac	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"Mac OS X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS_X"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"Skype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype"},{"link_name":"Yahoo Messenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo_Messenger"},{"link_name":"GMail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMail"},{"link_name":"Yahoo Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo_Mail"},{"link_name":"AOL Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AOL_Mail"},{"link_name":"MySpace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySpace"},{"link_name":"Twitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Technical support scammers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_support_scam"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Network worm attacking Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X and Linux platformsKoobface is a network worm that attacks Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux platforms.[1][2][3] This worm originally targeted users of networking websites like Facebook, Skype, Yahoo Messenger, and email websites such as GMail, Yahoo Mail, and AOL Mail. It also targets other networking websites, such as MySpace, Twitter,[4] and it can infect other devices on the same local network.[5] Technical support scammers also fraudulently claim to their intended victims that they have a Koobface infection on their computer by using fake popups and using built-in Windows programs.[6][7][8]","title":"Koobface"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FTP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FTP"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iwm-9"},{"link_name":"botnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botnet"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Information Warfare Monitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Warfare_Monitor"},{"link_name":"Munk School of Global Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munk_School_of_Global_Affairs"},{"link_name":"University of Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Toronto"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iwm-9"},{"link_name":"Adobe Flash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Flash"},{"link_name":"Zombie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zombie_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"MySpace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySpace"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Twitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"MySpace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySpace"},{"link_name":"hi5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi5_(website)"},{"link_name":"Bebo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bebo"},{"link_name":"Friendster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendster"},{"link_name":"Badoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badoo"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Mac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS_X"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sophos-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UAB-22"},{"link_name":"Stanislav Avdeyko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stanislav_Avdeyko&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"St. Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Petersburg"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"CoolWebSearch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoolWebSearch"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sophos-21"}],"text":"Koobface ultimately attempts, upon successful infection, to gather login information for FTP sites, Facebook, Skype, and other social media platforms, and any sensitive financial data as well.[9] It then uses compromised computers to build a peer-to-peer botnet. A compromised computer contacts other compromised computers to receive commands in a peer-to-peer fashion.[10] The botnet is used to install additional pay-per-install malware on the compromised computer and hijack search queries to display advertisements. Its peer-to-peer topology is also used to show fake messages to other users for the purpose of expanding the botnet.[11]\nIt was first detected in December 2008 and a more potent version appeared in March 2009.[12] A study by the Information Warfare Monitor, a joint collaboration from SecDev Group and the Citizen Lab in the Munk School of Global Affairs at the University of Toronto, has revealed that the operators of this scheme have generated over $2 million in revenue from June 2009 to June 2010.[9]Koobface originally spread by delivering Facebook messages to people who are \"friends\" of a Facebook user whose computer had already been infected. Upon receipt, the message directs the recipients to a third-party website (or another Koobface infected PC), where they are prompted to download what is purported to be an update of the Adobe Flash player. If they download and execute the file, Koobface can infect their system. It can then commandeer the computer's search engine use and direct it to contaminated websites. There can also be links to the third-party website on the Facebook wall of the friend the message came from sometimes having comments like LOL or YOUTUBE. If the link is opened the trojan virus will infect the computer and the PC will become a Zombie or Host Computer.Among the components downloaded by Koobface are a DNS filter program that blocks access to well known security websites and a proxy tool that enables the attackers to abuse the infected PC. At one time the Koobface gang also used Limbo, a password stealing program.Several variants of the worm have been identified:Worm:Win32/Koobface.gen!F[13]\nNet-Worm.Win32.Koobface.a, which attacks MySpace\nNet-Worm.Win32.Koobface.b, which attacks Facebook[14]\nWORM_KOOBFACE.DC, which attacks Twitter[15]\nW32/Koobfa-Gen, which attacks Facebook, MySpace, hi5, Bebo, Friendster, myYearbook, Tagged, Netlog, Badoo and fubar[16][17]\nW32.Koobface.D[18]\nOSX/Koobface.A, a Mac version which spreads via social networks such as Facebook, MySpace and Twitter.[19]In January 2012, the New York Times reported[20] that Facebook was planning to share information about the Koobface gang, and name those it believed were responsible. Investigations by German researcher Jan Droemer[21] and the University of Alabama at Birmingham's Center for Information Assurance and Joint Forensics Research[22] were said to have helped uncover the identities of those responsible.Facebook finally revealed the names of the suspects behind the worm on January 17, 2012. They include Stanislav Avdeyko (leDed), Alexander Koltyshev (Floppy), Anton Korotchenko (KrotReal), Roman P. Koturbach (PoMuc), Svyatoslav E. Polichuck (PsViat and PsycoMan). They are based in St. Petersburg, Russia. The group is sometimes referred to as Ali Baba & 4 with Stanislav Avdeyko as the leader.[23] The investigation also connected Avdeyko with CoolWebSearch spyware.[21]","title":"Infection"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koobface_-_What_is_it_Really-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koobface_-_What_is_it_Really-24"}],"text":"The Koobface threat is also the subject of many hoax warnings designed to trick social networking users into spreading misinformation across the Internet. Various anti-scam websites such as Snopes.com and ThatsNonsense.com have recorded many instances where alarmist messages designed to fool and panic Facebook users have begun to circulate prolifically using the widely publicized Koobface threat as bait.[24][25]Other misconceptions have spread regarding the Koobface threat, including the false assertion that accepting \"hackers\" as Facebook friends will infect a victim's computer with Koobface, or that Facebook applications are themselves Koobface threats. These claims are untrue. Other rumours assert that Koobface is much more dangerous than other examples of malware and has the ability to delete all of your computer files and \"burn your hard disk.\" However, these rumours are inspired by earlier fake virus warning hoaxes and remain false.[24]","title":"Hoax warnings"}]	[]	[{"title":"Computing Trojan horse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing_Trojan_horse"},{"title":"Trojan.Win32.DNSChanger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan.Win32.DNSChanger"},{"title":"Facebook malware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook_malware"},{"title":"Malware analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware_analysis"}]	[{"reference":"Lucian Constantin (28 October 2010). \"New Koobface Variant Infects Linux Systems\". softpedia. Retrieved 3 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.softpedia.com/news/New-Koobface-Variant-Infects-Linux-too-163450.shtml","url_text":"\"New Koobface Variant Infects Linux Systems\""}]},{"reference":"Lucian Constantin (30 October 2010). \"Linux Java-Based Trojan Might Have Been an Accident\". softpedia. Retrieved 3 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.softpedia.com/news/Linux-Java-Based-Trojan-Might-Have-Been-an-Accident-163848.shtml","url_text":"\"Linux Java-Based Trojan Might Have Been an Accident\""}]},{"reference":"\"More Information About the Koobface Trojan Horse for Mac\". The Mac Security Blog. 29 October 2010. Retrieved 20 January 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://blog.intego.com/more-information-about-the-koobface-trojan-horse-for-mac/","url_text":"\"More Information About the Koobface Trojan Horse for Mac\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intego","url_text":"The Mac Security Blog"}]},{"reference":"\"US-CERT Malicious Code Targeting Social Networking Site Users, added March 4, 2009, at 11:53 am\". Archived from the original on 12 May 2009. Retrieved 18 June 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090512192108/http://www.us-cert.gov/current/archive/2009/03/04/archive.html#malicious_code_targeting_social_networking","url_text":"\"US-CERT Malicious Code Targeting Social Networking Site Users, added March 4, 2009, at 11:53 am\""},{"url":"http://www.us-cert.gov/current/archive/2009/03/04/archive.html#malicious_code_targeting_social_networking","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Twitter Status - Koobface malware attack\". twitter.com. Retrieved 3 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://status.twitter.com/post/138789881/koobface-malware-attack","url_text":"\"Twitter Status - Koobface malware attack\""}]},{"reference":"Marks, Ellen (7 June 2015). \"Fake tech support warning targets Apple users\". Albuquerque Journal.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.abqjournal.com/595377/fake-tech-support-warning-targets-apple-users.html","url_text":"\"Fake tech support warning targets Apple users\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albuquerque_Journal","url_text":"Albuquerque Journal"}]},{"reference":"Ricca, Aaron (6 April 2016). \"Warnings are out there, but people keep falling for scams\". The Kingman Daily Miner. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Worldwide_Interbank_Financial_Telecommunication	SWIFT	["1 History","2 Ownership and governance","3 Operations","3.1 Services","3.2 Operations centres","3.3 SWIFTNet network","4 Standards","5 Supervision","6 Alternatives","7 Leadership","7.1 Chair","7.2 Chief Executive Officer","8 Controversy","8.1 Inefficiency","8.2 U.S. government surveillance","8.3 SWIFT and sanctions","8.3.1 Iran","8.3.2 Israel","8.3.3 Russia and Belarus","8.4 Security","9 See also","10 References","11 Further reading","12 External links"]	Coordinates: 50°44′04″N 4°28′43″E / 50.73444°N 4.47861°E / 50.73444; 4.47861Financial telecommunication network For other uses, see Swift (disambiguation). S.W.I.F.T. SCCompany typeCooperative societyIndustryTelecommunicationsFounded3 May 1973; 51 years ago (1973-05-03)HeadquartersLa Hulpe, Belgium50°44′04″N 4°28′43″E / 50.73444°N 4.47861°E / 50.73444; 4.47861Key peopleJavier Perez-Tasso (CEO)Graeme Munro (Board Chair)ProductsFinancial telecommunicationNumber of employees>3,000Websitewww.swift.com Part of a series on financial servicesBanking Types of banks Advising Banq Bulge bracket Central Commercial Community development Cooperative Credit union Custodian Depository Development Direct Export credit agency Investment Industrial Merchant Middle market Mutual savings Neobank Offshore Participation Payments Postal savings Private Public Retail Savings Savings and loan Universal Wholesale Bank holding company Lists of banks Accounts · Cards Accounts Christmas club Deposit Money-market Savings Time deposit (Bond) Transaction (checking / current) Cards ATM Credit Debit Prepaid Funds transfer Cheque Card Electronic Bill payment Mobile Wire RTGS NS ACH Instant payment Giro SWIFT Correspondent account CLS CIPS SPFS BRICS PAY Terms Asset allocation management Automated teller machine Bad debt Bank regulation Bank secrecy Asset growth Capital asset Cash Climate finance Corporate finance Disinvestment Diversification (finance) Eco-investing Economic bubble Economic expansion Enterprise value Enterprise risk management Environmental finance ESG Ethical banking Financial analysis analyst asset economics engineering forecast plan planner services Fractional-reserve banking Full-reserve banking Fundamental analysis Growth investing Hedge (finance) Impact investing Investment advisory Investment management Islamic banking Loan Mathematical finance Mobile banking Money creation Pension fund Private banking Sustainability Sustainable finance Speculation Statistical finance Strategic financial management Stress test (financial) Structured finance Structured product Toxic asset Related topics Asset pricing Bond (finance) Capital structure Corporate finance Cost of capital Equity (finance) Ethical banking Exchange traded fund Financial law market participants regulation risk system History of banking List of banks Market risk Personal finance Public finance Security (finance) Shares Sustainable development goals Systematic risk Systemic risk Time value of money Too big to fail Too connected to fail Watered stock Category Commons Portalvte The Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (Swift), legally S.W.I.F.T. SC, is a cooperative established in 1973 in Belgium (French: Société Coopérative) and owned by the banks and other member firms that use its service. SWIFT provides the main messaging network through which international payments are initiated. It also sells software and services to financial institutions, mostly for use on its proprietary "SWIFTNet", and assigns ISO 9362 Business Identifier Codes (BICs), popularly known as "Swift codes". As of 2018, around half of all high-value cross-border payments worldwide used the Swift network, and in 2015, Swift linked more than 11,000 financial institutions in over 200 countries and territories, who were exchanging an average of over 32 million messages per day (compared to an average of 2.4 million daily messages in 1995). Swift is headquartered in La Hulpe near Brussels. It hosts an annual conference, called Sibos, specifically aimed at the financial services industry. History Before SWIFT's establishment, international financial transactions were communicated over Telex, a public system involving manual writing and reading of messages. SWIFT was set up out of fear of what might happen if a single private and fully American entity controlled global financial flows – which before was First National City Bank (FNCB) of New York – later Citibank. In response to FNCB's protocol, FNCB's competitors in the US and Europe pushed an alternative "messaging system that could replace the public providers and speed up the payment process". SWIFT was founded in Brussels on 3 May 1973. Individuals who played a key role in its creation included bankers Jan Kraa (at AMRO Bank) and François Dentz (at the Banque de l'Union Parisienne) as well as Carl Reuterskiöld and Bessel Kok, who became respectively its first two chairmen and chief executives.: 14-16 It was initially supported by 239 banks in 15 countries. It soon started to establish common standards for financial transactions and a shared data processing system and worldwide communications network designed by Logica and developed by the Burroughs Corporation. Fundamental operating procedures and rules for liability were established in 1975, and the first message was ceremonially sent by Prince Albert of Belgium on 9 May 1977.: 19 SWIFT's first non-European operations centre was inaugurated by Governor John N. Dalton of Virginia in 1979. In 1989 SWIFT completed a monumental new head office building in La Hulpe, designed by Ricardo Bofill Taller de Arquitectura. Ownership and governance SWIFT's shareholding structure is adjusted every three years in proportion to volumes of activity incurred by the members, ensuring that the most active members get the most voice irrespective of geography; additional rules are aimed at ensuring some geographical diversity within the board of directors. The 25 directors are elected by the shareholders, on three-year terms with renewal of one-third of the board every year; all directors are member representatives.: 30-31 As of May 2024, the members directly represented on the board of directors were JPMorgan Chase (chair), Lloyds Bank (deputy chair), Bank of China, BNP Paribas, BPCE, Citi, Clearstream, Commerzbank, Commonwealth Bank of Australia, Deutsche Bank, Euroclear, FirstRand, HSBC, ING, Intesa Sanpaolo, KBC, MUFG, NatWest, Nordea, Royal Bank of Canada, Santander, SEB, UBS (2 representatives following the acquisition of Credit Suisse), as well as the Association of Banks in Singapore. Operations SWIFT logo before 2023 Swift acts as a carrier of the "messages containing the payment instructions between financial institutions involved in a transaction".: 35 However, the organisation does not manage accounts on behalf of individuals or financial institutions, and it does not hold funds from third parties.: 1-2 It also does not perform clearing or settlement functions.: 1-2, 35 After a payment has been initiated, it must be settled through a payment system, such as TARGET2 in Europe.: 36 In the context of cross-border transactions, this step often takes place through correspondent banking accounts that financial institutions have with each other.: 35 SWIFT means several things in the financial world: a secure network for transmitting messages between financial institutions; a set of syntax standards for financial messages (for transmission over SWIFTNet or any other network) a set of connection software and services allowing financial institutions to transmit messages over SWIFT network. Under 3 above, SWIFT provides turn-key solutions for members, consisting of linkage clients to facilitate connectivity to the SWIFT network and CBTs or "computer based terminals" which members use to manage the delivery and receipt of their messages. Some of the more well-known interfaces and CBTs provided to their members are: SWIFTNet Link (SNL) software which is installed on the SWIFT customer's site and opens a connection to SWIFTNet. Other applications can only communicate with SWIFTNet through the SNL. Alliance Gateway (SAG) software with interfaces (e.g., RAHA = Remote Access Host Adapter), allowing other software products to use the SNL to connect to SWIFTNet Alliance WebStation (SAB) desktop interface for SWIFT Alliance Gateway with several usage options: administrative access to the SAG direct connection SWIFTNet by the SAG, to administrate SWIFT Certificates so-called Browse connection to SWIFTNet (also by SAG) to use additional services, for example Target2 Alliance Access (SAA) and Alliance Messaging Hub (AMH) are the main messaging software applications by SWIFT, which allow message creation for FIN messages, routing and monitoring for FIN and MX messages. The main interfaces are FTA (files transfer automated, not FTP) and MQSA, a WebSphere MQ interface. The Alliance Workstation (SAW) is the desktop software for administration, monitoring and FIN message creation. Since Alliance Access is not yet capable of creating MX messages, Alliance Messenger (SAM) has to be used for this purpose. Alliance Web Platform (SWP) as new thin-client desktop interface provided as an alternative to existing Alliance WebStation, Alliance Workstation (soon) and Alliance Messenger. Alliance Integrator built on Oracle's Java Caps which enables customer's back office applications to connect to Alliance Access or Alliance Entry. Alliance Lite2 is a secure and reliable, cloud-based way to connect to the SWIFT network which is a light version of Alliance Access specifically targeting customers with low volume of traffic. Services There are four key areas that SWIFT services fall under in the financial marketplace: securities, treasury & derivatives, trade services, and payments & cash management. Securities SWIFTNet FIX (obsolete) SWIFTNet Data Distribution SWIFTNet Funds SWIFTNet Accord for Securities (end of life October 2017) Treasury and derivatives SWIFTNet Accord for Treasury (end of life October 2017) SWIFTNet Affirmations SWIFTNet CLS Third Party Service Cash management SWIFTNet Bulk Payments SWIFTNet Cash Reporting SWIFTNet Exceptions and Investigations Trade services SWIFTNet Trade Services Utility Swift Ref, the global payment reference data utility, is SWIFT's unique reference data service. Swift Ref sources data direct from data originators, including central banks, code issuers and banks making it easy for issuers and originators to maintain data regularly and thoroughly. SWIFTRef constantly validates and cross-checks data across the different data sets. Operations centres The SWIFT secure messaging network is run from three data centres, located in the United States, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. These centres share information in near real-time. In case of a failure in one of the data centres, another is able to handle the traffic of the complete network. SWIFT uses submarine communications cables to transmit its data. Shortly after opening its third data centre in Switzerland in 2009, SWIFT introduced new distributed architecture with two messaging zones, European and Trans-Atlantic, so data from European SWIFT members no longer mirrored the U.S. data centre. European zone messages are stored in the Netherlands and in part of the Swiss operating centre; Trans-Atlantic zone messages are stored in the United States and in another part of the Swiss operating centre that is segregated from the European zone messages. Countries outside of Europe were by default allocated to the Trans-Atlantic zone, but could choose to have their messages stored in the European zone. Data centres SN SWIFT data centres Type 1 Zoeterwoude, Netherlands OPC (Operating Centre) 2 Culpeper, Virginia, United States OPC (Operating Centre) 3 Diessenhofen, Switzerland OPC (Operating Centre) 4 Hong Kong Command and control SWIFTNet network SWIFT moved to its current IP network infrastructure, known as SWIFTNet, from 2001 to 2005, providing a total replacement of the previous X.25 infrastructure. The process involved the development of new protocols that facilitate efficient messaging, using existing and new message standards. The adopted technology chosen to develop the protocols was XML, where it now provides a wrapper around all messages legacy or contemporary. The communication protocols can be broken down into: InterAct SWIFTNet InterAct Realtime SWIFTNet InterAct Store and Forward FileAct SWIFTNet FileAct Realtime SWIFTNet FileAct Store and Forward Browse SWIFTNet Browse SWIFT provides a centralized store-and-forward mechanism, with some transaction management. For bank A to send a message to bank B with a copy or authorization involving institution C, it formats the message according to standards and securely sends it to SWIFT. SWIFT guarantees its secure and reliable delivery to B after the appropriate action by C. SWIFT guarantees are based primarily on high redundancy of hardware, software, and people. During 2007 and 2008, the entire SWIFT network migrated its infrastructure to a new protocol called SWIFTNet Phase 2. The main difference between Phase 2 and the former arrangement is that Phase 2 requires banks connecting to the network to use a Relationship Management Application (RMA) instead of the former bilateral key exchange (BKE) system. According to SWIFT's public information database on the subject, RMA software should eventually prove more secure and easier to keep up-to-date; however, converting to the RMA system meant that thousands of banks around the world had to update their international payments systems to comply with the new standards. RMA completely replaced BKE on 1 January 2009. Standards SWIFT has become the industry standard for syntax in financial messages. Messages formatted to SWIFT standards can be read and processed by many well-known financial processing systems, whether or not the message travelled over the SWIFT network. SWIFT cooperates with international organizations for defining standards for message format and content. SWIFT is also a registration authority (RA) for the following ISO standards: ISO 9362: 1994 Banking – Banking telecommunication messages – Bank identifier codes ISO 10383: 2003 Securities and related financial instruments – Codes for exchanges and market identification (MIC) ISO 13616: 2003 IBAN Registry ISO 15022: 1999 Securities – Scheme for messages (Data Field Dictionary) (replaces ISO 7775) ISO 20022-1: 2004 and ISO 20022-2:2007 Financial services – Universal Financial Industry message scheme In RFC 3615 urn:swift: was defined as Uniform Resource Names (URNs) for SWIFT FIN. Supervision SWIFT is not a payment system and thus neither regulated nor supervised as such, but is nevertheless deemed to be systemically important and thus under the "oversight" of public authorities. In 1998, the so-called Group of Ten central banks (those of Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York for the U.S. and the European Central Bank) started acting as joint overseers, with the National Bank of Belgium (NBB) in a lead role. The oversight focueses primarily on systemic risk, confidentiality, infrastructure security, and business continuity.: 43 It is formalized in bilateral documents between the NBB and SWIFT on the one hand, and between the NBB and each of the other G10 central banks on the other hand. In 2018, the International Monetary Fund has recommended that "he National Bank of Belgium should consider enhancing oversight with additional regulatory and supervisory powers." In 2012, this framework was complemented by a "SWIFT Oversight Forum" including additional central banks. As of 2024, in addition to the G10 central banks, the SWIFT Oversight Forum included the national central banks of Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Korea, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, and Turkey. According to SWIFT, the Oversight Forum "provides a forum for the G-10 central banks to share information on Swift oversight activities with a wider group of central banks." Alternatives Purported alternatives to the SWIFT system include: CIPS: sponsored by China, for RMB related deals. 1467 financial institutions in 111 countries and regions have connected to the system. The actual business covers more than 4,200 banking institutions in 182 countries and regions around the world. SFMS: sponsored by India SPFS: developed by the Russian Federation INSTEX: sponsored by the European Union, limited to non-USD transactions for trade with Iran, largely unused and ineffective Leadership Chair Johannes Kraa (AMRO Bank, Dutch), 1973-1974 François Dentz (Crédit du Nord, French), 1974-1976 Helmer Hasselblad (Swedish), 1976-1984 W. Robert Moore (Chemical Bank, American), 1984-1989 Richard Fröhlich (Austrian), 1989-1992 Eric C. Chilton (Barclays, British), 1992-1996 Jean-Marie Weydert (Société Générale, French), 1996-2000 Jaap Kamp (ABN AMRO, Dutch), 2000-2006 Yawar Shah (JPMorgan then Citi, American), 2006-2022: 16 Mark Buitenhek (ING, Dutch), acting 2022-2023 Graeme Munro (JPMorgan, British), since 2023 Chief Executive Officer Carl Reuterskiöld, 1973-1983 Bessel Kok, 1983-1991 Jacques Cerveau (interim CEO), 1991 Leonard (Lennie) Schrank, 1992-2007 Lazaro Campos, 2007-2012 Gottfried Leibbrandt, 2012-2019: 17 Javier Pérez-Tasso, since 2019 Controversy Inefficiency Swift has been criticised for its inefficiency. In 2018, the London-based Financial Times noted that transfers frequently "pass through multiple banks before reaching their final destination, making them time-consuming, costly and lacking transparency on how much money will arrive at the other end". Swift has since introduced an improved service called "Global Payments Innovation" (GPI), claiming it was adopted by 165 banks and was completing half its payments within 30 minutes. The new standard which included Swift Go was supposed to be utilised in receiving and transferring low-value international payments. One of the significant changes was the transaction amount, which would not differ from start to the end. However, as of 2023, uptake was mixed. For instance, Alisherov Eraj, Alif Bank Treasury Department Swift Transfers & Banking Relationship Expert in the Republic of Tajikistan, describes that the leading cause for the late Swift Go adoption in Tajikistan was the Core Banking System itself. To connect to Swift Go, he adds, banking system interfaces needed to be upgraded and integrate with their software to be fully compatible; this hindered many banks from adopting the technology earlier. U.S. government surveillance A series of articles published on 23 June 2006 in The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, and the Los Angeles Times revealed a program, named the Terrorist Finance Tracking Program, which the US Treasury Department, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and other United States governmental agencies initiated after the 11 September attacks to gain access to the SWIFT transaction database. After the publication of these articles, SWIFT quickly came under pressure for compromising the data privacy of its customers by allowing governments to gain access to sensitive personal information. In September 2006, the Belgian government declared that these SWIFT dealings with American governmental authorities were a breach of Belgian and European privacy laws. In response, and to satisfy members' concerns about privacy, SWIFT began a process of improving its architecture by implementing a distributed architecture with a two-zone model for storing messages (see § Operations centres). Concurrently, the European Union negotiated an agreement with the United States government to permit the transfer of intra-EU SWIFT transaction information to the United States under certain circumstances. Because of concerns about its potential contents, the European Parliament adopted a position statement in September 2009, demanding to see the full text of the agreement and asking that it be fully compliant with EU privacy legislation, with oversight mechanisms emplaced to ensure that all data requests were handled appropriately. An interim agreement was signed without European Parliamentary approval by the European Council on 30 November 2009, the day before the Lisbon Treaty—which would have prohibited such an agreement from being signed under the terms of the codecision procedure—formally came into effect. While the interim agreement was scheduled to come into effect on 1 January 2010, the text of the agreement was classified as "EU Restricted" until translations could be provided in all EU languages and published on 25 January 2010. On 11 February 2010, the European Parliament decided to reject the interim agreement between the EU and the US by 378 to 196 votes. One week earlier, the parliament's civil liberties committee had already rejected the deal, citing legal reservations. In March 2011, it was reported that two mechanisms of data protection had failed: EUROPOL released a report complaining that requests for information from the US had been too vague (making it impossible to make judgments on validity) and that the guaranteed right for European citizens to know whether their information had been accessed by US authorities had not been put into practice. Der Spiegel reported in September 2013 that the National Security Agency (NSA) widely monitors banking transactions via SWIFT, as well as credit card transactions. The NSA intercepted and retained data from the SWIFT network used by thousands of banks to securely send transaction information. SWIFT was named as a "target", according to documents leaked by Edward Snowden. The documents revealed that the NSA spied on SWIFT using a variety of methods, including reading "SWIFT printer traffic from numerous banks". In April 2017, a group known as the Shadow Brokers released files allegedly from the NSA which indicate that the agency monitored financial transactions made through SWIFT. SWIFT and sanctions Iran In January 2012, the advocacy group United Against Nuclear Iran (UANI) implemented a campaign calling on SWIFT to end all relations with Iran's banking system, including the Central Bank of Iran. UANI asserted that Iran's membership in SWIFT violated US and EU financial sanctions against Iran as well as SWIFT's own corporate rules. Consequently, in February 2012, the U.S. Senate Banking Committee unanimously approved sanctions against SWIFT aimed at pressuring it to terminate its ties with blacklisted Iranian banks. Expelling Iranian banks from SWIFT would potentially deny Iran access to billions of dollars in revenue using SWIFT but not from using IVTS. Mark Wallace, president of UANI, praised the Senate Banking Committee. Initially SWIFT denied that it was acting illegally, but later said that "it is working with U.S. and European governments to address their concerns that its financial services are being used by Iran to avoid sanctions and conduct illicit business". Targeted banks would be—amongst others—Saderat Bank of Iran, Bank Mellat, Post Bank of Iran and Sepah Bank. On 17 March 2012, following agreement two days earlier between all 27 member states of the Council of the European Union and the Council's subsequent ruling, SWIFT disconnected all Iranian banks that had been identified as institutions in breach of current EU sanctions from its international network and warned that even more Iranian financial institutions could be disconnected from the network. In February 2016, most Iranian banks reconnected to the network following the lift of sanctions due to the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action. Israel In 2014, SWIFT rejected calls from pro-Palestinian activists to revoke Israeli banks' access to its network owing to the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territory. Russia and Belarus See also: SWIFT ban against Russian banks Similarly, in August 2014 the UK planned to press the EU to block Russian use of SWIFT as a sanction due to Russian military intervention in Ukraine. However, SWIFT refused to do so. SPFS, a Russian alternative to SWIFT, was developed by the Central Bank of Russia as a backup measure. During the prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the United States developed preliminary possible sanctions against Russia, but excluded banning Russia from SWIFT. Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the foreign ministers of the Baltic states Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia called for Russia to be cut off from SWIFT. However, other EU member states were reluctant, both because European lenders held most of the nearly $30 billion in foreign banks' exposure to Russia and because Russia had developed the SPFS alternative. The European Union, United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States finally agreed to remove few Russian banks from the SWIFT messaging system in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine; the governments of France, Germany, Italy and Japan individually released statements alongside the EU. On 20 March 2023, the Russian Federation banned the use of SWIFT. The European Union issued the first set of sanctions against Belarus - the first was introduced on 27 February 2022, which banned certain categories of Belarusian items in the EU, including timber, steel, mineral fuels and tobacco. After the Lithuanian prime minister proposed disconnecting Belarus from SWIFT, the European Union, which does not recognise Lukashenko as the legitimate President of Belarus, started to plan an extension of the sanctions already issued against Russian entities and top officials to its ally. Security See also: Bangladesh Bank robbery In 2016 an $81 million theft from the Bangladesh central bank via its account at the New York Federal Reserve Bank was traced to hacker penetration of SWIFT's Alliance Access software, according to a New York Times report. It was not the first such attempt, the society acknowledged, and the security of the transfer system was undergoing new examination accordingly. Soon after the reports of the theft from the Bangladesh central bank, a second, apparently related, attack was reported to have occurred on a commercial bank in Vietnam. Both attacks involved malware written to both issue unauthorized SWIFT messages and to conceal that the messages had been sent. After the malware sent the SWIFT messages that stole the funds, it deleted the database record of the transfers then took further steps to prevent confirmation messages from revealing the theft. In the Bangladeshi case, the confirmation messages would have appeared on a paper report; the malware altered the paper reports when they were sent to the printer. In the second case, the bank used a PDF report; the malware altered the PDF viewer to hide the transfers. In May 2016, Banco del Austro (BDA) in Ecuador sued Wells Fargo after Wells Fargo honoured $12 million in fund transfer requests that had been placed by thieves. In this case, the thieves sent SWIFT messages that resembled recently cancelled transfer requests from BDA, with slightly altered amounts; the reports do not detail how the thieves gained access to send the SWIFT messages. BDA asserts that Wells Fargo should have detected the suspicious SWIFT messages, which were placed outside of normal BDA working hours and were of an unusual size. Wells Fargo claims that BDA is responsible for the loss, as the thieves gained access to the legitimate SWIFT credentials of a BDA employee and sent fully authenticated SWIFT messages. In the first half of 2016, an anonymous Ukrainian bank and others—even "dozens" that are not being made public—were variously reported to have been "compromised" through the SWIFT network and to have lost money. In March 2022, Swiss newspaper Neue Zürcher Zeitung reported about the increased security precautions by the State Police of Thurgau at the SWIFT data centre in Diessenhofen. After most of the Russian banks have been excluded from the private payment system, the risk of sabotage was considered higher. Inhabitants of the town described the large complex as a "fortress" or "prison" where frequent security checks of the fenced property are conducted. See also Banks portal Bilateral key exchange and the new Relationship Management Application (RMA) Electronic money Indian Financial System Code (IFSC) ISO 9362, the SWIFT/BIC code standard ISO 15022 ISO 20022 Single Euro Payments Area (SEPA) Sibos conference TIPANET Value transfer system References ^ "CBE Public Search". kbopub.economie.fgov.be. FPS Economy, SMEs, Self-Employed and Energy. Retrieved 27 February 2022. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Scott, Susan V.; Zachariadis, Markos (2014). The Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (Swift) : cooperative governance for network innovation, standards, and community. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 1, 35. doi:10.4324/9781315849324. ISBN 978-1-317-90952-1. OCLC 862930816. ^ a b c Arnold, Martin (6 June 2018). "Ripple and Swift slug it out over cross-border payments". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 27 September 2019. Retrieved 28 October 2019. ^ "Swift Company Information". SWIFT. 9 March 2010. Archived from the original on 22 December 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2016. ^ Annex 1: The History and Detailed Functioning of SWIFT. ECahiers de l'Institut. Graduate Institute Publications. 6 September 2011. ISBN 9782940415731. ^ Farrell, Henry; Newman, Abraham L. (July 2019). "Weaponized Interdependence: How Global Economic Networks Shape State Coercion". International Security. 44 (1): 42–79. doi:10.1162/isec_a_00351. ISSN 0162-2889. S2CID 198952367. ^ "Logica history". ^ "Carl Reuterskiöld". SWIFT. March 2006. Archived from the original on 24 January 2012. Retrieved 7 September 2012. ^ Serena Vergano, ed. (2009). Ricardo Bofill Taller de Arquitectura: Architecture in the era of local culture and international experience. RBTA. p. 130. ^ "The Swift Board of Directors". SWIFT. ^ a b c Kowsmann, Patricia; Talley, Ian (26 February 2022). "What Is Swift and Why Is It Being Used to Sanction Russia?". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 27 February 2022. ^ a b "Accord". 26 November 2015. ^ "Value-Added Alliances". Surecomp. Archived from the original on 28 March 2018. ^ Sechrist, Michael (23 March 2010). "Cyberspace in Deep Water: Protecting Undersea Communication Cables By Creating an International Public-Private Partnership" (PDF). Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 March 2018. For example, the Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT), which describes itself as "the global provider of secure financial messaging services", uses undersea fiber-optic communications cables to transmit financial data between 208 countries ^ "SWIFT: SIBOS issues" (PDF). SWIFT. 16 September 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 November 2015. p. 12. ^ "Distributed architecture". SWIFT. 6 June 2008. Archived from the original on 17 August 2013. Retrieved 31 August 2013. ^ Multiple sources: Ritter, Dieter (15 March 2013). "Startschuss für Rechenzentrum". St.Galler Tagblatt (in German). Retrieved 16 February 2022. "Das Daten-Fort-Knox am Rhein". Tages-Anzeiger (in German). ISSN 1422-9994. Retrieved 16 February 2022. Hettich, Barbara (13 December 2011). "Swift: Der Rohbau steht". St.Galler Tagblatt (in German). Retrieved 16 February 2022. Ritter, Dieter (18 March 2011). "Swift: Mit dem Bau begonnen". St.Galler Tagblatt (in German). Retrieved 16 February 2022. ^ "SWIFT History". SWIFT. Archived from the original on 26 December 2012. Retrieved 11 January 2009. ^ "ISO – Maintenance agencies and registration authorities". ISO. ^ "RFC 3615 – A Uniform Resource Name (URN) Namespace for SWIFT Fin (RFC3615)". faqs.org. ^ The oversight of SWIFT: Objectives, scope and structure (PDF), European Central Bank, December 2005 ^ Javier Hamann & Eija Holttinen (8 August 2018), Belgium Encouraged to Continue Strengthening Oversight of Critical Payments Node, International Monetary Fund ^ "Swift oversight". SWIFT. ^ "Exclusive - China's payments system scaled back; trade deals only: sources". Reuters. 13 July 2015. ^ "Factbox: What is China's onshore yuan clearing and settlement system CIPS?". Reuters. 28 February 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2022. ^ "CIPS Participants Announcement No. 88". www.cips.com.cn. Retrieved 18 September 2023. ^ "Перечень пользователей СПФС Банка России \| Банк России". www.cbr.ru. ^ "Iran blames EU on INSTEX ineffectiveness". Tehran Times. 18 January 2021. ^ "No transaction has been done through INSTEX: Iranian diplomat". Tehran Times. 4 March 2020. ^ "Swift Board names new Chair and Deputy Chair, completing leadership transition". 30 March 2023. ^ "Javier Pérez-Tasso". SWIFT. Archived from the original on 15 November 2019. Retrieved 15 November 2019. ^ Brand, Constant (28 September 2005). "Belgian PM: Data Transfer Broke Rules". The Washington Post. Retrieved 23 May 2010. ^ "European Parliament resolution of 17 September 2009 on the SWIFT Agreement". European Parliament. 17 September 2009. ^ "European Parliament to vote on interim agreement at February session". European Parliament. 21 January 2010. ^ Brand, Constant (11 February 2010). "Parliament rejects bank transfer data deal". European Voice. ^ "Euro MPs block bank data deal with US". BBC News. 11 February 2010. ^ "European parliament rejects SWIFT deal for sharing bank data with US". DW. Reuters. 11 February 2010. ^ a b Schult, Christoph (16 March 2011). "Brussels Eyes a Halt to SWIFT Data Agreement". Der Spiegel. ^ a b "'Follow the Money': NSA Spies on International Payments". Der Spiegel. 15 September 2013. Retrieved 18 September 2013. ^ Baldwin, Clare (15 April 2017). "Hackers release files indicating NSA monitored global bank transfers". Reuters. Retrieved 15 April 2017. ^ Lawler, Richard (15 April 2017). "Shadow Brokers release also suggests NSA spied on bank transactions". Engadget. Retrieved 15 April 2017. ^ Gladstone, Rick (31 January 2012). "Iran Praises Nuclear Talks with Team from U.N." The New York Times. Retrieved 4 February 2012. ^ a b Gladstone, Rick (3 February 2012). "Senate Panel Approves Potentially Toughest Penalty Yet Against Iran's Wallet". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 February 2012. ^ Solomon, Jay; & Adam Entous (4 February 2012). "Banking Hub Adds to Pressure on Iran". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 4 February 2012. ^ "Banking's SWIFT says ready to block Iran transactions". Reuters. 17 February 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2012. ^ Torchia, Andrew (17 February 2016). "Iranian banks reconnected to SWIFT network after four-year hiatus". Reuters. Retrieved 21 April 2016. ^ International banking giant refuses to cut off Israel, despite boycott calls. Haaretz. 7 October 2014. ^ Hutton, Robert; Ian Wishart (29 August 2014). "U.K. Wants EU to Block Russia From SWIFT Banking Network". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 31 August 2014. ^ "SWIFT Sanctions Statement". swift.com (Press release). ^ Turak, Natasha (23 May 2018). "Russia's central bank governor touts Moscow alternative to SWIFT transfer system as protection from US sanctions". CNBC. Retrieved 4 October 2018. ^ Shalal, Andrea (11 February 2022). "SWIFT off Russia sanctions list, state banks likely target -U.S., EU officials". Reuters. Retrieved 14 February 2022. ^ "EU unlikely to cut Russia off SWIFT for now, sources say". Reuters. 24 February 2022. Retrieved 24 February 2022. ^ "Joint Statement on further restrictive economic measures". ec.europa.eu. 26 February 2022. Retrieved 26 February 2022. ^ "New financial messaging rules for Russia approved \| Bank of Russia". Central Bank of Russia. Archived from the original on 12 August 2023. ^ Adeela Naureen; Waqar K Kauravi (6 May 2023). "De-dollarisation and emerging global order". The Express Tribune. ^ Martin, Jessica (27 February 2022). "EU extends Russia sanctions to airspace, media, Belarus". Euractiv. Archived from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved 1 March 2022. ^ @nexta_tv (27 February 2022). "Lithuanian Prime Minister proposed to disconnect Belarus from SWIFT" (Tweet) – via Twitter. ^ "EU to impose new sanctions on Belarus this week -EU official". Reuters. 28 February 2022. Archived from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 1 March 2022. ^ Corkery, Michael, "Hackers’ $81 Million Sneak Attack on World Banking", The New York Times, 30 April 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2016. ^ a b Corkery, Michael (12 May 2016). "Once Again, Thieves Enter Swift Financial Network and Steal". The New York Times. Retrieved 13 May 2016. ^ a b c Bergin, Tom; Layne, Nathan (20 May 2016). "Special Report: Cyber thieves exploit banks' faith in SWIFT transfer network". Reuters. Retrieved 24 May 2016. ^ Metzger, Max (28 June 2016). "SWIFT robbers swoop on Ukrainian bank". SC Magazine UK. Retrieved 29 June 2016. ^ Gyr, Marcel (1 March 2022). "Das Swift-Rechenzentrum in der Schweiz wird polizeilich geschützt – wegen der Gefahr von Sabotage" (in German) NZZ.com. Retrieved 2 March 2022. Further reading Farrell, Henry and Abraham Newman. 2019. Of Privacy and Power: The Transatlantic Struggle over Freedom and Security. Princeton University Press. External links Official website vteBank codes and identificationAsia IFSC (India) North America Routing number (Canada) ABA routing transit number (United States) CLABE (Mexico) Europe Bank clearing number (Switzerland and Liechtenstein) Bankleitzahl (Germany and Austria) Sort code (United Kingdom and Ireland) Oceania New Zealand bank account number (New Zealand) Bank state branch (Australia) International International Bank Account Number ISO 9362 SWIFT vteMajor financial technology companiesCompanies with an annual revenue of over US$1 billion Block Euronet Worldwide FIS Fiserv Jack Henry PayPal SWIFT Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National Germany United States Czech Republic Australia Portugal	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Swift (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swift_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"cooperative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperative"},{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ScottZachariadis-2"},{"link_name":"ISO 9362","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_9362"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"La Hulpe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Hulpe"},{"link_name":"Brussels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels"},{"link_name":"Sibos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibos_(conference)"},{"link_name":"financial services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_services"}],"text":"Financial telecommunication networkFor other uses, see Swift (disambiguation).The Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (Swift), legally S.W.I.F.T. SC, is a cooperative established in 1973 in Belgium (French: Société Coopérative) and owned by the banks and other member firms that use its service. SWIFT provides the main messaging network through which international payments are initiated.[2] It also sells software and services to financial institutions, mostly for use on its proprietary \"SWIFTNet\", and assigns ISO 9362 Business Identifier Codes (BICs), popularly known as \"Swift codes\".As of 2018, around half of all high-value cross-border payments worldwide used the Swift network,[3] and in 2015, Swift linked more than 11,000 financial institutions in over 200 countries and territories, who were exchanging an average of over 32 million messages per day (compared to an average of 2.4 million daily messages in 1995).[4]Swift is headquartered in La Hulpe near Brussels. It hosts an annual conference, called Sibos, specifically aimed at the financial services industry.","title":"SWIFT"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Telex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telex"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"First National City Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_National_City_Bank"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Brussels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels"},{"link_name":"AMRO Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMRO_Bank"},{"link_name":"Banque de l'Union Parisienne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banque_de_l%27Union_Parisienne"},{"link_name":"Carl Reuterskiöld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Reuterski%C3%B6ld"},{"link_name":"Bessel Kok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessel_Kok"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ScottZachariadis-2"},{"link_name":"Logica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logica"},{"link_name":"Burroughs Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burroughs_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"liability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_liability"},{"link_name":"Prince Albert of Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_II_of_Belgium"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ScottZachariadis-2"},{"link_name":"John N. Dalton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_N._Dalton"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-swiftobituary-8"},{"link_name":"La Hulpe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Hulpe"},{"link_name":"Ricardo Bofill Taller de Arquitectura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricardo_Bofill_Taller_de_Arquitectura"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Before SWIFT's establishment, international financial transactions were communicated over Telex, a public system involving manual writing and reading of messages.[5] SWIFT was set up out of fear of what might happen if a single private and fully American entity controlled global financial flows – which before was First National City Bank (FNCB) of New York – later Citibank. In response to FNCB's protocol, FNCB's competitors in the US and Europe pushed an alternative \"messaging system that could replace the public providers and speed up the payment process\".[6]SWIFT was founded in Brussels on 3 May 1973. Individuals who played a key role in its creation included bankers Jan Kraa (at AMRO Bank) and François Dentz (at the Banque de l'Union Parisienne) as well as Carl Reuterskiöld and Bessel Kok, who became respectively its first two chairmen and chief executives.[2]: 14-16 It was initially supported by 239 banks in 15 countries. It soon started to establish common standards for financial transactions and a shared data processing system and worldwide communications network designed by Logica and developed by the Burroughs Corporation.[7] Fundamental operating procedures and rules for liability were established in 1975, and the first message was ceremonially sent by Prince Albert of Belgium on 9 May 1977.[2]: 19SWIFT's first non-European operations centre was inaugurated by Governor John N. Dalton of Virginia in 1979.[8] In 1989 SWIFT completed a monumental new head office building in La Hulpe, designed by Ricardo Bofill Taller de Arquitectura.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ScottZachariadis-2"},{"link_name":"JPMorgan Chase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPMorgan_Chase"},{"link_name":"Lloyds Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyds_Bank"},{"link_name":"Bank of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_China"},{"link_name":"BNP Paribas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BNP_Paribas"},{"link_name":"BPCE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupe_BPCE"},{"link_name":"Citi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citigroup"},{"link_name":"Clearstream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clearstream"},{"link_name":"Commerzbank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commerzbank"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth Bank of Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Bank_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Bank"},{"link_name":"Euroclear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euroclear"},{"link_name":"FirstRand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FirstRand"},{"link_name":"HSBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSBC"},{"link_name":"ING","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ING_Group"},{"link_name":"Intesa Sanpaolo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intesa_Sanpaolo"},{"link_name":"KBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KBC_Group"},{"link_name":"MUFG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitsubishi_UFJ_Financial_Group"},{"link_name":"NatWest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NatWest"},{"link_name":"Nordea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordea"},{"link_name":"Royal Bank of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Bank_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Santander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banco_Santander"},{"link_name":"SEB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEB_Group"},{"link_name":"UBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UBS"},{"link_name":"Credit Suisse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_Suisse"},{"link_name":"Association of Banks in Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Association_of_Banks_in_Singapore&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"SWIFT's shareholding structure is adjusted every three years in proportion to volumes of activity incurred by the members, ensuring that the most active members get the most voice irrespective of geography; additional rules are aimed at ensuring some geographical diversity within the board of directors. The 25 directors are elected by the shareholders, on three-year terms with renewal of one-third of the board every year; all directors are member representatives.[2]: 30-31As of May 2024, the members directly represented on the board of directors were JPMorgan Chase (chair), Lloyds Bank (deputy chair), Bank of China, BNP Paribas, BPCE, Citi, Clearstream, Commerzbank, Commonwealth Bank of Australia, Deutsche Bank, Euroclear, FirstRand, HSBC, ING, Intesa Sanpaolo, KBC, MUFG, NatWest, Nordea, Royal Bank of Canada, Santander, SEB, UBS (2 representatives following the acquisition of Credit Suisse), as well as the Association of Banks in Singapore.[10]","title":"Ownership and governance"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SWIFT_2021_logo.svg"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ScottZachariadis-2"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-11"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ScottZachariadis-2"},{"link_name":"clearing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clearing_(finance)"},{"link_name":"settlement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Settlement_(finance)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ScottZachariadis-2"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-11"},{"link_name":"payment system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payment_system"},{"link_name":"TARGET2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TARGET2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ScottZachariadis-2"},{"link_name":"correspondent banking accounts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correspondent_account"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ScottZachariadis-2"},{"link_name":"secure network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_transmission"},{"link_name":"turn-key","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnkey"},{"link_name":"linkage clients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client_(computing)"},{"link_name":"CBTs or \"computer based terminals\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface"},{"link_name":"FIN messages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_15022"},{"link_name":"MX messages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_20022"},{"link_name":"WebSphere MQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebSphere_MQ"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"Oracle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Java Caps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_Caps"}],"text":"SWIFT logo before 2023Swift acts as a carrier of the \"messages containing the payment instructions between financial institutions involved in a transaction\".[2]: 35 [11] However, the organisation does not manage accounts on behalf of individuals or financial institutions, and it does not hold funds from third parties.[2]: 1-2 It also does not perform clearing or settlement functions.[2]: 1-2, 35 [11] After a payment has been initiated, it must be settled through a payment system, such as TARGET2 in Europe.[2]: 36 In the context of cross-border transactions, this step often takes place through correspondent banking accounts that financial institutions have with each other.[2]: 35SWIFT means several things in the financial world:a secure network for transmitting messages between financial institutions;\na set of syntax standards for financial messages (for transmission over SWIFTNet or any other network)\na set of connection software and services allowing financial institutions to transmit messages over SWIFT network.Under 3 above, SWIFT provides turn-key solutions for members, consisting of linkage clients to facilitate connectivity to the SWIFT network and CBTs or \"computer based terminals\" which members use to manage the delivery and receipt of their messages. Some of the more well-known interfaces and CBTs provided to their members are:SWIFTNet Link (SNL) software which is installed on the SWIFT customer's site and opens a connection to SWIFTNet. Other applications can only communicate with SWIFTNet through the SNL.\nAlliance Gateway (SAG) software with interfaces (e.g., RAHA = Remote Access Host Adapter), allowing other software products to use the SNL to connect to SWIFTNet\nAlliance WebStation (SAB) desktop interface for SWIFT Alliance Gateway with several usage options:\nadministrative access to the SAG\ndirect connection SWIFTNet by the SAG, to administrate SWIFT Certificates\nso-called Browse connection to SWIFTNet (also by SAG) to use additional services, for example Target2\nAlliance Access (SAA) and Alliance Messaging Hub (AMH) are the main messaging software applications by SWIFT, which allow message creation for FIN messages, routing and monitoring for FIN and MX messages. The main interfaces are FTA (files transfer automated, not FTP) and MQSA, a WebSphere MQ interface.\nThe Alliance Workstation (SAW) is the desktop software for administration, monitoring and FIN message creation. Since Alliance Access is not yet capable of creating MX messages, Alliance Messenger (SAM) has to be used for this purpose.\nAlliance Web Platform (SWP) as new thin-client desktop interface provided as an alternative to existing Alliance WebStation, Alliance Workstation (soon)[when?] and Alliance Messenger.\nAlliance Integrator built on Oracle's Java Caps which enables customer's back office applications to connect to Alliance Access or Alliance Entry.\nAlliance Lite2 is a secure and reliable, cloud-based way to connect to the SWIFT network which is a light version of Alliance Access specifically targeting customers with low volume of traffic.","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"securities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_(finance)"},{"link_name":"treasury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury"},{"link_name":"derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative_(finance)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-swift.com-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-swift.com-12"},{"link_name":"Trade Services Utility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_Services_Utility"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Services","text":"There are four key areas that SWIFT services fall under in the financial marketplace: securities, treasury & derivatives, trade services, and payments & cash management.Securities\n\nSWIFTNet FIX (obsolete)\nSWIFTNet Data Distribution\nSWIFTNet Funds\nSWIFTNet Accord for Securities (end of life October 2017)[12]\n\n\nTreasury and derivatives\n\nSWIFTNet Accord for Treasury (end of life October 2017)[12]\nSWIFTNet Affirmations\nSWIFTNet CLS Third Party Service\n\n\nCash management\n\nSWIFTNet Bulk Payments\nSWIFTNet Cash Reporting\nSWIFTNet Exceptions and Investigations\n\n\nTrade services\n\nSWIFTNet Trade Services UtilitySwift Ref, the global payment reference data utility, is SWIFT's unique reference data service. Swift Ref sources data direct from data originators, including central banks, code issuers and banks making it easy for issuers and originators to maintain data regularly and thoroughly. SWIFTRef constantly validates and cross-checks data across the different data sets.[13]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"data centres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_centre"},{"link_name":"near real-time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_computing"},{"link_name":"submarine communications cables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-harvard-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Operations centres","text":"The SWIFT secure messaging network is run from three data centres, located in the United States, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. These centres share information in near real-time. In case of a failure in one of the data centres, another is able to handle the traffic of the complete network. SWIFT uses submarine communications cables to transmit its data.[14]Shortly after opening its third data centre in Switzerland in 2009,[15] SWIFT introduced new distributed architecture with two messaging zones, European and Trans-Atlantic, so data from European SWIFT members no longer mirrored the U.S. data centre.[16] European zone messages are stored in the Netherlands and in part of the Swiss operating centre; Trans-Atlantic zone messages are stored in the United States and in another part of the Swiss operating centre that is segregated from the European zone messages. Countries outside of Europe were by default allocated to the Trans-Atlantic zone, but could choose to have their messages stored in the European zone.","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"X.25","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.25"},{"link_name":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"},{"link_name":"Relationship Management Application","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_Management_Application"},{"link_name":"bilateral key exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilateral_key_exchange"}],"sub_title":"SWIFTNet network","text":"SWIFT moved to its current IP network infrastructure, known as SWIFTNet, from 2001 to 2005,[18] providing a total replacement of the previous X.25 infrastructure. The process involved the development of new protocols that facilitate efficient messaging, using existing and new message standards. The adopted technology chosen to develop the protocols was XML, where it now provides a wrapper around all messages legacy or contemporary. The communication protocols can be broken down into:InterAct\n\nSWIFTNet InterAct Realtime\nSWIFTNet InterAct Store and Forward\n\n\nFileAct\n\nSWIFTNet FileAct Realtime\nSWIFTNet FileAct Store and Forward\n\n\nBrowse\n\nSWIFTNet BrowseSWIFT provides a centralized store-and-forward mechanism, with some transaction management. For bank A to send a message to bank B with a copy or authorization involving institution C, it formats the message according to standards and securely sends it to SWIFT. SWIFT guarantees its secure and reliable delivery to B after the appropriate action by C. SWIFT guarantees are based primarily on high redundancy of hardware, software, and people.During 2007 and 2008, the entire SWIFT network migrated its infrastructure to a new protocol called SWIFTNet Phase 2. The main difference between Phase 2 and the former arrangement is that Phase 2 requires banks connecting to the network to use a Relationship Management Application (RMA) instead of the former bilateral key exchange (BKE) system. According to SWIFT's public information database on the subject, RMA software should eventually prove more secure and easier to keep up-to-date; however, converting to the RMA system meant that thousands of banks around the world had to update their international payments systems to comply with the new standards. RMA completely replaced BKE on 1 January 2009.","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"syntax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax"},{"link_name":"registration authority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registration_authority"},{"link_name":"ISO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"ISO 9362","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_9362"},{"link_name":"ISO 10383","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_10383"},{"link_name":"ISO 13616","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_13616"},{"link_name":"IBAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBAN"},{"link_name":"ISO 15022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_15022"},{"link_name":"ISO 20022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_20022"},{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments"},{"link_name":"Uniform Resource Names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Name"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"SWIFT has become the industry standard for syntax in financial messages. Messages formatted to SWIFT standards can be read and processed by many well-known financial processing systems, whether or not the message travelled over the SWIFT network. SWIFT cooperates with international organizations for defining standards for message format and content. SWIFT is also a registration authority (RA) for the following ISO standards:\n[19]ISO 9362: 1994 Banking – Banking telecommunication messages – Bank identifier codes\nISO 10383: 2003 Securities and related financial instruments – Codes for exchanges and market identification (MIC)\nISO 13616: 2003 IBAN Registry\nISO 15022: 1999 Securities – Scheme for messages (Data Field Dictionary) (replaces ISO 7775)\nISO 20022-1: 2004 and ISO 20022-2:2007 Financial services – Universal Financial Industry message schemeIn RFC 3615 urn:swift: was defined as Uniform Resource Names (URNs) for SWIFT FIN.[20]","title":"Standards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"payment system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payment_system"},{"link_name":"Group of Ten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_of_Ten_(IMF)"},{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Bank_of_Belgium"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_France"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Bundesbank"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Nederlandsche_Bank"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sveriges_Riksbank"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_National_Bank"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_England"},{"link_name":"Federal Reserve Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Board"},{"link_name":"Federal Reserve Bank of New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_New_York"},{"link_name":"European Central Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Central_Bank"},{"link_name":"National Bank of Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Bank_of_Belgium"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ScottZachariadis-2"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"International Monetary Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Argentina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Argentina"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong_Monetary_Authority"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_India"},{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_Korea"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_Mexico"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"Saudi Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Central_Bank"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetary_Authority_of_Singapore"},{"link_name":"South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_Reserve_Bank"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Bank_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"SWIFT is not a payment system and thus neither regulated nor supervised as such, but is nevertheless deemed to be systemically important and thus under the \"oversight\" of public authorities. In 1998, the so-called Group of Ten central banks (those of Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York for the U.S. and the European Central Bank) started acting as joint overseers, with the National Bank of Belgium (NBB) in a lead role. The oversight focueses primarily on systemic risk, confidentiality, infrastructure security, and business continuity.[2]: 43 It is formalized in bilateral documents between the NBB and SWIFT on the one hand, and between the NBB and each of the other G10 central banks on the other hand.[21] In 2018, the International Monetary Fund has recommended that \"[t]he National Bank of Belgium should consider enhancing oversight with additional regulatory and supervisory powers.\"[22]In 2012, this framework was complemented by a \"SWIFT Oversight Forum\" including additional central banks. As of 2024, in addition to the G10 central banks, the SWIFT Oversight Forum included the national central banks of Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Korea, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, and Turkey. According to SWIFT, the Oversight Forum \"provides a forum for the G-10 central banks to share information on Swift oversight activities with a wider group of central banks.\"[23]","title":"Supervision"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"CIPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-Border_Interbank_Payment_System"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"RMB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renminbi"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"SFMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_Financial_Messaging_System"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"SPFS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPFS"},{"link_name":"Russian Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Federation"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"INSTEX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_in_Support_of_Trade_Exchanges"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"text":"Purported alternatives to the SWIFT system include:[citation needed]CIPS: sponsored by China, for RMB related deals. 1467 financial institutions in 111 countries and regions have connected to the system. The actual business covers more than 4,200 banking institutions in 182 countries and regions around the world.[24][25][26]\nSFMS: sponsored by India\nSPFS: developed by the Russian Federation[27]\nINSTEX: sponsored by the European Union, limited to non-USD transactions for trade with Iran, largely unused and ineffective[28][29]","title":"Alternatives"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Leadership"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"AMRO Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMRO_Bank"},{"link_name":"Crédit du Nord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cr%C3%A9dit_du_Nord"},{"link_name":"Chemical Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_Bank"},{"link_name":"Barclays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barclays"},{"link_name":"Société Générale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale"},{"link_name":"ABN AMRO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABN_AMRO"},{"link_name":"JPMorgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPMorgan_Chase"},{"link_name":"Citi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citigroup"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ScottZachariadis-2"},{"link_name":"ING","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ING_Bank"},{"link_name":"JPMorgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPMorgan_Chase"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Chair","text":"Johannes Kraa (AMRO Bank, Dutch), 1973-1974\nFrançois Dentz (Crédit du Nord, French), 1974-1976\nHelmer Hasselblad (Swedish), 1976-1984\nW. Robert Moore (Chemical Bank, American), 1984-1989\nRichard Fröhlich (Austrian), 1989-1992\nEric C. Chilton (Barclays, British), 1992-1996\nJean-Marie Weydert (Société Générale, French), 1996-2000\nJaap Kamp (ABN AMRO, Dutch), 2000-2006\nYawar Shah (JPMorgan then Citi, American), 2006-2022[2]: 16 \nMark Buitenhek (ING, Dutch), acting 2022-2023\nGraeme Munro (JPMorgan, British), since 2023[30]","title":"Leadership"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Carl Reuterskiöld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Reuterski%C3%B6ld"},{"link_name":"Bessel Kok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessel_Kok"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ScottZachariadis-2"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"Chief Executive Officer","text":"Carl Reuterskiöld, 1973-1983\nBessel Kok, 1983-1991\nJacques Cerveau (interim CEO), 1991\nLeonard (Lennie) Schrank, 1992-2007\nLazaro Campos, 2007-2012\nGottfried Leibbrandt, 2012-2019[2]: 17 \nJavier Pérez-Tasso, since 2019[31]","title":"Leadership"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Controversy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SWIFT&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Core Banking System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_Banking_System"}],"sub_title":"Inefficiency","text":"Swift has been criticised for its inefficiency. In 2018, the London-based Financial Times noted that transfers frequently \"pass through multiple banks before reaching their final destination, making them time-consuming, costly and lacking transparency on how much money will arrive at the other end\".[3] Swift has since introduced an improved service called \"Global Payments Innovation\" (GPI), claiming it was adopted by 165 banks and was completing half its payments within 30 minutes.[3] The new standard which included Swift Go was supposed to be utilised in receiving and transferring low-value international payments. One of the significant changes was the transaction amount, which would not differ from start to the end. However, as of 2023[update], uptake was mixed. For instance, Alisherov Eraj, Alif Bank Treasury Department Swift Transfers & Banking Relationship Expert in the Republic of Tajikistan, describes that the leading cause for the late Swift Go adoption in Tajikistan was the Core Banking System itself. To connect to Swift Go, he adds, banking system interfaces needed to be upgraded and integrate with their software to be fully compatible; this hindered many banks from adopting the technology earlier.","title":"Controversy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"The Wall Street Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times"},{"link_name":"Terrorist Finance Tracking Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorist_Finance_Tracking_Program"},{"link_name":"US Treasury Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Treasury_Department"},{"link_name":"Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA"},{"link_name":"United States governmental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_government"},{"link_name":"11 September attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11_September_attacks"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"data privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_privacy"},{"link_name":"European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_law"},{"link_name":"privacy laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_law"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"§ Operations centres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Operations_centres"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"United States government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"European Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Parliament"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"European Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Council"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Lisbon Treaty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lisbon"},{"link_name":"codecision procedure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codecision_procedure"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"EUROPOL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EUROPOL"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2011spiegel-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2011spiegel-38"},{"link_name":"Der Spiegel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Spiegel"},{"link_name":"National Security Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Agency"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-speigel-39"},{"link_name":"Edward Snowden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Snowden"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-speigel-39"},{"link_name":"Shadow Brokers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_Brokers"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"sub_title":"U.S. government surveillance","text":"A series of articles published on 23 June 2006 in The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, and the Los Angeles Times revealed a program, named the Terrorist Finance Tracking Program, which the US Treasury Department, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and other United States governmental agencies initiated after the 11 September attacks to gain access to the SWIFT transaction database.[32]After the publication of these articles, SWIFT quickly came under pressure for compromising the data privacy of its customers by allowing governments to gain access to sensitive personal information. In September 2006, the Belgian government declared that these SWIFT dealings with American governmental authorities were a breach of Belgian and European privacy laws.[citation needed]In response, and to satisfy members' concerns about privacy, SWIFT began a process of improving its architecture by implementing a distributed architecture with a two-zone model for storing messages (see § Operations centres).Concurrently, the European Union negotiated an agreement with the United States government to permit the transfer of intra-EU SWIFT transaction information to the United States under certain circumstances. Because of concerns about its potential contents, the European Parliament adopted a position statement in September 2009, demanding to see the full text of the agreement and asking that it be fully compliant with EU privacy legislation, with oversight mechanisms emplaced to ensure that all data requests were handled appropriately.[33] An interim agreement was signed without European Parliamentary approval by the European Council on 30 November 2009,[34] the day before the Lisbon Treaty—which would have prohibited such an agreement from being signed under the terms of the codecision procedure—formally came into effect. While the interim agreement was scheduled to come into effect on 1 January 2010, the text of the agreement was classified as \"EU Restricted\" until translations could be provided in all EU languages and published on 25 January 2010.On 11 February 2010, the European Parliament decided to reject the interim agreement between the EU and the US by 378 to 196 votes.[35][36] One week earlier, the parliament's civil liberties committee had already rejected the deal, citing legal reservations.[37]In March 2011, it was reported that two mechanisms of data protection had failed: EUROPOL released a report complaining that requests for information from the US had been too vague (making it impossible to make judgments on validity)[38] and that the guaranteed right for European citizens to know whether their information had been accessed by US authorities had not been put into practice.[38]Der Spiegel reported in September 2013 that the National Security Agency (NSA) widely monitors banking transactions via SWIFT, as well as credit card transactions.[39] The NSA intercepted and retained data from the SWIFT network used by thousands of banks to securely send transaction information. SWIFT was named as a \"target\", according to documents leaked by Edward Snowden. The documents revealed that the NSA spied on SWIFT using a variety of methods, including reading \"SWIFT printer traffic from numerous banks\".[39] In April 2017, a group known as the Shadow Brokers released files allegedly from the NSA which indicate that the agency monitored financial transactions made through SWIFT.[40][41]","title":"Controversy"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"SWIFT and sanctions","title":"Controversy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United Against Nuclear Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Against_Nuclear_Iran"},{"link_name":"Central Bank of Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"U.S. Senate Banking Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Banking,_Housing,_and_Urban_Affairs"},{"link_name":"IVTS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informal_value_transfer_system"},{"link_name":"Mark Wallace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Wallace"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-43"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-43"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Saderat Bank of Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saderat_Bank_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"Bank Mellat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_Mellat"},{"link_name":"Post Bank of Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_Bank_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"Sepah Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sepah_Bank"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Council of the European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_the_European_Union"},{"link_name":"Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"sub_title":"SWIFT and sanctions - Iran","text":"In January 2012, the advocacy group United Against Nuclear Iran (UANI) implemented a campaign calling on SWIFT to end all relations with Iran's banking system, including the Central Bank of Iran. UANI asserted that Iran's membership in SWIFT violated US and EU financial sanctions against Iran as well as SWIFT's own corporate rules.[42]Consequently, in February 2012, the U.S. Senate Banking Committee unanimously approved sanctions against SWIFT aimed at pressuring it to terminate its ties with blacklisted Iranian banks. Expelling Iranian banks from SWIFT would potentially deny Iran access to billions of dollars in revenue using SWIFT but not from using IVTS. Mark Wallace, president of UANI, praised the Senate Banking Committee.[43]Initially SWIFT denied that it was acting illegally,[43] but later[when?] said that \"it is working with U.S. and European governments to address their concerns that its financial services are being used by Iran to avoid sanctions and conduct illicit business\".[44] Targeted banks would be—amongst others—Saderat Bank of Iran, Bank Mellat, Post Bank of Iran and Sepah Bank.[45] On 17 March 2012, following agreement two days earlier between all 27 member states of the Council of the European Union and the Council's subsequent ruling, SWIFT disconnected all Iranian banks that had been identified as institutions in breach of current EU sanctions from its international network and warned that even more Iranian financial institutions could be disconnected from the network.In February 2016, most Iranian banks reconnected to the network following the lift of sanctions due to the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action.[46]","title":"Controversy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Israeli banks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banking_in_Israel"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"sub_title":"SWIFT and sanctions - Israel","text":"In 2014, SWIFT rejected calls from pro-Palestinian activists to revoke Israeli banks' access to its network owing to the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territory.[47]","title":"Controversy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SWIFT ban against Russian banks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWIFT_ban_against_Russian_banks"},{"link_name":"Russian military intervention in Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_military_intervention_in_Ukraine_(2014%E2%80%93present)"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"SPFS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPFS"},{"link_name":"Central Bank of Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prelude_to_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-11"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"President of Belarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Belarus"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"}],"sub_title":"SWIFT and sanctions - Russia and Belarus","text":"See also: SWIFT ban against Russian banksSimilarly, in August 2014 the UK planned to press the EU to block Russian use of SWIFT as a sanction due to Russian military intervention in Ukraine.[48] However, SWIFT refused to do so.[49] SPFS, a Russian alternative to SWIFT, was developed by the Central Bank of Russia as a backup measure.[50]During the prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the United States developed preliminary possible sanctions against Russia, but excluded banning Russia from SWIFT.[51] Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the foreign ministers of the Baltic states Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia called for Russia to be cut off from SWIFT. However, other EU member states were reluctant, both because European lenders held most of the nearly $30 billion in foreign banks' exposure to Russia and because Russia had developed the SPFS alternative.[52] The European Union, United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States finally agreed to remove few Russian banks from the SWIFT messaging system in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine; the governments of France, Germany, Italy and Japan individually released statements alongside the EU.[53][11]On 20 March 2023, the Russian Federation banned the use of SWIFT.[54][55]The European Union issued the first set of sanctions against Belarus - the first was introduced on 27 February 2022, which banned certain categories of Belarusian items in the EU, including timber, steel, mineral fuels and tobacco.[56] After the Lithuanian prime minister proposed disconnecting Belarus from SWIFT,[57] the European Union, which does not recognise Lukashenko as the legitimate President of Belarus, started to plan an extension of the sanctions already issued against Russian entities and top officials to its ally.[58]","title":"Controversy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bangladesh Bank robbery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh_Bank_robbery"},{"link_name":"Bangladesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh"},{"link_name":"Federal Reserve Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_New_York"},{"link_name":"hacker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker_(computer_security)"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Second_Attack_Reported_NYT-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReutersSpecialReport-61"},{"link_name":"malware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Second_Attack_Reported_NYT-60"},{"link_name":"Banco del Austro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Banco_del_Austro&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Wells Fargo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wells_Fargo"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReutersSpecialReport-61"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReutersSpecialReport-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Neue Zürcher Zeitung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neue_Z%C3%BCrcher_Zeitung"},{"link_name":"Thurgau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thurgau"},{"link_name":"Diessenhofen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diessenhofen"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"}],"sub_title":"Security","text":"See also: Bangladesh Bank robberyIn 2016 an $81 million theft from the Bangladesh central bank via its account at the New York Federal Reserve Bank was traced to hacker penetration of SWIFT's Alliance Access software, according to a New York Times report. It was not the first such attempt, the society acknowledged, and the security of the transfer system was undergoing new examination accordingly.[59] Soon after the reports of the theft from the Bangladesh central bank, a second, apparently related, attack was reported to have occurred on a commercial bank in Vietnam.[60][61]Both attacks involved malware written to both issue unauthorized SWIFT messages and to conceal that the messages had been sent. After the malware sent the SWIFT messages that stole the funds, it deleted the database record of the transfers then took further steps to prevent confirmation messages from revealing the theft. In the Bangladeshi case, the confirmation messages would have appeared on a paper report; the malware altered the paper reports when they were sent to the printer. In the second case, the bank used a PDF report; the malware altered the PDF viewer to hide the transfers.[60]In May 2016, Banco del Austro (BDA) in Ecuador sued Wells Fargo after Wells Fargo honoured $12 million in fund transfer requests that had been placed by thieves.[61] In this case, the thieves sent SWIFT messages that resembled recently cancelled transfer requests from BDA, with slightly altered amounts; the reports do not detail how the thieves gained access to send the SWIFT messages. BDA asserts that Wells Fargo should have detected the suspicious SWIFT messages, which were placed outside of normal BDA working hours and were of an unusual size. Wells Fargo claims that BDA is responsible for the loss, as the thieves gained access to the legitimate SWIFT credentials of a BDA employee and sent fully authenticated SWIFT messages.[61]In the first half of 2016, an anonymous Ukrainian bank and others—even \"dozens\" that are not being made public—were variously reported to have been \"compromised\" through the SWIFT network and to have lost money.[62]In March 2022, Swiss newspaper Neue Zürcher Zeitung reported about the increased security precautions by the State Police of Thurgau at the SWIFT data centre in Diessenhofen. After most of the Russian banks have been excluded from the private payment system, the risk of sabotage was considered higher. Inhabitants of the town described the large complex as a \"fortress\" or \"prison\" where frequent security checks of the fenced property are conducted.[63]","title":"Controversy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Of Privacy and Power: The Transatlantic Struggle over Freedom and Security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691183640/of-privacy-and-power"}],"text":"Farrell, Henry and Abraham Newman. 2019. Of Privacy and Power: The Transatlantic Struggle over Freedom and Security. Princeton University Press.","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"SWIFT logo before 2023","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/SWIFT_2021_logo.svg/220px-SWIFT_2021_logo.svg.png"}]	[{"title":"Banks portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Banks"},{"title":"Bilateral key exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilateral_key_exchange"},{"title":"Relationship Management Application","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_Management_Application"},{"title":"Electronic money","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_money"},{"title":"Indian Financial System Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Financial_System_Code"},{"title":"ISO 9362","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_9362"},{"title":"ISO 15022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_15022"},{"title":"ISO 20022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_20022"},{"title":"Single Euro Payments Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_Euro_Payments_Area"},{"title":"Sibos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibos_(conference)"},{"title":"TIPANET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIPANET"},{"title":"Value transfer system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_transfer_system"}]	[{"reference":"\"CBE Public Search\". kbopub.economie.fgov.be. FPS Economy, SMEs, Self-Employed and Energy. Retrieved 27 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://kbopub.economie.fgov.be/kbopub/toonondernemingps.html?lang=en&ondernemingsnummer=413330856","url_text":"\"CBE Public Search\""}]},{"reference":"Scott, Susan V.; Zachariadis, Markos (2014). The Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (Swift) : cooperative governance for network innovation, standards, and community. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 1, 35. doi:10.4324/9781315849324. ISBN 978-1-317-90952-1. OCLC 862930816.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-mono/10.4324/9781315849324/society-worldwide-interbank-financial-telecommunication-swift-susan-scott-markos-zachariadis","url_text":"The Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (Swift) : cooperative governance for network innovation, standards, and community"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge","url_text":"Routledge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315849324","url_text":"10.4324/9781315849324"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-90952-1","url_text":"978-1-317-90952-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/862930816","url_text":"862930816"}]},{"reference":"Arnold, Martin (6 June 2018). \"Ripple and Swift slug it out over cross-border payments\". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 27 September 2019. Retrieved 28 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ft.com/content/631af8cc-47cc-11e8-8c77-ff51caedcde6","url_text":"\"Ripple and Swift slug it out over cross-border payments\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times","url_text":"Financial Times"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190927142951/https://www.ft.com/content/631af8cc-47cc-11e8-8c77-ff51caedcde6","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Swift Company Information\". SWIFT. 9 March 2010. Archived from the original on 22 December 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081222103757/http://www.swift.com/about_swift/company_information/index.page?lang=en","url_text":"\"Swift Company Information\""},{"url":"http://www.swift.com/about_swift/company_information/index.page?lang=en","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Annex 1: The History and Detailed Functioning of SWIFT. ECahiers de l'Institut. Graduate Institute Publications. 6 September 2011. ISBN 9782940415731.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.openedition.org/iheid/323","url_text":"Annex 1: The History and Detailed Functioning of SWIFT"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782940415731","url_text":"9782940415731"}]},{"reference":"Farrell, Henry; Newman, Abraham L. (July 2019). \"Weaponized Interdependence: How Global Economic Networks Shape State Coercion\". International Security. 44 (1): 42–79. doi:10.1162/isec_a_00351. ISSN 0162-2889. S2CID 198952367.","urls":[{"url":"https://direct.mit.edu/isec/article/44/1/42-79/12237","url_text":"\"Weaponized Interdependence: How Global Economic Networks Shape State Coercion\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fisec_a_00351","url_text":"10.1162/isec_a_00351"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0162-2889","url_text":"0162-2889"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:198952367","url_text":"198952367"}]},{"reference":"\"Logica history\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.logica.com/we-are-logica/about-logica/history-and-key-milestones/","url_text":"\"Logica history\""}]},{"reference":"\"Carl Reuterskiöld\". SWIFT. March 2006. Archived from the original on 24 January 2012. Retrieved 7 September 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120124174712/http://www.swift.com/about_swift/press_room/swift_news_archive/home_page_stories_archive_2006/61159/carl_reuterski_ld.page","url_text":"\"Carl Reuterskiöld\""},{"url":"http://www.swift.com/about_swift/press_room/swift_news_archive/home_page_stories_archive_2006/61159/carl_reuterski_ld.page?","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Serena Vergano, ed. (2009). Ricardo Bofill Taller de Arquitectura: Architecture in the era of local culture and international experience. RBTA. p. 130.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"The Swift Board of Directors\". SWIFT.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.swift.com/about-us/organisation-governance/swift-board-directors","url_text":"\"The Swift Board of Directors\""}]},{"reference":"Kowsmann, Patricia; Talley, Ian (26 February 2022). \"What Is Swift and Why Is It Being Used to Sanction Russia?\". The Wall Street Journal. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_and_adolescent_psychiatry	Child and adolescent psychiatry	["1 Classification of disorders","2 Clinical practice","2.1 Assessment","2.2 Diagnosis and formulation","2.3 Treatment","3 Training","3.1 Certification and continuing education","3.2 Shortage of child and adolescent psychiatrists in the United States","3.3 Cross-cultural considerations","4 Criticisms","4.1 Subjective diagnoses","4.2 Prescription of psychotropic medications","4.3 Electroconvulsive therapy","5 History","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","9 External links"]	Branch of psychiatry This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (June 2020) Child and adolescent psychiatry (or pediatric psychiatry) is a branch of psychiatry that focuses on the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders in children, adolescents, and their families. It investigates the biopsychosocial factors that influence the development and course of psychiatric disorders and treatment responses to various interventions. Child and adolescent psychiatrists primarily use psychotherapy and/or medication to treat mental disorders in the pediatric population. Classification of disorders Main article: Mental disorders diagnosed in childhood There are many classifications of disorders. Developmental disorders include autism spectrum disorder and learning disorders, and some attention and behaviors disorders are attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder. Childhood schizophrenia is an example of a psychotic disorder. Major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, persistent depressive disorder, and disruptive mood dysregulation disorder are under the classification of mood disorders. A wide range of disorders that are classified as eating disorders include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID), and pica. Some anxiety disorders are panic disorder, phobias, and Generalized anxiety disorder. Lastly, substance use disorders can be specified to specific substances, such as alcohol use disorder or cannabis use disorder. Disorders are often comorbid. For example, an adolescent can be diagnosed with both major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. The incidence of psychiatric comorbidities during adolescence may vary by race, ethnicity and socioeconomic status, among other variables. Clinical practice Assessment The psychiatric assessment of a child or adolescent starts with obtaining a psychiatric history by interviewing the young person and his/her parents or caregivers. The assessment includes a detailed exploration of the current concerns about the child's emotional or behavioral problems, the child's physical health and development, history of parental care (including possible abuse and neglect), family relationships and history of parental mental illness. It is regarded as desirable to obtain information from multiple sources (for example both parents, or a parent and a grandparent) as informants may give widely differing accounts of the child's problems. Collateral information is usually obtained from the child's school with regards to academic performance, peer relationships, and behavior in the school environment. Psychiatric assessment always includes a mental state examination of the child or adolescent which consists of a careful behavioral observation and a first-hand account of the young person's subjective experiences. This assessment also includes an observation of the interactions within the family, especially the interactions between the child and his/her parents. The assessment may be supplemented by the use of behavior or symptom rating scales such as the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist or CBCL, the Behavioral Assessment System for Children or BASC, Conners Comprehensive Behaviour Rating Scale (used for diagnosis of ADHD), Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory or MACI, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire or SDQ. While these instruments bring a degree of objectivity and consistency to the clinical assessment, the diagnosis of ADHD requires confirmation by a clinician experienced in the evaluation of youth with and without ADHD who supplements the findings with input from parents, teachers, and the youth themselves. More specialized psychometric testing may be carried out by a psychologist, for example using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, to detect intellectual impairment or other cognitive problems which may be contributing to the child's difficulties. Diagnosis and formulation The child and adolescent psychiatrist makes a diagnosis based on the pattern of behavior and emotional symptoms, using a standardized set of diagnostic criteria such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-V) or the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11). While the DSM system is widely used, it may not adequately take into account social, cultural and contextual factors and it has been suggested that an individualized clinical formulation may be more useful. A case formulation is standard practice for child and adolescent psychiatrists and can be defined as a process of integrating and summarizing all the relevant factors implicated in the development of the patient's problem, including biological, psychological, social and cultural perspectives (the "biopsychosocial model"). The applicability of DSM diagnoses have also been questioned with regard to the assessment of very young children: it is argued that very young children are developing too rapidly to be adequately described by a fixed diagnosis, and furthermore that a diagnosis unhelpfully locates the problem within the child when the parent-child relationship is a more appropriate focus of assessment. The child and adolescent psychiatrist then designs a treatment plan which considers all the components and discusses these recommendations with the child or adolescent and family. Treatment Treatment will usually involve one or more of the following elements: behavior therapy, cognitive-behavior therapy, problem-solving therapies, psychodynamic therapy, parent training programs, family therapy, and/or the use of medication. The intervention can also include consultation with pediatricians, primary care physicians or professionals from schools, juvenile courts, social agencies or other community organizations. In a review of existing meta-analyses and disorders on the four most frequent childhood and adolescent psychiatric disorders (anxiety disorder, depression, ADHD, conduct disorder), only for ADHD was the use of medication (stimulants) considered to be the most efficacious treatment option available. For the remaining three disorders, psychotherapy is recommended as the most effective treatment of choice. A combination of psychological and pharmacological treatments is an important option in ADHD and depressive disorders. Treatments for ADHD and anxiety disorders produce higher effect-sizes than do interventions for depressive and conduct disorders. Training In the United States, Child and adolescent psychiatric training requires 4 years of medical school, at least 4 years of approved residency training in medicine, neurology, and general psychiatry with adults, and 2 years of additional specialized training in psychiatric work with children, adolescents, and their families in an accredited residency in child and adolescent psychiatry. Child and adolescent sub-speciality training is similar in other Western countries (such as the UK, New Zealand, and Australia), in that trainees must generally demonstrate competency in general adult psychiatry prior to commencing sub-speciality training. Certification and continuing education In the US, having completed the child and adolescent psychiatry residency, the child and adolescent psychiatrist is eligible to take the additional certification examination in the subspecialty of child and adolescent psychiatry from the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology (ABPN) or the American Osteopathic Board of Neurology and Psychiatry (AOBNP). Although the ABPN and AOBNP examinations are not required for practice, they are a further assurance that the child and adolescent psychiatrist with these certifications can be expected to diagnose and treat all psychiatric conditions in patients of any age competently. Training requirements are listed on the web site of The American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. Shortage of child and adolescent psychiatrists in the United States The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (February 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The demand for child and adolescent psychiatrists continues to far outstrip the supply worldwide. There is also a severe maldistribution of child and adolescent psychiatrists, especially in rural and poor, urban areas where access is significantly reduced. As of 2016, there are 7991 child and adolescent psychiatrists in the United States. A report by the US Bureau of Health Professions (2000) projected a need by the year 2020 for 12,624 child and adolescent psychiatrists, but a supply of only 8,312. In its 1998 report, the Center for Mental Health Services estimated that 9-13% of 9- to 17-year-olds had serious emotional disturbances, and 5-9% had extreme functional impairments. In 1999, however, the Surgeon General reported that "there is a dearth of child psychiatrists." Only 20% of emotionally disturbed children and adolescents received any mental health treatment, a small percentage of which was performed by child and adolescent psychiatrists. Furthermore, the US Bureau of Health Professions projects that the demand for child and adolescent psychiatry services will increase by 100% between 1995 and 2020. Cross-cultural considerations Steady growth in migration of immigrants to higher-income regions and countries has contributed to the growth and interest in cross-cultural psychiatry. Families of immigrants whose child has a psychiatric illness must come to understand the disorder while navigating an unfamiliar health care system. Criticisms Subjective diagnoses One criticism against psychiatry is that psychiatric diagnoses lack complete "objectivity," particularly when compared with diagnoses in other medical specialties. However, for several major psychiatric disorders interrater reliability, which shows the degree to which psychiatrists agree on the diagnosis, is generally similar to those in other medical specialties. In 2013, Allen Frances said that "psychiatric diagnosis still relies exclusively on fallible subjective judgments rather than objective biological tests." Traditional deficit and disease models of child psychiatry have been criticized as rooted in the medical model which conceptualizes adjustment problems in terms of disease states. It is said by these critics that these normative models explicitly characterize problematic behavior as representing a disorder within the child or young person and these commentators assert that the role of environmental influences on behavior has become increasingly neglected, leading to a decrease in the popularity of, for example, family therapy. There are criticisms of the medical model approach from within and without the psychiatric profession (see references): it is said to neglect the role of environmental, family, and cultural influences, to discount the psychological meaning of behavior and symptoms, to promote a view of the "patient" as dependent and needing to be cured or cared for and therefore undermines a sense of personal responsibility for conduct and behavior, to promote a normative conception based on adaptation to the norms of society (the ill person must adapt to society), and to be based on the shaky foundations of reliance on a classificatory system that has been shown to have problems of validity and reliability (Boorse, 1976; Jensen, 2003; Sadler et al. 1994; Timimi, 2006). Prescription of psychotropic medications Since the late 1990s, use of psychiatric medication has become increasingly common for children and adolescents. In 2004 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued the Black Box Warning on antidepressant prescriptions to alert patients of a research link between use of medication and apparent increased risk of suicidal thoughts, hostility, and agitation in pediatric patients. The most common diagnoses for which children receive psychiatric medication are ADHD, ODD, and conduct disorder. Some research suggests that children and adolescents are sometimes given antipsychotic drugs as a first-line treatment for mental health problems or behavioral issues other than a psychotic disorder. In the United States, the usage of these drugs in young people has greatly increased since 2000, especially among children from low-income families. More research is needed to specifically assess the efficacy and tolerability of antipsychotic medications in pediatric populations. Because of the risk of metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular events with long-term antipsychotic use, use in pediatric populations is highly scrutinized and recommended in combination with psychotherapy and effective parent-training interventions. Electroconvulsive therapy In 1947, child neuropsychiatrist Lauretta Bender published a study on 98 children aged between four and eleven years old who had been treated in the previous five years with intensive courses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). These children received ECT daily for a typical course of approximately twenty treatments. This formed part of an experimental trend amongst a cadre of psychiatrists to explore the therapeutic impact of intensive regimes of ECT, which is also known as either regressive ECT or annihilation therapy. In the 1950s Bender abandoned ECT as a therapeutic practice for the treatment of children. In the same decade the results of her published work on the use of ECT in children was discredited after a study showing that the condition of the children so treated had either not improved or deteriorated. Commenting on his experience as part of Bender's therapeutic program, Ted Chabasinski said that, "It really made a mess of me ... I went from being a shy kid who read a lot to a terrified kid who cried all the time." Following his treatment, he spent ten years as an inmate of Rockland State Hospital, a psychiatric facility now known as the Rockland Psychiatric Center. History When psychiatrists and pediatricians first began to recognize and discuss childhood psychiatric disorders in the 19th century, they were largely influenced by literary works of the Victorian era. Authors like the Brontë sisters, George Eliot, and Charles Dickens, introduced new ways of thinking about the child mind and the potential influence early childhood experiences could have on child development and the subsequent adult mind. When the Journal of Psychological Medicine and Mental Pathology, the first psychiatric journal in English, was published in 1848, child psychiatry didn't exist as its own field yet. However, some of the earliest works on the possibility of nervous disorders and "insanity" in children were published in the Journal and several medical writers directly referenced works such as Jane Eyre (1847), Wuthering Heights (1847), Dombey and Son (1848), and David Copperfield (1850), to illustrate this new conceptualization of the child mind. Until that time, it was generally accepted that children were free from nervous disorders and the "passions" that affected the adult mind. As early as 1899, the term "child psychiatry" (in French) was used as a subtitle in Manheimer's monograph Les Troubles Mentaux de l'Enfance. However, the Swiss psychiatrist Moritz Tramer (1882–1963) was probably the first to define the parameters of child psychiatry in terms of diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis within the discipline of medicine, in 1933. In 1934, Tramer founded the Zeitschrift für Kinderpsychiatrie (Journal of Child Psychiatry), which later became Acta Paedopsychiatria. The first academic child psychiatry department in the world was founded in 1930 by Leo Kanner (1894–1981), an Austrian émigré and medical graduate of the University of Berlin, under the direction of Adolf Meyer at the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore. Kanner was the very first physician to be identified as a child psychiatrist in the US and his textbook, Child Psychiatry (1935), is credited with introducing both the specialty and the term to the anglophone academic community. In 1936, Kanner established the first formal elective course in child psychiatry at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. In 1944 he provided the first clinical description of early infantile autism, otherwise known as Kanner Syndrome. Maria Montessori together with It:Giuseppe Ferruccio Montesano and Clodomiro Bonfigli, two distinguished child psychiatrists, created in 1901 in Italy the "Lega Nazionale per la Protezione del Fanciullo" (National League for the Protection of Children). She gradually developed her own pedagogic method, initially based on the "intuition that the question of the 'mentally deficient' was more pedagogic than medical". In 1909, Jane Addams and her female colleagues established the Juvenile Psychopathic Institute (JPI) in Chicago, later renamed as the Institute for Juvenile Research (IJR), the world's first child guidance clinic. Neurologist William Healy, M.D., its first director, was charged with not only studying the delinquent's biological aspects of brain functioning and IQ, but also the delinquent's social factors, attitudes, and motivations, thus it was the birthplace of American child psychiatry. From its establishment in February 1923, the Maudsley Hospital, a South London-based postgraduate teaching and research psychiatric hospital, contained a small children's department. Similar overall early developments took place in many other countries during the late 1920s and 1930s. In the United States, child and adolescent psychiatry was established as a recognized medical speciality in 1953 with the founding of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, but was not established as a legitimate, board-certifiable medical speciality until 1959. The use of medication in the treatment of children also began in the 1930s, when Charles Bradley opened a neuropsychiatric unit and was the first to use amphetamine for brain-damaged and hyperactive children. But it was not until the 1960s that the first NIH grant to study paediatric psychopharmacology was awarded. It went to one of Kanner's students, Leon Eisenberg, the second director of the division. The discipline has relatively flourished since the 1980s, in large part, because of contributions made in the 1970s, even if the outcomes for patients have been disappointing at times. It was a decade during which child psychiatry witnessed a major evolution as a result of the work carried out by, Eva Frommer, Douglas Haldane, Michael Rutter, Robin Skynner and Sula Wolff, among others. The first comprehensive population survey of 9- to 11-year-olds, carried out in London and the Isle of Wight, which appeared in 1970, addressed questions that have continued to be of importance for child psychiatry; for example, rates of psychiatric disorders, the role of intellectual development and physical impairment, and specific concern for potential social influences on children's adjustment. This work was influential, especially since the investigators demonstrated specific continuities of psychopathology over time, and the influence of social and contextual factors in children's mental health, in their subsequent re-evaluation of the original cohort of children. These studies described the prevalence of ADHD (relatively low as compared to the US), identified the onset and prevalence of depression in mid-adolescence and the frequent co-morbidity with conduct disorder, and explored the relationship between various mental disorders and scholastic achievement. It was paralleled similarly by work on the epidemiology of autism that was to enormously increase the number of children diagnosed with autism in future years. Although attention had been given in the 1960s and '70s to the classification of childhood psychiatric disorders, and some issues had then been delineated, such as the distinction between neurotic and conduct disorders, the nomenclature did not parallel the growing clinical knowledge. It was claimed that this situation was altered in the late 1970s with the development of the DSM-III system of classification, although research has shown that this system of classification has problems of validity and reliability. Since then, the DSM-IV and DSM-IVR have altered some of the parsing of psychiatric disorders into "childhood" and "adult" disorders, on the basis that while many psychiatric disorders are not diagnosed until adulthood, they may present in childhood or adolescence (DSM-IV).. The American Psychiatric Association's DSM is now on its fifth edition (DSM-5). People in the field are sometimes referred to as "neurodevelopmentalists". As of 2005 there was debate in the field as to whether "neurodevelopmentalist" should be made a new speciality. In terms of patient outcomes, there is evidence that, in the United Kingdom at least on the 70th anniversary of the NHS, mental health remains a medical "Cinderella" (low priority) and the more so Child and Adolescent Health services which have been through repeated reorganisations and underinvestment all of which leads to disruption and loss of adequate provision. "Modern neuroscience, genetics, epigenetics, and public health research has presented the tantalizing possibility that it can now be said with relative certainty that much (certainly not all) is understood about why some children struggle and others soar. Although it is an oversimplification, it can now be suggested that it is possible to understand how environmental factors, both negative and positive, influence the genome or epigenome, which in turn influence the structure and function of the brain and thus human thoughts, actions, and behaviors." See also Biological psychiatry Mental disorders diagnosed in childhood Child Guidance Child psychopathology Consultation-liaison psychiatry Developmental disorders Medical model Neuropsychiatry Psychiatry Anti-psychiatry Biopsychiatry controversy Controversy about ADHD Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services - NHS service provision in the United Kingdom Rennie v. Klein - right to refuse treatment Notes ^ Sadock, Benjamin J; Sadock, Virginia A; Kaplan, Harold I (2009), Kaplan and Sadock's Concise Textbook of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, ISBN 9780781793872 ^ Weller, Bridget E.; Blanford, Kathryn L.; Butler, Ashley M. (2018). "Estimated Prevalence of Psychiatric Comorbidities in U.S. Adolescents With Depression by Race/Ethnicity, 2011-2012". The Journal of Adolescent Health. 62 (6): 716–721. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.12.020. ISSN 1879-1972. PMID 29784115. S2CID 29157841. ^ Rutter, Michael and Taylor, Eric. Chapter 2, Clinical assessment and diagnostic formulation. In Rutter and Taylor (2002) ^ Angold, Adrian. Chapter 3, Diagnostic interviews with parents and children. In Rutter and Taylor (2002) ^ Verhulst, Frank and Van der Ende, Jan. Chapter 5, Rating scales. In Rutter and Taylor (2002) ^ Peterson, Bradley S.; Trampush, Joey; Brown, Morah; Maglione, Margaret; Bolshakova, Maria; Rozelle, Mary; Miles, Jeremy; Pakdaman, Sheila; Yagyu, Sachi; Motala, Aneesa; Hempel, Susanne (2024-04-01). "Tools for the Diagnosis of ADHD in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review". Pediatrics. 153 (4). doi:10.1542/peds.2024-065854. ISSN 0031-4005. PMID 38523599. ^ Sergeant, Joseph and Taylor, Eric. Chapter 6, Psychological testing and observation. In Rutter and Taylor (2002) ^ American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596. ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8. {{cite book}}: \|website= ignored (help) ^ "ICD-11". icd.who.int. ^ Rousseau, Cécile; Measham, Toby; Bathiche-Suidan, Marie (2008), "DSM IV, Culture and Child Psychiatry", Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 17 (2): 69–75, PMC 2387108, PMID 18516309 ^ Winters, Nancy; Hanson, Graeme; Stoyanova, Veneta (January 2007), "The Case Formulation in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry", Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 16 (1): 111–132, doi:10.1016/j.chc.2006.07.010, PMID 17141121 ^ Egger, Helen (July 2009), "Psychiatric assessment of young children", Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 18 (3): 559–580, doi:10.1016/j.chc.2009.02.004, PMID 19486838 ^ Herbert, Martin. Chapter 53, Behavioural therapies, in Rutter and Taylor (2002) ^ Brent, David, Gaynor, Scott and Weersing, Robin. Chapter 54, Cognitive-behavioural approaches to the treatment of depression and anxiety. In Rutter and Taylor (2002) ^ Compas, Bruce, Benson, Molly et al. Chapter 55, Problem-solving and problem-solving therapies, in Rutter and Taylor (2002) ^ Lieberman A.F.; Van Horn P.; Ippen C.G. (2005). "Towards evidence-based treatment: Child-parent psychotherapy with preschoolers exposed to marital violence". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 44 (12): 1241–1248. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000181047.59702.58. PMID 16292115. ^ Schechter DS, Willheim E (2009). "When parenting becomes unthinkable: Intervening with traumatized parents and their toddlers". Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 48 (3): 249–254. doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e3181948ff1. PMID 19242290. ^ Scott, Stephen. Chapter 56, Parent training programmes, in Rutter and Taylor (2002) ^ Jacobs, Brian and Peaarse, Joanna.Chapter 57, Family therapy, in Rutter and Taylor (2002) ^ Heyman, Isobel and Santosh, Paramala. Chapter 59, Pharmacological and other physical treatments, in Rutter and Taylor (2002) ^ Rauch, Paula and Jellinek, Michael. Chapter 62, Paediatric consultation, in Rutter and Taylor (2002) ^ Garralda, Elena. Chapter 65, Primary health care psychiatry, in Rutter and Taylor (2002) ^ Nicol, Rory. Chapter 64, Practice in non-medical settings, in Rutter and Taylor (2002) ^ Bachmann, Mareile; Bachmann, Christian J.; John, Katja; Heinzel-Gutenbrunner, Monika; Remschmidt, Helmut; Mattejat, Fritz (June 2010). "The effectiveness of child and adolescent psychiatric treatments in a naturalistic outpatient setting". World Psychiatry. 9 (2): 111–117. doi:10.1002/j.2051-5545.2010.tb00288.x. PMC 2911091. PMID 20671900. ^ Bachmann, Mareile; Bachmann, Christian; Rief, Winfried; Mattejat, Fritz (January 2008). "Wirksamkeit psychiatrischer und psychotherapeutischer Behandlungen bei psychischen Störungen von Kindern und Jugendlichen: Eine systematische Auswertung der Ergebnisse von Metaanalysen und Reviews. Teil II: ADHS und Störungen des Sozialverhaltens". Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie. 36 (5): 321–333. doi:10.1024/1422-4917.36.5.321. PMID 18791982. ^ "What is Child and Adolescent Psychiatry?". www.aacap.org. Retrieved 2021-03-19. ^ "Specialties & Subspecialties". American Osteopathic Association. Archived from the original on 2015-08-13. Retrieved 18 September 2012. ^ AACAP Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine ^ Thomas, Christopher; Holzer, Charles (2006), "The continuing shortage of child and adolescent psychiatrists", Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45 (9): 1023–31, doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000225353.16831.5d, PMID 16840879, S2CID 17187044 ^ "Child and Adolescent Psychiatry as a Career". www.aacap.org. Retrieved 2021-03-19. ^ Wintrob R. Cross-cultural psychiatry. Psychiatric Times. 2010;27:27. ^ Measham T, Guzder J, Rousseau C, Nadeau L. Cultural considerations in child and adolescent psychiatry. Psychiatric Times. 2010;27:38-40. ^ Ronald Pies (October 2007). "How "Objective" Are Psychiatric Diagnoses?". Psychiatry (Edgmont). 4 (10): 18–22. PMC 2860522. PMID 20428307. ^ Frances, Allen (6 August 2013). "The new crisis of confidence in psychiatric diagnosis". Annals of Internal Medicine. 159 (2): 221–222. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-159-3-201308060-00655. PMID 23685989. S2CID 8486296. ^ Frances, Allen (January 2013). "The past, present and future of psychiatric diagnosis". World Psychiatry. 12 (2): 111–112. doi:10.1002/wps.20027. PMC 3683254. PMID 23737411. ^ Webber, Jo., Plotts, Cynthia A. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Theory and Practice 5th Edition. 2008. Pearson Education: New York, NY. p. 98. ^ a b c American Psychiatric Association (September 2013), "Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question", Choosing Wisely: an initiative of the ABIM Foundation, American Psychiatric Association, retrieved 30 December 2013, which cites Correll, CU (Apr 2008). "Monitoring and management of antipsychotic-related metabolic and endocrine adverse events in pediatric patients". International Review of Psychiatry. 20 (2): 195–201. doi:10.1080/09540260801889179. PMID 18386212. S2CID 26570095. McClellan, J; Kowatch, R; Findling, RL; Work Group on Quality, Issues (Jan 2007). "Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with bipolar disorder". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 46 (1): 107–25. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000242240.69678.c4. PMID 17195735. S2CID 689321. Loy, JH; Merry, SN; Hetrick, SE; Stasiak, K (9 August 2017). "Atypical antipsychotics for disruptive behaviour disorders in children and youths". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2017 (8): CD008559. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008559.pub3. PMC 6483473. PMID 28791693. Zito, JM; Burcu, M; Ibe, A; Safer, DJ; Magder, LS (Mar 1, 2013). "Antipsychotic use by medicaid-insured youths: impact of eligibility and psychiatric diagnosis across a decade". Psychiatric Services. 64 (3): 223–9. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201200081. PMID 23242390. ^ Rey, Joseph M., and Walter, Gary (May 1997). "Half a century of ECT use in young people". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 154 (5): 595–602. doi:10.1176/ajp.154.5.595. PMID 9137112.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Shorter, Edward, and Healy, David (2007). Shock therapy : a history of electroconvulsive treatment in mental illness (1. publ. ed.). New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-8135-4169-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Boodman, Sandra G. (24 September 1996). "Shock therapy: it's back". Washington Post. ^ Sullivan, Valerie (30 October 1982). "General news: Berkeley, California". United Press International. ^ Hill, Gladwin (31 October 1982). "Now therapy by the ballot". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 March 2011. ^ a b Shuttleworth, Sally (January 2012), "Victorian visions of child development", The Lancet, 379 (9812): 212–213, doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(12)60091-9, PMID 22272394, S2CID 35218208 ^ Manheimer, Marcel (1900), "Les troubles mentaux de l'enfance (review)", Journal of Mental Science, 46 (193): 342–343, doi:10.1192/bjp.46.193.342. ^ Eliasberg, WG (July 1964), "In memoriam: Moritz Tramer M.D.(1882-1963)", American Journal of Psychiatry, 121: 103–4, doi:10.1176/ajp.121.1.103, PMID 14154770 ^ a b c d "Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the Johns Hopkins Hospital". Archived from the original on 2009-08-21. Retrieved 2009-07-22. ^ Neumärker, K.-J. (2003), "Leo Kanner: His Years in Berlin, 1906–24. The Roots of Autistic Disorder", History of Psychiatry, 14 (2): 205–208, doi:10.1177/0957154X030142005, PMID 14518490, S2CID 2513608 ^ Caffo, E. (1999), "Child and adolescent psychiatry in Italy", in Remschmidt, H.; van Engeland, H. (eds.), Child and Adolescent Psychiatry in Europe, Steinkopff, pp. 187–196, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-96003-1_15, ISBN 978-3-642-96005-5 ^ Beuttler, Fred and Bell, Carl (2010). For the Welfare of Every Child – A Brief History of the Institute for Juvenile Research, 1909 – 2010. University of Illinois: Chicago ^ Schowalter, John E. (2000). Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Comes of Age, 1944-1994. In Menninger RW and Nemiah JC (Eds). American Psychiatry After World War II – 1944 – 1994. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, p. 461 – 480 ^ Evans, Bonnie; Rahman, Shahina; Jones, Edgar (2008-12-01), "Managing the 'unmanageable': interwar child psychiatry at the Maudsley Hospital, London", History of Psychiatry, 19 (4): 454–475, doi:10.1177/0957154X08089619, PMC 2801544, PMID 19397089 ^ EVANS, BONNIE; RAHMAN, SHAHINA; JONES, EDGAR (December 2008). "Managing the 'unmanageable': interwar child psychiatry at the Maudsley Hospital, London". History of Psychiatry. 19 (76 Pt 4): 454–475. doi:10.1177/0957154X08089619. ISSN 0957-154X. PMC 2801544. PMID 19397089. ^ "About Us". AACAP. Archived from the original on 21 April 2011. Retrieved 25 March 2011. ^ Kutchins, Herb; Kirk, Stuart A. (1992). The selling of DSM: the rhetoric of science in psychiatry. New York: A. de Gruyter. ISBN 978-0-202-30431-1. ^ Strohl, Madeleine P. (March 2011). "Bradley's Benzedrine Studies on Children with Behavioral Disorders". The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 84 (1): 27–33. ISSN 0044-0086. PMC 3064242. PMID 21451781. ^ Green, Jonathan; Yule, William (2001), "Foreword", in Jonathan Green and William Yule (ed.), Research and Innovation on the Road to Modern Child Psychiatry: Festschrift for Professor Sir Michael Rutter, London, p. vii{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link); Stevenson, Jim (2001), "The Significance of Genetic Variation for Abnormal Behavioural Development", in Jonathan Green and William Yule (ed.), Research and Innovation on the Road to Modern Child Psychiatry: Festschrift for Professor Sir Michael Rutter, London, p. 20{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Rutter, Michael (1990), Chapter 7, Isle of Wight Revisited, Twenty-five years of child psychiatric epidemiology. In Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry and Child Development. Chess, Stella and Herzig, Margaret (eds), Psychology Press, ISBN 978-0-87630-602-4 ^ Evans, Bonnie (July 2013). "How autism became autism". History of the Human Sciences. 26 (3): 3–31. doi:10.1177/0952695113484320. ISSN 0952-6951. PMC 3757918. PMID 24014081. ^ Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994 ^ Shea, SE; Gordon, K; Hawkins, A; Kawchuk, J; Smith, D (12 December 2000). "Pathology in the Hundred Acre Wood: a neurodevelopmental perspective on A.A. Milne". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 163 (12): 1557–9. PMC 80580. PMID 11153486. ^ "International Child Neurology Association Newsletter: Excerpts". Pediatric Neurology. 17 (1): 92–93. July 1997. doi:10.1016/S0887-8994(97)90006-0. ^ ALARCÓN, RENATO D. (June 2005). "Psychiatry, 2nd ed". American Journal of Psychiatry. 162 (6): 1234–1236. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.6.1234. ^ Barrett, Susan (2019). "From Adult Asylums to CAMHS Community Care: the Evolution of Specialist Mental Health Care for Children and Adolescents 1948-2018". Revue Française de Civilisation Britannique, XXIV-3. XXIV (3). doi:10.4000/rfcb.4138. ^ Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am 26 (2017) 611–624 References Rutter, Michael; Bishop, Dorothy; Pine, Daniel; Scott, Steven; Stevenson, Jim S.; Taylor, Eric A.; Thapar, Anita (2010), Rutter's Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (5th ed.), Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-4593-0 Goodman, Robert; Scott, Steven (2012), Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-119-97968-5 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Child and adolescent psychiatry. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry IACAPAP website (International Association of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Allied Professions) European Psychiatric Association: Child and Adolescent Psychiatry NIMH Child Psychiatry Branch Homepage Encyclopædia Britannica Classification of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence: building castles in the sand? Cultural Diversity in the Development of Child Psychopathology Resources For Outpatient Children's Mental Health Treatment vtePsychiatrySubspecialties Addiction psychiatry Biological psychiatry Child and adolescent psychiatry Cognitive neuropsychiatry Cross-cultural psychiatry Developmental disability Descriptive psychiatry Eating disorder Emergency psychiatry Forensic psychiatry Geriatric psychiatry Immuno-psychiatry Liaison psychiatry Military psychiatry Narcology Neuropsychiatry Palliative medicine Pain medicine Psychotherapy Sleep medicine Telepsychiatry Organizations American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology American Neuropsychiatric Association American Psychiatric Association Campaign Against Psychiatric Abuse Chinese Society of Psychiatry Democratic Psychiatry European Psychiatric Association Global Initiative on Psychiatry Hong Kong College of Psychiatrists Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia Indian Psychiatric Society National Institute of Mental Health Philadelphia Association Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists Royal College of Psychiatrists Taiwanese Society of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry for Political Purposes World Psychiatric Association Related topics Behavioral medicine Clinical neuroscience Controversies about psychiatry Anti-psychiatry Biopsychiatry controversy Electroconvulsive therapy Insulin shock therapy Political abuse of psychiatry Psychiatric survivors movement Imaging genetics Neuroimaging Neurophysiology Pentylenetetrazol Philosophy of psychiatry Psychiatric epidemiology Psychiatric genetics Psychiatric hospital Psychiatrist Psychoanalysis Psycho-oncology Psychopharmacology Psychosomatic medicine Psychosurgery Lists Counseling topics Neurological conditions and disorders Psychiatric medications by condition treated Psychiatric survivors movement Psychiatrists Psychotherapies Portal Outline Authority control databases: National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"psychiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatry"},{"link_name":"mental disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disorders"},{"link_name":"children","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children"},{"link_name":"adolescents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolescents"},{"link_name":"biopsychosocial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsychosocial"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Child and adolescent psychiatry (or pediatric psychiatry) is a branch of psychiatry that focuses on the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders in children, adolescents, and their families. It investigates the biopsychosocial factors that influence the development and course of psychiatric disorders and treatment responses to various interventions.[1] Child and adolescent psychiatrists primarily use psychotherapy and/or medication to treat mental disorders in the pediatric population.","title":"Child and adolescent psychiatry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"autism spectrum disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_spectrum_disorder"},{"link_name":"learning disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_disorder"},{"link_name":"attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder"},{"link_name":"oppositional defiant disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppositional_defiant_disorder"},{"link_name":"conduct disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conduct_disorder"},{"link_name":"Childhood schizophrenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_schizophrenia"},{"link_name":"Major depressive disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder"},{"link_name":"bipolar disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder_in_children"},{"link_name":"persistent depressive disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_depressive_disorder"},{"link_name":"disruptive mood dysregulation disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disruptive_mood_dysregulation_disorder"},{"link_name":"anorexia nervosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa"},{"link_name":"bulimia nervosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa"},{"link_name":"binge eating disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binge_eating_disorder"},{"link_name":"avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avoidant/restrictive_food_intake_disorder"},{"link_name":"pica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pica_(disorder)"},{"link_name":"panic disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panic_disorder"},{"link_name":"phobias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_phobia"},{"link_name":"Generalized anxiety disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_anxiety_disorder"},{"link_name":"substance use disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance_use_disorder"},{"link_name":"alcohol use disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_use_disorder"},{"link_name":"cannabis use disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_use_disorder"},{"link_name":"major depressive disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder"},{"link_name":"generalized anxiety disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_anxiety_disorder"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"There are many classifications of disorders. Developmental disorders include autism spectrum disorder and learning disorders, and some attention and behaviors disorders are attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder. Childhood schizophrenia is an example of a psychotic disorder. Major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, persistent depressive disorder, and disruptive mood dysregulation disorder are under the classification of mood disorders.A wide range of disorders that are classified as eating disorders include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID), and pica. Some anxiety disorders are panic disorder, phobias, and Generalized anxiety disorder. Lastly, substance use disorders can be specified to specific substances, such as alcohol use disorder or cannabis use disorder.Disorders are often comorbid. For example, an adolescent can be diagnosed with both major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. The incidence of psychiatric comorbidities during adolescence may vary by race, ethnicity and socioeconomic status, among other variables.[2]","title":"Classification of disorders"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Clinical practice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"psychiatric assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_assessment"},{"link_name":"child","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child"},{"link_name":"adolescent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolescent"},{"link_name":"psychiatric history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_history"},{"link_name":"development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_development"},{"link_name":"abuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_abuse"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"mental state examination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_state_examination"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Conners Comprehensive Behaviour Rating Scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conners_Comprehensive_Behaviour_Rating_Scale"},{"link_name":"ADHD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADHD"},{"link_name":"Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strengths_and_Difficulties_Questionnaire"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"psychometric testing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychometric_testing"},{"link_name":"Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wechsler_Intelligence_Scale_for_Children"},{"link_name":"intellectual impairment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_impairment"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Assessment","text":"The psychiatric assessment of a child or adolescent starts with obtaining a psychiatric history by interviewing the young person and his/her parents or caregivers. The assessment includes a detailed exploration of the current concerns about the child's emotional or behavioral problems, the child's physical health and development, history of parental care (including possible abuse and neglect), family relationships and history of parental mental illness. It is regarded as desirable to obtain information from multiple sources (for example both parents, or a parent and a grandparent) as informants may give widely differing accounts of the child's problems. Collateral information is usually obtained from the child's school with regards to academic performance, peer relationships, and behavior in the school environment.[3]Psychiatric assessment always includes a mental state examination of the child or adolescent which consists of a careful behavioral observation and a first-hand account of the young person's subjective experiences. This assessment also includes an observation of the interactions within the family, especially the interactions between the child and his/her parents.[4]The assessment may be supplemented by the use of behavior or symptom rating scales such as the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist or CBCL, the Behavioral Assessment System for Children or BASC, Conners Comprehensive Behaviour Rating Scale (used for diagnosis of ADHD), Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory or MACI, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire or SDQ. While these instruments bring a degree of objectivity and consistency to the clinical assessment,[5] the diagnosis of ADHD requires confirmation by a clinician experienced in the evaluation of youth with and without ADHD who supplements the findings with input from parents, teachers, and the youth themselves.[6]More specialized psychometric testing may be carried out by a psychologist, for example using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, to detect intellectual impairment or other cognitive problems which may be contributing to the child's difficulties.[7]","title":"Clinical practice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"International Classification of Diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Classification_of_Diseases"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"clinical formulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_formulation"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"case formulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_formulation"},{"link_name":"biopsychosocial model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsychosocial_model"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Diagnosis and formulation","text":"The child and adolescent psychiatrist makes a diagnosis based on the pattern of behavior and emotional symptoms, using a standardized set of diagnostic criteria such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-V)[8] or the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11).[9] While the DSM system is widely used, it may not adequately take into account social, cultural and contextual factors and it has been suggested that an individualized clinical formulation may be more useful.[10] A case formulation is standard practice for child and adolescent psychiatrists and can be defined as a process of integrating and summarizing all the relevant factors implicated in the development of the patient's problem, including biological, psychological, social and cultural perspectives (the \"biopsychosocial model\").[11] The applicability of DSM diagnoses have also been questioned with regard to the assessment of very young children: it is argued that very young children are developing too rapidly to be adequately described by a fixed diagnosis, and furthermore that a diagnosis unhelpfully locates the problem within the child when the parent-child relationship is a more appropriate focus of assessment.[12]The child and adolescent psychiatrist then designs a treatment plan which considers all the components and discusses these recommendations with the child or adolescent and family.","title":"Clinical practice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"primary care physicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_care_physician"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Treatment","text":"Treatment will usually involve one or more of the following elements: behavior therapy,[13] cognitive-behavior therapy,[14] problem-solving therapies,[15] psychodynamic therapy,[16][17] parent training programs,[18] family therapy,[19] and/or the use of medication.[20] The intervention can also include consultation with pediatricians,[21] primary care physicians[22] or professionals from schools, juvenile courts, social agencies or other community organizations.[23]In a review of existing meta-analyses and disorders on the four most frequent childhood and adolescent psychiatric disorders (anxiety disorder, depression, ADHD, conduct disorder), only for ADHD was the use of medication (stimulants) considered to be the most efficacious treatment option available. For the remaining three disorders, psychotherapy is recommended as the most effective treatment of choice. A combination of psychological and pharmacological treatments is an important option in ADHD and depressive disorders. Treatments for ADHD and anxiety disorders produce higher effect-sizes than do interventions for depressive and conduct disorders.[24][25]","title":"Clinical practice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"In the United States, Child and adolescent psychiatric training requires 4 years of medical school, at least 4 years of approved residency training in medicine, neurology, and general psychiatry with adults, and 2 years of additional specialized training in psychiatric work with children, adolescents, and their families in an accredited residency in child and adolescent psychiatry.[26] Child and adolescent sub-speciality training is similar in other Western countries (such as the UK, New Zealand, and Australia), in that trainees must generally demonstrate competency in general adult psychiatry prior to commencing sub-speciality training.","title":"Training"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Board_of_Psychiatry_and_Neurology"},{"link_name":"American Osteopathic Board of Neurology and Psychiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Osteopathic_Board_of_Neurology_and_Psychiatry"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Certification and continuing education","text":"In the US, having completed the child and adolescent psychiatry residency, the child and adolescent psychiatrist is eligible to take the additional certification examination in the subspecialty of child and adolescent psychiatry from the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology (ABPN) or the American Osteopathic Board of Neurology and Psychiatry (AOBNP).[27] Although the ABPN and AOBNP examinations are not required for practice, they are a further assurance that the child and adolescent psychiatrist with these certifications can be expected to diagnose and treat all psychiatric conditions in patients of any age competently. Training requirements are listed on the web site of The American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry.[28]","title":"Training"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Shortage of child and adolescent psychiatrists in the United States","text":"The demand for child and adolescent psychiatrists continues to far outstrip the supply worldwide. There is also a severe maldistribution of child and adolescent psychiatrists, especially in rural and poor, urban areas where access is significantly reduced.[29] As of 2016, there are 7991 child and adolescent psychiatrists in the United States. A report by the US Bureau of Health Professions (2000) projected a need by the year 2020 for 12,624 child and adolescent psychiatrists, but a supply of only 8,312. In its 1998 report, the Center for Mental Health Services estimated that 9-13% of 9- to 17-year-olds had serious emotional disturbances, and 5-9% had extreme functional impairments. In 1999, however, the Surgeon General reported that \"there is a dearth of child psychiatrists.\" Only 20% of emotionally disturbed children and adolescents received any mental health treatment, a small percentage of which was performed by child and adolescent psychiatrists. Furthermore, the US Bureau of Health Professions projects that the demand for child and adolescent psychiatry services will increase by 100% between 1995 and 2020.[30]","title":"Training"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"Cross-cultural considerations","text":"Steady growth in migration of immigrants to higher-income regions and countries has contributed to the growth and interest in cross-cultural psychiatry. Families of immigrants whose child has a psychiatric illness must come to understand the disorder while navigating an unfamiliar health care system.[31][32]","title":"Training"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Criticisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"interrater reliability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrater_reliability"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Allen Frances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Frances"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-frana-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"medical model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_model"},{"link_name":"full citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include"}],"sub_title":"Subjective diagnoses","text":"One criticism against psychiatry is that psychiatric diagnoses lack complete \"objectivity,\" particularly when compared with diagnoses in other medical specialties. However, for several major psychiatric disorders interrater reliability, which shows the degree to which psychiatrists agree on the diagnosis, is generally similar to those in other medical specialties.[33] In 2013, Allen Frances said that \"psychiatric diagnosis still relies exclusively on fallible subjective judgments rather than objective biological tests.\"[34][35]Traditional deficit and disease models of child psychiatry have been criticized as rooted in the medical model which conceptualizes adjustment problems in terms of disease states. It is said by these critics that these normative models explicitly characterize problematic behavior as representing a disorder within the child or young person and these commentators assert that the role of environmental influences on behavior has become increasingly neglected, leading to a decrease in the popularity of, for example, family therapy. There are criticisms of the medical model approach from within and without the psychiatric profession (see references): it is said to neglect the role of environmental, family, and cultural influences, to discount the psychological meaning of behavior and symptoms, to promote a view of the \"patient\" as dependent and needing to be cured or cared for and therefore undermines a sense of personal responsibility for conduct and behavior, to promote a normative conception based on adaptation to the norms of society (the ill person must adapt to society), and to be based on the shaky foundations of reliance on a classificatory system that has been shown to have problems of validity and reliability (Boorse, 1976; Jensen, 2003; Sadler et al. 1994; Timimi, 2006).[full citation needed]","title":"Criticisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Food and Drug Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration"},{"link_name":"Black Box Warning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Box_Warning"},{"link_name":"antidepressant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidepressant"},{"link_name":"ODD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppositional_defiant_disorder"},{"link_name":"conduct disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conduct_disorder"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-APAfive_children-37"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-APAfive_children-37"},{"link_name":"metabolic syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_syndrome"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-APAfive_children-37"}],"sub_title":"Prescription of psychotropic medications","text":"Since the late 1990s, use of psychiatric medication has become increasingly common for children and adolescents. In 2004 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued the Black Box Warning on antidepressant prescriptions to alert patients of a research link between use of medication and apparent increased risk of suicidal thoughts, hostility, and agitation in pediatric patients. The most common diagnoses for which children receive psychiatric medication are ADHD, ODD, and conduct disorder.[36]Some research suggests that children and adolescents are sometimes given antipsychotic drugs as a first-line treatment for mental health problems or behavioral issues other than a psychotic disorder.[37] In the United States, the usage of these drugs in young people has greatly increased since 2000, especially among children from low-income families.[37] More research is needed to specifically assess the efficacy and tolerability of antipsychotic medications in pediatric populations. Because of the risk of metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular events with long-term antipsychotic use, use in pediatric populations is highly scrutinized and recommended in combination with psychotherapy and effective parent-training interventions.[37]","title":"Criticisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lauretta Bender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauretta_Bender"},{"link_name":"electroconvulsive therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shock-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WP1996-40"},{"link_name":"Ted Chabasinski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Chabasinski"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UPI-41"},{"link_name":"Rockland State Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockland_State_Hospital"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT31Oct1982-42"}],"sub_title":"Electroconvulsive therapy","text":"In 1947, child neuropsychiatrist Lauretta Bender published a study on 98 children aged between four and eleven years old who had been treated in the previous five years with intensive courses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). These children received ECT daily for a typical course of approximately twenty treatments.[38] This formed part of an experimental trend amongst a cadre of psychiatrists to explore the therapeutic impact of intensive regimes of ECT, which is also known as either regressive ECT or annihilation therapy.[39] In the 1950s Bender abandoned ECT as a therapeutic practice for the treatment of children. In the same decade the results of her published work on the use of ECT in children was discredited after a study showing that the condition of the children so treated had either not improved or deteriorated.[40] Commenting on his experience as part of Bender's therapeutic program, Ted Chabasinski said that, \"It really made a mess of me ... I went from being a shy kid who read a lot to a terrified kid who cried all the time.\"[41] Following his treatment, he spent ten years as an inmate of Rockland State Hospital, a psychiatric facility now known as the Rockland Psychiatric Center.[42]","title":"Criticisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shuttleworth-43"},{"link_name":"Brontë sisters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bront%C3%AB_sisters"},{"link_name":"George Eliot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Eliot"},{"link_name":"Charles Dickens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dickens"},{"link_name":"Jane Eyre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Eyre"},{"link_name":"Wuthering Heights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuthering_Heights"},{"link_name":"Dombey and Son","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dombey_and_Son"},{"link_name":"David Copperfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Copperfield"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shuttleworth-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Leo Kanner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Kanner"},{"link_name":"Adolf Meyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Meyer_(psychiatrist)"},{"link_name":"Johns Hopkins Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_Hospital"},{"link_name":"Baltimore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jhh-46"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jhh-46"},{"link_name":"Johns Hopkins Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_Hospital"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jhh-46"},{"link_name":"autism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Maria Montessori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Montessori"},{"link_name":"It:Giuseppe Ferruccio Montesano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Ferruccio_Montesano"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Jane Addams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Addams"},{"link_name":"Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago"},{"link_name":"Institute for Juvenile Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Juvenile_Research"},{"link_name":"child guidance clinic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_Guidance"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ijr-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Maudsley Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maudsley_Hospital"},{"link_name":"South London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_London"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"American Academy of Child Psychiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Child_and_Adolescent_Psychiatry"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-About-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Charles Bradley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bradley_(doctor)"},{"link_name":"amphetamine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphetamine"},{"link_name":"hyperactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperactive"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jhh-46"},{"link_name":"Eva Frommer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eva_Frommer"},{"link_name":"Douglas Haldane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Haldane"},{"link_name":"Michael Rutter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Rutter"},{"link_name":"Robin Skynner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Skynner"},{"link_name":"Sula Wolff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sula_Wolff"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depressive_disorder"},{"link_name":"conduct disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conduct_disorder"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"epidemiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_child_psychiatric_disorders"},{"link_name":"autism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism"},{"link_name":"autism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"childhood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood"},{"link_name":"adolescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolescence"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"NHS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Health_Service_(England)"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"}],"text":"When psychiatrists and pediatricians first began to recognize and discuss childhood psychiatric disorders in the 19th century, they were largely influenced by literary works of the Victorian era.[43] Authors like the Brontë sisters, George Eliot, and Charles Dickens, introduced new ways of thinking about the child mind and the potential influence early childhood experiences could have on child development and the subsequent adult mind. When the Journal of Psychological Medicine and Mental Pathology, the first psychiatric journal in English, was published in 1848, child psychiatry didn't exist as its own field yet. However, some of the earliest works on the possibility of nervous disorders and \"insanity\" in children were published in the Journal and several medical writers directly referenced works such as Jane Eyre (1847), Wuthering Heights (1847), Dombey and Son (1848), and David Copperfield (1850), to illustrate this new conceptualization of the child mind. Until that time, it was generally accepted that children were free from nervous disorders and the \"passions\" that affected the adult mind.[43]As early as 1899, the term \"child psychiatry\" (in French) was used as a subtitle in Manheimer's monograph Les Troubles Mentaux de l'Enfance.[44] However, the Swiss psychiatrist Moritz Tramer (1882–1963) was probably the first to define the parameters of child psychiatry in terms of diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis within the discipline of medicine, in 1933. In 1934, Tramer founded the Zeitschrift für Kinderpsychiatrie (Journal of Child Psychiatry), which later became Acta Paedopsychiatria.[45] The first academic child psychiatry department in the world was founded in 1930 by Leo Kanner (1894–1981), an Austrian émigré and medical graduate of the University of Berlin, under the direction of Adolf Meyer at the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore.[46] Kanner was the very first physician to be identified as a child psychiatrist in the US and his textbook, Child Psychiatry (1935), is credited with introducing both the specialty and the term to the anglophone academic community.[46] In 1936, Kanner established the first formal elective course in child psychiatry at the Johns Hopkins Hospital.[46] In 1944 he provided the first clinical description of early infantile autism, otherwise known as Kanner Syndrome.[47]Maria Montessori together with It:Giuseppe Ferruccio Montesano and Clodomiro Bonfigli, two distinguished child psychiatrists, created in 1901 in Italy the \"Lega Nazionale per la Protezione del Fanciullo\" (National League for the Protection of Children). She gradually developed her own pedagogic method, initially based on the \"intuition that the question of the 'mentally deficient' was more pedagogic than medical\".[48] In 1909, Jane Addams and her female colleagues established the Juvenile Psychopathic Institute (JPI) in Chicago, later renamed as the Institute for Juvenile Research (IJR), the world's first child guidance clinic.[49] Neurologist William Healy, M.D., its first director, was charged with not only studying the delinquent's biological aspects of brain functioning and IQ, but also the delinquent's social factors, attitudes, and motivations, thus it was the birthplace of American child psychiatry.[50]From its establishment in February 1923, the Maudsley Hospital, a South London-based postgraduate teaching and research psychiatric hospital, contained a small children's department.[51] Similar overall early developments took place in many other countries during the late 1920s and 1930s.[52] In the United States, child and adolescent psychiatry was established as a recognized medical speciality in 1953 with the founding of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, but was not established as a legitimate, board-certifiable medical speciality until 1959.[53][54]The use of medication in the treatment of children also began in the 1930s, when Charles Bradley opened a neuropsychiatric unit and was the first to use amphetamine for brain-damaged and hyperactive children.[55] But it was not until the 1960s that the first NIH grant to study paediatric psychopharmacology was awarded. It went to one of Kanner's students, Leon Eisenberg, the second director of the division.[46]The discipline has relatively flourished since the 1980s, in large part, because of contributions made in the 1970s, even if the outcomes for patients have been disappointing at times. It was a decade during which child psychiatry witnessed a major evolution as a result of the work carried out by, Eva Frommer, Douglas Haldane, Michael Rutter, Robin Skynner and Sula Wolff, among others.[56] The first comprehensive population survey of 9- to 11-year-olds, carried out in London and the Isle of Wight, which appeared in 1970, addressed questions that have continued to be of importance for child psychiatry; for example, rates of psychiatric disorders, the role of intellectual development and physical impairment, and specific concern for potential social influences on children's adjustment. This work was influential, especially since the investigators demonstrated specific continuities of psychopathology over time, and the influence of social and contextual factors in children's mental health, in their subsequent re-evaluation of the original cohort of children. These studies described the prevalence of ADHD (relatively low as compared to the US), identified the onset and prevalence of depression in mid-adolescence and the frequent co-morbidity with conduct disorder, and explored the relationship between various mental disorders and scholastic achievement.[57]It was paralleled similarly by work on the epidemiology of autism that was to enormously increase the number of children diagnosed with autism in future years.[58] Although attention had been given in the 1960s and '70s to the classification of childhood psychiatric disorders, and some issues had then been delineated, such as the distinction between neurotic and conduct disorders, the nomenclature did not parallel the growing clinical knowledge. It was claimed that this situation was altered in the late 1970s with the development of the DSM-III system of classification, although research has shown that this system of classification has problems of validity and reliability.[citation needed] Since then, the DSM-IV[59] and DSM-IVR have altered some of the parsing of psychiatric disorders into \"childhood\" and \"adult\" disorders, on the basis that while many psychiatric disorders are not diagnosed until adulthood, they may present in childhood or adolescence (DSM-IV).[citation needed]. The American Psychiatric Association's DSM is now on its fifth edition (DSM-5).People in the field are sometimes referred to as \"neurodevelopmentalists\".[60][61] As of 2005 there was debate in the field as to whether \"neurodevelopmentalist\" should be made a new speciality.[62]In terms of patient outcomes, there is evidence that, in the United Kingdom at least on the 70th anniversary of the NHS, mental health remains a medical \"Cinderella\" (low priority) and the more so Child and Adolescent Health services which have been through repeated reorganisations and underinvestment all of which leads to disruption and loss of adequate provision.[63]\"Modern neuroscience, genetics, epigenetics, and public health research has presented\nthe tantalizing possibility that it can now be said with relative certainty that\nmuch (certainly not all) is understood about why some children struggle and others\nsoar. Although it is an oversimplification, it can now be suggested that it is possible\nto understand how environmental factors, both negative and positive, influence the\ngenome or epigenome, which in turn influence the structure and function of the brain\nand thus human thoughts, actions, and behaviors.\"[64]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Kaplan and Sadock's Concise Textbook of Child and Adolescent 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(2018). \"Estimated Prevalence of Psychiatric Comorbidities in U.S. Adolescents With Depression by Race/Ethnicity, 2011-2012\". The Journal of Adolescent Health. 62 (6): 716–721. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.12.020. ISSN 1879-1972. PMID 29784115. S2CID 29157841.\n\n^ Rutter, Michael and Taylor, Eric. Chapter 2, Clinical assessment and diagnostic formulation. In Rutter and Taylor (2002)\n\n^ Angold, Adrian. Chapter 3, Diagnostic interviews with parents and children. In Rutter and Taylor (2002)\n\n^ Verhulst, Frank and Van der Ende, Jan. Chapter 5, Rating scales. In Rutter and Taylor (2002)\n\n^ Peterson, Bradley S.; Trampush, Joey; Brown, Morah; Maglione, Margaret; Bolshakova, Maria; Rozelle, Mary; Miles, Jeremy; Pakdaman, Sheila; Yagyu, Sachi; Motala, Aneesa; Hempel, Susanne (2024-04-01). \"Tools for the Diagnosis of ADHD in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review\". Pediatrics. 153 (4). doi:10.1542/peds.2024-065854. ISSN 0031-4005. PMID 38523599.\n\n^ Sergeant, Joseph and Taylor, Eric. Chapter 6, Psychological testing and observation. In Rutter and Taylor (2002)\n\n^ American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596. 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PMID 20671900.\n\n^ Bachmann, Mareile; Bachmann, Christian; Rief, Winfried; Mattejat, Fritz (January 2008). \"Wirksamkeit psychiatrischer und psychotherapeutischer Behandlungen bei psychischen Störungen von Kindern und Jugendlichen: Eine systematische Auswertung der Ergebnisse von Metaanalysen und Reviews. Teil II: ADHS und Störungen des Sozialverhaltens\". Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie. 36 (5): 321–333. doi:10.1024/1422-4917.36.5.321. PMID 18791982.\n\n^ \"What is Child and Adolescent Psychiatry?\". www.aacap.org. Retrieved 2021-03-19.\n\n^ \"Specialties & Subspecialties\". American Osteopathic Association. Archived from the original on 2015-08-13. Retrieved 18 September 2012.\n\n^ AACAP Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine\n\n^ Thomas, Christopher; Holzer, Charles (2006), \"The continuing shortage of child and adolescent psychiatrists\", Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45 (9): 1023–31, doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000225353.16831.5d, PMID 16840879, S2CID 17187044\n\n^ \"Child and Adolescent Psychiatry as a Career\". www.aacap.org. Retrieved 2021-03-19.\n\n^ Wintrob R. Cross-cultural psychiatry. Psychiatric Times. 2010;27:27.\n\n^ Measham T, Guzder J, Rousseau C, Nadeau L. Cultural considerations in child and adolescent psychiatry. Psychiatric Times. 2010;27:38-40.\n\n^ Ronald Pies (October 2007). \"How \"Objective\" Are Psychiatric Diagnoses?\". Psychiatry (Edgmont). 4 (10): 18–22. PMC 2860522. PMID 20428307.\n\n^ Frances, Allen (6 August 2013). \"The new crisis of confidence in psychiatric diagnosis\". Annals of Internal Medicine. 159 (2): 221–222. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-159-3-201308060-00655. PMID 23685989. S2CID 8486296.\n\n^ Frances, Allen (January 2013). \"The past, present and future of psychiatric diagnosis\". World Psychiatry. 12 (2): 111–112. doi:10.1002/wps.20027. PMC 3683254. PMID 23737411.\n\n^ Webber, Jo., Plotts, Cynthia A. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Theory and Practice 5th Edition. 2008. Pearson Education: New York, NY. p. 98.\n\n^ a b c American Psychiatric Association (September 2013), \"Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question\", Choosing Wisely: an initiative of the ABIM Foundation, American Psychiatric Association, retrieved 30 December 2013, which cites\nCorrell, CU (Apr 2008). \"Monitoring and management of antipsychotic-related metabolic and endocrine adverse events in pediatric patients\". International Review of Psychiatry. 20 (2): 195–201. doi:10.1080/09540260801889179. PMID 18386212. S2CID 26570095.\nMcClellan, J; Kowatch, R; Findling, RL; Work Group on Quality, Issues (Jan 2007). \"Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with bipolar disorder\". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 46 (1): 107–25. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000242240.69678.c4. PMID 17195735. S2CID 689321.\nLoy, JH; Merry, SN; Hetrick, SE; Stasiak, K (9 August 2017). \"Atypical antipsychotics for disruptive behaviour disorders in children and youths\". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2017 (8): CD008559. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008559.pub3. PMC 6483473. PMID 28791693.\nZito, JM; Burcu, M; Ibe, A; Safer, DJ; Magder, LS (Mar 1, 2013). \"Antipsychotic use by medicaid-insured youths: impact of eligibility and psychiatric diagnosis across a decade\". Psychiatric Services. 64 (3): 223–9. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201200081. PMID 23242390.\n\n^ Rey, Joseph M., and Walter, Gary (May 1997). \"Half a century of ECT use in young people\". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 154 (5): 595–602. doi:10.1176/ajp.154.5.595. PMID 9137112.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)\n\n^ Shorter, Edward, and Healy, David (2007). Shock therapy : a history of electroconvulsive treatment in mental illness (1. publ. ed.). New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-8135-4169-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)\n\n^ Boodman, Sandra G. (24 September 1996). \"Shock therapy: it's back\". Washington Post.\n\n^ Sullivan, Valerie (30 October 1982). \"General news: Berkeley, California\". United Press International.\n\n^ Hill, Gladwin (31 October 1982). \"Now therapy by the ballot\". The New York Times. 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History of Psychiatry. 19 (76 Pt 4): 454–475. doi:10.1177/0957154X08089619. ISSN 0957-154X. PMC 2801544. PMID 19397089.\n\n^ \"About Us\". AACAP. Archived from the original on 21 April 2011. Retrieved 25 March 2011.\n\n^ Kutchins, Herb; Kirk, Stuart A. (1992). The selling of DSM: the rhetoric of science in psychiatry. New York: A. de Gruyter. ISBN 978-0-202-30431-1.\n\n^ Strohl, Madeleine P. (March 2011). \"Bradley's Benzedrine Studies on Children with Behavioral Disorders\". The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 84 (1): 27–33. ISSN 0044-0086. PMC 3064242. PMID 21451781.\n\n^ Green, Jonathan; Yule, William (2001), \"Foreword\", in Jonathan Green and William Yule (ed.), Research and Innovation on the Road to Modern Child Psychiatry: Festschrift for Professor Sir Michael Rutter, London, p. vii{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link); Stevenson, Jim (2001), \"The Significance of Genetic Variation for Abnormal Behavioural Development\", in Jonathan Green and William Yule (ed.), Research and Innovation on the Road to Modern Child Psychiatry: Festschrift for Professor Sir Michael Rutter, London, p. 20{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)\n\n^ Rutter, Michael (1990), Chapter 7, Isle of Wight Revisited, Twenty-five years of child psychiatric epidemiology. In Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry and Child Development. Chess, Stella and Herzig, Margaret (eds), Psychology Press, ISBN 978-0-87630-602-4\n\n^ Evans, Bonnie (July 2013). \"How autism became autism\". History of the Human Sciences. 26 (3): 3–31. doi:10.1177/0952695113484320. ISSN 0952-6951. PMC 3757918. PMID 24014081.\n\n^ Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994\n\n^ Shea, SE; Gordon, K; Hawkins, A; Kawchuk, J; Smith, D (12 December 2000). \"Pathology in the Hundred Acre Wood: a neurodevelopmental perspective on A.A. Milne\". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 163 (12): 1557–9. PMC 80580. PMID 11153486.\n\n^ \"International Child Neurology Association Newsletter: Excerpts\". Pediatric Neurology. 17 (1): 92–93. July 1997. doi:10.1016/S0887-8994(97)90006-0.\n\n^ ALARCÓN, RENATO D. (June 2005). \"Psychiatry, 2nd ed\". American Journal of Psychiatry. 162 (6): 1234–1236. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.6.1234.\n\n^ Barrett, Susan (2019). \"From Adult Asylums to CAMHS Community Care: the Evolution of Specialist Mental Health Care for Children and Adolescents 1948-2018\". Revue Française de Civilisation Britannique, XXIV-3. XXIV (3). doi:10.4000/rfcb.4138.\n\n^ Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am 26 (2017) 611–624","title":"Notes"}]	[]	[{"title":"Biological psychiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_psychiatry"},{"title":"Mental disorders diagnosed in childhood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disorders_diagnosed_in_childhood"},{"title":"Child Guidance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_Guidance"},{"title":"Child psychopathology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_psychopathology"},{"title":"Consultation-liaison psychiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liaison_psychiatry"},{"title":"Developmental disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_disorders"},{"title":"Medical model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_model"},{"title":"Neuropsychiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychiatry"},{"title":"Psychiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatry"},{"title":"Anti-psychiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry"},{"title":"Biopsychiatry controversy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsychiatry_controversy"},{"title":"Controversy about ADHD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controversy_about_ADHD"},{"title":"Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_and_Adolescent_Mental_Health_Services"},{"title":"Rennie v. 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Pediatrics. 153 (4). doi:10.1542/peds.2024-065854. ISSN 0031-4005. PMID 38523599.","urls":[{"url":"https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/153/4/e2024065854/196923/Tools-for-the-Diagnosis-of-ADHD-in-Children-and","url_text":"\"Tools for the Diagnosis of ADHD in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.2024-065854","url_text":"10.1542/peds.2024-065854"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-4005","url_text":"0031-4005"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38523599","url_text":"38523599"}]},{"reference":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596. 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XXIV (3). doi:10.4000/rfcb.4138.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4000%2Frfcb.4138","url_text":"\"From Adult Asylums to CAMHS Community Care: the Evolution of Specialist Mental Health Care for Children and Adolescents 1948-2018\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4000%2Frfcb.4138","url_text":"10.4000/rfcb.4138"}]},{"reference":"Rutter, Michael; Bishop, Dorothy; Pine, Daniel; Scott, Steven; Stevenson, Jim S.; Taylor, Eric A.; Thapar, Anita (2010), Rutter's Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (5th ed.), Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-4593-0","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4593-0","url_text":"978-1-4051-4593-0"}]},{"reference":"Goodman, Robert; Scott, Steven (2012), Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_principal_axes	Aircraft principal axes	["1 Principal axes","1.1 Vertical axis (yaw)","1.2 Transverse axis (pitch)","1.3 Longitudinal axis (roll)","2 Reference planes","3 Relationship with other systems of axes","4 History","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]	Principal directions in aviation This article is about yaw, pitch, and roll as symmetry axes of an aircraft. For meaning in mechanics, see Moment of inertia § Principal axes. For Euler angles with the same names, see Euler angles § Tait–Bryan angles. The position of all three axes, with the right-hand rule for describing the angle of its rotations An aircraft in flight is free to rotate in three dimensions: yaw, nose left or right about an axis running up and down; pitch, nose up or down about an axis running from wing to wing; and roll, rotation about an axis running from nose to tail. The axes are alternatively designated as vertical, lateral (or transverse), and longitudinal respectively. These axes move with the vehicle and rotate relative to the Earth along with the craft. These definitions were analogously applied to spacecraft when the first crewed spacecraft were designed in the late 1950s. These rotations are produced by torques (or moments) about the principal axes. On an aircraft, these are intentionally produced by means of moving control surfaces, which vary the distribution of the net aerodynamic force about the vehicle's center of gravity. Elevators (moving flaps on the horizontal tail) produce pitch, a rudder on the vertical tail produces yaw, and ailerons (flaps on the wings that move in opposing directions) produce roll. On a spacecraft, the movements are usually produced by a reaction control system consisting of small rocket thrusters used to apply asymmetrical thrust on the vehicle. Principal axes See also: Ship motions Yaw Pitch Roll Normal axis, or yaw axis — an axis drawn from top to bottom, and perpendicular to the other two axes, parallel to the fuselage station. Transverse axis, lateral axis, or pitch axis — an axis running from the pilot's left to right in piloted aircraft, and parallel to the wings of a winged aircraft, parallel to the buttock line. Longitudinal axis, or roll axis — an axis drawn through the body of the vehicle from tail to nose in the normal direction of flight, or the direction the pilot faces, similar to a ship's waterline. Normally, these axes are represented by the letters X, Y and Z in order to compare them with some reference frame, usually named x, y, z. Normally, this is made in such a way that the X is used for the longitudinal axis, but there are other possibilities to do it. Vertical axis (yaw) The yaw axis has its origin at the center of gravity and is directed towards the bottom of the aircraft, perpendicular to the wings and to the fuselage reference line. Motion about this axis is called yaw. A positive yawing motion moves the nose of the aircraft to the right. The rudder is the primary control of yaw. The term yaw was originally applied in sailing, and referred to the motion of an unsteady ship rotating about its vertical axis. Its etymology is uncertain. Transverse axis (pitch) The pitch axis (also called transverse or lateral axis), passes through an aircraft from wingtip to wingtip. Rotation about this axis is called pitch. Pitch changes the vertical direction that the aircraft's nose is pointing (a positive pitching motion raises the nose of the aircraft and lowers the tail). The elevators are the primary control surfaces for pitch. Longitudinal axis (roll) The roll axis (or longitudinal axis) has its origin at the center of gravity and is directed forward, parallel to the fuselage reference line. Motion about this axis is called roll. An angular displacement about this axis is called bank. A positive rolling motion lifts the left wing and lowers the right wing. The pilot rolls by increasing the lift on one wing and decreasing it on the other. This changes the bank angle. The ailerons are the primary control of bank. The rudder also has a secondary effect on bank. Reference planes The principal axes of rotation imply reference planes, perpendicular to each axis: Normal plane, or yaw plane Transverse plane, lateral plane, or pitch plane Longitudinal plane, or roll plane The three planes contain the aircraft center of gravity. Relationship with other systems of axes Yaw/heading, pitch and roll angles and associated vertical (down), transverse and longitudinal axes These axes are related to the principal axes of inertia, but are not the same. They are geometrical symmetry axes, regardless of the mass distribution of the aircraft. In aeronautical and aerospace engineering intrinsic rotations around these axes are often called Euler angles, but this conflicts with existing usage elsewhere. The calculus behind them is similar to the Frenet–Serret formulas. Performing a rotation in an intrinsic reference frame is equivalent to right-multiplying its characteristic matrix (the matrix that has the vectors of the reference frame as columns) by the matrix of the rotation. History The first aircraft to demonstrate active control about all three axes was the Wright brothers' 1902 glider. See also Aerodynamics Aircraft flight control system Euler angles Fixed-wing aircraft Flight control surfaces Flight dynamics Moving frame Panning (camera) Six degrees of freedom Screw theory Triad method References ^ "Yaw axis". Answers.com. Retrieved 2008-07-31. ^ "Specialty Definition: YAW AXIS". Archived from the original on 2012-10-08. Retrieved 2008-07-31. ^ a b c Clancy, L.J. (1975) Aerodynamics Pitman Publishing Limited, London ISBN 0-273-01120-0, Section 16.6 ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 22 October 2020. ^ a b "MISB Standard 0601" (PDF). Motion Imagery Standards Board (MISB). Retrieved 1 May 2015. Also at File:MISB Standard 0601.pdf. ^ Wragg, David W. (1973). A Dictionary of Aviation (first ed.). Osprey. p. 224. ISBN 9780850451634. ^ FAA (2004). Airplane Flying Handbook. Washington D.C.:U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, ch 4, p 2, FAA-8083-3A. ^ "Aircraft rotations". Archived from the original on 4 July 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-04. External links Pitch, Roll, Yaw Yaw Axis Control as a Means of Improving V/STOL Aircraft Performance. 3D fast walking simulation of biped robot by yaw axis moment compensation Flight control system for a hybrid aircraft in the yaw axis Motion Imagery Standards Board (MISB) Archived 2022-08-23 at the Wayback Machine	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Moment of inertia § Principal axes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_of_inertia#Principal_axes"},{"link_name":"Euler angles § Tait–Bryan angles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_angles#Tait%E2%80%93Bryan_angles"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yaw_Axis_Corrected.svg"},{"link_name":"right-hand rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-hand_rule"},{"link_name":"aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft"},{"link_name":"yaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaw_(rotation)"},{"link_name":"move with the vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_frame"},{"link_name":"spacecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft"},{"link_name":"torques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torque"},{"link_name":"moments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_(physics)"},{"link_name":"aerodynamic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamics"},{"link_name":"center of gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_gravity"},{"link_name":"Elevators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevator_(aeronautics)"},{"link_name":"rudder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudder"},{"link_name":"ailerons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aileron"},{"link_name":"reaction control system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_control_system"}],"text":"This article is about yaw, pitch, and roll as symmetry axes of an aircraft. For meaning in mechanics, see Moment of inertia § Principal axes. For Euler angles with the same names, see Euler angles § Tait–Bryan angles.The position of all three axes, with the right-hand rule for describing the angle of its rotationsAn aircraft in flight is free to rotate in three dimensions: yaw, nose left or right about an axis running up and down; pitch, nose up or down about an axis running from wing to wing; and roll, rotation about an axis running from nose to tail. The axes are alternatively designated as vertical, lateral (or transverse), and longitudinal respectively. These axes move with the vehicle and rotate relative to the Earth along with the craft. These definitions were analogously applied to spacecraft when the first crewed spacecraft were designed in the late 1950s.These rotations are produced by torques (or moments) about the principal axes. On an aircraft, these are intentionally produced by means of moving control surfaces, which vary the distribution of the net aerodynamic force about the vehicle's center of gravity. Elevators (moving flaps on the horizontal tail) produce pitch, a rudder on the vertical tail produces yaw, and ailerons (flaps on the wings that move in opposing directions) produce roll. On a spacecraft, the movements are usually produced by a reaction control system consisting of small rocket thrusters used to apply asymmetrical thrust on the vehicle.","title":"Aircraft principal axes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ship motions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_motions"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aileron_yaw.gif"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aileron_pitch.gif"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aileron_roll.gif"},{"link_name":"Normal axis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_control_surfaces#Vertical_axis"},{"link_name":"Transverse axis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_control_surfaces#Transverse_axis"},{"link_name":"Longitudinal axis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_control_surfaces#Longitudinal_axis"},{"link_name":"waterline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterline"},{"link_name":"other possibilities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axes_conventions"}],"text":"See also: Ship motionsYaw\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPitch\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRollNormal axis, or yaw axis — an axis drawn from top to bottom, and perpendicular to the other two axes, parallel to the fuselage station.\nTransverse axis, lateral axis, or pitch axis — an axis running from the pilot's left to right in piloted aircraft, and parallel to the wings of a winged aircraft, parallel to the buttock line.\nLongitudinal axis, or roll axis — an axis drawn through the body of the vehicle from tail to nose in the normal direction of flight, or the direction the pilot faces, similar to a ship's waterline.Normally, these axes are represented by the letters X, Y and Z in order to compare them with some reference frame, usually named x, y, z. Normally, this is made in such a way that the X is used for the longitudinal axis, but there are other possibilities to do it.","title":"Principal axes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"perpendicular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpendicular"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ref1-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"rudder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudder#Aircraft_rudders"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Clancy_16.6-3"},{"link_name":"etymology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymology"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yaw_oed-4"}],"sub_title":"Vertical axis (yaw)","text":"The yaw axis has its origin at the center of gravity and is directed towards the bottom of the aircraft, perpendicular to the wings and to the fuselage reference line. Motion about this axis is called yaw. A positive yawing motion moves the nose of the aircraft to the right.[1][2] The rudder is the primary control of yaw.[3]The term yaw was originally applied in sailing, and referred to the motion of an unsteady ship rotating about its vertical axis. Its etymology is uncertain.[4]","title":"Principal axes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MISB-5"},{"link_name":"elevators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevator_(aeronautics)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Clancy_16.6-3"}],"sub_title":"Transverse axis (pitch)","text":"The pitch axis (also called transverse or lateral axis),[5] passes through an aircraft from wingtip to wingtip. Rotation about this axis is called pitch. Pitch changes the vertical direction that the aircraft's nose is pointing (a positive pitching motion raises the nose of the aircraft and lowers the tail). The elevators are the primary control surfaces for pitch.[3]","title":"Principal axes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MISB-5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Clancy_16.6-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"ailerons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aileron"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Longitudinal axis (roll)","text":"The roll axis (or longitudinal axis[5]) has its origin at the center of gravity and is directed forward, parallel to the fuselage reference line. Motion about this axis is called roll. An angular displacement about this axis is called bank.[3] A positive rolling motion lifts the left wing and lowers the right wing. The pilot rolls by increasing the lift on one wing and decreasing it on the other. This changes the bank angle.[6] The ailerons are the primary control of bank. The rudder also has a secondary effect on bank.[7]","title":"Principal axes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"planes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_planes_in_three-dimensional_space"},{"link_name":"center of gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_gravity"}],"text":"The principal axes of rotation imply reference planes, perpendicular to each axis:Normal plane, or yaw plane\nTransverse plane, lateral plane, or pitch plane\nLongitudinal plane, or roll planeThe three planes contain the aircraft center of gravity.","title":"Reference planes"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MISB_ST_0601.8_-_Yaw,_Pitch_%26_Roll.png"},{"link_name":"angles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle"},{"link_name":"principal axes of inertia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_of_inertia#Principal_axes"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Euler angles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_angles"},{"link_name":"Frenet–Serret formulas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Yaw/heading, pitch and roll angles and associated vertical (down), transverse and longitudinal axesThese axes are related to the principal axes of inertia, but are not the same. They are geometrical symmetry axes, regardless of the mass distribution of the aircraft.[citation needed]In aeronautical and aerospace engineering intrinsic rotations around these axes are often called Euler angles, but this conflicts with existing usage elsewhere. The calculus behind them is similar to the Frenet–Serret formulas. Performing a rotation in an intrinsic reference frame is equivalent to right-multiplying its characteristic matrix (the matrix that has the vectors of the reference frame as columns) by the matrix of the rotation.[citation needed]","title":"Relationship with other systems of axes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wright brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_brothers"},{"link_name":"1902 glider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Glider#1902_glider"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"The first aircraft to demonstrate active control about all three axes was the Wright brothers' 1902 glider.[8]","title":"History"}]	[{"image_text":"The position of all three axes, with the right-hand rule for describing the angle of its rotations","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Yaw_Axis_Corrected.svg/250px-Yaw_Axis_Corrected.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Yaw/heading, pitch and roll angles and associated vertical (down), transverse and longitudinal axes","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/MISB_ST_0601.8_-_Yaw%2C_Pitch_%26_Roll.png/390px-MISB_ST_0601.8_-_Yaw%2C_Pitch_%26_Roll.png"}]	[{"title":"Aerodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamics"},{"title":"Aircraft flight control system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_flight_control_system"},{"title":"Euler angles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_angles"},{"title":"Fixed-wing aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft"},{"title":"Flight control surfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_control_surfaces"},{"title":"Flight dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_dynamics"},{"title":"Moving frame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_frame"},{"title":"Panning (camera)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panning_(camera)"},{"title":"Six degrees of freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_degrees_of_freedom"},{"title":"Screw theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screw_theory"},{"title":"Triad method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triad_method"}]	[{"reference":"\"Yaw axis\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_De_Moivre	Abraham de Moivre	["1 Life","1.1 Early years","1.2 Middle years","1.3 Later years","2 Probability","2.1 Priority regarding the Poisson distribution","3 De Moivre's formula","4 Stirling's approximation","5 Celebrations","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","9 Further reading"]	French mathematician (1667–1754) Abraham de MoivreFRSBorn(1667-05-26)26 May 1667Vitry-le-François, Kingdom of FranceDied27 November 1754(1754-11-27) (aged 87)London, EnglandAlma materAcademy of SaumurCollège d'Harcourt Known forDe Moivre's formulaDe Moivre's lawDe Moivre's martingaleDe Moivre–Laplace theoremInclusion–exclusion principleGenerating functionScientific careerFieldsMathematics Abraham de Moivre FRS (French pronunciation: ; 26 May 1667 – 27 November 1754) was a French mathematician known for de Moivre's formula, a formula that links complex numbers and trigonometry, and for his work on the normal distribution and probability theory. He moved to England at a young age due to the religious persecution of Huguenots in France which reached a climax in 1685 with the Edict of Fontainebleau. He was a friend of Isaac Newton, Edmond Halley, and James Stirling. Among his fellow Huguenot exiles in England, he was a colleague of the editor and translator Pierre des Maizeaux. De Moivre wrote a book on probability theory, The Doctrine of Chances, said to have been prized by gamblers. De Moivre first discovered Binet's formula, the closed-form expression for Fibonacci numbers linking the nth power of the golden ratio φ to the nth Fibonacci number. He also was the first to postulate the central limit theorem, a cornerstone of probability theory. Life Doctrine of chances, 1756 Early years Abraham de Moivre was born in Vitry-le-François in Champagne on 26 May 1667. His father, Daniel de Moivre, was a surgeon who believed in the value of education. Though Abraham de Moivre's parents were Protestant, he first attended Christian Brothers' Catholic school in Vitry, which was unusually tolerant given religious tensions in France at the time. When he was eleven, his parents sent him to the Protestant Academy at Sedan, where he spent four years studying Greek under Jacques du Rondel. The Protestant Academy of Sedan had been founded in 1579 at the initiative of Françoise de Bourbon, the widow of Henri-Robert de la Marck. In 1682 the Protestant Academy at Sedan was suppressed, and de Moivre enrolled to study logic at Saumur for two years. Although mathematics was not part of his course work, de Moivre read several works on mathematics on his own, including Éléments des mathématiques by the French Oratorian priest and mathematician Jean Prestet and a short treatise on games of chance, De Ratiociniis in Ludo Aleae, by Christiaan Huygens the Dutch physicist, mathematician, astronomer and inventor. In 1684, de Moivre moved to Paris to study physics, and for the first time had formal mathematics training with private lessons from Jacques Ozanam. Religious persecution in France became severe when King Louis XIV issued the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685, which revoked the Edict of Nantes, that had given substantial rights to French Protestants. It forbade Protestant worship and required that all children be baptised by Catholic priests. De Moivre was sent to Prieuré Saint-Martin-des-Champs, a school that the authorities sent Protestant children to for indoctrination into Catholicism. It is unclear when de Moivre left the Prieure de Saint-Martin and moved to England, since the records of the Prieure de Saint-Martin indicate that he left the school in 1688, but de Moivre and his brother presented themselves as Huguenots admitted to the Savoy Church in London on 28 August 1687. Middle years By the time he arrived in London, de Moivre was a competent mathematician with a good knowledge of many of the standard texts. To make a living, de Moivre became a private tutor of mathematics, visiting his pupils or teaching in the coffee houses of London. De Moivre continued his studies of mathematics after visiting the Earl of Devonshire and seeing Newton's recent book, Principia Mathematica. Looking through the book, he realised that it was far deeper than the books that he had studied previously, and he became determined to read and understand it. However, as he was required to take extended walks around London to travel between his students, de Moivre had little time for study, so he tore pages from the book and carried them around in his pocket to read between lessons. According to a possibly apocryphal story, Newton, in the later years of his life, used to refer people posing mathematical questions to him to de Moivre, saying, "He knows all these things better than I do." By 1692, de Moivre became friends with Edmond Halley and soon after with Isaac Newton himself. In 1695, Halley communicated de Moivre's first mathematics paper, which arose from his study of fluxions in the Principia Mathematica, to the Royal Society. This paper was published in the Philosophical Transactions that same year. Shortly after publishing this paper, de Moivre also generalised Newton's noteworthy binomial theorem into the multinomial theorem. The Royal Society became apprised of this method in 1697, and it elected de Moivre a Fellow on 30 November 1697. After de Moivre had been accepted, Halley encouraged him to turn his attention to astronomy. In 1705, de Moivre discovered, intuitively, that "the centripetal force of any planet is directly related to its distance from the centre of the forces and reciprocally related to the product of the diameter of the evolute and the cube of the perpendicular on the tangent." In other words, if a planet, M, follows an elliptical orbit around a focus F and has a point P where PM is tangent to the curve and FPM is a right angle so that FP is the perpendicular to the tangent, then the centripetal force at point P is proportional to FM/(R*(FP)3) where R is the radius of the curvature at M. The mathematician Johann Bernoulli proved this formula in 1710. Despite these successes, de Moivre was unable to obtain an appointment to a chair of mathematics at any university, which would have released him from his dependence on time-consuming tutoring that burdened him more than it did most other mathematicians of the time. At least a part of the reason was a bias against his French origins. In November 1697 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1712 was appointed to a commission set up by the society, alongside MM. Arbuthnot, Hill, Halley, Jones, Machin, Burnet, Robarts, Bonet, Aston, and Taylor to review the claims of Newton and Leibniz as to who discovered calculus. The full details of the controversy can be found in the Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy article. Throughout his life de Moivre remained poor. It is reported that he was a regular customer of old Slaughter's Coffee House, St. Martin's Lane at Cranbourn Street, where he earned a little money from playing chess. Later years De Moivre continued studying the fields of probability and mathematics until his death in 1754 and several additional papers were published after his death. As he grew older, he became increasingly lethargic and needed longer sleeping hours. It is a common claim that De Moivre noted he was sleeping an extra 15 minutes each night and correctly calculated the date of his death as the day when the sleep time reached 24 hours, 27 November 1754. On that day he did in fact die, in London and his body was buried at St Martin-in-the-Fields, although his body was later moved. The claim of him predicting his own death, however, has been disputed as not having been documented anywhere at the time of its occurrence. Probability See also: de Moivre–Laplace theorem De Moivre pioneered the development of analytic geometry and the theory of probability by expanding upon the work of his predecessors, particularly Christiaan Huygens and several members of the Bernoulli family. He also produced the second textbook on probability theory, The Doctrine of Chances: a method of calculating the probabilities of events in play. (The first book about games of chance, Liber de ludo aleae (On Casting the Die), was written by Girolamo Cardano in the 1560s, but it was not published until 1663.) This book came out in four editions, 1711 in Latin, and in English in 1718, 1738, and 1756. In the later editions of his book, de Moivre included his unpublished result of 1733, which is the first statement of an approximation to the binomial distribution in terms of what we now call the normal or Gaussian function. This was the first method of finding the probability of the occurrence of an error of a given size when that error is expressed in terms of the variability of the distribution as a unit, and the first identification of the calculation of probable error. In addition, he applied these theories to gambling problems and actuarial tables. An expression commonly found in probability is n! but before the days of calculators calculating n! for a large n was time-consuming. In 1733 de Moivre proposed the formula for estimating a factorial as n! = cn(n+1/2)e−n. He obtained an approximate expression for the constant c but it was James Stirling who found that c was √2π. De Moivre also published an article called "Annuities upon Lives" in which he revealed the normal distribution of the mortality rate over a person's age. From this he produced a simple formula for approximating the revenue produced by annual payments based on a person's age. This is similar to the types of formulas used by insurance companies today. Priority regarding the Poisson distribution Some results on the Poisson distribution were first introduced by de Moivre in De Mensura Sortis seu; de Probabilitate Eventuum in Ludis a Casu Fortuito Pendentibus in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, p. 219. As a result, some authors have argued that the Poisson distribution should bear the name of de Moivre. De Moivre's formula In 1707, de Moivre derived an equation from which one can deduce: cos ⁡ x = 1 2 ( cos ⁡ ( n x ) + i sin ⁡ ( n x ) ) 1 / n + 1 2 ( cos ⁡ ( n x ) − i sin ⁡ ( n x ) ) 1 / n {\displaystyle \cos x={\tfrac {1}{2}}(\cos(nx)+i\sin(nx))^{1/n}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}(\cos(nx)-i\sin(nx))^{1/n}} which he was able to prove for all positive integers n. In 1722, he presented equations from which one can deduce the better known form of de Moivre's Formula: ( cos ⁡ x + i sin ⁡ x ) n = cos ⁡ ( n x ) + i sin ⁡ ( n x ) . {\displaystyle (\cos x+i\sin x)^{n}=\cos(nx)+i\sin(nx).\,} In 1749 Euler proved this formula for any real n using Euler's formula, which makes the proof quite straightforward. This formula is important because it relates complex numbers and trigonometry. Additionally, this formula allows the derivation of useful expressions for cos(nx) and sin(nx) in terms of cos(x) and sin(x). Stirling's approximation De Moivre had been studying probability, and his investigations required him to calculate binomial coefficients, which in turn required him to calculate factorials. In 1730 de Moivre published his book Miscellanea Analytica de Seriebus et Quadraturis , which included tables of log (n!). For large values of n, de Moivre approximated the coefficients of the terms in a binomial expansion. Specifically, given a positive integer n, where n is even and large, then the coefficient of the middle term of (1 + 1)n is approximated by the equation: ( n n / 2 ) = n ! ( ( n 2 ) ! ) 2 ≈ 2 n 2 21 125 ( n − 1 ) n − 1 2 n n {\displaystyle {n \choose n/2}={\frac {n!}{(({\frac {n}{2}})!)^{2}}}\approx {2^{n}}{\frac {{2}{\frac {21}{125}}{(n-1)}^{n-{\frac {1}{2}}}}{{n}^{n}}}} On June 19, 1729, James Stirling sent to de Moivre a letter, which illustrated how he calculated the coefficient of the middle term of a binomial expansion (a + b)n for large values of n. In 1730, Stirling published his book Methodus Differentialis , in which he included his series for log(n!): log 10 ⁡ ( n + 1 2 ) ! ≈ log 10 ⁡ 2 π + n log 10 ⁡ n − n ln ⁡ 10 , {\displaystyle \log _{10}(n+{\frac {1}{2}})!\approx \log _{10}{\sqrt {2\pi }}+n\log _{10}n-{\frac {n}{\ln 10}},} so that for large n {\displaystyle n} , n ! ≈ 2 π ( n e ) n {\displaystyle n!\approx {\sqrt {2\pi }}\left({\frac {n}{e}}\right)^{n}} . On November 12, 1733, de Moivre privately published and distributed a pamphlet – Approximatio ad Summam Terminorum Binomii (a + b)n in Seriem expansi – in which he acknowledged Stirling's letter and proposed an alternative expression for the central term of a binomial expansion. Celebrations On 25 November 2017, a colloquium was organised in Saumur by Dr Conor Maguire, with the patronage of the French National Commission of UNESCO, to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the birth of de Moivre and the fact that he studied for two years at the Academy of Saumur. The colloquium was titled Abraham de Moivre : le Mathématicien, sa vie et son œuvre and covered De Moivre's important contributions to the development of complex numbers, see De Moivre's formula, and to probability theory, see De Moivre–Laplace theorem. The colloquium traced De Moivre's life and his exile in London where he became a highly respected friend of Isaac Newton. Nonetheless, he lived on modest means which he generated partly by his sessions advising gamblers in the Old Slaughter's Coffee House on the probabilities associated with their endeavours! On 27 November 2016, Professor Christian Genest of the McGill University (Montreal) marked the 262nd anniversary of the death of de Moivre with a colloquium in Limoges titled Abraham de Moivre : Génie en exil which discussed De Moivre's famous approximation of the binomial law which inspired the central limit theorem. See also De Moivre number De Moivre quintic Economic model Gaussian integral Poisson distribution Notes ^ a b c O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Abraham de Moivre", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews ^ Bellhouse, David R. (2011). Abraham De Moivre: Setting the Stage for Classical Probability and Its Applications. London: Taylor & Francis. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-56881-349-3. ^ Coughlin, Raymond F.; Zitarelli, David E. (1984). The ascent of mathematics. McGraw-Hill. p. 437. ISBN 0-07-013215-1. Unfortunately, because he was not British, De Moivre was never able to obtain a university teaching position ^ Jungnickel, Christa; McCormmach, Russell (1996). Cavendish. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. 220. American Philosophical Society. p. 52. ISBN 9780871692207. Well connected in mathematical circles and highly regarded for his work, he still could not get a good job. Even his conversion to the Church of England in 1705 could not alter the fact that he was an alien. ^ Tanton, James Stuart (2005). Encyclopedia of Mathematics. Infobase Publishing. p. 122. ISBN 9780816051243. He had hoped to receive a faculty position in mathematics but, as a foreigner, was never offered such an appointment. ^ Cajori, Florian (1991). History of Mathematics (5 ed.). American Mathematical Society. p. 229. ISBN 9780821821022. ^ "Biographical details - Did Abraham de Moivre really predict his own death?". ^ See: Abraham De Moivre (12 November 1733) "Approximatio ad summam terminorum binomii (a+b)n in seriem expansi" (self-published pamphlet), 7 pages. English translation: A. De Moivre, The Doctrine of Chances … , 2nd ed. (London, England: H. Woodfall, 1738), pp. 235–243. ^ Pearson, Karl (1924). "Historical note on the origin of the normal curve of errors". Biometrika. 16 (3–4): 402–404. doi:10.1093/biomet/16.3-4.402. ^ Johnson, N.L., Kotz, S., Kemp, A.W. (1993) Univariate Discrete distributions (2nd edition). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-54897-9, p157 ^ Stigler, Stephen M. (1982). "Poisson on the poisson distribution". Statistics & Probability Letters. 1: 33–35. doi:10.1016/0167-7152(82)90010-4. ^ Hald, Anders; de Moivre, Abraham; McClintock, Bruce (1984). "A. de Moivre:'De Mensura Sortis' or'On the Measurement of Chance'". International Statistical Review/Revue Internationale de Statistique. 1984 (3): 229–262. JSTOR 1403045. ^ Moivre, Ab. de (1707). "Aequationum quarundam potestatis tertiae, quintae, septimae, nonae, & superiorum, ad infinitum usque pergendo, in termimis finitis, ad instar regularum pro cubicis quae vocantur Cardani, resolutio analytica" . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (in Latin). 25 (309): 2368–2371. doi:10.1098/rstl.1706.0037. S2CID 186209627. English translation by Richard J. Pulskamp (2009) Archived 9 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine On p. 2370 de Moivre stated that if a series has the form n y + 1 − n n 2 × 3 n y 3 + 1 − n n 2 × 3 9 − n n 4 × 5 n y 5 + 1 − n n 2 × 3 9 − n n 4 × 5 25 − n n 6 × 7 n y 7 + ⋯ = a {\displaystyle ny+{\tfrac {1-nn}{2\times 3}}ny^{3}+{\tfrac {1-nn}{2\times 3}}{\tfrac {9-nn}{4\times 5}}ny^{5}+{\tfrac {1-nn}{2\times 3}}{\tfrac {9-nn}{4\times 5}}{\tfrac {25-nn}{6\times 7}}ny^{7}+\cdots =a} , where n is any given odd integer (positive or negative) and where y and a can be functions, then upon solving for y, the result is equation (2) on the same page: y = 1 2 a + a a − 1 n + 1 2 a − a a − 1 n {\displaystyle y={\tfrac {1}{2}}{\sqrt{a+{\sqrt {aa-1}}}}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}{\sqrt{a-{\sqrt {aa-1}}}}} . If y = cos x and a = cos nx , then the result is cos ⁡ x = 1 2 ( cos ⁡ ( n x ) + i sin ⁡ ( n x ) ) 1 / n + 1 2 ( cos ⁡ ( n x ) − i sin ⁡ ( n x ) ) 1 / n {\displaystyle \cos x={\tfrac {1}{2}}(\cos(nx)+i\sin(nx))^{1/n}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}(\cos(nx)-i\sin(nx))^{1/n}} In 1676, Isaac Newton found the relation between two chords that were in the ratio of n to 1; the relation was expressed by the series above. The series appears in a letter — Epistola prior D. Issaci Newton, Mathescos Professoris in Celeberrima Academia Cantabrigiensi; … — of 13 June 1676 from Isaac Newton to Henry Oldenburg, secretary of the Royal Society; a copy of the letter was sent to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. See p. 106 of: Biot, J.-B.; Lefort, F., eds. (1856). Commercium epistolicum J. Collins et aliorum de analysi promota, etc: ou … (in Latin). Paris, France: Mallet-Bachelier. pp. 102–112. In 1698, de Moivre derived the same series. See: de Moivre, A. (1698). "A method of extracting roots of an infinite equation". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 20 (240): 190–193. doi:10.1098/rstl.1698.0034. S2CID 186214144.; see p 192. In 1730, de Moivre explicitly considered the case where the functions are cos θ and cos nθ. See: Moivre, A. de (1730). Miscellanea Analytica de Seriebus et Quadraturis (in Latin). London, England: J. Tonson & J. Watts. p. 1. From p. 1: "Lemma 1. Si sint l & x cosinus arcuum duorum A & B, quorum uterque eodem radio 1 describatur, quorumque prior sit posterioris multiplex in ea ratione quam habet numerus n ad unitatem, tunc erit x = 1 2 l + l l − 1 n + 1 2 1 l + l l − 1 n {\displaystyle x={\tfrac {1}{2}}{\sqrt{l+{\sqrt {ll-1}}}}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}{\tfrac {1}{\sqrt{l+{\sqrt {ll-1}}}}}} ." (If l and x are cosines of two arcs A and B both of which are described by the same radius 1 and of which the former is a multiple of the latter in that ratio as the number n has to 1, then it will be x = 1 2 l + l l − 1 n + 1 2 1 l + l l − 1 n {\displaystyle x={\tfrac {1}{2}}{\sqrt{l+{\sqrt {ll-1}}}}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}{\tfrac {1}{\sqrt{l+{\sqrt {ll-1}}}}}} .) So if arc A = n × arc B, then l = cos A = cos nB and x = cos B. Hence cos ⁡ B = 1 2 ( cos ⁡ ( n B ) + − 1 sin ⁡ ( n B ) ) 1 / n + 1 2 ( cos ⁡ ( n B ) + − 1 sin ⁡ ( n B ) ) − 1 / n {\displaystyle \cos B={\tfrac {1}{2}}(\cos(nB)+{\sqrt {-1}}\sin(nB))^{1/n}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}(\cos(nB)+{\sqrt {-1}}\sin(nB))^{-1/n}} See also: Cantor, Moritz (1898). Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Mathematik . Bibliotheca mathematica Teuberiana, Bd. 8-9 (in German). Vol. 3. Leipzig, Germany: B.G. Teubner. p. 624. Braunmühl, A. von (1901). "Zur Geschichte der Entstehung des sogenannten Moivreschen Satzes" . Bibliotheca Mathematica. 3rd series (in German). 2: 97–102.; see p. 98. ^ Smith, David Eugene (1959), A Source Book in Mathematics, Volume 3, Courier Dover Publications, p. 444, ISBN 9780486646909 ^ Moivre, A. de (1722). "De sectione anguli" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (in Latin). 32 (374): 228–230. doi:10.1098/rstl.1722.0039. S2CID 186210081. Retrieved 6 June 2020. English translation by Richard J. Pulskamp (2009) Archived 28 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine From p. 229: "Sit x sinus versus arcus cujuslibert. t sinus versus arcus alterius. 1 radius circuli. Sitque arcus prior ad posteriorum ut 1 ad n, tunc, assumptis binis aequationibus quas cognatas appelare licet, 1 – 2zn + z2n = – 2znt 1 – 2z + zz = – 2zx. Expunctoque z orietur aequatio qua relatio inter x & t determinatur." (Let x be the versine of any arc . t be the versine of another arc. 1 be the radius of the circle. And let the first arc to the latter be as 1 to n , then, with the two equations assumed which may be called related, 1 – 2zn + z2n = –2znt 1 – 2z + zz = – 2zx. And by eliminating z, the equation will arise by which the relation between x and t is determined.) That is, given the equations 1 – 2zn + z2n = – 2zn (1 – cos nθ) 1 – 2z + zz = – 2z (1 – cos θ), use the quadratic formula to solve for zn in the first equation and for z in the second equation. The result will be: zn = cos nθ ± i sin nθ and z = cos θ ± i sin θ , whence it immediately follows that (cos θ ± i sin θ)n = cos nθ ± i sin nθ. See also: Smith, David Eugen (1959). A Source Book in Mathematics. Vol. 2. New York City, New York, USA: Dover Publications Inc. pp. 444–446. see p. 445, footnote 1. ^ In 1738, de Moivre used trigonometry to determine the nth roots of a real or complex number. See: Moivre, A. de (1738). "De reductione radicalium ad simpliciores terminos, seu de extrahenda radice quacunque data ex binomio a + + b {\displaystyle a+{\sqrt {+b}}} , vel a + − b {\displaystyle a+{\sqrt {-b}}} . Epistola" [On the reduction of radicals to simpler terms, or on extracting any given root from a binomial, a + + b {\displaystyle a+{\sqrt {+b}}} or a + − b {\displaystyle a+{\sqrt {-b}}} . A letter.]. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (in Latin). 40 (451): 463–478. doi:10.1098/rstl.1737.0081. S2CID 186210174. From p. 475: "Problema III. Sit extrahenda radix, cujus index est n, ex binomio impossibli a + − b {\displaystyle a+{\sqrt {-b}}} . … illos autem negativos quorum arcus sunt quadrante majores." (Problem III. Let a root whose index is n be extracted from the complex binomial a + − b {\displaystyle a+{\sqrt {-b}}} . Solution. Let its root be x + − y {\displaystyle x+{\sqrt {-y}}} , then I define a a + b n = m {\displaystyle {\sqrt{aa+b}}=m} ; I also define n + 1 n = p {\displaystyle {\tfrac {n+1}{n}}=p} [Note: should read: n + 1 2 = p {\displaystyle {\tfrac {n+1}{2}}=p} ], draw or imagine a circle, whose radius is m {\displaystyle {\sqrt {m}}} , and assume in this some arc A whose cosine is a m p {\displaystyle {\tfrac {a}{{m}^{p}}}} ; let C be the entire circumference. Assume, at the same radius, the cosines of the arcs A n , C − A n , C + A n , 2 C − A n , 2 C + A n , 3 C − A n , 3 C + A n {\displaystyle {\tfrac {A}{n}},{\tfrac {C-A}{n}},{\tfrac {C+A}{n}},{\tfrac {2C-A}{n}},{\tfrac {2C+A}{n}},{\tfrac {3C-A}{n}},{\tfrac {3C+A}{n}}} , etc. until the multitude of them equals the number n; when this is done, stop there; then there will be as many cosines as values of the quantity x {\displaystyle x} , which is related to the quantity y {\displaystyle y} ; this [i.e., y {\displaystyle y} ] will always be m − x x {\displaystyle m-xx} . It is not to be neglected, although it was mentioned previously, those cosines whose arcs are less than a right angle must be regarded as positive but those whose arcs are greater than a right angle negative.) See also: Braunmühl, A. von (1903). Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Trigonometrie (in German). Vol. 2. Leipzig, Germany: B.G. Teubner. pp. 76–77. ^ Euler (1749). "Recherches sur les racines imaginaires des equations" . Mémoires de l'académie des sciences de Berlin (in French). 5: 222–288. See pp. 260–261: "Theorem XIII. §. 70. De quelque puissance qu'on extraye la racine, ou d'une quantité réelle, ou d'une imaginaire de la forme M + N √-1, les racines seront toujours, ou réelles, ou imaginaires de la même forme M + N √-1." (Theorem XIII. §. 70. For any power, either a real quantity or a complex of the form M + N √−1, from which one extracts the root, the roots will always be either real or complex of the same form M + N√−1.) ^ De Moivre had been trying to determine the coefficient of the middle term of (1 + 1)n for large n since 1721 or earlier. In his pamphlet of November 12, 1733 – "Approximatio ad Summam Terminorum Binomii (a + b)n in Seriem expansi" – de Moivre said that he had started working on the problem 12 years or more ago: "Duodecim jam sunt anni & amplius cum illud inveneram; … " (It is now a dozen years or more since I found this ; … ). (Archibald, 1926), p. 677. (de Moivre, 1738), p. 235. De Moivre credited Alexander Cuming (ca. 1690 – 1775), a Scottish aristocrat and member of the Royal Society of London, with motivating, in 1721, his search to find an approximation for the central term of a binomial expansion. (de Moivre, 1730), p. 99. ^ The roles of de Moivre and Stirling in finding Stirling's approximation are presented in: Gélinas, Jacques (24 January 2017) "Original proofs of Stirling's series for log (N!)" arxiv.org Lanier, Denis; Trotoux, Didier (1998). "La formule de Stirling" Commission inter-IREM histoire et épistémologie des mathématiques (ed.). Analyse & démarche analytique : les neveux de Descartes : actes du XIème Colloque inter-IREM d'épistémologie et d'histoire des mathématiques, Reims, 10 et 11 mai 1996 (in French). Reims, France: IREM de Reims. pp. 231–286. ^ Moivre, A. de (1730). Miscellanea Analytica de Seriebus et Quadraturis ]. London, England: J. Tonson & J. Watts. pp. 103–104. ^ From p. 102 of (de Moivre, 1730): "Problema III. Invenire Coefficientem Termini medii potestatis permagnae & paris, seu invenire rationem quam Coefficiens termini medii habeat ad summam omnium Coefficientium. … ad 1 proxime." (Problem 3. Find the coefficient of the middle term for a very large and even power , or find the ratio that the coefficient of the middle term has to the sum of all coefficients. Solution. Let n be the degree of the power to which the binomial a + b is raised, then, setting a and b = 1, the ratio of the middle term to its power (a + b)n or 2n will be nearly as 2 ( n − 1 ) n − 1 2 n n {\displaystyle {\frac {2(n-1)^{n-{\frac {1}{2}}}}{{n}^{n}}}} to 1. But when some series for an inquiry could be determined more accurately had been neglected due to lack of time, I then calculate by re-integration I recover for use the particular quantities had previously been neglected; so it happened that I could finally conclude that the ratio sought is approximately 2 21 125 ( n − 1 ) n − 1 2 n n {\displaystyle {\frac {2{\frac {21}{125}}{(n-1)}^{n-{\frac {1}{2}}}}{n^{n}}}} or 2 21 125 ( 1 − 1 n ) n n − 1 {\displaystyle {\frac {2{\frac {21}{125}}{(1-{\frac {1}{n}})}^{n}}{\sqrt {n-1}}}} to 1.) The approximation 2 21 125 ( n − 1 ) n − 1 2 n n {\displaystyle {\frac {{2}{\frac {21}{125}}{(n-1)}^{n-{\frac {1}{2}}}}{{n}^{n}}}} is derived on pp. 124-128 of (de Moivre, 1730). ^ De Moivre determined the value of the constant 2 21 125 {\displaystyle \textstyle 2{\frac {21}{125}}} by approximating the value of a series by using only its first four terms. De Moivre thought that the series converged, but the English mathematician Thomas Bayes (ca. 1701–1761) found that the series actually diverged. From pp. 127-128 of (de Moivre, 1730): "Cum vero perciperem has Series valde implicatas evadere, … conclusi factorem 2.168 seu 2 21 125 , … {\textstyle 2{\frac {21}{125}},\ldots } " (But when I conceived to avoid these very complicated series — although all of them were perfectly summable — I think that nothing else to be done, than to transform them to the infinite case; thus set m to infinity, then the sum of the first rational series will be reduced to 1/12, the sum of the second to 1/360; thus it happens that the sums of all the series are achieved. From this one series 1 12 − 1 360 + 1 1260 − 1 1680 {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {1}{12}}-{\frac {1}{360}}+{\frac {1}{1260}}-{\frac {1}{1680}}} , etc., one will be able to discard as many terms as it will be one's pleasure; but I decided four of this , because they sufficed a sufficiently accurate approximation; now when this series be convergent, then its terms decrease with alternating positive and negative signs, one may infer that the first term 1/12 is larger the sum of the series, or the first term is larger the difference that exists between all positive terms and all negative terms; but that term should be regarded as a hyperbolic logarithm; further, the number corresponding to this logarithm is nearly 1.0869 , which if multiplied by 2, the product will be 2.1738, and so to an infinite power, designated by n, the quantity 2.1738 ( n − 1 ) n − 1 2 n n {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {{2.1738}{(n-1)}^{n-{\frac {1}{2}}}}{n^{n}}}} will be larger than the ratio that the middle term of the binomial has to the sum of all terms, and proceeding to the remaining terms, it will be discovered that the factor 2.1676 is just smaller , and similarly that 2.1695 is greater, in turn that 2.1682 sinks a little bit below the true ; considering which, I concluded that the factor 2.168 or 2 21 125 , … {\textstyle 2{\frac {21}{125}},\ldots } Note: The factor that de Moivre was seeking, was: 2 e 2 π = 2.16887 … {\displaystyle {\frac {2e}{\sqrt {2\pi }}}=2.16887\ldots } (Lanier & Trotoux, 1998), p. 237. Bayes, Thomas (31 December 1763). "A letter from the late Reverend Mr. Bayes, F.R.S. to John Canton, M.A. and F.R.S.". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 53: 269–271. doi:10.1098/rstl.1763.0044. S2CID 186214800. ^ (de Moivre, 1730), pp. 170–172. ^ In Stirling's letter of June 19, 1729 to de Moivre, Stirling stated that he had written to Alexander Cuming "quadrienium circiter abhinc" (about four years ago ) about (among other things) approximating, by using Isaac Newton's method of differentials, the coefficient of the middle term of a binomial expansion. Stirling acknowledged that de Moivre had solved the problem years earlier: " … ; respondit Illustrissimus vir se dubitare an Problema a Te aliquot ante annos solutum de invenienda Uncia media in quavis dignitate Binonii solvi posset per Differentias." ( ... ; this most illustrious man responded that he doubted whether the problem solved by you several years earlier, concerning the behavior of the middle term of any power of the binomial, could be solved by differentials.) Stirling wrote that he had then commenced to investigate the problem, but that initially his progress was slow. (de Moivre, 1730), p. 170. Zabell, S.L. (2005). Symmetry and Its Discontents: Essays on the History of Inductive Probability. New York City, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press. p. 113. ISBN 9780521444705. ^ See: Stirling, James (1730). Methodus Differentialis … (in Latin). London: G. Strahan. p. 137. From p. 137: "Ceterum si velis summam quotcunque Logarithmorum numerorum naturalam 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. pone z–n esse ultimum numerorum, existente n = ½ ; & tres vel quatuor Termini hujus Seriei z l , z − a z − a 24 z + 7 a 2880 z 3 − {\displaystyle zl,z-az-{\frac {a}{24z}}+{\frac {7a}{2880z^{3}}}-{}} additi Logarithmo circumferentiae Circuli cujus Radius est Unitas, id est, huic 0.39908.99341.79 dabunt summam quaesitam, idque eo minore labore quo plures Logarithmi sunt summandi." (Furthermore, if you want the sum of however many logarithms of the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., set z–n to be the last number, n being ½ ; and three or four terms of this series z log ⁡ ( z ) − a z − a 24 z + 7 a 2880 z 3 − {\displaystyle z\log(z)-az-{\frac {a}{24z}}+{\frac {7a}{2880z^{3}}}-{}} added to the logarithm of the circumference of a circle whose radius is unity – that is, to this: 0.39908.99341.79 – will give the sum sought, and the more logarithms are to be added, the less work it .) Note: a = 0.434294481903252 {\displaystyle a=0.434294481903252} (See p. 135.) = 1/ln(10). English translation: Stirling, James (1749). The Differential Method. Translated by Holliday, Francis. London, England: E. Cave. p. 121. ^ See: Archibald, R.C. (October 1926). "A rare pamphlet of Moivre and some of his discoveries". Isis (in English and Latin). 8 (4): 671–683. doi:10.1086/358439. S2CID 143827655. An English translation of the pamphlet appears in: Moivre, Abraham de (1738). The Doctrine of Chances … (2nd ed.). London, England: Self-published. pp. 235–243. References See de Moivre's Miscellanea Analytica (London: 1730) pp 26–42. H. J. R. Murray, 1913. History of Chess. Oxford University Press: p 846. Schneider, I., 2005, "The doctrine of chances" in Grattan-Guinness, I., ed., Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: pp 105–20 Further reading Wikisource has original works by or about:Abraham de Moivre Wikimedia Commons has media related to Abraham de Moivre. "de Moivre, Abraham". Archived from the original on 19 December 2007. Retrieved 15 June 2002. "Abraham Demoivre" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. VII (9th ed.). 1878. p. 60. The Doctrine of Chance at MathPages. Biography (PDF), Matthew Maty's Biography of Abraham De Moivre, Translated, Annotated and Augmented. de Moivre, On the Law of Normal Probability vteSir Isaac NewtonPublications Fluxions (1671) De Motu (1684) Principia (1687) Opticks (1704) Queries (1704) Arithmetica (1707) De Analysi (1711) Other writings Quaestiones (1661–1665) "standing on the shoulders of giants" (1675) Notes on the Jewish Temple (c. 1680) "General Scholium" (1713; "hypotheses non fingo" ) Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728) Corruptions of Scripture (1754) Contributions Calculus fluxion Impact depth Inertia Newton disc Newton polygon Newton–Okounkov body Newton's reflector Newtonian telescope Newton scale Newton's metal Spectrum Structural coloration Newtonianism Bucket argument Newton's inequalities Newton's law of cooling Newton's law of universal gravitation post-Newtonian expansion parameterized gravitational constant Newton–Cartan theory Schrödinger–Newton equation Newton's laws of motion Kepler's laws Newtonian dynamics Newton's method in optimization Apollonius's problem truncated Newton method Gauss–Newton algorithm Newton's rings Newton's theorem about ovals Newton–Pepys problem Newtonian potential Newtonian fluid Classical mechanics Corpuscular theory of light Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy Newton's notation Rotating spheres Newton's cannonball Newton–Cotes formulas Newton's method generalized Gauss–Newton method Newton fractal Newton's identities Newton polynomial Newton's theorem of revolving orbits Newton–Euler equations Newton number kissing number problem Newton's quotient Parallelogram of force Newton–Puiseux theorem Absolute space and time Luminiferous aether Newtonian series table Personal life Woolsthorpe Manor (birthplace) Cranbury Park (home) Early life Later life Apple tree Religious views Occult studies Scientific Revolution Copernican Revolution Relations Catherine Barton (niece) John Conduitt (nephew-in-law) Isaac Barrow (professor) William Clarke (mentor) Benjamin Pulleyn (tutor) John Keill (disciple) William Stukeley (friend) William Jones (friend) Abraham de Moivre (friend) Depictions Newton by Blake (monotype) Newton by Paolozzi (sculpture) Isaac Newton Gargoyle Astronomers Monument Namesake Newton (unit) Newton's cradle Isaac Newton Institute Isaac Newton Medal Isaac Newton Telescope Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes XMM-Newton Sir Isaac Newton Sixth Form Statal Institute of Higher Education Isaac Newton Newton International Fellowship Categories Isaac Newton Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway Spain 2 France BnF data Germany Italy Israel Belgium United States Sweden Czech Republic Australia Croatia Netherlands 2 Academics CiNii MathSciNet Mathematics Genealogy Project zbMATH People Deutsche Biographie Trove Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FRS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"[abʁaam də mwavʁ]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/French"},{"link_name":"de Moivre's formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Moivre%27s_formula"},{"link_name":"complex numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"trigonometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometry"},{"link_name":"normal distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution"},{"link_name":"probability theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_theory"},{"link_name":"Huguenots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huguenot"},{"link_name":"Edict of Fontainebleau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict_of_Fontainebleau"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mactutor-1"},{"link_name":"Isaac Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"Edmond Halley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_Halley"},{"link_name":"James Stirling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Stirling_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"Pierre des Maizeaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_des_Maizeaux"},{"link_name":"probability theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_theory"},{"link_name":"The Doctrine of Chances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Doctrine_of_Chances"},{"link_name":"Binet's formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binet%27s_formula"},{"link_name":"closed-form expression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed-form_expression"},{"link_name":"Fibonacci numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_numbers"},{"link_name":"golden ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_ratio"},{"link_name":"central limit theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_limit_theorem"}],"text":"Abraham de Moivre FRS (French pronunciation: [abʁaam də mwavʁ]; 26 May 1667 – 27 November 1754) was a French mathematician known for de Moivre's formula, a formula that links complex numbers and trigonometry, and for his work on the normal distribution and probability theory.He moved to England at a young age due to the religious persecution of Huguenots in France which reached a climax in 1685 with the Edict of Fontainebleau.[1]\nHe was a friend of Isaac Newton, Edmond Halley, and James Stirling. Among his fellow Huguenot exiles in England, he was a colleague of the editor and translator Pierre des Maizeaux.De Moivre wrote a book on probability theory, The Doctrine of Chances, said to have been prized by gamblers. De Moivre first discovered Binet's formula, the closed-form expression for Fibonacci numbers linking the nth power of the golden ratio φ to the nth Fibonacci number. He also was the first to postulate the central limit theorem, a cornerstone of probability theory.","title":"Abraham de Moivre"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moivre_-_Doctrine_of_chances,_1761_-_722666.tif"}],"text":"Doctrine of chances, 1756","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vitry-le-François","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitry-le-Fran%C3%A7ois"},{"link_name":"Champagne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champagne_(province)"},{"link_name":"Sedan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedan,_Ardennes"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Academy of Sedan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Sedan"},{"link_name":"Sedan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedan,_Ardennes"},{"link_name":"Saumur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saumur"},{"link_name":"Éléments des mathématiques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.archive.org/stream/elemensdesmathe00poligoog/elemensdesmathe00poligoog_djvu.txt"},{"link_name":"Jean Prestet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Prestet"},{"link_name":"Christiaan Huygens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens"},{"link_name":"Jacques Ozanam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Ozanam"},{"link_name":"King Louis XIV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Louis_XIV"},{"link_name":"Edict of Fontainebleau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict_of_Fontainebleau"},{"link_name":"Edict of Nantes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes"}],"sub_title":"Early years","text":"Abraham de Moivre was born in Vitry-le-François in Champagne on 26 May 1667. His father, Daniel de Moivre, was a surgeon who believed in the value of education. Though Abraham de Moivre's parents were Protestant, he first attended Christian Brothers' Catholic school in Vitry, which was unusually tolerant given religious tensions in France at the time. When he was eleven, his parents sent him to the Protestant Academy at Sedan, where he spent four years studying Greek under Jacques du Rondel. The Protestant Academy of Sedan had been founded in 1579 at the initiative of Françoise de Bourbon, the widow of Henri-Robert de la Marck.In 1682 the Protestant Academy at Sedan was suppressed, and de Moivre enrolled to study logic at Saumur for two years. Although mathematics was not part of his course work, de Moivre read several works on mathematics on his own, including Éléments des mathématiques by the French Oratorian priest and mathematician Jean Prestet and a short treatise on games of chance, De Ratiociniis in Ludo Aleae, by Christiaan Huygens the Dutch physicist, mathematician, astronomer and inventor. In 1684, de Moivre moved to Paris to study physics, and for the first time had formal mathematics training with private lessons from Jacques Ozanam.Religious persecution in France became severe when King Louis XIV issued the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685, which revoked the Edict of Nantes, that had given substantial rights to French Protestants. It forbade Protestant worship and required that all children be baptised by Catholic priests. De Moivre was sent to Prieuré Saint-Martin-des-Champs, a school that the authorities sent Protestant children to for indoctrination into Catholicism.It is unclear when de Moivre left the Prieure de Saint-Martin and moved to England, since the records of the Prieure de Saint-Martin indicate that he left the school in 1688, but de Moivre and his brother presented themselves as Huguenots admitted to the Savoy Church in London on 28 August 1687.","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mactutor-1"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"Earl of Devonshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_of_Devonshire"},{"link_name":"Principia Mathematica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Edmond Halley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_Halley"},{"link_name":"Isaac Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"fluxions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_notation"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"binomial theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_theorem"},{"link_name":"multinomial theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinomial_theorem"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"Johann Bernoulli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Bernoulli"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Fellow of the Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mactutor-1"},{"link_name":"Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz_and_Newton_calculus_controversy"},{"link_name":"old Slaughter's Coffee House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Slaughter%27s_Coffee_House"}],"sub_title":"Middle years","text":"By the time he arrived in London, de Moivre was a competent mathematician with a good knowledge of many of the standard texts.[1] To make a living, de Moivre became a private tutor of mathematics, visiting his pupils or teaching in the coffee houses of London. De Moivre continued his studies of mathematics after visiting the Earl of Devonshire and seeing Newton's recent book, Principia Mathematica. Looking through the book, he realised that it was far deeper than the books that he had studied previously, and he became determined to read and understand it. However, as he was required to take extended walks around London to travel between his students, de Moivre had little time for study, so he tore pages from the book and carried them around in his pocket to read between lessons.According to a possibly apocryphal story, Newton, in the later years of his life, used to refer people posing mathematical questions to him to de Moivre, saying, \"He knows all these things better than I do.\"[2]By 1692, de Moivre became friends with Edmond Halley and soon after with Isaac Newton himself. In 1695, Halley communicated de Moivre's first mathematics paper, which arose from his study of fluxions in the Principia Mathematica, to the Royal Society. This paper was published in the Philosophical Transactions that same year. Shortly after publishing this paper, de Moivre also generalised Newton's noteworthy binomial theorem into the multinomial theorem. The Royal Society became apprised of this method in 1697, and it elected de Moivre a Fellow on 30 November 1697.After de Moivre had been accepted, Halley encouraged him to turn his attention to astronomy. In 1705, de Moivre discovered, intuitively, that \"the centripetal force of any planet is directly related to its distance from the centre of the forces and reciprocally related to the product of the diameter of the evolute and the cube of the perpendicular on the tangent.\" In other words, if a planet, M, follows an elliptical orbit around a focus F and has a point P where PM is tangent to the curve and FPM is a right angle so that FP is the perpendicular to the tangent, then the centripetal force at point P is proportional to FM/(R*(FP)3) where R is the radius of the curvature at M. The mathematician Johann Bernoulli proved this formula in 1710.Despite these successes, de Moivre was unable to obtain an appointment to a chair of mathematics at any university, which would have released him from his dependence on time-consuming tutoring that burdened him more than it did most other mathematicians of the time. At least a part of the reason was a bias against his French origins.[3][4][5]In November 1697 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society[1] and in 1712 was appointed to a commission set up by the society, alongside MM. Arbuthnot, Hill, Halley, Jones, Machin, Burnet, Robarts, Bonet, Aston, and Taylor to review the claims of Newton and Leibniz as to who discovered calculus. The full details of the controversy can be found in the Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy article.Throughout his life de Moivre remained poor. It is reported that he was a regular customer of old Slaughter's Coffee House, St. Martin's Lane at Cranbourn Street, where he earned a little money from playing chess.","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lethargic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lethargic"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cajori-History-6"},{"link_name":"St Martin-in-the-Fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Martin-in-the-Fields"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hsmstex-7"}],"sub_title":"Later years","text":"De Moivre continued studying the fields of probability and mathematics until his death in 1754 and several additional papers were published after his death. As he grew older, he became increasingly lethargic and needed longer sleeping hours. It is a common claim that De Moivre noted he was sleeping an extra 15 minutes each night and correctly calculated the date of his death as the day when the sleep time reached 24 hours, 27 November 1754.[6] On that day he did in fact die, in London and his body was buried at St Martin-in-the-Fields, although his body was later moved. The claim of him predicting his own death, however, has been disputed as not having been documented anywhere at the time of its occurrence.[7]","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"de Moivre–Laplace theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Moivre%E2%80%93Laplace_theorem"},{"link_name":"The Doctrine of Chances: a method of calculating the probabilities of events in play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Doctrine_of_Chances"},{"link_name":"Girolamo Cardano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Cardano"},{"link_name":"Gaussian function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_function"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"probable error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probable_error"},{"link_name":"actuarial tables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuarial_table"},{"link_name":"James Stirling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Stirling_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"See also: de Moivre–Laplace theoremDe Moivre pioneered the development of analytic geometry and the theory of probability by expanding upon the work of his predecessors, particularly Christiaan Huygens and several members of the Bernoulli family. He also produced the second textbook on probability theory, The Doctrine of Chances: a method of calculating the probabilities of events in play. (The first book about games of chance, Liber de ludo aleae (On Casting the Die), was written by Girolamo Cardano in the 1560s, but it was not published until 1663.) This book came out in four editions, 1711 in Latin, and in English in 1718, 1738, and 1756. In the later editions of his book, de Moivre included his unpublished result of 1733, which is the first statement of an approximation to the binomial distribution in terms of what we now call the normal or Gaussian function.[8] This was the first method of finding the probability of the occurrence of an error of a given size when that error is expressed in terms of the variability of the distribution as a unit, and the first identification of the calculation of probable error. In addition, he applied these theories to gambling problems and actuarial tables.An expression commonly found in probability is n! but before the days of calculators calculating n! for a large n was time-consuming. In 1733 de Moivre proposed the formula for estimating a factorial as n! = cn(n+1/2)e−n. He obtained an approximate expression for the constant c but it was James Stirling who found that c was √2π.[9]De Moivre also published an article called \"Annuities upon Lives\" in which he revealed the normal distribution of the mortality rate over a person's age. From this he produced a simple formula for approximating the revenue produced by annual payments based on a person's age. This is similar to the types of formulas used by insurance companies today.","title":"Probability"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Poisson distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisson_distribution"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JKK157-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Priority regarding the Poisson distribution","text":"Some results on the Poisson distribution were first introduced by de Moivre in De Mensura Sortis seu; de Probabilitate Eventuum in Ludis a Casu Fortuito Pendentibus in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, p. 219.[10] As a result, some authors have argued that the Poisson distribution should bear the name of de Moivre.[11][12]","title":"Probability"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"integers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"de Moivre's Formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Moivre%27s_Formula"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Euler's formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%27s_formula"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"complex numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_numbers"},{"link_name":"trigonometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometry"}],"text":"In 1707, de Moivre derived an equation from which one can deduce:cos\n ⁡\n x\n =\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n (\n cos\n ⁡\n (\n n\n x\n )\n +\n i\n sin\n ⁡\n (\n n\n x\n )\n \n )\n \n 1\n \n /\n \n n\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n (\n cos\n ⁡\n (\n n\n x\n )\n −\n i\n sin\n ⁡\n (\n n\n x\n )\n \n )\n \n 1\n \n /\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\cos x={\\tfrac {1}{2}}(\\cos(nx)+i\\sin(nx))^{1/n}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}(\\cos(nx)-i\\sin(nx))^{1/n}}which he was able to prove for all positive integers n.[13][14] In 1722, he presented equations from which one can deduce the better known form of de Moivre's Formula:(\n cos\n ⁡\n x\n +\n i\n sin\n ⁡\n x\n \n )\n \n n\n \n \n =\n cos\n ⁡\n (\n n\n x\n )\n +\n i\n sin\n ⁡\n (\n n\n x\n )\n .\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (\\cos x+i\\sin x)^{n}=\\cos(nx)+i\\sin(nx).\\,}\n \n[15][16]In 1749 Euler proved this formula for any real n using Euler's formula, which makes the proof quite straightforward.[17] This formula is important because it relates complex numbers and trigonometry. Additionally, this formula allows the derivation of useful expressions for cos(nx) and sin(nx) in terms of cos(x) and sin(x).","title":"De Moivre's formula"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"James Stirling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Stirling_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"De Moivre had been studying probability, and his investigations required him to calculate binomial coefficients, which in turn required him to calculate factorials.[18][19] In 1730 de Moivre published his book Miscellanea Analytica de Seriebus et Quadraturis [Analytic Miscellany of Series and Integrals], which included tables of log (n!).[20] For large values of n, de Moivre approximated the coefficients of the terms in a binomial expansion. Specifically, given a positive integer n, where n is even and large, then the coefficient of the middle term of (1 + 1)n is approximated by the equation:[21][22](\n \n \n n\n \n n\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n n\n !\n \n \n (\n (\n \n \n n\n 2\n \n \n )\n !\n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ≈\n \n \n 2\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n 21\n 125\n \n \n \n \n (\n n\n −\n 1\n )\n \n \n n\n −\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {n \\choose n/2}={\\frac {n!}{(({\\frac {n}{2}})!)^{2}}}\\approx {2^{n}}{\\frac {{2}{\\frac {21}{125}}{(n-1)}^{n-{\\frac {1}{2}}}}{{n}^{n}}}}On June 19, 1729, James Stirling sent to de Moivre a letter, which illustrated how he calculated the coefficient of the middle term of a binomial expansion (a + b)n for large values of n.[23][24] In 1730, Stirling published his book Methodus Differentialis [The Differential Method], in which he included his series for log(n!):[25]log\n \n 10\n \n \n ⁡\n (\n n\n +\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n )\n !\n ≈\n \n log\n \n 10\n \n \n ⁡\n \n \n 2\n π\n \n \n +\n n\n \n log\n \n 10\n \n \n ⁡\n n\n −\n \n \n n\n \n ln\n ⁡\n 10\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\log _{10}(n+{\\frac {1}{2}})!\\approx \\log _{10}{\\sqrt {2\\pi }}+n\\log _{10}n-{\\frac {n}{\\ln 10}},}so that for large \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n, \n \n \n \n n\n !\n ≈\n \n \n 2\n π\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n n\n e\n \n \n )\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n!\\approx {\\sqrt {2\\pi }}\\left({\\frac {n}{e}}\\right)^{n}}\n \n.On November 12, 1733, de Moivre privately published and distributed a pamphlet – Approximatio ad Summam Terminorum Binomii (a + b)n in Seriem expansi [Approximation of the Sum of the Terms of the Binomial (a + b)n expanded into a Series] – in which he acknowledged Stirling's letter and proposed an alternative expression for the central term of a binomial expansion.[26]","title":"Stirling's approximation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"colloquium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20190213064431/https://w3.onera.fr/alumni/sites/w3.onera.fr.alumni/files/de_moivre_-_2017_-_flyer_-_maquette_05_-_octobre.pdf"},{"link_name":"French National Commission of UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20190401162459/https://unesco.delegfrance.org/-Commission-Francaise-pour-l-UNESCO-"},{"link_name":"Academy of Saumur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Saumur"},{"link_name":"De Moivre's formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Moivre%27s_formula"},{"link_name":"De Moivre–Laplace theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Moivre%E2%80%93Laplace_theorem"},{"link_name":"Old Slaughter's Coffee House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Slaughter%27s_Coffee_House"},{"link_name":"Abraham de Moivre : Génie en exil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20190213183524/https://indico.math.cnrs.fr/event/1978/"}],"text":"On 25 November 2017, a colloquium was organised in Saumur by Dr Conor Maguire, with the patronage of the French National Commission of UNESCO, to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the birth of de Moivre and the fact that he studied for two years at the Academy of Saumur. The colloquium was titled Abraham de Moivre : le Mathématicien, sa vie et son œuvre and covered De Moivre's important contributions to the development of complex numbers, see De Moivre's formula, and to probability theory, see De Moivre–Laplace theorem. The colloquium traced De Moivre's life and his exile in London where he became a highly respected friend of Isaac Newton. Nonetheless, he lived on modest means which he generated partly by his sessions advising gamblers in the Old Slaughter's Coffee House on the probabilities associated with their endeavours! On 27 November 2016, Professor Christian Genest of the McGill University (Montreal) marked the 262nd anniversary of the death of de Moivre with a colloquium in Limoges titled Abraham de Moivre : Génie en exil which discussed De Moivre's famous approximation of the binomial law which inspired the central limit theorem.","title":"Celebrations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-mactutor_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-mactutor_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-mactutor_1-2"},{"link_name":"Robertson, Edmund F.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson"},{"link_name":"\"Abraham de Moivre\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/De_Moivre.html"},{"link_name":"MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive"},{"link_name":"University of St Andrews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-56881-349-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56881-349-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Zitarelli, David E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_E._Zitarelli"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-07-013215-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-013215-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Jungnickel, Christa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christa_Jungnickel"},{"link_name":"McCormmach, Russell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_McCormmach"},{"link_name":"Cavendish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=eiDoN-rg8I8C&pg=PA52"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780871692207","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780871692207"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Encyclopedia of Mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=MfKKMSuthacC&pg=PA122"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780816051243","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780816051243"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cajori-History_6-0"},{"link_name":"Cajori, Florian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florian_Cajori"},{"link_name":"American Mathematical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mathematical_Society"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780821821022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780821821022"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hsmstex_7-0"},{"link_name":"\"Biographical details - Did Abraham de Moivre really predict his own death?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//hsm.stackexchange.com/questions/333/did-abraham-de-moivre-really-predict-his-own-death"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"pp. 235–243","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=PII_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA235"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1093/biomet/16.3-4.402","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1093%2Fbiomet%2F16.3-4.402"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-JKK157_10-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-471-54897-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-54897-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/0167-7152(82)90010-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2F0167-7152%2882%2990010-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1403045","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/1403045"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1098/rstl.1706.0037","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1706.0037"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"186209627","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186209627"},{"link_name":"Richard J. Pulskamp (2009)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//cerebro.xu.edu/math/Sources/Moivre/aequationum%20quarundam.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20200609215735/http://cerebro.xu.edu/math/Sources/Moivre/aequationum%20quarundam.pdf"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"Isaac Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz"},{"link_name":"Commercium epistolicum J. Collins et aliorum de analysi promota, etc: ou …","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=BHBtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA106"},{"link_name":"\"A method of extracting roots of an infinite equation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1698.0034"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1098/rstl.1698.0034","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1698.0034"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"186214144","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186214144"},{"link_name":"Miscellanea Analytica de Seriebus et Quadraturis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=bMl5NAAACAAJ&pg=PP5"},{"link_name":"Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Mathematik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=chi.11625415&view=1up&seq=644"},{"link_name":"\"Zur Geschichte der Entstehung des sogenannten Moivreschen Satzes\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044102937091&view=1up&seq=112"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"A Source Book in Mathematics, Volume 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=3TSKAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA444"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780486646909","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486646909"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"\"De sectione anguli\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zenodo.org/record/1432196/files/article.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1098/rstl.1722.0039","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1722.0039"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"186210081","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186210081"},{"link_name":"Richard J. Pulskamp (2009)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//cerebro.xu.edu/math/Sources/Moivre/de_%20sectione_anguli.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20201128125816/http://cerebro.xu.edu/math/Sources/Moivre/de_%20sectione_anguli.pdf"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"quadratic formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_formula"},{"link_name":"A Source Book in Mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.165707/page/n151/mode/2up/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1098/rstl.1737.0081","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1737.0081"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"186210174","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186210174"},{"link_name":"Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Trigonometrie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=uB0PAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA76"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"\"Recherches sur les racines imaginaires des equations\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/euler-e170/page/n37/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"\"Original proofs of Stirling's series for log (N!)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/pdf/1701.06689.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"Miscellanea Analytica de Seriebus et Quadraturis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=bMl5NAAACAAJ&pg=PA103"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-21"},{"link_name":"From p. 102 of (de Moivre, 1730)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=bMl5NAAACAAJ&pg=PA102"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-22"},{"link_name":"Thomas Bayes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Bayes"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1098/rstl.1763.0044","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1763.0044"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"186214800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186214800"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"Symmetry and Its Discontents: Essays on the History of Inductive Probability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=6fd1IeWpdiYC&pg=PA113"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780521444705","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521444705"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-25"},{"link_name":"Methodus Differentialis …","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bub_gb_71ZHAAAAYAAJ/page/n145/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"The Differential Method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=j2xbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA125"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-26"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1086/358439","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1086%2F358439"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"143827655","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143827655"},{"link_name":"The Doctrine of Chances …","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=PII_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA235"}],"text":"^ a b c O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., \"Abraham de Moivre\", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews\n\n^ Bellhouse, David R. (2011). Abraham De Moivre: Setting the Stage for Classical Probability and Its Applications. London: Taylor & Francis. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-56881-349-3.\n\n^ Coughlin, Raymond F.; Zitarelli, David E. (1984). The ascent of mathematics. McGraw-Hill. p. 437. ISBN 0-07-013215-1. Unfortunately, because he was not British, De Moivre was never able to obtain a university teaching position\n\n^ Jungnickel, Christa; McCormmach, Russell (1996). Cavendish. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. 220. American Philosophical Society. p. 52. ISBN 9780871692207. Well connected in mathematical circles and highly regarded for his work, he still could not get a good job. Even his conversion to the Church of England in 1705 could not alter the fact that he was an alien.\n\n^ Tanton, James Stuart (2005). Encyclopedia of Mathematics. Infobase Publishing. p. 122. ISBN 9780816051243. He had hoped to receive a faculty position in mathematics but, as a foreigner, was never offered such an appointment.\n\n^ Cajori, Florian (1991). History of Mathematics (5 ed.). American Mathematical Society. p. 229. ISBN 9780821821022.\n\n^ \"Biographical details - Did Abraham de Moivre really predict his own death?\".\n\n^ See:\nAbraham De Moivre (12 November 1733) \"Approximatio ad summam terminorum binomii (a+b)n in seriem expansi\" (self-published pamphlet), 7 pages.\nEnglish translation: A. De Moivre, The Doctrine of Chances … , 2nd ed. (London, England: H. Woodfall, 1738), pp. 235–243.\n\n^ Pearson, Karl (1924). \"Historical note on the origin of the normal curve of errors\". Biometrika. 16 (3–4): 402–404. doi:10.1093/biomet/16.3-4.402.\n\n^ Johnson, N.L., Kotz, S., Kemp, A.W. (1993) Univariate Discrete distributions (2nd edition). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-54897-9, p157\n\n^ Stigler, Stephen M. (1982). \"Poisson on the poisson distribution\". Statistics & Probability Letters. 1: 33–35. doi:10.1016/0167-7152(82)90010-4.\n\n^ Hald, Anders; de Moivre, Abraham; McClintock, Bruce (1984). \"A. de Moivre:'De Mensura Sortis' or'On the Measurement of Chance'\". International Statistical Review/Revue Internationale de Statistique. 1984 (3): 229–262. JSTOR 1403045.\n\n^ Moivre, Ab. de (1707). \"Aequationum quarundam potestatis tertiae, quintae, septimae, nonae, & superiorum, ad infinitum usque pergendo, in termimis finitis, ad instar regularum pro cubicis quae vocantur Cardani, resolutio analytica\" [Of certain equations of the third, fifth, seventh, ninth, & higher power, all the way to infinity, by proceeding, in finite terms, in the form of rules for cubics which are called by Cardano, resolution by analysis.]. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (in Latin). 25 (309): 2368–2371. doi:10.1098/rstl.1706.0037. S2CID 186209627.\nEnglish translation by Richard J. Pulskamp (2009) Archived 9 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine\nOn p. 2370 de Moivre stated that if a series has the form \n \n \n \n n\n y\n +\n \n \n \n \n 1\n −\n n\n n\n \n \n 2\n ×\n 3\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n y\n \n 3\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n 1\n −\n n\n n\n \n \n 2\n ×\n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 9\n −\n n\n n\n \n \n 4\n ×\n 5\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n y\n \n 5\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n 1\n −\n n\n n\n \n \n 2\n ×\n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 9\n −\n n\n n\n \n \n 4\n ×\n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 25\n −\n n\n n\n \n \n 6\n ×\n 7\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n y\n \n 7\n \n \n +\n ⋯\n =\n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ny+{\\tfrac {1-nn}{2\\times 3}}ny^{3}+{\\tfrac {1-nn}{2\\times 3}}{\\tfrac {9-nn}{4\\times 5}}ny^{5}+{\\tfrac {1-nn}{2\\times 3}}{\\tfrac {9-nn}{4\\times 5}}{\\tfrac {25-nn}{6\\times 7}}ny^{7}+\\cdots =a}\n \n , where n is any given odd integer (positive or negative) and where y and a can be functions, then upon solving for y, the result is equation (2) on the same page: \n \n \n \n y\n =\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n +\n \n \n a\n a\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n −\n \n \n a\n a\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle y={\\tfrac {1}{2}}{\\sqrt[{n}]{a+{\\sqrt {aa-1}}}}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}{\\sqrt[{n}]{a-{\\sqrt {aa-1}}}}}\n \n. If y = cos x and a = cos nx , then the result is \n \n \n \n cos\n ⁡\n x\n =\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n (\n cos\n ⁡\n (\n n\n x\n )\n +\n i\n sin\n ⁡\n (\n n\n x\n )\n \n )\n \n 1\n \n /\n \n n\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n (\n cos\n ⁡\n (\n n\n x\n )\n −\n i\n sin\n ⁡\n (\n n\n x\n )\n \n )\n \n 1\n \n /\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\cos x={\\tfrac {1}{2}}(\\cos(nx)+i\\sin(nx))^{1/n}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}(\\cos(nx)-i\\sin(nx))^{1/n}}\n \n\nIn 1676, Isaac Newton found the relation between two chords that were in the ratio of n to 1; the relation was expressed by the series above. The series appears in a letter — Epistola prior D. Issaci Newton, Mathescos Professoris in Celeberrima Academia Cantabrigiensi; … — of 13 June 1676 from Isaac Newton to Henry Oldenburg, secretary of the Royal Society; a copy of the letter was sent to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. See p. 106 of: Biot, J.-B.; Lefort, F., eds. (1856). Commercium epistolicum J. Collins et aliorum de analysi promota, etc: ou … (in Latin). Paris, France: Mallet-Bachelier. pp. 102–112.\nIn 1698, de Moivre derived the same series. See: de Moivre, A. (1698). \"A method of extracting roots of an infinite equation\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 20 (240): 190–193. doi:10.1098/rstl.1698.0034. S2CID 186214144.; see p 192.\nIn 1730, de Moivre explicitly considered the case where the functions are cos θ and cos nθ. See: Moivre, A. de (1730). Miscellanea Analytica de Seriebus et Quadraturis (in Latin). London, England: J. Tonson & J. Watts. p. 1. From p. 1: \"Lemma 1. Si sint l & x cosinus arcuum duorum A & B, quorum uterque eodem radio 1 describatur, quorumque prior sit posterioris multiplex in ea ratione quam habet numerus n ad unitatem, tunc erit \n \n \n \n x\n =\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n l\n +\n \n \n l\n l\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n l\n +\n \n \n l\n l\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x={\\tfrac {1}{2}}{\\sqrt[{n}]{l+{\\sqrt {ll-1}}}}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}{\\tfrac {1}{\\sqrt[{n}]{l+{\\sqrt {ll-1}}}}}}\n \n.\" (If l and x are cosines of two arcs A and B both of which are described by the same radius 1 and of which the former is a multiple of the latter in that ratio as the number n has to 1, then it will be [true that] \n \n \n \n x\n =\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n l\n +\n \n \n l\n l\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n l\n +\n \n \n l\n l\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x={\\tfrac {1}{2}}{\\sqrt[{n}]{l+{\\sqrt {ll-1}}}}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}{\\tfrac {1}{\\sqrt[{n}]{l+{\\sqrt {ll-1}}}}}}\n \n.) So if arc A = n × arc B, then l = cos A = cos nB and x = cos B. Hence \n \n \n \n cos\n ⁡\n B\n =\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n (\n cos\n ⁡\n (\n n\n B\n )\n +\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n sin\n ⁡\n (\n n\n B\n )\n \n )\n \n 1\n \n /\n \n n\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n (\n cos\n ⁡\n (\n n\n B\n )\n +\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n sin\n ⁡\n (\n n\n B\n )\n \n )\n \n −\n 1\n \n /\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\cos B={\\tfrac {1}{2}}(\\cos(nB)+{\\sqrt {-1}}\\sin(nB))^{1/n}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}(\\cos(nB)+{\\sqrt {-1}}\\sin(nB))^{-1/n}}\n \n\nSee also:\nCantor, Moritz (1898). Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Mathematik [Lectures on the History of Mathematics]. Bibliotheca mathematica Teuberiana, Bd. 8-9 (in German). Vol. 3. Leipzig, Germany: B.G. Teubner. p. 624.\nBraunmühl, A. von (1901). \"Zur Geschichte der Entstehung des sogenannten Moivreschen Satzes\" [On the history of the origin of the so-called Moivre theorem]. Bibliotheca Mathematica. 3rd series (in German). 2: 97–102.; see p. 98.\n\n^ Smith, David Eugene (1959), A Source Book in Mathematics, Volume 3, Courier Dover Publications, p. 444, ISBN 9780486646909\n\n^ Moivre, A. de (1722). \"De sectione anguli\" [Concerning the section of an angle] (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (in Latin). 32 (374): 228–230. doi:10.1098/rstl.1722.0039. S2CID 186210081. Retrieved 6 June 2020.\nEnglish translation by Richard J. Pulskamp (2009) Archived 28 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine\nFrom p. 229: \n\"Sit x sinus versus arcus cujuslibert.\n[Sit] t sinus versus arcus alterius.\n[Sit] 1 radius circuli.\nSitque arcus prior ad posteriorum ut 1 ad n, tunc, assumptis binis aequationibus quas cognatas appelare licet,\n\n1 – 2zn + z2n = – 2znt\n\n1 – 2z + zz = – 2zx.\n\nExpunctoque z orietur aequatio qua relatio inter x & t determinatur.\"\n(Let x be the versine of any arc [i.e., x = 1 – cos θ ].\n[Let] t be the versine of another arc.\n[Let] 1 be the radius of the circle.\nAnd let the first arc to the latter [i.e., \"another arc\"] be as 1 to n [so that t = 1 – cos nθ], then, with the two equations assumed which may be called related,\n\n1 – 2zn + z2n = –2znt\n\n1 – 2z + zz = – 2zx.\n\nAnd by eliminating z, the equation will arise by which the relation between x and t is determined.)\nThat is, given the equations\n\n1 – 2zn + z2n = – 2zn (1 – cos nθ)\n\n1 – 2z + zz = – 2z (1 – cos θ),\nuse the quadratic formula to solve for zn in the first equation and for z in the second equation. The result will be: zn = cos nθ ± i sin nθ and z = cos θ ± i sin θ , whence it immediately follows that (cos θ ± i sin θ)n = cos nθ ± i sin nθ.\nSee also:\nSmith, David Eugen (1959). A Source Book in Mathematics. Vol. 2. New York City, New York, USA: Dover Publications Inc. pp. 444–446. see p. 445, footnote 1.\n\n^ In 1738, de Moivre used trigonometry to determine the nth roots of a real or complex number. See: Moivre, A. de (1738). \"De reductione radicalium ad simpliciores terminos, seu de extrahenda radice quacunque data ex binomio \n \n \n \n a\n +\n \n \n +\n b\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a+{\\sqrt {+b}}}\n \n, vel \n \n \n \n a\n +\n \n \n −\n b\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a+{\\sqrt {-b}}}\n \n. Epistola\" [On the reduction of radicals to simpler terms, or on extracting any given root from a binomial, \n \n \n \n a\n +\n \n \n +\n b\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a+{\\sqrt {+b}}}\n \n or \n \n \n \n a\n +\n \n \n −\n b\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a+{\\sqrt {-b}}}\n \n. A letter.]. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (in Latin). 40 (451): 463–478. doi:10.1098/rstl.1737.0081. S2CID 186210174. From p. 475: \"Problema III. Sit extrahenda radix, cujus index est n, ex binomio impossibli \n \n \n \n a\n +\n \n \n −\n b\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a+{\\sqrt {-b}}}\n \n. … illos autem negativos quorum arcus sunt quadrante majores.\" (Problem III. Let a root whose index [i.e., degree] is n be extracted from the complex binomial \n \n \n \n a\n +\n \n \n −\n b\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a+{\\sqrt {-b}}}\n \n.\nSolution. Let its root be \n \n \n \n x\n +\n \n \n −\n y\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x+{\\sqrt {-y}}}\n \n, then I define \n \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n a\n +\n b\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n =\n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt[{n}]{aa+b}}=m}\n \n; I also define \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n n\n \n \n \n =\n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {n+1}{n}}=p}\n \n [Note: should read: \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n 2\n \n \n \n =\n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {n+1}{2}}=p}\n \n ], draw or imagine a circle, whose radius is \n \n \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt {m}}}\n \n, and assume in this [circle] some arc A whose cosine is \n \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n m\n \n \n p\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {a}{{m}^{p}}}}\n \n ; let C be the entire circumference. Assume, [measured] at the same radius, the cosines of the arcs \n \n \n \n \n \n \n A\n n\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n C\n −\n A\n \n n\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n C\n +\n A\n \n n\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n 2\n C\n −\n A\n \n n\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n 2\n C\n +\n A\n \n n\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n 3\n C\n −\n A\n \n n\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n 3\n C\n +\n A\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {A}{n}},{\\tfrac {C-A}{n}},{\\tfrac {C+A}{n}},{\\tfrac {2C-A}{n}},{\\tfrac {2C+A}{n}},{\\tfrac {3C-A}{n}},{\\tfrac {3C+A}{n}}}\n \n, etc.\nuntil the multitude [i.e., number] of them [i.e., the arcs] equals the number n; when this is done, stop there; then there will be as many cosines as values of the quantity \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n, which is related to the quantity \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n; this [i.e., \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n] will always be \n \n \n \n m\n −\n x\n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m-xx}\n \n.\nIt is not to be neglected, although it was mentioned previously, [that] those cosines whose arcs are less than a right angle must be regarded as positive but those whose arcs are greater than a right angle [must be regarded as] negative.)\nSee also:\nBraunmühl, A. von (1903). Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Trigonometrie [Lectures on the history of trigonometry] (in German). Vol. 2. Leipzig, Germany: B.G. Teubner. pp. 76–77.\n\n^ Euler (1749). \"Recherches sur les racines imaginaires des equations\" [Investigations into the complex roots of equations]. Mémoires de l'académie des sciences de Berlin (in French). 5: 222–288. See pp. 260–261: \"Theorem XIII. §. 70. De quelque puissance qu'on extraye la racine, ou d'une quantité réelle, ou d'une imaginaire de la forme M + N √-1, les racines seront toujours, ou réelles, ou imaginaires de la même forme M + N √-1.\" \n (Theorem XIII. §. 70. For any power, either a real quantity or a complex [one] of the form M + N √−1, from which one extracts the root, the roots will always be either real or complex of the same form M + N√−1.)\n\n^ De Moivre had been trying to determine the coefficient of the middle term of (1 + 1)n for large n since 1721 or earlier. In his pamphlet of November 12, 1733 – \"Approximatio ad Summam Terminorum Binomii (a + b)n in Seriem expansi\" [Approximation of the Sum of the Terms of the Binomial (a + b)n expanded into a Series] – de Moivre said that he had started working on the problem 12 years or more ago: \"Duodecim jam sunt anni & amplius cum illud inveneram; … \" (It is now a dozen years or more since I found this [i.e., what follows]; … ).\n(Archibald, 1926), p. 677.\n(de Moivre, 1738), p. 235.\nDe Moivre credited Alexander Cuming (ca. 1690 – 1775), a Scottish aristocrat and member of the Royal Society of London, with motivating, in 1721, his search to find an approximation for the central term of a binomial expansion. (de Moivre, 1730), p. 99.\n\n^ The roles of de Moivre and Stirling in finding Stirling's approximation are presented in: \nGélinas, Jacques (24 January 2017) \"Original proofs of Stirling's series for log (N!)\" arxiv.org\nLanier, Denis; Trotoux, Didier (1998). \"La formule de Stirling\" [Stirling's formula] Commission inter-IREM histoire et épistémologie des mathématiques (ed.). Analyse & démarche analytique : les neveux de Descartes : actes du XIème Colloque inter-IREM d'épistémologie et d'histoire des mathématiques, Reims, 10 et 11 mai 1996 [Analysis and analytic reasoning: the \"nephews\" of Decartes: proceedings of the 11th inter-IREM colloquium on epistemology and the history of mathematics, Reims, 10–11 May 1996] (in French). Reims, France: IREM [Institut de Rercherche sur l'Enseignement des Mathématiques] de Reims. pp. 231–286.\n\n^ Moivre, A. de (1730). Miscellanea Analytica de Seriebus et Quadraturis [Analytical Miscellany of Series and Quadratures [i.e., Integrals]]. London, England: J. Tonson & J. Watts. pp. 103–104.\n\n^ From p. 102 of (de Moivre, 1730): \n\"Problema III. Invenire Coefficientem Termini medii potestatis permagnae & paris, seu invenire rationem quam Coefficiens termini medii habeat ad summam omnium Coefficientium. … ad 1 proxime.\" \n(Problem 3. Find the coefficient of the middle term [of a binomial expansion] for a very large and even power [n], or find the ratio that the coefficient of the middle term has to the sum of all coefficients. \nSolution. Let n be the degree of the power to which the binomial a + b is raised, then, setting [both] a and b = 1, the ratio of the middle term to its power (a + b)n or 2n [Note: the sum of all the coefficients of the binomial expansion of (1 + 1)n is 2n.] will be nearly as \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n (\n n\n −\n 1\n \n )\n \n n\n −\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {2(n-1)^{n-{\\frac {1}{2}}}}{{n}^{n}}}}\n \n to 1.\nBut when some series for an inquiry could be determined more accurately [but] had been neglected due to lack of time, I then calculate by re-integration [and] I recover for use the particular quantities [that] had previously been neglected; so it happened that I could finally conclude that the ratio [that's] sought is approximately \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n 21\n 125\n \n \n \n \n (\n n\n −\n 1\n )\n \n \n n\n −\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {2{\\frac {21}{125}}{(n-1)}^{n-{\\frac {1}{2}}}}{n^{n}}}}\n \n or \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n 21\n 125\n \n \n \n \n (\n 1\n −\n \n \n 1\n n\n \n \n )\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {2{\\frac {21}{125}}{(1-{\\frac {1}{n}})}^{n}}{\\sqrt {n-1}}}}\n \n to 1.)\nThe approximation \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n 21\n 125\n \n \n \n \n (\n n\n −\n 1\n )\n \n \n n\n −\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {{2}{\\frac {21}{125}}{(n-1)}^{n-{\\frac {1}{2}}}}{{n}^{n}}}}\n \n is derived on pp. 124-128 of (de Moivre, 1730).\n\n^ De Moivre determined the value of the constant \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n 21\n 125\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\textstyle 2{\\frac {21}{125}}}\n \n by approximating the value of a series by using only its first four terms. De Moivre thought that the series converged, but the English mathematician Thomas Bayes (ca. 1701–1761) found that the series actually diverged. From pp. 127-128 of (de Moivre, 1730): \n\"Cum vero perciperem has Series valde implicatas evadere, … conclusi factorem 2.168 seu \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n 21\n 125\n \n \n ,\n …\n \n \n {\\textstyle 2{\\frac {21}{125}},\\ldots }\n \n \" (But when I conceived [how] to avoid these very complicated series — although all of them were perfectly summable — I think that [there was] nothing else to be done, than to transform them to the infinite case; thus set m to infinity, then the sum of the first rational series will be reduced to 1/12, the sum of the second [will be reduced] to 1/360; thus it happens that the sums of all the series are achieved. From this one series \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 12\n \n \n −\n \n \n 1\n 360\n \n \n +\n \n \n 1\n 1260\n \n \n −\n \n \n 1\n 1680\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\textstyle {\\frac {1}{12}}-{\\frac {1}{360}}+{\\frac {1}{1260}}-{\\frac {1}{1680}}}\n \n, etc., one will be able to discard as many terms as it will be one's pleasure; but I decided [to retain] four [terms] of this [series], because they sufficed [as] a sufficiently accurate approximation; now when this series be convergent, then its terms decrease with alternating positive and negative signs, [and] one may infer that the first term 1/12 is larger [than] the sum of the series, or the first term is larger [than] the difference that exists between all positive terms and all negative terms; but that term should be regarded as a hyperbolic [i.e., natural] logarithm; further, the number corresponding to this logarithm is nearly 1.0869 [i.e., ln (1.0869) ≈ 1/12], which if multiplied by 2, the product will be 2.1738, and so [in the case of a binomial being raised] to an infinite power, designated by n, the quantity \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2.1738\n \n \n \n (\n n\n −\n 1\n )\n \n \n n\n −\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\textstyle {\\frac {{2.1738}{(n-1)}^{n-{\\frac {1}{2}}}}{n^{n}}}}\n \n will be larger than the ratio that the middle term of the binomial has to the sum of all terms, and proceeding to the remaining terms, it will be discovered that the factor 2.1676 is just smaller [than the ratio of the middle term to the sum of all terms], and similarly that 2.1695 is greater, in turn that 2.1682 sinks a little bit below the true [value of the ratio]; considering which, I concluded that the factor [is] 2.168 or \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n 21\n 125\n \n \n ,\n …\n \n \n {\\textstyle 2{\\frac {21}{125}},\\ldots }\n \n Note: The factor that de Moivre was seeking, was: \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n e\n \n \n 2\n π\n \n \n \n =\n 2.16887\n …\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {2e}{\\sqrt {2\\pi }}}=2.16887\\ldots }\n \n (Lanier & Trotoux, 1998), p. 237.\nBayes, Thomas (31 December 1763). \"A letter from the late Reverend Mr. Bayes, F.R.S. to John Canton, M.A. and F.R.S.\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 53: 269–271. doi:10.1098/rstl.1763.0044. S2CID 186214800.\n\n^ (de Moivre, 1730), pp. 170–172.\n\n^ In Stirling's letter of June 19, 1729 to de Moivre, Stirling stated that he had written to Alexander Cuming \"quadrienium circiter abhinc\" (about four years ago [i.e., 1725]) about (among other things) approximating, by using Isaac Newton's method of differentials, the coefficient of the middle term of a binomial expansion. Stirling acknowledged that de Moivre had solved the problem years earlier: \" … ; respondit Illustrissimus vir se dubitare an Problema a Te aliquot ante annos solutum de invenienda Uncia media in quavis dignitate Binonii solvi posset per Differentias.\"\n( ... ; this most illustrious man [Alexander Cuming] responded that he doubted whether the problem solved by you several years earlier, concerning the behavior of the middle term of any power of the binomial, could be solved by differentials.) Stirling wrote that he had then commenced to investigate the problem, but that initially his progress was slow.\n(de Moivre, 1730), p. 170.\nZabell, S.L. (2005). Symmetry and Its Discontents: Essays on the History of Inductive Probability. New York City, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press. p. 113. ISBN 9780521444705.\n\n^ See:\nStirling, James (1730). Methodus Differentialis … (in Latin). London: G. Strahan. p. 137. From p. 137: \"Ceterum si velis summam quotcunque Logarithmorum numerorum naturalam 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. pone z–n esse ultimum numerorum, existente n = ½ ; & tres vel quatuor Termini hujus Seriei \n \n \n \n z\n l\n ,\n z\n −\n a\n z\n −\n \n \n a\n \n 24\n z\n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 7\n a\n \n \n 2880\n \n z\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n −\n \n\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle zl,z-az-{\\frac {a}{24z}}+{\\frac {7a}{2880z^{3}}}-{}}\n \n [Note: l,z = log(z)] additi Logarithmo circumferentiae Circuli cujus Radius est Unitas, id est, huic 0.39908.99341.79 dabunt summam quaesitam, idque eo minore labore quo plures Logarithmi sunt summandi.\" (Furthermore, if you want the sum of however many logarithms of the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., set z–n to be the last number, n being ½ ; and three or four terms of this series \n \n \n \n z\n log\n ⁡\n (\n z\n )\n −\n a\n z\n −\n \n \n a\n \n 24\n z\n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 7\n a\n \n \n 2880\n \n z\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n −\n \n\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle z\\log(z)-az-{\\frac {a}{24z}}+{\\frac {7a}{2880z^{3}}}-{}}\n \n added to [half of] the logarithm of the circumference of a circle whose radius is unity [i.e., ½ log(2π)] – that is, [added] to this: 0.39908.99341.79 – will give the sum [that's] sought, and the more logarithms [that] are to be added, the less work it [is].) Note: \n \n \n \n a\n =\n 0.434294481903252\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a=0.434294481903252}\n \n (See p. 135.) = 1/ln(10).\nEnglish translation: Stirling, James (1749). The Differential Method. Translated by Holliday, Francis. London, England: E. Cave. p. 121. [Note: The printer incorrectly numbered the pages of this book, so that page 125 is numbered as \"121\", page 126 as \"122\", and so forth until p. 129.]\n\n^ See:\nArchibald, R.C. (October 1926). \"A rare pamphlet of Moivre and some of his discoveries\". Isis (in English and Latin). 8 (4): 671–683. doi:10.1086/358439. S2CID 143827655.\nAn English translation of the pamphlet appears in: Moivre, Abraham de (1738). The Doctrine of Chances … (2nd ed.). London, England: Self-published. pp. 235–243.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wikisource","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource"},{"link_name":"Abraham de Moivre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/en:Author:Abraham_de_Moivre"},{"link_name":"Abraham de Moivre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Abraham_de_Moivre"},{"link_name":"\"de Moivre, Abraham\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20071219233914/http://euler.ciens.ucv.ve/English/mathematics/demoivre.html"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//euler.ciens.ucv.ve/English/mathematics/demoivre.html"},{"link_name":"\"Abraham Demoivre\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Abraham_Demoivre"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica"},{"link_name":"The Doctrine of 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Archived from the original on 19 December 2007. Retrieved 15 June 2002.\n\"Abraham Demoivre\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. VII (9th ed.). 1878. p. 60.\nThe Doctrine of Chance at MathPages.\nBiography (PDF), Matthew Maty's Biography of Abraham De Moivre, Translated, Annotated and Augmented.\nde Moivre, On the Law of Normal ProbabilityvteSir Isaac NewtonPublications\nFluxions (1671)\nDe Motu (1684)\nPrincipia (1687)\nOpticks (1704)\nQueries (1704)\nArithmetica (1707)\nDe Analysi (1711)\nOther writings\nQuaestiones (1661–1665)\n\"standing on the shoulders of giants\" (1675)\nNotes on the Jewish Temple (c. 1680)\n\"General Scholium\" (1713; \"hypotheses non fingo\" )\nAncient Kingdoms Amended (1728)\nCorruptions of Scripture (1754)\nContributions\nCalculus\nfluxion\nImpact depth\nInertia\nNewton disc\nNewton polygon\nNewton–Okounkov body\nNewton's reflector\nNewtonian telescope\nNewton scale\nNewton's metal\nSpectrum\nStructural coloration\nNewtonianism\nBucket argument\nNewton's inequalities\nNewton's law of cooling\nNewton's law of universal gravitation\npost-Newtonian expansion\nparameterized\ngravitational constant\nNewton–Cartan theory\nSchrödinger–Newton equation\nNewton's laws of motion\nKepler's laws\nNewtonian dynamics\nNewton's method in optimization\nApollonius's problem\ntruncated Newton method\nGauss–Newton algorithm\nNewton's rings\nNewton's theorem about ovals\nNewton–Pepys problem\nNewtonian potential\nNewtonian fluid\nClassical mechanics\nCorpuscular theory of light\nLeibniz–Newton calculus controversy\nNewton's notation\nRotating spheres\nNewton's cannonball\nNewton–Cotes formulas\nNewton's method\ngeneralized Gauss–Newton method\nNewton fractal\nNewton's identities\nNewton polynomial\nNewton's theorem of revolving orbits\nNewton–Euler equations\nNewton number\nkissing number problem\nNewton's quotient\nParallelogram of force\nNewton–Puiseux theorem\nAbsolute space and time\nLuminiferous aether\nNewtonian series\ntable\nPersonal life\nWoolsthorpe Manor (birthplace)\nCranbury Park (home)\nEarly life\nLater life\nApple tree\nReligious views\nOccult studies\nScientific Revolution\nCopernican Revolution\nRelations\nCatherine Barton (niece)\nJohn Conduitt (nephew-in-law)\nIsaac Barrow (professor)\nWilliam Clarke (mentor)\nBenjamin Pulleyn (tutor)\nJohn Keill (disciple)\nWilliam Stukeley (friend)\nWilliam Jones (friend)\nAbraham de Moivre (friend)\nDepictions\nNewton by Blake (monotype)\nNewton by Paolozzi (sculpture)\nIsaac Newton Gargoyle\nAstronomers Monument\nNamesake\nNewton (unit)\nNewton's cradle\nIsaac Newton Institute\nIsaac Newton Medal\nIsaac Newton Telescope\nIsaac Newton Group of Telescopes\nXMM-Newton\nSir Isaac Newton Sixth Form\nStatal Institute of Higher Education Isaac Newton\nNewton International Fellowship\nCategories\n Isaac NewtonAuthority control databases International\nFAST\nISNI\nVIAF\nWorldCat\nNational\nNorway\nSpain\n2\nFrance\nBnF data\nGermany\nItaly\nIsrael\nBelgium\nUnited States\nSweden\nCzech Republic\nAustralia\nCroatia\nNetherlands\n2\nAcademics\nCiNii\nMathSciNet\nMathematics Genealogy Project\nzbMATH\nPeople\nDeutsche Biographie\nTrove\nOther\nIdRef","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"Doctrine of chances, 1756","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Moivre_-_Doctrine_of_chances%2C_1761_-_722666.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Moivre_-_Doctrine_of_chances%2C_1761_-_722666.tif.jpg"}]	[{"title":"De Moivre number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_of_unity"},{"title":"De Moivre quintic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintic_function#Roots_of_a_solvable_quintic"},{"title":"Economic model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_model"},{"title":"Gaussian integral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_integral"},{"title":"Poisson distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisson_distribution"}]	[{"reference":"O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., \"Abraham de Moivre\", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson","url_text":"Robertson, Edmund F."},{"url":"https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/De_Moivre.html","url_text":"\"Abraham de Moivre\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive","url_text":"MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews","url_text":"University of St Andrews"}]},{"reference":"Bellhouse, David R. (2011). Abraham De Moivre: Setting the Stage for Classical Probability and Its Applications. London: Taylor & Francis. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-56881-349-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56881-349-3","url_text":"978-1-56881-349-3"}]},{"reference":"Coughlin, Raymond F.; Zitarelli, David E. (1984). The ascent of mathematics. McGraw-Hill. p. 437. ISBN 0-07-013215-1. Unfortunately, because he was not British, De Moivre was never able to obtain a university teaching position","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_E._Zitarelli","url_text":"Zitarelli, David E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-013215-1","url_text":"0-07-013215-1"}]},{"reference":"Jungnickel, Christa; McCormmach, Russell (1996). Cavendish. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. 220. American Philosophical Society. p. 52. ISBN 9780871692207. Well connected in mathematical circles and highly regarded for his work, he still could not get a good job. Even his conversion to the Church of England in 1705 could not alter the fact that he was an alien.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christa_Jungnickel","url_text":"Jungnickel, Christa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_McCormmach","url_text":"McCormmach, Russell"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=eiDoN-rg8I8C&pg=PA52","url_text":"Cavendish"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780871692207","url_text":"9780871692207"}]},{"reference":"Tanton, James Stuart (2005). Encyclopedia of Mathematics. Infobase Publishing. p. 122. ISBN 9780816051243. He had hoped to receive a faculty position in mathematics but, as a foreigner, was never offered such an appointment.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=MfKKMSuthacC&pg=PA122","url_text":"Encyclopedia of Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780816051243","url_text":"9780816051243"}]},{"reference":"Cajori, Florian (1991). History of Mathematics (5 ed.). American Mathematical Society. p. 229. ISBN 9780821821022.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florian_Cajori","url_text":"Cajori, Florian"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mathematical_Society","url_text":"American Mathematical Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780821821022","url_text":"9780821821022"}]},{"reference":"\"Biographical details - Did Abraham de Moivre really predict his own death?\".","urls":[{"url":"http://hsm.stackexchange.com/questions/333/did-abraham-de-moivre-really-predict-his-own-death","url_text":"\"Biographical details - Did Abraham de Moivre really predict his own death?\""}]},{"reference":"Pearson, Karl (1924). \"Historical note on the origin of the normal curve of errors\". Biometrika. 16 (3–4): 402–404. doi:10.1093/biomet/16.3-4.402.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbiomet%2F16.3-4.402","url_text":"10.1093/biomet/16.3-4.402"}]},{"reference":"Stigler, Stephen M. (1982). \"Poisson on the poisson distribution\". Statistics & Probability Letters. 1: 33–35. doi:10.1016/0167-7152(82)90010-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0167-7152%2882%2990010-4","url_text":"10.1016/0167-7152(82)90010-4"}]},{"reference":"Hald, Anders; de Moivre, Abraham; McClintock, Bruce (1984). \"A. de Moivre:'De Mensura Sortis' or'On the Measurement of Chance'\". International Statistical Review/Revue Internationale de Statistique. 1984 (3): 229–262. JSTOR 1403045.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1403045","url_text":"1403045"}]},{"reference":"Moivre, Ab. de (1707). \"Aequationum quarundam potestatis tertiae, quintae, septimae, nonae, & superiorum, ad infinitum usque pergendo, in termimis finitis, ad instar regularum pro cubicis quae vocantur Cardani, resolutio analytica\" [Of certain equations of the third, fifth, seventh, ninth, & higher power, all the way to infinity, by proceeding, in finite terms, in the form of rules for cubics which are called by Cardano, resolution by analysis.]. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (in Latin). 25 (309): 2368–2371. doi:10.1098/rstl.1706.0037. S2CID 186209627.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1706.0037","url_text":"10.1098/rstl.1706.0037"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186209627","url_text":"186209627"}]},{"reference":"Biot, J.-B.; Lefort, F., eds. (1856). Commercium epistolicum J. Collins et aliorum de analysi promota, etc: ou … (in Latin). Paris, France: Mallet-Bachelier. pp. 102–112.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=BHBtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA106","url_text":"Commercium epistolicum J. Collins et aliorum de analysi promota, etc: ou …"}]},{"reference":"de Moivre, A. (1698). \"A method of extracting roots of an infinite equation\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 20 (240): 190–193. doi:10.1098/rstl.1698.0034. S2CID 186214144.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1698.0034","url_text":"\"A method of extracting roots of an infinite equation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1698.0034","url_text":"10.1098/rstl.1698.0034"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186214144","url_text":"186214144"}]},{"reference":"Moivre, A. de (1730). Miscellanea Analytica de Seriebus et Quadraturis (in Latin). London, England: J. Tonson & J. Watts. p. 1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bMl5NAAACAAJ&pg=PP5","url_text":"Miscellanea Analytica de Seriebus et Quadraturis"}]},{"reference":"Cantor, Moritz (1898). Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Mathematik [Lectures on the History of Mathematics]. Bibliotheca mathematica Teuberiana, Bd. 8-9 (in German). Vol. 3. Leipzig, Germany: B.G. Teubner. p. 624.","urls":[{"url":"https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=chi.11625415&view=1up&seq=644","url_text":"Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Mathematik"}]},{"reference":"Braunmühl, A. von (1901). \"Zur Geschichte der Entstehung des sogenannten Moivreschen Satzes\" [On the history of the origin of the so-called Moivre theorem]. Bibliotheca Mathematica. 3rd series (in German). 2: 97–102.","urls":[{"url":"https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044102937091&view=1up&seq=112","url_text":"\"Zur Geschichte der Entstehung des sogenannten Moivreschen Satzes\""}]},{"reference":"Smith, David Eugene (1959), A Source Book in Mathematics, Volume 3, Courier Dover Publications, p. 444, ISBN 9780486646909","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3TSKAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA444","url_text":"A Source Book in Mathematics, Volume 3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486646909","url_text":"9780486646909"}]},{"reference":"Moivre, A. de (1722). \"De sectione anguli\" [Concerning the section of an angle] (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (in Latin). 32 (374): 228–230. doi:10.1098/rstl.1722.0039. S2CID 186210081. Retrieved 6 June 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://zenodo.org/record/1432196/files/article.pdf","url_text":"\"De sectione anguli\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1722.0039","url_text":"10.1098/rstl.1722.0039"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186210081","url_text":"186210081"}]},{"reference":"Smith, David Eugen (1959). A Source Book in Mathematics. Vol. 2. New York City, New York, USA: Dover Publications Inc. pp. 444–446.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.165707/page/n151/mode/2up/","url_text":"A Source Book in Mathematics"}]},{"reference":"Moivre, A. de (1738). \"De reductione radicalium ad simpliciores terminos, seu de extrahenda radice quacunque data ex binomio \n \n \n \n a\n +\n \n \n +\n b\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a+{\\sqrt {+b}}}\n \n, vel \n \n \n \n a\n +\n \n \n −\n b\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a+{\\sqrt {-b}}}\n \n. Epistola\" [On the reduction of radicals to simpler terms, or on extracting any given root from a binomial, \n \n \n \n a\n +\n \n \n +\n b\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a+{\\sqrt {+b}}}\n \n or \n \n \n \n a\n +\n \n \n −\n b\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a+{\\sqrt {-b}}}\n \n. A letter.]. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (in Latin). 40 (451): 463–478. doi:10.1098/rstl.1737.0081. S2CID 186210174.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1737.0081","url_text":"10.1098/rstl.1737.0081"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186210174","url_text":"186210174"}]},{"reference":"Braunmühl, A. von (1903). Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Trigonometrie [Lectures on the history of trigonometry] (in German). Vol. 2. Leipzig, Germany: B.G. Teubner. pp. 76–77.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=uB0PAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA76","url_text":"Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Trigonometrie"}]},{"reference":"Euler (1749). \"Recherches sur les racines imaginaires des equations\" [Investigations into the complex roots of equations]. Mémoires de l'académie des sciences de Berlin (in French). 5: 222–288.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/euler-e170/page/n37/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Recherches sur les racines imaginaires des equations\""}]},{"reference":"Moivre, A. de (1730). Miscellanea Analytica de Seriebus et Quadraturis [Analytical Miscellany of Series and Quadratures [i.e., Integrals]]. London, England: J. Tonson & J. Watts. pp. 103–104.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bMl5NAAACAAJ&pg=PA103","url_text":"Miscellanea Analytica de Seriebus et Quadraturis"}]},{"reference":"Bayes, Thomas (31 December 1763). \"A letter from the late Reverend Mr. Bayes, F.R.S. to John Canton, M.A. and F.R.S.\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 53: 269–271. doi:10.1098/rstl.1763.0044. S2CID 186214800.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1763.0044","url_text":"10.1098/rstl.1763.0044"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186214800","url_text":"186214800"}]},{"reference":"Zabell, S.L. (2005). Symmetry and Its Discontents: Essays on the History of Inductive Probability. New York City, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press. p. 113. ISBN 9780521444705.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=6fd1IeWpdiYC&pg=PA113","url_text":"Symmetry and Its Discontents: Essays on the History of Inductive Probability"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521444705","url_text":"9780521444705"}]},{"reference":"Stirling, James (1730). Methodus Differentialis … (in Latin). London: G. Strahan. p. 137.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_71ZHAAAAYAAJ/page/n145/mode/2up","url_text":"Methodus Differentialis …"}]},{"reference":"Stirling, James (1749). The Differential Method. Translated by Holliday, Francis. London, England: E. Cave. p. 121.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=j2xbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA125","url_text":"The Differential Method"}]},{"reference":"Archibald, R.C. (October 1926). \"A rare pamphlet of Moivre and some of his discoveries\". Isis (in English and Latin). 8 (4): 671–683. doi:10.1086/358439. S2CID 143827655.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F358439","url_text":"10.1086/358439"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143827655","url_text":"143827655"}]},{"reference":"Moivre, Abraham de (1738). The Doctrine of Chances … (2nd ed.). London, England: Self-published. pp. 235–243.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PII_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA235","url_text":"The Doctrine of Chances …"}]},{"reference":"\"de Moivre, Abraham\". Archived from the original on 19 December 2007. Retrieved 15 June 2002.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071219233914/http://euler.ciens.ucv.ve/English/mathematics/demoivre.html","url_text":"\"de Moivre, Abraham\""},{"url":"http://euler.ciens.ucv.ve/English/mathematics/demoivre.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Abraham Demoivre\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Archer	Bill Archer	["1 Background","2 Politics","3 Life after politics","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]	American lawyer and politician (born 1928) For other uses, see William Archer. Bill ArcherChair of the House Ways and Means CommitteeIn officeJanuary 3, 1995 – January 3, 2001Preceded bySam GibbonsSucceeded byBill ThomasMember of the U.S. House of Representativesfrom Texas's 7th districtIn officeJanuary 3, 1971 – January 3, 2001Preceded byGeorge H. W. BushSucceeded byJohn CulbersonMember of the Texas House of Representativesfrom the 22nd districtIn officeJanuary 10, 1967 – January 12, 1971Preceded byWallace H. MillerSucceeded bydistrict seat abolishedMember of the Hunters Creek Village City CouncilIn office1955–1962 Personal detailsBornWilliam Reynolds Archer Jr. (1928-03-22) March 22, 1928 (age 96)Houston, Texas, U.S.Political partyRepublican (after 1967)Other politicalaffiliationsDemocratic (before 1967)SpouseSharon SawyerEducationUniversity of Texas, Austin (BBA, LLB)Military serviceBranch/serviceUnited States Air ForceYears of service1951-1953RankCaptainBattles/warsKorean War Bill Archer's voice Archer, as chair of the House Ways and Means Committee, opens debate on the United States–China Relations Act of 2000Recorded May 24, 2000 William Reynolds Archer Jr. (born March 22, 1928) is an American retired lawyer and politician. Archer served two terms, from 1967 to 1971, in the Texas House of Representatives – changing from the Democratic to the Republican party in 1967 – and later represented Texas in the United States House of Representatives as a Republican for 30 years, from 1971 until 2001, serving for his last six years as chairman of the powerful House Ways and Means Committee. Background Archer was born in Houston, Texas. After graduating from St. Thomas High School, Archer attended Rice University and then transferred to the University of Texas at Austin, where he obtained his BBA and law degrees (LLB). At the University of Texas, he was a member of the Texas Rho chapter of Sigma Alpha Epsilon. Upon graduating from law school in 1951, Archer was admitted to the State Bar of Texas and started up his practice in Houston, Texas. Within months, Archer was drafted and served as a captain in the United States Air Force after the onset of the Korean War. Returning from service in 1953, Archer became the president of Uncle Johnny Mills, Inc. and stayed there until 1963. Politics Meanwhile, Archer started his career as a politician. He served as a councilman and mayor pro tempore for the city of Hunters Creek Village from 1955 to 1962. Five years later, Archer became director of Heights State Bank. During the same year, he became a member of the Texas House of Representatives and served until he was elected the successor for fellow Republican and future president George H. W. Bush as the U.S. Congressman for the 7th District of Texas. Jumping into the race after Bush protégé, James Baker, withdrew, he won his first election with 65% of the vote and was reelected 14 times, never facing serious opposition in what had become one of the most Republican districts in Texas. His 1970 victory turned out to be his lowest percentage; in subsequent years he never dropped below 79% of the vote. He even ran unopposed in 1976, 1990, 1992 and 1994 and faced no major-party opposition in 1998. Archer served as the chairman of the House Committee on Ways and Means from 1995 until the end of his political career in 2001. As chairman, he was known to be a "tough fiscal conservative" Archer believed that the government had been taking too much from the United States citizens, and as the chairman he sought to downsize Washington by reducing the money it takes away from the people (in reference to taxes), a political strategy referred to as "starving the beast". Archer was not a candidate for re-election to the 107th United States Congress and subsequently retired from politics on January 2, 2001. Archer has taken a politically and socially conservative stance on a variety of issues; among other stances, he supports the death penalty, opposes gay adoption, and has called for cuts in welfare funding. In 1999, Archer was instrumental in giving temporary Most favoured nation (MFN) status to China, with the support of then-president Bill Clinton, despite deep concerns over human rights issues and the trade deficit. In the last year of his presidency Clinton called on Congress to help him change China’s normal trade relations status with the U.S. to permanent. This would amend the Trade Act of 1974 which had the trade status of China on an annually review to determine the best course of action. The piece of legislation was introduced to the House as H.R. number 4444 on May 15, 2000, by Archer (he had three cosponsors). Introduce to the House the legislation referred to the Ways and Means committee in the House of Representatives to be amended and written up. The legislation was introduced by saying that the bill was a top priority for the rest of the year and it was vital to the U.S. agriculture market to have access to a market that accounts for one-fifth of the world’s population. Life after politics Archer with Dick Armey at a House Budget Committee meeting in October 2004 After retirement from politics in 2001, Archer remained active in public life and maintained a home in Washington. After Paul H. O'Neill resigned as Treasury Secretary in 2002, Archer was considered as a possible successor. He is the namesake of a distinguished fellowship program with the University of Texas System, the Archer Fellowship Program (www.archercenter.org). The highly competitive program brings students from all over the UT System to Washington, D.C. for a full semester of classes and internships in the nation's political center. He was chairman of the International Conservation Caucus Foundation from 2006 to 2009. He currently acts as Senior Policy Analyst at PricewaterhouseCoopers, and occasional guest lecturer. See also List of American politicians who switched parties in office References ^ a b "W.R. 'Bill' Archer". Legislative Reference Library of Texas. Texas State Preservation Board. Retrieved 13 August 2021. ^ "About Bill Archer". Archived from the original on 2000-12-25. ^ Dreier, David. "H. Res. 510: providing for further consideration of the (H.R. 4444) to authorize extension". ^ Greenspan, Alan. "Clinton and Greenspan on China PNTR, 2000". Archived from the original on 2012-12-12. ^ "Bush shakes up economic team". NBC News. 8 December 2002. ^ "Bush revamps economic team". 7 December 2002. External links United States Congress. "Bill Archer (id: A000215)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Appearances on C-SPAN Voting record maintained by the Washington Post Archived 2006-03-15 at the Wayback Machine Political Graveyard profile for William Reynolds Archer Jr. Archer Center at the University of Texas System Texas House of Representatives Preceded byWallace H. Miller Member of the Texas House of Representativesfrom the 22nd district, Seat 5 1967–1971 Succeeded bydistrict seat abolished U.S. House of Representatives Preceded byGeorge H. W. Bush Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas's 7th congressional district 1971–2001 Succeeded byJohn Culberson Political offices Preceded byJohn Duncan Sr.Tennessee Ranking Member of the House Ways and Means Committee 1988–1995 Succeeded bySam GibbonsFlorida Preceded bySam GibbonsFlorida Chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee 1995–2001 Succeeded byBill ThomasCalifornia U.S. order of precedence (ceremonial) Preceded byIleana Ros-Lehtinenas Former US Representative Order of precedence of the United Statesas Former US Representative Succeeded byJim Leachas Former US Representative vteChairmen of the United States House Committee on Ways and Means Fitzsimons W. Smith Harper Griswold Randolph Clay G. Campbell Eppes Bacon Cheves Eppes Lowndes S. Smith McLane Randolph McDuffie Verplanck Polk Cambreleng J. W. Jones Fillmore McKay Vinton Bayly Houston L. Campbell J. G. Jones Phelps Sherman Stevens Morrill Schenck Hooper Dawes Morrison Wood Tucker Kelley Morrison R. Mills McKinley Springer Wilson Dingley Payne Underwood Kitchin Fordney Green Hawley Collier Doughton Knutson Doughton Reed Cooper W. Mills Ullman Rostenkowski Gibbons Archer Thomas Rangel Levin Camp Ryan Johnson Brady Neal J. Smith Italics indicates acting chairman Authority control databases: People US Congress	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William Archer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Archer_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Texas House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"Democratic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Republican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"United States House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"House Ways and Means Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Ways_and_Means"}],"text":"For other uses, see William Archer.William Reynolds Archer Jr. (born March 22, 1928) is an American retired lawyer and politician. Archer served two terms, from 1967 to 1971, in the Texas House of Representatives – changing from the Democratic to the Republican party in 1967 – and later represented Texas in the United States House of Representatives as a Republican for 30 years, from 1971 until 2001, serving for his last six years as chairman of the powerful House Ways and Means Committee.","title":"Bill Archer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Houston, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_Texas"},{"link_name":"St. Thomas High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Thomas_High_School_(Houston,_Texas)"},{"link_name":"Rice University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice_University"},{"link_name":"University of Texas at Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin"},{"link_name":"BBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Business_Administration"},{"link_name":"LLB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Laws"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"University of Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texas"},{"link_name":"Sigma Alpha Epsilon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigma_Alpha_Epsilon"},{"link_name":"State Bar of Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Bar_of_Texas"},{"link_name":"Houston, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_Texas"},{"link_name":"captain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_(United_States_O-3)"},{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Korean War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War"}],"text":"Archer was born in Houston, Texas. After graduating from St. Thomas High School, Archer attended Rice University and then transferred to the University of Texas at Austin, where he obtained his BBA and law degrees (LLB).[2] At the University of Texas, he was a member of the Texas Rho chapter of Sigma Alpha Epsilon.Upon graduating from law school in 1951, Archer was admitted to the State Bar of Texas and started up his practice in Houston, Texas. Within months, Archer was drafted and served as a captain in the United States Air Force after the onset of the Korean War. Returning from service in 1953, Archer became the president of Uncle Johnny Mills, Inc. and stayed there until 1963.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pro tempore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro_tempore"},{"link_name":"Hunters Creek Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunters_Creek_Village,_Texas"},{"link_name":"director","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_of_directors"},{"link_name":"Heights State Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heights_State_Bank_Building"},{"link_name":"Texas House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"George H. W. 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He served as a councilman and mayor pro tempore for the city of Hunters Creek Village from 1955 to 1962. Five years later, Archer became director of Heights State Bank. During the same year, he became a member of the Texas House of Representatives and served until he was elected the successor for fellow Republican and future president George H. W. Bush as the U.S. Congressman for the 7th District of Texas. Jumping into the race after Bush protégé, James Baker, withdrew, he won his first election with 65% of the vote and was reelected 14 times, never facing serious opposition in what had become one of the most Republican districts in Texas. His 1970 victory turned out to be his lowest percentage; in subsequent years he never dropped below 79% of the vote. He even ran unopposed in 1976, 1990, 1992 and 1994 and faced no major-party opposition in 1998.Archer served as the chairman of the House Committee on Ways and Means from 1995 until the end of his political career in 2001. As chairman, he was known to be a \"tough fiscal conservative\"[1]\nArcher believed that the government had been taking too much from the United States citizens, and as the chairman he sought to downsize Washington by reducing the money it takes away from the people (in reference to taxes), a political strategy referred to as \"starving the beast\".Archer was not a candidate for re-election to the 107th United States Congress and subsequently retired from politics on January 2, 2001.Archer has taken a politically and socially conservative stance on a variety of issues; among other stances, he supports the death penalty, opposes gay adoption, and has called for cuts in welfare funding. [2]In 1999, Archer was instrumental in giving temporary Most favoured nation (MFN) status to China, with the support of then-president Bill Clinton, despite deep concerns over human rights issues and the trade deficit. In the last year of his presidency Clinton called on Congress to help him change China’s normal trade relations status with the U.S. to permanent. This would amend the Trade Act of 1974 which had the trade status of China on an annually review to determine the best course of action. The piece of legislation was introduced to the House as H.R. number 4444 on May 15, 2000, by Archer (he had three cosponsors). Introduce to the House the legislation referred to the Ways and Means committee in the House of Representatives to be amended and written up.[3] The legislation was introduced by saying that the bill was a top priority for the rest of the year and it was vital to the U.S. agriculture market to have access to a market that accounts for one-fifth of the world’s population.[4]","title":"Politics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dick_Armey_and_Bill_Archer.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dick Armey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_Armey"},{"link_name":"Paul H. O'Neill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_H._O%27Neill"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"University of Texas System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texas_System"},{"link_name":"International Conservation Caucus Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conservation_Caucus_Foundation"},{"link_name":"PricewaterhouseCoopers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PricewaterhouseCoopers"}],"text":"Archer with Dick Armey at a House Budget Committee meeting in October 2004After retirement from politics in 2001, Archer remained active in public life and maintained a home in Washington. After Paul H. O'Neill resigned as Treasury Secretary in 2002, Archer was considered as a possible successor.[5][6] He is the namesake of a distinguished fellowship program with the University of Texas System, the Archer Fellowship Program (www.archercenter.org). The highly competitive program brings students from all over the UT System to Washington, D.C. for a full semester of classes and internships in the nation's political center. He was chairman of the International Conservation Caucus Foundation from 2006 to 2009. He currently acts as Senior Policy Analyst at PricewaterhouseCoopers, and occasional guest lecturer.","title":"Life after politics"}]	[{"image_text":"Archer with Dick Armey at a House Budget Committee meeting in October 2004","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Dick_Armey_and_Bill_Archer.jpg/220px-Dick_Armey_and_Bill_Archer.jpg"}]	[{"title":"List of American politicians who switched parties in office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_politicians_who_switched_parties_in_office"}]	[{"reference":"\"W.R. 'Bill' Archer\". Legislative Reference Library of Texas. Texas State Preservation Board. Retrieved 13 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://lrl.texas.gov/legeLeaders/members/memberDisplay.cfm?memberID=759","url_text":"\"W.R. 'Bill' Archer\""}]},{"reference":"\"About Bill Archer\". 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Archived from the original on 2012-12-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20121212121716/http://china.usc.edu/(S(jm1mk455bcqdur45atujzbaz)A(GGMQWGIkywEkAAAAYjUzYTIwODItZDE5Zi00YmJlLWJkMjEtZGZhMmE0ZDZiOWJmumf3j0Im8bow96ja5KHosctqj_o1))/ShowArticle.aspx?articleID=537&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1","url_text":"\"Clinton and Greenspan on China PNTR, 2000\""},{"url":"http://china.usc.edu/(S(jm1mk455bcqdur45atujzbaz)A(GGMQWGIkywEkAAAAYjUzYTIwODItZDE5Zi00YmJlLWJkMjEtZGZhMmE0ZDZiOWJmumf3j0Im8bow96ja5KHosctqj_o1))/ShowArticle.aspx?articleID=537&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Bush shakes up economic team\". NBC News. 8 December 2002.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna3073350","url_text":"\"Bush shakes up economic team\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC_News","url_text":"NBC News"}]},{"reference":"\"Bush revamps economic team\". 7 December 2002.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/2552685.stm","url_text":"\"Bush revamps economic team\""}]},{"reference":"United States Congress. \"Bill Archer (id: A000215)\". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.","urls":[{"url":"http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=A000215","url_text":"\"Bill Archer (id: A000215)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biographical_Directory_of_the_United_States_Congress","url_text":"Biographical Directory of the United States Congress"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20001117022300/http://www.network-democracy.org/social-security/nd/rt/archer.html","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"http://ontheissues.org/TX/Bill_Archer.htm","external_links_name":"[2]"},{"Link":"https://lrl.texas.gov/legeLeaders/members/memberDisplay.cfm?memberID=759","external_links_name":"\"W.R. 'Bill' Archer\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20001225195807/http://www.house.gov/archer/info/bio.html","external_links_name":"\"About Bill Archer\""},{"Link":"http://www.house.gov/archer/info/bio.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.govtrack.us/congress/billtext.xpd?bill=hr106-510","external_links_name":"\"H. Res. 510: providing for further consideration of the (H.R. 4444) to authorize extension\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20121212121716/http://china.usc.edu/(S(jm1mk455bcqdur45atujzbaz)A(GGMQWGIkywEkAAAAYjUzYTIwODItZDE5Zi00YmJlLWJkMjEtZGZhMmE0ZDZiOWJmumf3j0Im8bow96ja5KHosctqj_o1))/ShowArticle.aspx?articleID=537&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1","external_links_name":"\"Clinton and Greenspan on China PNTR, 2000\""},{"Link":"http://china.usc.edu/(S(jm1mk455bcqdur45atujzbaz)A(GGMQWGIkywEkAAAAYjUzYTIwODItZDE5Zi00YmJlLWJkMjEtZGZhMmE0ZDZiOWJmumf3j0Im8bow96ja5KHosctqj_o1))/ShowArticle.aspx?articleID=537&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna3073350","external_links_name":"\"Bush shakes up economic team\""},{"Link":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/2552685.stm","external_links_name":"\"Bush revamps economic team\""},{"Link":"http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=A000215","external_links_name":"\"Bill Archer (id: A000215)\""},{"Link":"https://www.c-span.org/person/?5254","external_links_name":"Appearances"},{"Link":"http://projects.washingtonpost.com/congress/members/a000215/","external_links_name":"Voting record maintained by the Washington Post"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060315011749/http://projects.washingtonpost.com/congress/members/a000215/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://politicalgraveyard.com/bio/archer.html#R9M0IO1WW","external_links_name":"Political Graveyard profile for William Reynolds Archer Jr."},{"Link":"http://www.archercenter.org/","external_links_name":"Archer Center at the University of Texas System"},{"Link":"http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=A000215","external_links_name":"US Congress"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypermodernity	Hypermodernity	["1 Hypermodernity","2 Supermodernity","3 See also","4 Bibliography","5 External links"]	This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article includes a list of references, related reading, or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. (August 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Postmodernism Preceded by Modernism Postmodernity Deconstruction Hypermodernity Hyperreality Posthumanism Post-structuralism Fields Anthropology Archaeology Architecture Art Criminology Dance Feminism Film Television Literature (Picture books) Music International relations Philosophy Anarchism Marxism Postpositivism Psychology Political science Theatre Theology and Religion Reactions Criticism Metamodernism Post-postmodernism Remodernism Related "Social constructionism" and social constructivism Social construction of nature Social construction of gender Social construction of technology Linguistic turn vte Hypermodernity (supermodernity) is a type, mode, or stage of society that reflects an inversion of modernity. Hypermodernism stipulates a world in which the object has been replaced by its own attributes. The new attribute-driven world is driven by the rise of technology and aspires to a convergence between technology and biology and more importantly information and matter. Hypermodernism finds its validation in emphasis on the value of new technology to overcome natural limitations. It rejects essentialism and instead favours postmodernism. In hypermodernism the function of an object has its reference point in the form of an object rather than function being the reference point for form. In other words, it describes an epoch in which teleological meaning is reversed from the standpoint of functionalism in favor of constructivism. Hypermodernity Hypermodernity emphasizes a hyperbolic separation between past and present due to the fact that: The past oriented attributes and their functions around objects. Objects that do exist in the present are only extant due to some useful attribute in the hypermodern era. Hypermodernity inverts modernity to allow the attributes of an object to provide even more individuality than modernism. Modernity trapped form within the bounds of limited function; hypermodernity posits that function is now evolving so rapidly, it must take its reference point from form itself. Both positive and negative societal changes occur due to hyper-individualism and increased personal choice. Postmodernity rejected the idea of the past as a reference point and curated objects from the past for the sole purpose of freeing form from function. In postmodernism, truth was ephemeral as the focus was to avoid non-falsifiable tenets. Postmodernity described a total collapse of modernity and its faith in progress and improvement in empowering the individual. Supermodernity If distinguished from hypermodernity, supermodernity is a step beyond the ontological emptiness of postmodernism and relies upon plausible heuristic truths. Whereas modernism focused upon the creation of great truths (or what Lyotard called "master narratives" or "metanarratives"), and postmodernity was intent upon their destruction (deconstruction); supermodernity operates extraneously of meta-truth. Instead, attributes are extracted from objects of the past based on their present relevance. Since attributes are both true and false, a truth value is not necessary including falsifiability. Supermodernity curates useful attributes from modern and postmodern objects in order to escape nihilistic postmodern tautology. Related authors are Terry Eagleton After Theory, and Marc Augé Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity. See also Altermodern Hypermodernism Hypermodernism (chess) Metamodernism Bibliography S. Charles and G. Lipovetsky, Hypermodern Times, Polity Press, 2006. S. Charles, Hypermodern Explained to Children, Liber, 2007 (in French). R. Colonna, L'essere contro l'umano. Preludi per una filosofia della surmodernità, Edises, Napoli, 2010 (in Italian). F. Schoumacher, Eidolon: simulacre et hypermodernité, Paris, Balland, 2024. External links Gilles Lypovetsky interviewed by Denis Failly for his book "le bonheur paradoxal" vteCriticism of postmodernismConcepts Altermodern Anti-anti-art Hypermodernity Metamodernism Neomodern Neomodernism New sincerity Post-irony Post-postmodernism Remodernism Remodernist film Stuckism International Transmodernism Critics Anderson Benson Berman Bricmont Bunge Chomsky Crews Dawkins Dennett Dussel Eagleton Fukuyama Hicks Jameson Kramer Lindsay Paglia Peterson Scruton Sokal Windschuttle Works Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (1991) Higher Superstition (1994) Dead White Males (1995) Fashionable Nonsense (1997) Explaining Postmodernism (2004) The Dictionary of Fashionable Nonsense (2006) Cynical Theories (2020) Related Grievance studies affair Postmodernism Generator Science wars Sokal affair	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society"},{"link_name":"modernity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernity"},{"link_name":"object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology"},{"link_name":"convergence between technology and biology and more importantly information and matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory"},{"link_name":"emphasis on the value of new technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocentrism"},{"link_name":"essentialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialism"},{"link_name":"postmodernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism"},{"link_name":"teleological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleology"},{"link_name":"meaning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebensphilosophie"},{"link_name":"standpoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standpoint_theory"},{"link_name":"functionalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"constructivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_constructivism"}],"text":"Hypermodernity (supermodernity) is a type, mode, or stage of society that reflects an inversion of modernity. Hypermodernism stipulates a world in which the object has been replaced by its own attributes. The new attribute-driven world is driven by the rise of technology and aspires to a convergence between technology and biology and more importantly information and matter. Hypermodernism finds its validation in emphasis on the value of new technology to overcome natural limitations. It rejects essentialism and instead favours postmodernism. In hypermodernism the function of an object has its reference point in the form of an object rather than function being the reference point for form. In other words, it describes an epoch in which teleological meaning is reversed from the standpoint of functionalism in favor of constructivism.","title":"Hypermodernity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"modernity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernity"},{"link_name":"hyper-individualism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyper-individualism&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Postmodernity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernity"}],"text":"Hypermodernity emphasizes a hyperbolic separation between past and present due to the fact that:The past oriented attributes and their functions around objects.\nObjects that do exist in the present are only extant due to some useful attribute in the hypermodern era.Hypermodernity inverts modernity to allow the attributes of an object to provide even more individuality than modernism. Modernity trapped form within the bounds of limited function; hypermodernity posits that function is now evolving so rapidly, it must take its reference point from form itself. Both positive and negative societal changes occur due to hyper-individualism and increased personal choice.Postmodernity rejected the idea of the past as a reference point and curated objects from the past for the sole purpose of freeing form from function. In postmodernism, truth was ephemeral as the focus was to avoid non-falsifiable tenets. Postmodernity described a total collapse of modernity and its faith in progress and improvement in empowering the individual.","title":"Hypermodernity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ontological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology"},{"link_name":"postmodernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism"},{"link_name":"heuristic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic"},{"link_name":"modernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism"},{"link_name":"Lyotard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyotard"},{"link_name":"master narratives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_narrative"},{"link_name":"metanarratives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metanarrative"},{"link_name":"deconstruction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconstruction"},{"link_name":"truth value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_value"},{"link_name":"tautology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tautology_(rhetoric)"},{"link_name":"Terry Eagleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Eagleton"},{"link_name":"Marc Augé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Aug%C3%A9"}],"text":"If distinguished from hypermodernity, supermodernity is a step beyond the ontological emptiness of postmodernism and relies upon plausible heuristic truths. Whereas modernism focused upon the creation of great truths (or what Lyotard called \"master narratives\" or \"metanarratives\"), and postmodernity was intent upon their destruction (deconstruction); supermodernity operates extraneously of meta-truth. Instead, attributes are extracted from objects of the past based on their present relevance. Since attributes are both true and false, a truth value is not necessary including falsifiability. Supermodernity curates useful attributes from modern and postmodern objects in order to escape nihilistic postmodern tautology. Related authors are Terry Eagleton After Theory, and Marc Augé Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity.","title":"Supermodernity"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"S. Charles and G. Lipovetsky, Hypermodern Times, Polity Press, 2006.\nS. Charles, Hypermodern Explained to Children, Liber, 2007 (in French).\nR. Colonna, L'essere contro l'umano. Preludi per una filosofia della surmodernità, Edises, Napoli, 2010 (in Italian).\nF. Schoumacher, Eidolon: simulacre et hypermodernité, Paris, Balland, 2024.","title":"Bibliography"}]	[]	[{"title":"Altermodern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altermodern"},{"title":"Hypermodernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypermodernism_(art)"},{"title":"Hypermodernism (chess)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypermodernism_(chess)"},{"title":"Metamodernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamodernism"}]	[]	[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hypermodernity&action=edit","external_links_name":"help improve it"},{"Link":"http://nextmodernitylibrary.blogspirit.com/archive/2006/04/07/le-bonheur-paradoxal-essai-sur-la-societe-d-hyperconsommatio.html","external_links_name":"Gilles Lypovetsky interviewed by Denis Failly for his book \"le bonheur paradoxal\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NordLayer	NordLayer	["1 History","2 Products","3 Cybеrsеcurity resеаrches / resеаrches","3.1 Global Remote Work Index","3.2 Working From Home Rеsеаrch","3.3 Black Friday Research","3.4 B2B LinkedIn Scam Research","4 Reception","5 See also","6 References"]	Network access security service Original author(s)Founders: Tom Okman, Eimantas SabaliauskasDeveloper(s)Nord SecurityInitial release2019; 5 years ago (2019)Stable releaseAndroid 3.6.0 (January 23, 2023) iOS 3.7.0 (January 16, 2023) macOS 2.6.2 (January 16, 2023) Windows 2.6.3 (January 10, 2023) Linux 2.6.1 (January 4, 2023) Operating system Android iOS Linux macOS Windows Platform Personal computer smartphone Tablet TypeVirtual private networkLicenseProprietary softwareWebsitenordlayer.com NordLayer, formerly known as NordVPN Teams, is a network access security service with applications for Microsoft Windows, macOS, Linux, Android and iOS. The software is marketed as a privacy and security tool running on zero trust architecture providing protection on hybrid and multi-cloud cloud environments. It is developed by Nord Security (Nordsec Ltd), a company that creates cybersecurity software, and was initially supported by the Lithuanian startup accelerator and business incubator Tesonet. History NordLayer was founded in 2019 as NordVPN Teams as a subsidiary of NordSecurity, a technology company that develops and provides virtual private network (VPN) services, such as NordVPN and SurfShark. NordLayer is based on NordVPN, a VPN service provider for private customers, which was established in 2012. In October 2020, NordVPN Team relocated to the United States as part of a larger effort to expand its operations and better serve its enterprise clients. Nevertheless, Nordlayer committed to maintaining its Panamanian corporate structure, allowing it to remain outside the jurisdiction of the Fourteen Eyes intelligence sharing pact, which includes the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and other countries. In September 2021, the NordVPN Teams were renamed to NordLayer. The rebranding was part of their transition towards secure access service edge (SASE) framework. Products NordLayer is based on a cloud-based cybersecurity architecture, secure access service edge (SASE), which enables cloud-based platform for remote access to corporate networks. Nordlayer offers a Single Sign-On (SSO) login option to its users, allowing users to log into multiple applications using a single set of login credentials. SSO logins are currently supported through various providers, including Google SSO, Azure AD, Okta, and OneLogin. NordLayer supports various second-factor confirmation methods, including SMS authentication, Time-based One-Time Password (TOTP) authentication, and biometric authentication. NordLayer enforces Zero Trust Network Access (ZTNA), which is based on the principle "Never trust – always verify". This systems secure model uses continuous authentication and identity verification to grant access to network resources. NordLayer employs the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) with 256-bit keys and the ChaCha20 stream cipher. It includes features such as two-factor (2FA), kill switch, IP whitelisting, DDoS protection and hardware firewall monitoring to detect botnet attacks. NordLayer's Cloud Firewall provides features such as application control, bandwidth management, and logging capabilities. NоrdLаyеr's Nеtwоrk Visibility аllоws fоr thе mоnitоring оf nеtwоrk trаffic аnd pеrfоrmаncе, еnsuring а thоrоugh undеrstаnding оf nеtwоrk dynаmics. The NordLayer platform enables IT administrators to add, remove, or transfer user accounts, dedicated servers, or custom gateways — with static or dedicated IP addresses — for specific teams to remotely access a company's LAN. In addition, network administrators have the ability to monitor user activity and obtain information about the connection. This includes checking whether the devices being used comply with predefined security rules. NоrdLаyеr's Dеvicе Pоsturе Sеcurity prоvidеs а prоtеctivе mеаsurе thаt еnsurеs аccеss is grаntеd оnly tо trustеd dеvicеs, thеrеby sаfеguаrding nеtwоrks frоm pоtеntiаl thrеаts. Nordlayer's Secure Web Gateway (SWG) provides features for web security and access control such as web filtering, content filtering, application control, and identity management. Nordlayer currently has 33 global dedicated server locations. Cybеrsеcurity resеаrches / resеаrches Global Remote Work Index In 2022, NordLayer launched The Global Remote Work Index, an international index that provides data and insights to identify the best countries for remote work. It is based on the evaluation of more than 60 variables in 66 countries, including the availability of broadband internet, the cost of living, digital and physical infrastructure and the cost of labor. The 2023 updаte, in cоntinuаtiоn оf the previоus yeаr's editiоn, wаs аssembled by аssessing 108 destinаtiоns thrоugh the exаminаtiоn оf fоur key criteriа: оnline security, ecоnоmic fаctоrs, digitаl аnd physicаl infrаstructure, аnd sоciаl sаfety. Working From Home Rеsеаrch In 2020, NоrdVPN Rеsеаrch tеаms cоnductеd а study rеvеаling thаt, оn аvеrаgе, еmplоyееs wеrе spеnding mоrе timе аt thеir dеsks cоmpаrеd tо thе prе-pаndеmic еrа. Utilizing dаtа frоm its sеrvеrs, NоrdVPN Tеаms еxаminеd thе usаgе pаttеrns оf privаtе businеss nеtwоrks tо gаin insights intо thе rеmоtе wоrk prаcticеs оf еmplоyееs. Thе findings indicаtеd thаt individuаls wоrking frоm hоmе еxpеriеncеd еxtеndеd wоrk hоurs аnd а hеightеnеd wоrklоаd, suggеsting а nоtаblе shift in wоrk dynаmics sincе thе оnsеt оf thе Cоvid-19 pаndеmic. Black Friday Research In 2023, NоrdLаyеr dissеminаtеd infоrmаtiоn оn sаfеguаrding pеrsоnаl dеtаils аgаinst pоtеntiаl hаcking thrеаts. Thе cybеrsеcurity firm rеpоrtеd а 2.3% yеаr-оn-yеаr incrеаsе in Blаck Fridаy spеnding in 2022, whilе а sеpаrаtе study cоnductеd by Bаrclаys rеvеаlеd а cоrrеspоnding surgе оf up tо 22% in lоssеs аssоciаtеd with thеsе sаlеs. B2B LinkedIn Scam Research In 2023, NоrdLаyеr cоnductеd а nеw rеsеаrch study by survеying 500 rеspоndеnts аcrоss Cаnаdа, thе Unitеd Kingdоm, аnd thе Unitеd Stаtеs. Thе rеspоndеnts, cоmprising аdults аgеd 18 аnd аbоvе frоm nоn-gоvеrnmеntаl оrgаnizаtiоns, wеrе spеcificаlly quеriеd аbоut thе typеs оf scаms thеy еncоuntеrеd оn thе LinkеdIn sоciаl mеdiа plаtfоrm аnd thе subsеquеnt impаct оn thеir businеssеs. Thе survеyеd subindustriеs еncоmpаssеd businеss mаnаgеmеnt аnd suppоrt sеrvicеs, е-cоmmеrcе, еducаtiоn, finаncе аnd insurаncе, hеаlth cаrе, infоrmаtiоn аnd cоmmunicаtiоn, IT, prоfеssiоnаl аnd tеchnicаl sеrvicеs, аs wеll аs cоnsulting. Reception In a positive review published by TechRadar in August 2022, the reviewer wrote positively about NordLayer's interface, kill switch, private gateways, biometrics, and concluded that "NordLayer is an easy-to-use service, with simple but well-engineered quality apps, which makes it easy to secure employee access to your networks and the internet." In January 2023, a favorable review by Forbes noted that NordLayer's security solutions are great for businesses "looking to monitor the security level of their company and encrypt all of their team members’ accounts through one portal". See also NordVPN NordLocker NordPass References ^ Walker, Rob (May 29, 2021). "How to Take a Break". New York Times. ^ "Meet Nord Security: The company behind NordVPN wants to be your one-stop privacy suite". ZDNET. Retrieved 2023-01-30. ^ "Remote Working's Longer Hours Are New Normal for Many". Bloomberg.com. 2 February 2021. ^ a b Spadafora, Anthony (October 9, 2020). "NordVPN Teams quietly relocated to the US". TechRadar. ^ a b Guy, Jack (5 February 2021). "People are working longer hours at home than they did in the office". CNN. ^ a b c Gewirtz, David. "Meet Nord Security: The company behind NordVPN wants to be your one-stop privacy suite". ZDNet. ^ "No data retention laws in Panama". PCMAG. Retrieved 2023-02-04. ^ a b Spadafora, Anthony (September 14, 2021). "NordVPN reveals rebrand for its B2B offering". TechRadar. ^ Eston, Tom (2022-12-05). "SASE: Is it Just Another Cybersecurity Buzzword?". Security Boulevard. Retrieved 2023-02-04. ^ NordVPN, Par Proposé par (23 December 2020). "NordVPN propose un service grand public et un service pour les entreprises". ZDNet. ^ a b Williams, Mike (January 28, 2022). "NordLayer review". TechRadar. ^ Webb, Aaron (2023-01-27). "It's Time to Put Your Users at The Centre of Your Security Universe". Infosecurity Magazine. Retrieved 2023-02-04. "Never trust – always verify" ... exemplifies the security model at the crux of Zero Trust. ^ a b "NordLayer In Australia: Everything You Need To Know". PCMag. February 1, 2022. ^ Lunden, Ingrid (2022-04-06). "Nord Security raises its first-ever funding, $100M". TechCrunch. Retrieved 2023-02-04. ^ Whitney, Lance (August 19, 2020). "NordVPN Teams: How to protect your organization from DDoS attacks". TechRepublic. ^ Wallen, Jack (2022-05-26). "How NordLayer makes it easy for businesses to add VPN technology to remote workers". TechRepublic. Retrieved 2023-02-04. ^ "This Is the Best Country for Remote Work, According to a New Study". www.yahoo.com. 14 July 2022. Retrieved 2023-02-04. ^ Gurinaviciute, Juta. "Council Post: Why Employee Productivity Depends On Where They Work". Forbes. Retrieved 2023-02-04. ^ "Top 10 Best Countries For Working Remotely Safely And Efficiently". Forbes India. Retrieved 2023-12-08. ^ "Korea ranks highest among Asian countries as top remote work destination: NordLayer". koreatimes. 2023-10-18. Retrieved 2023-12-08. ^ "Working From Home Means Working Longer Hours for Many". Bloomberg.com. 2020-03-23. Retrieved 2023-12-11. ^ Osborne, Hilary (2021-02-04). "Home workers putting in more hours since Covid, research shows". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-12-11. ^ "Why 59 minutes is the most important period in tech". ZDNET. Retrieved 2023-12-11. ^ Craig Hale (2023-11-20). "It's Black Friday for hackers too - so watch out for these scams". TechRadar. Retrieved 2023-12-08. ^ "Barclays issues Black Friday scam warning to shoppers and gives 4 key steps to follow". Yahoo News. 2022-11-11. Retrieved 2023-12-08. ^ Bratley, Meg (2023-05-13). "Research: 44% of British businesses experienced LinkedIn scams this year - IFA Magazine". ifamagazine.com. Retrieved 2023-12-08. ^ "Stopping the scammers who target online jobseekers". 2023-09-10. Retrieved 2023-12-08. ^ updated, Mike Williams last (2022-01-28). "NordLayer review". TechRadar. Retrieved 2023-02-04. ^ "NordVPN Review 2023: Features, Pricing & More – Forbes Advisor". www.forbes.com. Retrieved 2023-02-04. vteVirtual private networkingCommunication protocols DTLS DirectAccess EVPN IPsec L2F L2TP L2TPv3 PPTP SSTP Split tunneling SSL/TLS (Opportunistic: tcpcrypt) Connection applications FreeLAN FreeS/WAN Libreswan n2n OpenConnect OpenIKED Openswan OpenVPN Social VPN SoftEther VPN strongSwan tcpcrypt tinc VTun WireGuard Shadowsocks Enterprise software Avast SecureLine VPN Check Point VPN-1 LogMeIn Hamachi Risk vectors Content-control software Deep content inspection Deep packet inspection IP address blocking Network enumeration Stateful firewall TCP reset attack VPN blocking VPN ServicesAvast HMA SecureLine Kape Technologies CyberGhost ExpressVPN Private Internet Access Zenmate McAfee TunnelBear Tesonet NordVPN NordLayer Surfshark Ziff Davis IPVanish StrongVPN Hola IVPN Mozilla VPN Mullvad PrivadoVPN Proton VPN PureVPN SaferVPN Windscribe	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"network access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_access"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"iOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"zero trust architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_trust_security_model"},{"link_name":"hybrid and multi-cloud cloud environments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"cybersecurity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybersecurity"},{"link_name":"Lithuanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania"},{"link_name":"startup accelerator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Startup_accelerator"},{"link_name":"business incubator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_incubator"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto2-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnn-5"}],"text":"NordLayer, formerly known as NordVPN Teams, is a network access security service with applications for Microsoft Windows, macOS, Linux, Android and iOS.[1][2] The software is marketed as a privacy and security tool running on zero trust architecture providing protection on hybrid and multi-cloud cloud environments.[3]It is developed by Nord Security (Nordsec Ltd), a company that creates cybersecurity software, and was initially supported by the Lithuanian startup accelerator and business incubator Tesonet.[4][5]","title":"NordLayer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NordVPN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NordVPN"},{"link_name":"SurfShark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SurfShark"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnn-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto5-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto5-6"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto2-4"},{"link_name":"Fourteen Eyes intelligence sharing pact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteen_Eyes"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"secure access service edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_access_service_edge"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"NordLayer was founded in 2019 as NordVPN Teams as a subsidiary of NordSecurity, a technology company that develops and provides virtual private network (VPN) services, such as NordVPN and SurfShark.[5][6]NordLayer is based on NordVPN, a VPN service provider for private customers, which was established in 2012.[6]In October 2020, NordVPN Team relocated to the United States as part of a larger effort to expand its operations and better serve its enterprise clients.[4] Nevertheless, Nordlayer committed to maintaining its Panamanian corporate structure, allowing it to remain outside the jurisdiction of the Fourteen Eyes intelligence sharing pact, which includes the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and other countries.[7]In September 2021, the NordVPN Teams were renamed to NordLayer. The rebranding was part of their transition towards secure access service edge (SASE) framework.[8][9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"secure access service edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_access_service_edge"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-8"},{"link_name":"Single Sign-On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_sign-on"},{"link_name":"Azure AD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azure_AD_Connect"},{"link_name":"OneLogin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OneLogin"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Time-based One-Time Password","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-based_one-time_password"},{"link_name":"biometric authentication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biometrics"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto4-11"},{"link_name":"Zero Trust Network Access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_trust_security_model"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Webb01-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto3-13"},{"link_name":"Advanced Encryption Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Encryption_Standard"},{"link_name":"ChaCha20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salsa20"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"kill switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kill_switch"},{"link_name":"DDoS protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denial-of-service_attack"},{"link_name":"botnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botnet"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"application control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_Control_Management_System"},{"link_name":"bandwidth management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_management"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto5-6"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto4-11"},{"link_name":"web security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_security"},{"link_name":"access control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_control"},{"link_name":"web filtering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_filter"},{"link_name":"content filtering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_filter"},{"link_name":"application control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_Control_Management_System"},{"link_name":"identity management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_management"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto3-13"}],"text":"NordLayer is based on a cloud-based cybersecurity architecture, secure access service edge (SASE), which enables cloud-based platform for remote access to corporate networks.[8]Nordlayer offers a Single Sign-On (SSO) login option to its users, allowing users to log into multiple applications using a single set of login credentials. SSO logins are currently supported through various providers, including Google SSO, Azure AD, Okta, and OneLogin.[10] NordLayer supports various second-factor confirmation methods, including SMS authentication, Time-based One-Time Password (TOTP) authentication, and biometric authentication.[11]NordLayer enforces Zero Trust Network Access (ZTNA), which is based on the principle \"Never trust – always verify\".[12]\nThis systems secure model uses continuous authentication and identity verification to grant access to network resources.[13] NordLayer employs the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) with 256-bit keys and the ChaCha20 stream cipher.[14]It includes features such as two-factor (2FA), kill switch, IP whitelisting, DDoS protection and hardware firewall monitoring to detect botnet attacks.[15]NordLayer's Cloud Firewall provides features such as application control, bandwidth management, and logging capabilities.NоrdLаyеr's Nеtwоrk Visibility аllоws fоr thе mоnitоring оf nеtwоrk trаffic аnd pеrfоrmаncе, еnsuring а thоrоugh undеrstаnding оf nеtwоrk dynаmics.The NordLayer platform enables IT administrators to add, remove, or transfer user accounts, dedicated servers, or custom gateways — with static or dedicated IP addresses — for specific teams to remotely access a company's LAN.[6] In addition, network administrators have the ability to monitor user activity and obtain information about the connection. This includes checking whether the devices being used comply with predefined security rules.[11]NоrdLаyеr's Dеvicе Pоsturе Sеcurity prоvidеs а prоtеctivе mеаsurе thаt еnsurеs аccеss is grаntеd оnly tо trustеd dеvicеs, thеrеby sаfеguаrding nеtwоrks frоm pоtеntiаl thrеаts.Nordlayer's Secure Web Gateway (SWG) provides features for web security and access control such as web filtering, content filtering, application control, and identity management.[16]Nordlayer currently has 33 global dedicated server locations.[13]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Cybеrsеcurity resеаrches / resеаrches"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"cost of living","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_of_living"},{"link_name":"cost of labor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Global Remote Work Index","text":"In 2022, NordLayer launched The Global Remote Work Index, an international index that provides data and insights to identify the best countries for remote work.[17] It is based on the evaluation of more than 60 variables in 66 countries, including the availability of broadband internet, the cost of living, digital and physical infrastructure and the cost of labor.[18] The 2023 updаte, in cоntinuаtiоn оf the previоus yeаr's editiоn, wаs аssembled by аssessing 108 destinаtiоns thrоugh the exаminаtiоn оf fоur key criteriа: оnline security, ecоnоmic fаctоrs, digitаl аnd physicаl infrаstructure, аnd sоciаl sаfety.[19][20]","title":"Cybеrsеcurity resеаrches / resеаrches"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Cоvid-19 pаndеmic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Working From Home Rеsеаrch","text":"In 2020, NоrdVPN Rеsеаrch tеаms cоnductеd а study rеvеаling thаt, оn аvеrаgе, еmplоyееs wеrе spеnding mоrе timе аt thеir dеsks cоmpаrеd tо thе prе-pаndеmic еrа.[21] Utilizing dаtа frоm its sеrvеrs, NоrdVPN Tеаms еxаminеd thе usаgе pаttеrns оf privаtе businеss nеtwоrks tо gаin insights intо thе rеmоtе wоrk prаcticеs оf еmplоyееs.[22] Thе findings indicаtеd thаt individuаls wоrking frоm hоmе еxpеriеncеd еxtеndеd wоrk hоurs аnd а hеightеnеd wоrklоаd, suggеsting а nоtаblе shift in wоrk dynаmics sincе thе оnsеt оf thе Cоvid-19 pаndеmic.[23]","title":"Cybеrsеcurity resеаrches / resеаrches"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Blаck Fridаy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Friday_(shopping)"},{"link_name":"Bаrclаys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barclays"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Black Friday Research","text":"In 2023, NоrdLаyеr dissеminаtеd infоrmаtiоn оn sаfеguаrding pеrsоnаl dеtаils аgаinst pоtеntiаl hаcking thrеаts. Thе cybеrsеcurity firm rеpоrtеd а 2.3% yеаr-оn-yеаr incrеаsе in Blаck Fridаy spеnding in 2022, whilе а sеpаrаtе study cоnductеd by Bаrclаys rеvеаlеd а cоrrеspоnding surgе оf up tо 22% in lоssеs аssоciаtеd with thеsе sаlеs.[24][25]","title":"Cybеrsеcurity resеаrches / resеаrches"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cаnаdа","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Unitеd Kingdоm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Unitеd Stаtеs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"LinkеdIn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LinkedIn"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"B2B LinkedIn Scam Research","text":"In 2023, NоrdLаyеr cоnductеd а nеw rеsеаrch study by survеying 500 rеspоndеnts аcrоss Cаnаdа, thе Unitеd Kingdоm, аnd thе Unitеd Stаtеs. Thе rеspоndеnts, cоmprising аdults аgеd 18 аnd аbоvе frоm nоn-gоvеrnmеntаl оrgаnizаtiоns, wеrе spеcificаlly quеriеd аbоut thе typеs оf scаms thеy еncоuntеrеd оn thе LinkеdIn sоciаl mеdiа plаtfоrm аnd thе subsеquеnt impаct оn thеir businеssеs. Thе survеyеd subindustriеs еncоmpаssеd businеss mаnаgеmеnt аnd suppоrt sеrvicеs, е-cоmmеrcе, еducаtiоn, finаncе аnd insurаncе, hеаlth cаrе, infоrmаtiоn аnd cоmmunicаtiоn, IT, prоfеssiоnаl аnd tеchnicаl sеrvicеs, аs wеll аs cоnsulting.[26][27]","title":"Cybеrsеcurity resеаrches / resеаrches"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"TechRadar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechRadar"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Forbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"text":"In a positive review published by TechRadar in August 2022, the reviewer wrote positively about NordLayer's interface, kill switch, private gateways, biometrics, and concluded that \"NordLayer is an easy-to-use service, with simple but well-engineered quality apps, which makes it easy to secure employee access to your networks and the internet.\"[28]In January 2023, a favorable review by Forbes noted that NordLayer's security solutions are great for businesses \"looking to monitor the security level of their company and encrypt all of their team members’ accounts through one portal\".[29]","title":"Reception"}]	[]	[{"title":"NordVPN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NordVPN"},{"title":"NordLocker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NordLocker"},{"title":"NordPass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NordPass"}]	[{"reference":"Walker, Rob (May 29, 2021). \"How to Take a Break\". New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/29/business/dealbook/quality-work-breaks.html","url_text":"\"How to Take a Break\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times","url_text":"New York Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Meet Nord Security: The company behind NordVPN wants to be your one-stop privacy suite\". ZDNET. Retrieved 2023-01-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zdnet.com/article/meet-nordsec-the-company-behind-nordvpn-wants-to-be-your-one-stop-privacy-suite/","url_text":"\"Meet Nord Security: The company behind NordVPN wants to be your one-stop privacy suite\""}]},{"reference":"\"Remote Working's Longer Hours Are New Normal for Many\". Bloomberg.com. 2 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-02-02/remote-working-s-longer-hours-are-new-normal-for-many-chart","url_text":"\"Remote Working's Longer Hours Are New Normal for Many\""}]},{"reference":"Spadafora, Anthony (October 9, 2020). \"NordVPN Teams quietly relocated to the US\". TechRadar.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.techradar.com/news/nordvpn-teams-quietly-relocated-to-the-us","url_text":"\"NordVPN Teams quietly relocated to the US\""}]},{"reference":"Guy, Jack (5 February 2021). \"People are working longer hours at home than they did in the office\". CNN.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cnn.com/2021/02/05/business/working-from-home-hours-pandemic-scli-intl-gbr/index.html","url_text":"\"People are working longer hours at home than they did in the office\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN","url_text":"CNN"}]},{"reference":"Gewirtz, David. \"Meet Nord Security: The company behind NordVPN wants to be your one-stop privacy suite\". ZDNet.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zdnet.com/article/meet-nordsec-the-company-behind-nordvpn-wants-to-be-your-one-stop-privacy-suite/","url_text":"\"Meet Nord Security: The company behind NordVPN wants to be your one-stop privacy suite\""}]},{"reference":"\"No data retention laws in Panama\". PCMAG. Retrieved 2023-02-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcmag.com/reviews/nordvpn","url_text":"\"No data retention laws in Panama\""}]},{"reference":"Spadafora, Anthony (September 14, 2021). \"NordVPN reveals rebrand for its B2B offering\". TechRadar.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.techradar.com/news/nordvpn-reveals-rebrand-for-its-b2b-offering","url_text":"\"NordVPN reveals rebrand for its B2B offering\""}]},{"reference":"Eston, Tom (2022-12-05). \"SASE: Is it Just Another Cybersecurity Buzzword?\". Security Boulevard. Retrieved 2023-02-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://securityboulevard.com/2022/12/sase-is-it-just-another-cybersecurity-buzzword/","url_text":"\"SASE: Is it Just Another Cybersecurity Buzzword?\""}]},{"reference":"NordVPN, Par Proposé par (23 December 2020). \"NordVPN propose un service grand public et un service pour les entreprises\". 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Retrieved 2023-02-04. \"Never trust – always verify\" ... exemplifies the security model at the crux of Zero Trust.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/blogs/users-centre-of-security-universe/","url_text":"\"It's Time to Put Your Users at The Centre of Your Security Universe\""}]},{"reference":"\"NordLayer In Australia: Everything You Need To Know\". PCMag. February 1, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://au.pcmag.com/security/92171/nordlayer-in-australia-everything-you-need-to-know","url_text":"\"NordLayer In Australia: Everything You Need To Know\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCMag","url_text":"PCMag"}]},{"reference":"Lunden, Ingrid (2022-04-06). \"Nord Security raises its first-ever funding, $100M\". TechCrunch. 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Retrieved 2023-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-03-23/working-from-home-means-working-longer-hours-for-many-chart","url_text":"\"Working From Home Means Working Longer Hours for Many\""}]},{"reference":"Osborne, Hilary (2021-02-04). \"Home workers putting in more hours since Covid, research shows\". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/feb/04/home-workers-putting-in-more-hours-since-covid-research","url_text":"\"Home workers putting in more hours since Covid, research shows\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077","url_text":"0261-3077"}]},{"reference":"\"Why 59 minutes is the most important period in tech\". ZDNET. Retrieved 2023-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zdnet.com/article/why-59-minutes-is-the-most-important-period-in-tech/","url_text":"\"Why 59 minutes is the most important period in tech\""}]},{"reference":"Craig Hale (2023-11-20). \"It's Black Friday for hackers too - so watch out for these scams\". TechRadar. Retrieved 2023-12-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.techradar.com/pro/security/its-black-friday-for-hackers-too-so-watch-out-for-these-scams","url_text":"\"It's Black Friday for hackers too - so watch out for these scams\""}]},{"reference":"\"Barclays issues Black Friday scam warning to shoppers and gives 4 key steps to follow\". Yahoo News. 2022-11-11. Retrieved 2023-12-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://uk.news.yahoo.com/barclays-issues-black-friday-scam-050000152.html","url_text":"\"Barclays issues Black Friday scam warning to shoppers and gives 4 key steps to follow\""}]},{"reference":"Bratley, Meg (2023-05-13). \"Research: 44% of British businesses experienced LinkedIn scams this year - IFA Magazine\". ifamagazine.com. Retrieved 2023-12-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://ifamagazine.com/research-44-of-british-businesses-experienced-linkedin-scams-this-year/","url_text":"\"Research: 44% of British businesses experienced LinkedIn scams this year - IFA Magazine\""}]},{"reference":"\"Stopping the scammers who target online jobseekers\". 2023-09-10. Retrieved 2023-12-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/business-66592219","url_text":"\"Stopping the scammers who target online jobseekers\""}]},{"reference":"updated, Mike Williams last (2022-01-28). \"NordLayer review\". TechRadar. Retrieved 2023-02-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.techradar.com/reviews/nordlayer","url_text":"\"NordLayer review\""}]},{"reference":"\"NordVPN Review 2023: Features, Pricing & More – Forbes Advisor\". www.forbes.com. Retrieved 2023-02-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/advisor/business/software/nordvpn-review/","url_text":"\"NordVPN Review 2023: Features, Pricing & More – Forbes Advisor\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://nordlayer.com/","external_links_name":"nordlayer.com"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/29/business/dealbook/quality-work-breaks.html","external_links_name":"\"How to Take a Break\""},{"Link":"https://www.zdnet.com/article/meet-nordsec-the-company-behind-nordvpn-wants-to-be-your-one-stop-privacy-suite/","external_links_name":"\"Meet Nord Security: The company behind NordVPN wants to be your one-stop privacy suite\""},{"Link":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-02-02/remote-working-s-longer-hours-are-new-normal-for-many-chart","external_links_name":"\"Remote Working's Longer Hours Are New Normal for Many\""},{"Link":"https://www.techradar.com/news/nordvpn-teams-quietly-relocated-to-the-us","external_links_name":"\"NordVPN Teams quietly relocated to the US\""},{"Link":"https://www.cnn.com/2021/02/05/business/working-from-home-hours-pandemic-scli-intl-gbr/index.html","external_links_name":"\"People are working longer hours at home than they did in the office\""},{"Link":"https://www.zdnet.com/article/meet-nordsec-the-company-behind-nordvpn-wants-to-be-your-one-stop-privacy-suite/","external_links_name":"\"Meet Nord Security: The company behind NordVPN wants to be your one-stop privacy suite\""},{"Link":"https://www.pcmag.com/reviews/nordvpn","external_links_name":"\"No data retention laws in Panama\""},{"Link":"https://www.techradar.com/news/nordvpn-reveals-rebrand-for-its-b2b-offering","external_links_name":"\"NordVPN reveals rebrand for its B2B offering\""},{"Link":"https://securityboulevard.com/2022/12/sase-is-it-just-another-cybersecurity-buzzword/","external_links_name":"\"SASE: Is it Just Another Cybersecurity Buzzword?\""},{"Link":"https://www.zdnet.fr/actualites-partenaires/nordvpn-propose-un-service-grand-public-et-un-service-pour-les-entreprises-39915341.htm","external_links_name":"\"NordVPN propose un service grand public et un service pour les entreprises\""},{"Link":"https://www.techradar.com/reviews/nordlayer","external_links_name":"\"NordLayer review\""},{"Link":"https://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/blogs/users-centre-of-security-universe/","external_links_name":"\"It's Time to Put Your Users at The Centre of Your Security Universe\""},{"Link":"https://au.pcmag.com/security/92171/nordlayer-in-australia-everything-you-need-to-know","external_links_name":"\"NordLayer In Australia: Everything You Need To Know\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2022/04/06/nord-security-the-startup-behind-nordvpn-raises-its-first-ever-funding-100m-at-a-1-6b-valuation/","external_links_name":"\"Nord Security raises its first-ever funding, $100M\""},{"Link":"https://www.techrepublic.com/article/nordvpn-how-to-protect-your-organization-from-ddos-attacks/","external_links_name":"\"NordVPN Teams: How to protect your organization from DDoS attacks\""},{"Link":"https://www.techrepublic.com/article/nordlayer-remote-access-vpn/","external_links_name":"\"How NordLayer makes it easy for businesses to add VPN technology to remote workers\""},{"Link":"https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/best-country-remote-according-study-182359009.html","external_links_name":"\"This Is the Best Country for Remote Work, According to a New Study\""},{"Link":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2022/09/13/why-employee-productivity-depends-on-where-they-work/","external_links_name":"\"Council Post: Why Employee Productivity Depends On Where They Work\""},{"Link":"https://www.forbesindia.com/article/lifes/top-10-best-countries-for-working-remotely-safely-and-efficiently/89115/1","external_links_name":"\"Top 10 Best Countries For Working Remotely Safely And Efficiently\""},{"Link":"https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/biz/2023/12/175_361373.html","external_links_name":"\"Korea ranks highest among Asian countries as top remote work destination: NordLayer\""},{"Link":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-03-23/working-from-home-means-working-longer-hours-for-many-chart","external_links_name":"\"Working From Home Means Working Longer Hours for Many\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/feb/04/home-workers-putting-in-more-hours-since-covid-research","external_links_name":"\"Home workers putting in more hours since Covid, research shows\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077","external_links_name":"0261-3077"},{"Link":"https://www.zdnet.com/article/why-59-minutes-is-the-most-important-period-in-tech/","external_links_name":"\"Why 59 minutes is the most important period in tech\""},{"Link":"https://www.techradar.com/pro/security/its-black-friday-for-hackers-too-so-watch-out-for-these-scams","external_links_name":"\"It's Black Friday for hackers too - so watch out for these scams\""},{"Link":"https://uk.news.yahoo.com/barclays-issues-black-friday-scam-050000152.html","external_links_name":"\"Barclays issues Black Friday scam warning to shoppers and gives 4 key steps to follow\""},{"Link":"https://ifamagazine.com/research-44-of-british-businesses-experienced-linkedin-scams-this-year/","external_links_name":"\"Research: 44% of British businesses experienced LinkedIn scams this year - IFA Magazine\""},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.com/news/business-66592219","external_links_name":"\"Stopping the scammers who target online jobseekers\""},{"Link":"https://www.techradar.com/reviews/nordlayer","external_links_name":"\"NordLayer review\""},{"Link":"https://www.forbes.com/advisor/business/software/nordvpn-review/","external_links_name":"\"NordVPN Review 2023: Features, Pricing & More – Forbes Advisor\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_0_(disambiguation)	Ring 0	["1 Arts and entertainment","2 Technology","3 Other uses","4 See also"]	Ring 0 or zero ring or variation, may refer to: Arts and entertainment Ring 0: Birthday, a Japanese horror prequel film The Ring Volume 0: Birthday, a subsequent manga Technology Ring 0 (computer security), the highest privilege level Telephone dialling instructions to access a switchboard operator Other uses Zero ring, the trivial ring in mathematics ring theory O̊, the letter "O" with a ring diacritical mark See also Search for "ring zero" or "ring 0" on Wikipedia. Birthday (short story collection), a Japanese anthology containing prequels and sequels to Ring Ring road (disambiguation) Ring (disambiguation) Topics referred to by the same term This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Ring 0.If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.	[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Ring 0"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ring 0: Birthday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_0:_Birthday"},{"link_name":"The Ring Volume 0: Birthday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ring_Volume_0:_Birthday"}],"text":"Ring 0: Birthday, a Japanese horror prequel film\nThe Ring Volume 0: Birthday, a subsequent manga","title":"Arts and entertainment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ring 0 (computer security)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_0_(computer_security)"},{"link_name":"switchboard operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switchboard_operator"}],"text":"Ring 0 (computer security), the highest privilege level\nTelephone dialling instructions to access a switchboard operator","title":"Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Zero ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_ring"},{"link_name":"ring diacritical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_diacritic"}],"text":"Zero ring, the trivial ring in mathematics ring theory\nO̊, the letter \"O\" with a ring diacritical mark","title":"Other uses"}]	[]	[{"title":"\"ring zero\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Search&search=%22ring+zero%22&ns0=1&fulltext=Search"},{"title":"\"ring 0\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Search&search=%22ring+0%22&ns0=1&fulltext=Search"},{"title":"Birthday (short story collection)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birthday_(short_story_collection)"},{"title":"Ring road (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_road_(disambiguation)"},{"title":"Ring (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Disambig_gray.svg"},{"title":"disambiguation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Disambiguation"},{"title":"internal link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:WhatLinksHere/Ring_0&namespace=0"}]	[]	[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Search&search=%22ring+zero%22&ns0=1&fulltext=Search","external_links_name":"\"ring zero\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Search&search=%22ring+0%22&ns0=1&fulltext=Search","external_links_name":"\"ring 0\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:WhatLinksHere/Ring_0&namespace=0","external_links_name":"internal link"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ride-through	Low voltage ride through	["1 General concept","2 Risk of chain reaction","3 Ride through systems","4 Standards","5 Testing","6 References","7 See also"]	Electric generator function In electrical power engineering, fault ride through (FRT), sometimes under-voltage ride through (UVRT), or low voltage ride through (LVRT), is the capability of electric generators to stay connected in short periods of lower electric network voltage (cf. voltage sag). It is needed at distribution level (wind parks, PV systems, distributed cogeneration, etc.) to prevent a short circuit at HV or EHV level from causing a widespread loss of generation. Similar requirements for critical loads such as computer systems and industrial processes are often handled through the use of an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) or capacitor bank to supply make-up power during these events. General concept Many generator designs use electric current flowing through windings to produce the magnetic field on which the motor or generator operates. This is in contrast to designs that use permanent magnets to generate this field instead. Such devices may have a minimum working voltage, below which the device does not work correctly, or does so at greatly reduced efficiency. Some will disconnect themselves from the circuit when these conditions apply. The effect is more pronounced in doubly-fed induction generators (DFIG), which have two sets of powered magnetic windings, than in squirrel-cage induction generators which have only one. Synchronous generators may slip and become unstable, if the voltage of the stator winding goes below a certain threshold. Risk of chain reaction In a grid containing many distributed generators subject to disconnection at under voltage, it is possible to cause a chain reaction that takes other generators offline as well. This can occur in the event of a voltage dip that causes one of the generators to disconnect from the grid. As voltage dips are often caused by too little generation for the load in a distribution grid, removing generation can cause the voltage to drop further. This may bring the voltage down enough to cause another generator to trip, lower the voltage even further, and may cause a cascading failure. Ride through systems Modern large-scale wind turbines, typically 1 MW and larger, are normally required to include systems that allow them to operate through such an event, and thereby “ride through” the voltage dip. Similar requirements are now becoming common on large solar power installations that likewise might cause instability in the event of a widespread disconnection of generating units. Depending on the application the device may, during and after the dip, be required to: disconnect and stay disconnected until manually ordered to reconnect disconnect temporarily from the grid, but reconnect and continue operation after the dip stay operational and not disconnect from the grid stay connected and support the grid with reactive power (defined as the reactive current of the positive sequence of the fundamental) Standards A variety of standards exist and generally vary across jurisdictions. Examples of the such grid codes are the German BDEW grid code and its supplements 2, 3, and 4 as well as the National Grid Code in UK. Testing For wind turbines, the FRT testing is described in the standard IEC 61400-21 (2nd edition August 2008). More detailed testing procedures are stated in the German guideline FGW TR3 (Rev. 22). Testing of devices with less than 16 Amp rated current is described in the EMC standard IEC 61000-4-11 and for higher current devices in IEC 61000-4-34. References ^ IEC Glossary: UVRT ^ http://www.powerqualityworld.com/2011/04/cbema-curve-power-quality-standard.html CBEMA Curve – The Power Acceptability Curve for Computer Business Equipment, 2011-04-03 ^ Guo, Wenyong; Xiao, Liye; Dai, Shaotao; Xu, Xi; Li, Yuanhe; Wang, Yifei (2019-06-18). "Evaluation of the Performance of BTFCLs for Enhancing LVRT Capability of DFIG". IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. 30 (7): 3623–3637. doi:10.1109/TPEL.2014.2340852. ^ Mahrouch, Assia; Ouassaid, Mohammed; Elyaalaoui, Kamal (2019-06-18). "LVRT Control for Wind Farm Based on Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator Connected into the Grid". 2017 International Renewable and Sustainable Energy Conference (IRSEC). pp. 1–6. doi:10.1109/IRSEC.2017.8477281. ISBN 978-1-5386-2847-8. ^ Liasi, Sahand Ghaseminejad; Afshar, Zakaria; Harandi, Mahdi Jafari; Kojori, Shokrollah Shokri (2018-12-18). "An Improved Control Strategy for DVR in order to Achieve both LVRT and HVRT in DFIG Wind Turbine". 2018 International Conference and Exposition on Electrical and Power Engineering (EPE). pp. 0724–0730. doi:10.1109/ICEPE.2018.8559605. ISBN 978-1-5386-5062-2. ^ Harandi, Mahdi Jafari; Ghaseminejad Liasi, Sahand; Nikravesh, Esmail; Bina, Mohammad Tavakoli (2019-06-18). "An Improved Control Strategy for DFIG Low Voltage Ride-Through Using Optimal Demagnetizing method". 2019 10th International Power Electronics, Drive Systems and Technologies Conference (PEDSTC). pp. 464–469. doi:10.1109/PEDSTC.2019.8697267. ISBN 978-1-5386-9254-7. ^ Akagi, H.; Edson Hirokazu Watanabe; Mauricio Aredes (2007). Instantaneous power theory and applications to power conditioning. IEEE Press Series of Power Engineering. John Wiley & Sons. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-470-10761-4. ^ BDEW Medium Voltage Guideline Archived 2012-11-05 at the Wayback Machine retrieved on 9 November 2008 ^ BDEW MV Guideline 2nd Supplement retrieved in 07/2010 ^ BDEW MV Guideline 3rd Supplement Archived 2013-01-27 at the Wayback Machine retrieved in 02/2011 ^ BDEW MV Guideline 4th Supplement Archived 2013-08-16 at the Wayback Machine retrieved in 12/2015 ^ National Grid Code Archived 2010-02-14 at the Wayback Machine retrieved on 9 2008-11-9 ^ IEC 61000-4-11 ^ "IEC 61000-4-34:2005 - electromagnetic compatibility, EMC, smart city". IEC Webstore. 2005-10-17. Retrieved 2019-07-04. See also Voltage dip vteWind powerWind power Airborne wind energy By country History Land vehicles Offshore Turbines on public display Windmill panemone Wind farms Lists of wind farms Community-owned Offshore farms Onshore farms Wind turbines Aerodynamics Airborne Crosswind kite Design Floating Nacelle Pitch bearing QBlade Small Unconventional Vertical-axis Savonius Darrieus Yaw system bearing drive Wind power industry Consulting companies Manufacturers Software Manufacturers Enercon GE Wind Energy including GE Offshore Wind Goldwind Nordex Senvion Siemens Gamesa Suzlon Vestas Concepts 2020s in wind power research Betz's law Blade element momentum theory Capacity factor Energy return on investment Energy storage grid Energy subsidy HVDC Hybrid power Laddermill Net energy gain Tip-speed ratio Variable renewable energy Virtual power plant Wind power forecasting Wind profile power law Wind resource assessment Wind power portal Category Commons Additional portals: Renewable energy Energy vteElectricity deliveryConcepts Automatic generation control Backfeeding Base load Demand factor Droop speed control Electric power Electric power quality Electrical fault Energy demand management Energy return on investment Grid code Grid energy storage Grid strength Home energy storage Load-following Merit order Nameplate capacity Peak demand Power factor Power-flow study Repowering Utility frequency Variability Vehicle-to-grid SourcesNon-renewable Fossil fuel power station Coal Natural gas Oil shale Petroleum Nuclear Renewable Biofuel Biogas Biomass Geothermal Hydro Marine Current Osmotic Thermal Tidal Wave Solar Sustainable biofuel Wind Generation AC power Cogeneration Combined cycle Cooling tower Induction generator Micro CHP Microgeneration Rankine cycle Three-phase electric power Virtual power plant Transmissionand distribution Demand response Distributed generation Dynamic demand Electric power distribution Electric power system Electric power transmission Electrical busbar system Electrical grid Electrical substation Electricity retailing High-voltage direct current High-voltage shore connection Interconnector Load management Mains electricity by country Overhead power line Power station Pumped hydro Single-wire earth return Smart grid Super grid Transformer Transmission system operator (TSO) Transmission tower Utility pole Failure modes Black start Brownout Cascading failure Power outage Rolling blackout Protectivedevices Arc-fault circuit interrupter Circuit breaker Earth-leakage Sulfur hexafluoride Generator interlock kit Numerical relay Power system protection Protective relay Residual-current device (GFI) Economicsand policies Availability factor Capacity factor Carbon offsets and credits Cost of electricity by source Energy subsidies Environmental tax Feed-in tariff Fossil fuel phase-out Load factor Net metering Pigouvian tax Renewable Energy Certificates Renewable energy commercialization Renewable Energy Payments Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread Statistics andproduction Electric energy consumption List of electricity sectors Category	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"electrical power engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_engineering"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"electric network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission"},{"link_name":"voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage"},{"link_name":"voltage sag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_sag"},{"link_name":"wind parks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_turbine"},{"link_name":"PV systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaics"},{"link_name":"cogeneration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogeneration"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"uninterruptible power supply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uninterruptible_power_supply"}],"text":"In electrical power engineering, fault ride through (FRT), sometimes under-voltage ride through (UVRT), or low voltage ride through (LVRT),[1] is the capability of electric generators to stay connected in short periods of lower electric network voltage (cf. voltage sag). It is needed at distribution level (wind parks, PV systems, distributed cogeneration, etc.) to prevent a short circuit at HV or EHV level from causing a widespread loss of generation. Similar requirements for critical loads such as computer systems[2] and industrial processes are often handled through the use of an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) or capacitor bank to supply make-up power during these events.","title":"Low voltage ride through"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"permanent magnets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_magnet"},{"link_name":"doubly-fed induction generators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubly_fed_electric_machine"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IEEE_Journals_&_Magazine_2019-3"},{"link_name":"squirrel-cage induction generators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squirrel-cage_rotor"},{"link_name":"Synchronous generators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_generator"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IEEE_Conference_Publication_2019-1-4"}],"text":"Many generator designs use electric current flowing through windings to produce the magnetic field on which the motor or generator operates. This is in contrast to designs that use permanent magnets to generate this field instead. Such devices may have a minimum working voltage, below which the device does not work correctly, or does so at greatly reduced efficiency. Some will disconnect themselves from the circuit when these conditions apply. The effect is more pronounced in doubly-fed induction generators (DFIG),[3] which have two sets of powered magnetic windings, than in squirrel-cage induction generators which have only one. Synchronous generators may slip and become unstable, if the voltage of the stator winding goes below a certain threshold.[4]","title":"General concept"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"chain reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_reaction"},{"link_name":"voltage dip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_dips"},{"link_name":"cascading failure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascading_failure"}],"text":"In a grid containing many distributed generators subject to disconnection at under voltage, it is possible to cause a chain reaction that takes other generators offline as well. This can occur in the event of a voltage dip that causes one of the generators to disconnect from the grid. As voltage dips are often caused by too little generation for the load in a distribution grid, removing generation can cause the voltage to drop further. This may bring the voltage down enough to cause another generator to trip, lower the voltage even further, and may cause a cascading failure.","title":"Risk of chain reaction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"solar power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IEEE_Conference_Publication_2018-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IEEE_Conference_Publication_2019-6"},{"link_name":"reactive power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactive_power"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Akagi_2007-7"}],"text":"Modern large-scale wind turbines, typically 1 MW and larger, are normally required to include systems that allow them to operate through such an event, and thereby “ride through” the voltage dip. Similar requirements are now becoming common on large solar power installations that likewise might cause instability in the event of a widespread disconnection of generating units. Depending on the application the device may, during and after the dip, be required to:[5]disconnect and stay disconnected until manually ordered to reconnect\ndisconnect temporarily from the grid, but reconnect and continue operation after the dip\nstay operational and not disconnect from the grid[6]\nstay connected and support the grid with reactive power (defined as the reactive current of the positive sequence of the fundamental)[7]","title":"Ride through systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"A variety of standards exist and generally vary across jurisdictions. Examples of the such grid codes are the German BDEW grid code[8] and its supplements 2,[9] 3,[10] and 4[11] as well as the National Grid Code in UK.[12]","title":"Standards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IEC_Webstore_2005-14"}],"text":"For wind turbines, the FRT testing is described in the standard IEC 61400-21 (2nd edition August 2008). More detailed testing procedures are stated in the German guideline FGW TR3 (Rev. 22). Testing of devices with less than 16 Amp rated current is described in the EMC standard IEC 61000-4-11[13] and for higher current devices in IEC 61000-4-34.[14]","title":"Testing"}]	[]	[{"title":"Voltage dip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_dip"},{"title":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Wind_power"},{"title":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Wind_power"},{"title":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Wind_power"},{"title":"Wind power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power"},{"title":"Wind power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power"},{"title":"Airborne wind energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airborne_wind_energy"},{"title":"By country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power_by_country"},{"title":"History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_wind_power"},{"title":"Land 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\"Evaluation of the Performance of BTFCLs for Enhancing LVRT Capability of DFIG\". IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. 30 (7): 3623–3637. doi:10.1109/TPEL.2014.2340852.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTPEL.2014.2340852","url_text":"10.1109/TPEL.2014.2340852"}]},{"reference":"Mahrouch, Assia; Ouassaid, Mohammed; Elyaalaoui, Kamal (2019-06-18). \"LVRT Control for Wind Farm Based on Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator Connected into the Grid\". 2017 International Renewable and Sustainable Energy Conference (IRSEC). pp. 1–6. doi:10.1109/IRSEC.2017.8477281. ISBN 978-1-5386-2847-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIRSEC.2017.8477281","url_text":"10.1109/IRSEC.2017.8477281"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5386-2847-8","url_text":"978-1-5386-2847-8"}]},{"reference":"Liasi, Sahand Ghaseminejad; Afshar, Zakaria; Harandi, Mahdi Jafari; Kojori, Shokrollah Shokri (2018-12-18). \"An Improved Control Strategy for DVR in order to Achieve both LVRT and HVRT in DFIG Wind Turbine\". 2018 International Conference and Exposition on Electrical and Power Engineering (EPE). pp. 0724–0730. doi:10.1109/ICEPE.2018.8559605. ISBN 978-1-5386-5062-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FICEPE.2018.8559605","url_text":"10.1109/ICEPE.2018.8559605"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5386-5062-2","url_text":"978-1-5386-5062-2"}]},{"reference":"Harandi, Mahdi Jafari; Ghaseminejad Liasi, Sahand; Nikravesh, Esmail; Bina, Mohammad Tavakoli (2019-06-18). \"An Improved Control Strategy for DFIG Low Voltage Ride-Through Using Optimal Demagnetizing method\". 2019 10th International Power Electronics, Drive Systems and Technologies Conference (PEDSTC). pp. 464–469. doi:10.1109/PEDSTC.2019.8697267. ISBN 978-1-5386-9254-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FPEDSTC.2019.8697267","url_text":"10.1109/PEDSTC.2019.8697267"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5386-9254-7","url_text":"978-1-5386-9254-7"}]},{"reference":"Akagi, H.; Edson Hirokazu Watanabe; Mauricio Aredes (2007). Instantaneous power theory and applications to power conditioning. IEEE Press Series of Power Engineering. John Wiley & Sons. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-470-10761-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons","url_text":"John Wiley & Sons"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-10761-4","url_text":"978-0-470-10761-4"}]},{"reference":"\"IEC 61000-4-34:2005 - electromagnetic compatibility, EMC, smart city\". IEC Webstore. 2005-10-17. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo_Messenger	Yahoo! Messenger	["1 Features","1.1 File sharing","1.2 Likes","1.3 Unsend","1.4 Group conversations (formerly Yahoo! Chat)","1.5 Voice and video","1.6 Protocol","1.7 URI scheme","1.8 Interoperability","1.9 Games","1.10 Plug-ins","2 Adoption","3 Software","3.1 History","3.2 Yahoo! Together","3.3 Third-party clients","4 SPIM","5 Security","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]	Instant messaging protocol Yahoo! Messenger Screenshot Desktop version of Yahoo! Messenger (2016)Developer(s)Yahoo!Initial release March 9, 1998; 26 years ago (1998-03-09) (as Yahoo! Pager) June 21, 1999; 24 years ago (1999-06-21) (as Yahoo! Messenger) Final release Windows: 11.5.0.228 / March 13, 2012; 12 years ago (2012-03-13) Mac: 3.0.2 / July 14, 2012; 11 years ago (2012-07-14) Windows Phone 7: 1.0.6 / September 2013; 10 years ago (2013-09) SunOS 5.7: 0.99.17–1 / September 2003; 20 years ago (2003-09) Solaris 8: 1.0.4 / September 2003; 20 years ago (2003-09) FreeBSD 4/5: 1.0.4 / September 2003; 20 years ago (2003-09) Android: 2.9.2 / July 6, 2017; 6 years ago (2017-07-06) iOS: 1.0.7/ February 29, 2016; 8 years ago (2016-02-29) Operating systemAndroid, iOS. Windows, Windows Mobile, macOS, BlackBerry OS, FreeBSD, Solaris, SunOSTypeInstant messaging client and Internet phoneLicenseProprietary adware Yahoo! Messenger (sometimes abbreviated Y!M) was an advertisement-supported instant messaging client and associated protocol provided by Yahoo!. Yahoo! Messenger was provided free of charge and could be downloaded and used with a generic "Yahoo ID" which also allowed access to other Yahoo! services, such as Yahoo! Mail. The service also offered VoIP, file transfers, webcam hosting, a text messaging service, and chat rooms in various categories. Yahoo! Messenger dates back to Yahoo! Chat, which was a public chat room service. The actual client, originally called Yahoo! Pager, launched on March 9, 1998 and renamed to Yahoo! Messenger in 1999. The chat room service shut down in 2012. In addition to instant messaging features similar to those offered by ICQ, it also offered (on Microsoft Windows) features such as: IMVironments (customizing the look of Instant Message windows, some of which include authorized themes of various cartoons such as Garfield or Dilbert), address-book integration and Custom Status Messages. It was also the first major IM client to feature BUZZing and music-status. A new Yahoo! Messenger was released in 2015, replacing the older one. Yahoo! Messenger was shut down entirely on July 17, 2018, replaced by a new service titled Yahoo! Together, only to be shut down as well in 2019. Features File sharing Yahoo! Messenger offered file sending capabilities to its users. Files could be up to 2 GB each. After the software's relaunch, only certain media files could be shared: photos, animated GIFs and videos. It also allowed album sharing, with multiple media files in one IM. The animated GIF feature integrated with Tumblr, also owned by Yahoo! at that time. Likes The new Yahoo! Messenger added a like button to messages and media. It was basic in functionality, adding a heart when clicked and listing contacts who added a like. Unsend The new Yahoo! Messenger allowed messages to be unsent, deleting them from both the sender and the receiver's messaging page. Group conversations (formerly Yahoo! Chat) The new Yahoo! Messenger allowed private group conversations. Yahoo! Chat was a free online chat room service provided exclusively for Yahoo! users. Yahoo! Chat was first launched on January 7, 1997. Yahoo! Chat was a separate vertical on Yahoo! In its original form, Yahoo! Chat was a user-to-user text chat service used by millions worldwide. Soon after launch, Yahoo! Chat partnered with NBC and NewsCorp to produce moderated Chat Events. Yahoo! Chat events eventually developed broadcast partnerships with 100+ entities and hosted 350+ events-a-month. Yahoo's Live Chat with the music group Hanson on July 21, 1998, was the Internet's largest live event to date. The blockbusters kept on with events including 3 Beatles (Paul, George, Ringo), a live event from Columbine during the tragedy (in partnership with Time Online), live chats from outer space with John Glenn and many others. Sadly, in one of Yahoo's poorer decisions, Yahoo! Chat Events were discontinued in 2001, right at the start of the social media era. On March 9, 1998, the first public version of Yahoo! Pager was released, with Yahoo! Chat among its features. It allowed users to create public chat rooms, send private messages, and use emoticons. In June 2005, with no advance warning, Yahoo disabled users' ability to create their own chat rooms. The move came after KPRC-TV in Houston, Texas, reported that many of the user-created rooms were geared toward pedophilia. The story prompted several advertisers, including Pepsi and Georgia-Pacific, to pull their ads from Yahoo. On November 30, 2012, Yahoo announced that among other changes that the public chat rooms would be discontinued as of December 14, 2012. quoting "This will enable us to refocus our efforts on modernizing our core Yahoo products experiences and of course, create new ones." Until the chat rooms became unavailable on December 14, 2012, all versions of Yahoo! Messenger could access Yahoo chat rooms. Yahoo has since closed down the chat.yahoo.com site (first having it redirect visitors to a section of the Yahoo! Messenger page, but as of June 2019 not even resolving that host name anymore) because the great majority of chat users accessed it through Messenger. The company worked for a while on a way to allow users to create their own rooms while providing safeguards against abuse. A greyed-out option to "create a room" was available until the release of version 11. Voice and video As of January 2014, the iOS version supported voice calls, with video calling on some devices. The Android version supported "voice & video calls (beta)". From September 2016, Yahoo! Messenger no longer offered webcam service on their computer application. Yahoo's software previously allowed users with newer versions (8 through 10) to use webcams. This option enabled users from distances all over the world to view others who had installed a webcam on their end. The service was free with provided speeds averaging from a range in between 1 and 2 frames per second. The resolution of the images could be seen starting at 320×240 pixels or 160×120. Protocol The Yahoo! Messenger Protocol (YMSG) was the client's underlying network protocol. It provided a language and series of conventions for software communicating with Yahoo!'s Instant Messaging service. In essence, YMSG performed the same role for Yahoo!'s IM as HTTP does for the World Wide Web. Unlike HTTP, however, YMSG was a proprietary protocol, a closed standard aligned only with the Yahoo! messaging service. Rival messaging services have their own protocols, some based on open standards, others proprietary, each effectively fulfilling the same role with different mechanics. One of the fundamental tenets of instant messaging is the notion that users can see when someone is connected to the network—known in the industry as 'presence'. The YMSG protocol used the mechanics of a standard internet connection to achieve presence—the same connection it used to send and receive data. In order for each user to remain 'visible' to other users on the service, and thereby signaling their availability, their Yahoo! IM client software maintained a functional, open, network connection linking the client to Yahoo!'s IM servers. URI scheme Yahoo! Messenger's installation process automatically installed an extra uniform resource identifier (URI) scheme handler for the Yahoo! Messenger Protocol into some web browsers, so that URIs beginning ymsgr could open a new Yahoo! Messenger window with specified parameters. This is similar in function to the mailto URI scheme, which creates a new e-mail message using the system's default mail program. For instance, a web page might include a link like the following in its HTML source to open a window for sending a message to the YIM user exampleuser: <a href="ymsgr:sendim?exampleuser">Send Message</a> To specify a message body, the m parameter was used, so that the link location might look like this: ymsgr:sendim?exampleuser&m=This+is+my+message Other commands were: ymsgr:sendim?yahooid ymsgr:addfriend?yahooid ymsgr:sendfile?yahooid ymsgr:call?yahooid ymsgr:callPhone?phonenumber ymsgr:im – opened the "Send an IM" window ymsgr:customstatus?A+custom+status – changed the status message ymsgr:getimv?imvname – loaded an IMVironment (example: ymsgr:getimv?doodle, ymsgr:getimv?yfighter) Interoperability On October 13, 2005, Yahoo and Microsoft announced plans to introduce interoperability between their two messengers, creating the second-largest real-time communications service userbase worldwide: 40 percent of all users. The announcement came after years of third-party interoperability success (most notably, Trillian and Pidgin) and criticisms that the major real-time communications services were locking their networks. Microsoft has also had talks with AOL in an attempt to introduce further interoperability, but AOL was unwilling to participate. Interoperability between Yahoo and Windows Live Messenger was launched July 12, 2006. This allowed Yahoo and Windows Live Messenger users to chat to each other without the need to create an account on the other service, provided both contacts used the latest versions of the clients. It was not possible to talk using the voice service between the two different messengers. As of December 14, 2012, the interoperability between Yahoo! Messenger and Windows Live Messenger ceased to exist. The Live Messenger contacts appeared as greyed out and it was not possible to send instant messages to them. Games There were various games and applications available that can be accessed via the conversation window by clicking the games icon and challenging your current contact. It requires Java to function. As of April 18, 2014, games were removed from Yahoo! Messenger. Plug-ins See also: Yahoo! Music Radio In version 8.0, Yahoo! Messenger featured the ability for users to create plug-ins, which are then hosted and showcased on the Yahoo chat room. Yahoo now no longer provides plugin development SDK. Yahoo! Messenger users could listen to free and paid Internet radio services, using the defunct Yahoo! Music Radio plug-in from within the messenger window. The plug-in also player functionality, such as play, pause, skip and rate this song. Adoption As of August 2000, according to Media Metrix, Yahoo! Messenger had about 10.6 million users in the U.S., about the same as MSN Messenger but trailing AOL Instant Messenger. However another analyst doubted the figures for Yahoo! and MSN. As of the month of September 2001, over five billion instant messages were sent on the network, up 115% from the year before, according to Media Metrix. Another study in August 2002 showed that it had a 16.7 percent share of IM work and home subscribers in the U.S., compared to 24.1 percent for MSN and 28.3 percent for AIM. In April 2002, 19.1 million people in the U.S. used Yahoo! Messenger, according to Media Metrix. Another study from Nielsen Net Ratings showed that as of 2002, Yahoo! Messenger had some 12 million users worldwide. This increased to 22 million by March 2006. Yahoo! Messenger was the dominant instant messaging platform among certain energy traders until the platform was discontinued in August 2016. At the time of Yahoo! Messenger's closure in 2018, it remained popular in Vietnam. Software The Yahoo! Messenger logo, used from 2002 to 2016 As of March 27, 2016, the only supported clients were the Android, iOS and web browser clients. The previous Windows, Mac, Unix and Solaris clients were not supported anymore, and their servers began shutting down on August 5, 2016, with the clients no longer working by August 31, 2016. It turned out that the servers for the legacy clients were finally shut down sometime between the mid-morning and early afternoon hours Eastern Standard Time on September 1, 2016, resulting in the legacy desktop clients no longer being able to access their buddy/contact lists. As of 2018 (with the last version), Yahoo! Messenger was available for computers as a web service, including both a messenger-only site and Yahoo! Mail integration. Apps were also available on Android and iOS. Pidgin could connect to Yahoo! Messenger by using the FunYahoo++ plugin. Mobile versions of Yahoo! Messenger were launched originally for Palm OS and Windows CE devices. In a deal signed March 2000, Yahoo! Messenger would come bundled on Palm handheld computers. It was also available for Verizon Wireless customers, through a deal with Yahoo! announced in March 2001, and through Sprint's MiniBrowser. A version for the T-Mobile Sidekick II was released in 2004. This was to be followed by versions for Symbian (via Yahoo! Go), BlackBerry, and then for iPhone in April 2009. A version called Yahoo! Messenger for SMS also existed, which allowed IM via SMS. History Yahoo! Pager launched on March 9, 1998, an instant messaging (IM) client integrated with Yahoo! services including Yahoo! Chat. It included basic messaging support, a buddy list with status message support, the ability to block other users, alerts when a buddies came online, and notifications when a new Yahoo! Mail message arrived. In 2000, the name changed to Yahoo! Messenger. Version 5.0, released November 2001, introduced IMVironments, an initiative that allowed users to play music and Flash Video clips inside the IM window. Yahoo! partnered with rock band Garbage that provided their single "Androgyny" available to share by users. Other partnerships also made IMVironments for the Monsters, Inc. movie, the Super Smash Bros. Melee video game, and the Hello Kitty character, among others. In August 2002 with the release of version 5.5, the resolution for video calling was increased to a possible 320x240 and 20 frames per second (up from 160x120 and 1 frame per second). From October 2002, Yahoo! offered for corporate subscribers a more secure and better (SSL) encrypted IM client, called Yahoo! Messenger Enterprise Edition. It was released with a $30 yearly subscription package in 2003. Yahoo! Messenger version 6.0 was released in May 2004. It added games, music, photos, and Yahoo! Search, alongside a "stealth" mode. It also debuted Yahoo! Avatars. With the release of version 7.0 in August 2005, the client was now renamed to Yahoo! Messenger with Voice. It had several new features such as VoIP, voicemail, drag-and-drop file and photo sharing, Yahoo! 360° and LAUNCHcast integration, and others. It was seen as a challenger against Skype. On October 12, 2005, Yahoo! and Microsoft formed an alliance in which Yahoo! Messenger and MSN Messenger (later known as Windows Live Messenger) will be interconnected, allowing users of both communities to communicate and share emoticons and buddy lists with each other. The service was enabled on Yahoo! Messenger with Voice 8.0 in July 2006. As of version 8.1, the name switched back to just Yahoo! Messenger. Yahoo! Messenger 8.1 (September 2007) buddy list Beginning in 2006, Yahoo made known its intention to provide a web interface for Yahoo! Messenger, culminating in the Gmail-like web archival and indexing of chat conversations through Yahoo! Mail. However, while Yahoo! Mail integrated much of the rudimentary features of Messenger beginning in 2007, Yahoo did not succeed initially in integrating archival of chat conversations into Mail. Instead, a separate Adobe Flex-based web messenger was released in 2007 with archival of conversations which take place inside the web messenger itself. Yahoo! Messenger for Vista buddy list At the Consumer Electronics Show in January 2007, Yahoo! Messenger for Vista was introduced, which is a version designed and optimized for Windows Vista. It exploited the new design elements of Vista's Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) and introduced a new user interface and features. The application was in a preview beta until finally released for download on December 6, 2007. As of October 24, 2008, Yahoo! Messenger for Vista is no longer available. In May 2007, Yahoo! Messenger for the Web was launched, a browser-based client of the IM service. Yahoo! Messenger version 9 was released in September 2008. It allows the viewing of YouTube videos within the chat window, and integrates with other Yahoo! services such as Flickr. This version also saw the release of Pingbox, which embeds on a blog or website and allows visitors to send IM texts anonymously without needing Yahoo! Messenger software or to sign in. Version 10, released November 2009, incorporates many bug fixes and features high-quality video calling. The last major Windows client release, version 11 in 2011, featured integration with Facebook, Twitter and Zynga, allowing chat with Facebook friends and playing Zynga games within. It also archives past messages on an online server which is accessible through the client. Version 11.5 (released November 2011) added tabbed IMs. In December 2015, an all-new, rewritten Yahoo! Messenger was launched, only on mobile and through a browser. A desktop version of the "new" Messenger was later released, shortly before the "legacy" Messenger shut down on August 5, 2016. Yahoo! Together Yahoo! TogetherDeveloper(s)Yahoo! (Verizon Media)Initial releaseOctober 2018; 5 years ago (2018-10)Operating systemAndroid, macOS & iOSTypeInstant messaging and social mediaLicenseFreeware Yahoo! Together was a freeware and cross-platform messaging service, developed by Yahoo! for the Android and iOS mobile platforms. The software was introduced in beta on May 8, 2018, as Yahoo! Squirrel to replace Yahoo! Messenger and Verizon Media's AOL Instant Messenger. In October 2018, it was renamed to its present name. Yahoo! Together was targeted to families and the consumer market rather than enterprise. The app was compared to Slack. Less than a year after its public beta release, Yahoo! Together went offline on April 4, 2019. Third-party clients Third-party clients could also be used to access the original service. These included: Adium BitlBee Centericq Empathy Fire imeem IMVU Kopete meebo Meetro Miranda NG Paltalk Pidgin Trillian Trillian Astra Trillian Pro Windows Live Messenger SPIM Yahoo! Messenger users were subjected to unsolicited messages (SPIM). Yahoo's primary solution to the issue involved deleting such messages and placing the senders on an Ignore List. As of 2007, it was estimated that at least 75% of all users who used Yahoo chat rooms were bots. Yahoo introduced a CAPTCHA system to help filter out bots from joining chat rooms, but such systems generally do little to prevent abuse by spammers. Security On November 4, 2014, the Electronic Frontier Foundation listed Yahoo! Messenger on its "Secure Messaging Scorecard". Yahoo! Messenger received 1 out of 7 points on the scorecard. It received a point for encryption during transit, but missed points because communications were not encrypted with a key the provider didn't have access to (i.e. the communications were not end-to-end encrypted), users couldn't verify contacts' identities, past messages were not secure if the encryption keys were stolen (i.e. the service did not provide forward secrecy), the code was not open to independent review (i.e. the source code was not open-source), the security design was not properly documented, and there had not been a recent independent security audit. The British intelligence agency Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ)'s secret mass surveillance program Optic Nerve and National Security Agency (NSA) were reported to be indiscriminately collecting still images from Yahoo webcam streams from millions of mostly innocent Yahoo webcam users from 2008 to 2010, among other things creating a database for facial recognition for future use. 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Electronic Frontier Foundation. November 4, 2014. Archived from the original on July 28, 2016. Retrieved September 28, 2016. ^ "Only 6 Messaging Apps Are Truly Secure". PC Magazine. November 5, 2014. Archived from the original on September 11, 2017. Retrieved January 8, 2015. ^ Spencer Ackerman and James Ball (February 27, 2014). "Yahoo webcam images from millions of users intercepted by GCHQ". The Guardian. Archived from the original on September 23, 2016. Retrieved December 18, 2016. ^ Perlroth, Nicole; Goel, Vindu (September 28, 2016). "Defending Against Hackers Took a Back Seat at Yahoo, Insiders Say". The New York Times. Archived from the original on September 28, 2016. Retrieved September 28, 2016. Jeff Bonforte, the Yahoo senior vice president who oversees its email and messaging services, said in an interview last December that Mr. Stamos and his team had pressed for Yahoo to adopt end-to-end encryption for everything. ... Mr. Bonforte said he resisted the request because it would have hurt Yahoo's ability to index and search message data to provide new user services. External links Yahoo! Messenger at Curlie vteYahoo!Websites oneSearch Yahoo.com Finance News Search Sports Tech Communication Mail Development Yahoo! Developer Network Corporate Yahoo Inc. (owner since 2017) Yahoo! Inc. (owner until 2017) Criticism History Products Timeline Acquisitions Defunct services Answers Babel Fish GeoCities Groups Kickstart Kids Maps Messenger Pipes Query Language Smart TV Together Travel View Related people David Filo Marissa Mayer Jerry Yang Related AOL Altaba Yahoo! China Koprol Maktoob Yahoo! Australia Yahoo! Japan Yahoo! Kimo Yahoo! Korea Yahoo!Xtra Yahoo! Time Capsule Category vteYahoo Inc.Owned by Apollo Global Management (90%) and Verizon Communications (10%)Current assets Built by Girls CompuServe Engadget Flurry Netscape Rivals.com RYOT TechCrunch Weblogs, Inc. Former assets AIM Alto Mail Edgecast Flickr go90 HuffPost MapQuest Moviefone Polyvore Tumblr Related Yahoo! Inc. (1995–2017) Altaba vteYahoo!Websites oneSearch Yahoo.com Finance News Search Sports Tech Communication Mail Development Yahoo! Developer Network Corporate Yahoo Inc. (owner since 2017) Yahoo! Inc. (owner until 2017) Criticism History Products Timeline Acquisitions Defunct services Answers Babel Fish GeoCities Groups Kickstart Kids Maps Messenger Pipes Query Language Smart TV Together Travel View Related people David Filo Marissa Mayer Jerry Yang Related AOL Altaba Yahoo! China Koprol Maktoob Yahoo! Australia Yahoo! Japan Yahoo! Kimo Yahoo! Korea Yahoo!Xtra Yahoo! Time Capsule CategoryvteAOLWebsites Aol.com Yahoo! Search Related AOLserver ART image file format Elwood Edwards One by AOL OSCAR protocol TAC Ultravox Yahoo! Acquisitions Former AIM Alto Mail buy.at Community Leader Program CompuServe DMOZ Explorer FanHouse Ficlets GameDaily Gravity Hometown In2TV Neverwinter Nights On Politics Daily press Propeller.com Radio Radio KOL Seed Singingfish Socialthing TOC protocol TV vteInstant messagingProtocols(comparison)Open DDP IMPP IRC Matrix MTProto Retroshare Signal Protocol SIP MSRP SIMPLE Tox XMPP Jingle WFP Zephyr Closed MSNP OSCAR TOC Skype Services Band BBM Enterprise Beeper BiP DingTalk Discord Element Google Chat Google Meet Google Messages GroupMe Guilded HipChat iGap iMessage Imo IRC Networks Jongla KakaoTalk Kik Lark Libon Line Marco Polo Mattermost Facebook Messenger The Palace Palringo Session Signal Skype Slack Snapchat Snow Tango Telegram QQ Textfree/Pinger Threema Tox Trillian Viber VK Messenger WeChat WhatsApp Wickr Windows Messenger service Zoom Zulip Clients(comparison)Single protocol Baidu Hi BBM Enterprise Briar Element FaceTime Gadu-Gadu GroupMe HCL Sametime IMVU Jami Jongla Linphone Facebook Messenger Palringo Retroshare Ricochet Session Signal Skype Telegram QQ Tox WeChat WhatsApp Wickr Wire Multi-protocol Adium Ayttm Beeper BitlBee Centericq eBuddy Jitsi Kopete Messages Miranda NG Nimbuzz Pidgin Finch QIP 2010 Skype for Business Telepathy Thunderbird Trillian XMPP (Jabber) ChatSecure Conversations Gajim Psi Spark Tkabber Xabber MSNP Microsoft Teams Skype Defunct List of defunct instant messaging platforms See also Backchannel Chat log Chatbot Circuit Comparison of user features of messaging platforms Contact list Emoticon File sharing FirstClass Flock Fuze Box Hall.com LAN messenger Presence information RingCentral Glip SMS language Status message U-Report Videotelephony Voice over IP Web chat Webcam Yammer vteUniform Resource Identifier (URI) schemesOfficial about acct crid data file ftp geo gopher http https info ldap mailto nfs nntp sip / sips tag telnet urn view-source ws / wss xmpp Unofficial coffee ed2k gemini feed finger irc / irc6 / ircs ldaps magnet rsync ymsgr Protocol list	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"advertisement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertisement"},{"link_name":"instant messaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_messaging"},{"link_name":"client","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Yahoo!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!"},{"link_name":"Yahoo! Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!_Mail"},{"link_name":"VoIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VoIP"},{"link_name":"chat room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chat_room"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yhoo.client.shareholder.com-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ymessengerblog.com-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-help.yahoo.com-4"},{"link_name":"ICQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICQ"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"Garfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garfield"},{"link_name":"Dilbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilbert"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Yahoo! Together","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Yahoo!_Together"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Yahoo! Messenger (sometimes abbreviated Y!M) was an advertisement-supported instant messaging client and associated protocol provided by Yahoo!. Yahoo! Messenger was provided free of charge and could be downloaded and used with a generic \"Yahoo ID\" which also allowed access to other Yahoo! services, such as Yahoo! Mail. The service also offered VoIP, file transfers, webcam hosting, a text messaging service, and chat rooms in various categories.Yahoo! Messenger dates back to Yahoo! Chat, which was a public chat room service. The actual client, originally called Yahoo! Pager, launched on March 9, 1998[1] and renamed to Yahoo! Messenger in 1999. The chat room service shut down in 2012.[3][4]In addition to instant messaging features similar to those offered by ICQ, it also offered (on Microsoft Windows) features such as: IMVironments (customizing the look of Instant Message windows, some of which include authorized themes of various cartoons such as Garfield or Dilbert), address-book integration and Custom Status Messages.[5] It was also the first major IM client to feature BUZZing and music-status.A new Yahoo! Messenger was released in 2015, replacing the older one. Yahoo! Messenger was shut down entirely on July 17, 2018, replaced by a new service titled Yahoo! Together, only to be shut down as well in 2019.[6][7]","title":"Yahoo! Messenger"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GIFs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIF"},{"link_name":"Tumblr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumblr"}],"sub_title":"File sharing","text":"Yahoo! Messenger offered file sending capabilities to its users. Files could be up to 2 GB each. After the software's relaunch, only certain media files could be shared: photos, animated GIFs and videos. It also allowed album sharing, with multiple media files in one IM. The animated GIF feature integrated with Tumblr, also owned by Yahoo! at that time.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"like button","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Like_button"}],"sub_title":"Likes","text":"The new Yahoo! Messenger added a like button to messages and media. It was basic in functionality, adding a heart when clicked and listing contacts who added a like.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Unsend","text":"The new Yahoo! Messenger allowed messages to be unsent, deleting them from both the sender and the receiver's messaging page.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yahoo!_Inc._-_Company_Timeline-2"},{"link_name":"KPRC-TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPRC-TV"},{"link_name":"Houston, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_Texas"},{"link_name":"pedophilia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedophilia"},{"link_name":"Georgia-Pacific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia-Pacific"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-help.yahoo.com-4"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Group conversations (formerly Yahoo! Chat)","text":"The new Yahoo! Messenger allowed private group conversations.Yahoo! Chat was a free online chat room service provided exclusively for Yahoo! users. Yahoo! Chat was first launched on January 7, 1997. Yahoo! Chat was a separate vertical on Yahoo![2] In its original form, Yahoo! Chat was a user-to-user text chat service used by millions worldwide. Soon after launch, Yahoo! Chat partnered with NBC and NewsCorp to produce moderated Chat Events. Yahoo! Chat events eventually developed broadcast partnerships with 100+ entities and hosted 350+ events-a-month. Yahoo's Live Chat with the music group Hanson on July 21, 1998, was the Internet's largest live event to date. The blockbusters kept on with events including 3 Beatles (Paul, George, Ringo), a live event from Columbine during the tragedy (in partnership with Time Online), live chats from outer space with John Glenn and many others. Sadly, in one of Yahoo's poorer decisions, Yahoo! Chat Events were discontinued in 2001, right at the start of the social media era.On March 9, 1998, the first public version of Yahoo! Pager was released, with Yahoo! Chat among its features. It allowed users to create public chat rooms, send private messages, and use emoticons.In June 2005, with no advance warning, Yahoo disabled users' ability to create their own chat rooms. The move came after KPRC-TV in Houston, Texas, reported that many of the user-created rooms were geared toward pedophilia. The story prompted several advertisers, including Pepsi and Georgia-Pacific, to pull their ads from Yahoo.[8]On November 30, 2012, Yahoo announced that among other changes that the public chat rooms would be discontinued as of December 14, 2012.[4] quoting \"This will enable us to refocus our efforts on modernizing our core Yahoo products experiences and of course, create new ones.\"Until the chat rooms became unavailable on December 14, 2012, all versions of Yahoo! Messenger could access Yahoo chat rooms.Yahoo has since closed down the chat.yahoo.com site (first having it redirect visitors to a section of the Yahoo! Messenger page, but as of June 2019 not even resolving that host name anymore) because the great majority of chat users accessed it through Messenger. The company worked for a while on a way to allow users to create their own rooms while providing safeguards against abuse[citation needed]. A greyed-out option to \"create a room\" was available until the release of version 11.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"iOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"beta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_version"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Voice and video","text":"As of January 2014, the iOS version supported voice calls, with video calling on some devices.[9] The Android version supported \"voice & video calls (beta)\".[10]From September 2016, Yahoo! Messenger no longer offered webcam service on their computer application. Yahoo's software previously allowed users with newer versions (8 through 10) to use webcams. This option enabled users from distances all over the world to view others who had installed a webcam on their end. The service was free with provided speeds averaging from a range in between 1 and 2 frames per second. The resolution of the images could be seen starting at 320×240 pixels or 160×120.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"network protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_protocol"},{"link_name":"HTTP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTP"},{"link_name":"World Wide Web","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Protocol","text":"The Yahoo! Messenger Protocol (YMSG) was the client's underlying network protocol. It provided a language and series of conventions for software communicating with Yahoo!'s Instant Messaging service. In essence, YMSG performed the same role for Yahoo!'s IM as HTTP does for the World Wide Web. Unlike HTTP, however, YMSG was a proprietary protocol, a closed standard aligned only with the Yahoo! messaging service. Rival messaging services have their own protocols, some based on open standards, others proprietary, each effectively fulfilling the same role with different mechanics.[11][12]One of the fundamental tenets of instant messaging is the notion that users can see when someone is connected to the network—known in the industry as 'presence'. The YMSG protocol used the mechanics of a standard internet connection to achieve presence—the same connection it used to send and receive data. In order for each user to remain 'visible' to other users on the service, and thereby signaling their availability, their Yahoo! IM client software maintained a functional, open, network connection linking the client to Yahoo!'s IM servers.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"uniform resource identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_resource_identifier"},{"link_name":"mailto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mailto"}],"sub_title":"URI scheme","text":"Yahoo! Messenger's installation process automatically installed an extra uniform resource identifier (URI) scheme handler for the Yahoo! Messenger Protocol into some web browsers, so that URIs beginning ymsgr could open a new Yahoo! Messenger window with specified parameters. This is similar in function to the mailto URI scheme, which creates a new e-mail message using the system's default mail program. For instance, a web page might include a link like the following in its HTML source to open a window for sending a message to the YIM user exampleuser:<a href=\"ymsgr:sendim?exampleuser\">Send Message</a>To specify a message body, the m parameter was used, so that the link location might look like this:\nymsgr:sendim?exampleuser&m=This+is+my+messageOther commands were:ymsgr:sendim?yahooid\nymsgr:addfriend?yahooid\nymsgr:sendfile?yahooid\nymsgr:call?yahooid\nymsgr:callPhone?phonenumber\nymsgr:im – opened the \"Send an IM\" window\nymsgr:customstatus?A+custom+status – changed the status message\nymsgr:getimv?imvname – loaded an IMVironment (example: ymsgr:getimv?doodle, ymsgr:getimv?yfighter)","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Trillian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trillian_(instant_messaging_client)"},{"link_name":"Pidgin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidgin_(software)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ymessengerblog.com-3"}],"sub_title":"Interoperability","text":"On October 13, 2005, Yahoo and Microsoft announced plans to introduce interoperability between their two messengers, creating the second-largest real-time communications service userbase worldwide: 40 percent of all users.[13][14] The announcement came after years of third-party interoperability success (most notably, Trillian and Pidgin) and criticisms that the major real-time communications services were locking their networks. Microsoft has also had talks with AOL in an attempt to introduce further interoperability, but AOL was unwilling to participate.Interoperability between Yahoo and Windows Live Messenger was launched July 12, 2006. This allowed Yahoo and Windows Live Messenger users to chat to each other without the need to create an account on the other service, provided both contacts used the latest versions of the clients. It was not possible to talk using the voice service between the two different messengers.As of December 14, 2012, the interoperability between Yahoo! Messenger and Windows Live Messenger ceased to exist.[3] The Live Messenger contacts appeared as greyed out and it was not possible to send instant messages to them.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Games","text":"There were various games and applications available that can be accessed via the conversation window by clicking the games icon and challenging your current contact. It requires Java to function.As of April 18, 2014, games were removed from Yahoo! Messenger.[15]","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yahoo! Music Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!_Music_Radio"},{"link_name":"Internet radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_radio"}],"sub_title":"Plug-ins","text":"See also: Yahoo! Music RadioIn version 8.0, Yahoo! Messenger featured the ability for users to create plug-ins, which are then hosted and showcased on the Yahoo chat room. Yahoo now no longer provides plugin development SDK.Yahoo! Messenger users could listen to free and paid Internet radio services, using the defunct Yahoo! Music Radio plug-in from within the messenger window. The plug-in also player functionality, such as play, pause, skip and rate this song.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Media Metrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Metrix"},{"link_name":"MSN Messenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSN_Messenger"},{"link_name":"AOL Instant Messenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AOL_Instant_Messenger"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Nielsen Net Ratings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nielsen_Net_Ratings"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"traders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"As of August 2000, according to Media Metrix, Yahoo! Messenger had about 10.6 million users in the U.S., about the same as MSN Messenger but trailing AOL Instant Messenger. However another analyst doubted the figures for Yahoo! and MSN.[16]As of the month of September 2001, over five billion instant messages were sent on the network, up 115% from the year before, according to Media Metrix.[17] Another study in August 2002 showed that it had a 16.7 percent share of IM work and home subscribers in the U.S., compared to 24.1 percent for MSN and 28.3 percent for AIM.[18]In April 2002, 19.1 million people in the U.S. used Yahoo! Messenger, according to Media Metrix.[19] Another study from Nielsen Net Ratings showed that as of 2002, Yahoo! Messenger had some 12 million users worldwide. This increased to 22 million by March 2006.[20]Yahoo! Messenger was the dominant instant messaging platform among certain energy traders until the platform was discontinued in August 2016.[21]At the time of Yahoo! Messenger's closure in 2018, it remained popular in Vietnam.[22][23]","title":"Adoption"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yahoo_logo.svg"},{"link_name":"Solaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solaris_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"web service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_service"},{"link_name":"Yahoo! Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!_Mail"},{"link_name":"Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"iOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS"},{"link_name":"Pidgin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidgin_(software)"},{"link_name":"FunYahoo++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//github.com/EionRobb/funyahoo-plusplus"},{"link_name":"Palm OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_OS"},{"link_name":"Windows CE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_CE"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Palm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm,_Inc."},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Verizon Wireless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verizon_Wireless"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Sprint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprint_Corporation"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"T-Mobile Sidekick II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-Mobile_Sidekick_II"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Symbian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbian"},{"link_name":"Yahoo! Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!_Go"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"BlackBerry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BlackBerry"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"iPhone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"SMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMS"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"text":"The Yahoo! Messenger logo, used from 2002 to 2016As of March 27, 2016, the only supported clients were the Android, iOS and web browser clients. The previous Windows, Mac, Unix and Solaris clients were not supported anymore, and their servers began shutting down on August 5, 2016,[24] with the clients no longer working by August 31, 2016.[25] It turned out that the servers for the legacy clients were finally shut down sometime between the mid-morning and early afternoon hours Eastern Standard Time on September 1, 2016, resulting in the legacy desktop clients no longer being able to access their buddy/contact lists.[citation needed] As of 2018 (with the last version), Yahoo! Messenger was available for computers as a web service, including both a messenger-only site and Yahoo! Mail integration. Apps were also available on Android and iOS. Pidgin could connect to Yahoo! Messenger by using the FunYahoo++ plugin.Mobile versions of Yahoo! Messenger were launched originally for Palm OS and Windows CE devices.[26] In a deal signed March 2000, Yahoo! Messenger would come bundled on Palm handheld computers.[27] It was also available for Verizon Wireless customers, through a deal with Yahoo! announced in March 2001,[28] and through Sprint's MiniBrowser.[citation needed] A version for the T-Mobile Sidekick II was released in 2004.[29] This was to be followed by versions for Symbian (via Yahoo! Go),[30] BlackBerry,[31] and then for iPhone in April 2009.[32] A version called Yahoo! Messenger for SMS also existed, which allowed IM via SMS.[33]","title":"Software"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yahoo! Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!_Mail"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Flash Video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_Video"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zdnet.com-37"},{"link_name":"Garbage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garbage_(band)"},{"link_name":"Androgyny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgyny_(song)"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IM-38"},{"link_name":"Monsters, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsters,_Inc."},{"link_name":"Super Smash Bros. Melee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Smash_Bros._Melee"},{"link_name":"Hello Kitty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello_Kitty"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zdnet.com-37"},{"link_name":"video calling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_calling"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"SSL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Sockets_Layer"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Yahoo! Search","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!_Search"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"VoIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VoIP"},{"link_name":"voicemail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voicemail"},{"link_name":"Yahoo! 360°","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!_360%C2%B0"},{"link_name":"LAUNCHcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LAUNCHcast"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Skype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"MSN Messenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSN_Messenger"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yahoo_Messenger_8.1.png"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Gmail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gmail"},{"link_name":"Adobe Flex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Flex"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yahoo_Messenger_Vista_screenshot.jpg"},{"link_name":"Consumer Electronics Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_Electronics_Show"},{"link_name":"Windows Vista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Vista"},{"link_name":"Windows Presentation Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Presentation_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"YouTube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube"},{"link_name":"Flickr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flickr"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"Twitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter"},{"link_name":"Zynga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zynga"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"}],"sub_title":"History","text":"Yahoo! Pager launched on March 9, 1998, an instant messaging (IM) client integrated with Yahoo! services including Yahoo! Chat. It included basic messaging support, a buddy list with status message support, the ability to block other users, alerts when a buddies came online, and notifications when a new Yahoo! Mail message arrived.[34] In 2000, the name changed to Yahoo! Messenger.[35]Version 5.0, released November 2001, introduced IMVironments, an initiative that allowed users to play music and Flash Video clips inside the IM window.[36][37] Yahoo! partnered with rock band Garbage that provided their single \"Androgyny\" available to share by users.[38] Other partnerships also made IMVironments for the Monsters, Inc. movie, the Super Smash Bros. Melee video game, and the Hello Kitty character, among others.[37]In August 2002 with the release of version 5.5, the resolution for video calling was increased to a possible 320x240 and 20 frames per second (up from 160x120 and 1 frame per second).[39]From October 2002, Yahoo! offered for corporate subscribers a more secure and better (SSL) encrypted IM client, called Yahoo! Messenger Enterprise Edition. It was released with a $30 yearly subscription package in 2003.[40][41]Yahoo! Messenger version 6.0 was released in May 2004. It added games, music, photos, and Yahoo! Search, alongside a \"stealth\" mode.[42] It also debuted Yahoo! Avatars.[43]With the release of version 7.0 in August 2005, the client was now renamed to Yahoo! Messenger with Voice. It had several new features such as VoIP, voicemail, drag-and-drop file and photo sharing, Yahoo! 360° and LAUNCHcast integration, and others.[44][45] It was seen as a challenger against Skype.[46]On October 12, 2005, Yahoo! and Microsoft formed an alliance in which Yahoo! Messenger and MSN Messenger (later known as Windows Live Messenger) will be interconnected, allowing users of both communities to communicate and share emoticons and buddy lists with each other.[47][48] The service was enabled on Yahoo! Messenger with Voice 8.0 in July 2006.[49] As of version 8.1, the name switched back to just Yahoo! Messenger.Yahoo! Messenger 8.1 (September 2007[50]) buddy listBeginning in 2006, Yahoo made known its intention to provide a web interface for Yahoo! Messenger, culminating in the Gmail-like web archival and indexing of chat conversations through Yahoo! Mail. However, while Yahoo! Mail integrated much of the rudimentary features of Messenger beginning in 2007, Yahoo did not succeed initially in integrating archival of chat conversations into Mail. Instead, a separate Adobe Flex-based web messenger[51] was released in 2007 with archival of conversations which take place inside the web messenger itself.[52]Yahoo! Messenger for Vista buddy listAt the Consumer Electronics Show in January 2007, Yahoo! Messenger for Vista was introduced, which is a version designed and optimized for Windows Vista. It exploited the new design elements of Vista's Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) and introduced a new user interface and features.[53] The application was in a preview beta until finally released for download on December 6, 2007.[54] As of October 24, 2008, Yahoo! Messenger for Vista is no longer available.[55]In May 2007, Yahoo! Messenger for the Web was launched, a browser-based client of the IM service.[56][57]Yahoo! Messenger version 9 was released in September 2008. It allows the viewing of YouTube videos within the chat window, and integrates with other Yahoo! services such as Flickr.[58][59][60] This version also saw the release of Pingbox, which embeds on a blog or website and allows visitors to send IM texts anonymously without needing Yahoo! Messenger software or to sign in.[61] Version 10, released November 2009, incorporates many bug fixes and features high-quality video calling.[62]The last major Windows client release, version 11 in 2011, featured integration with Facebook, Twitter and Zynga, allowing chat with Facebook friends and playing Zynga games within. It also archives past messages on an online server which is accessible through the client.[63] Version 11.5 (released November 2011) added tabbed IMs.[64]In December 2015, an all-new, rewritten Yahoo! Messenger was launched, only on mobile and through a browser.[65][66] A desktop version of the \"new\" Messenger was later released,[67] shortly before the \"legacy\" Messenger shut down on August 5, 2016.[68]","title":"Software"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"freeware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeware"},{"link_name":"cross-platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-platform"},{"link_name":"messaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messaging_apps"},{"link_name":"Yahoo!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-discontinued-71"},{"link_name":"Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"iOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"beta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta"},{"link_name":"AOL Instant Messenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIM_(software)"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"Slack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slack_(software)"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-discontinued-71"}],"sub_title":"Yahoo! Together","text":"Yahoo! Together was a freeware and cross-platform messaging service, developed by Yahoo![71] for the Android and iOS mobile platforms.[72] The software was introduced in beta on May 8, 2018, as Yahoo! Squirrel to replace Yahoo! Messenger and Verizon Media's AOL Instant Messenger.[73][74] In October 2018, it was renamed to its present name.[75]Yahoo! Together was targeted to families and the consumer market rather than enterprise.[76] The app was compared to Slack.[77] Less than a year after its public beta release, Yahoo! Together went offline on April 4, 2019.[71]","title":"Software"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Adium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adium"},{"link_name":"BitlBee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BitlBee"},{"link_name":"Centericq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centericq"},{"link_name":"Empathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy_(software)"},{"link_name":"imeem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imeem"},{"link_name":"IMVU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMVU"},{"link_name":"Kopete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopete"},{"link_name":"meebo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meebo"},{"link_name":"Meetro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meetro"},{"link_name":"Miranda NG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda_NG"},{"link_name":"Paltalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paltalk"},{"link_name":"Pidgin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidgin_(software)"},{"link_name":"Trillian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trillian_(software)"},{"link_name":"Trillian Astra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trillian_(software)"},{"link_name":"Trillian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trillian_(software)"},{"link_name":"Windows Live Messenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Live_Messenger"}],"sub_title":"Third-party clients","text":"Third-party clients could also be used to access the original service. These included:Adium\nBitlBee\nCentericq\nEmpathy\nFire\nimeem\nIMVU\nKopete\nmeebo\nMeetro\nMiranda NG\nPaltalk\nPidgin\nTrillian\nTrillian Astra\nTrillian Pro\nWindows Live Messenger","title":"Software"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SPIM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messaging_spam"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yahoo!_Messenger&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"CAPTCHA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAPTCHA"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"}],"text":"Yahoo! Messenger users were subjected to unsolicited messages (SPIM).[78][79] Yahoo's primary solution to the issue involved deleting such messages and placing the senders on an Ignore List.[80]As of 2007[update], it was estimated that at least 75% of all users who used Yahoo chat rooms were bots.[81] Yahoo introduced a CAPTCHA system to help filter out bots from joining chat rooms, but such systems generally do little to prevent abuse by spammers.[82]","title":"SPIM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Electronic Frontier Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation"},{"link_name":"end-to-end encrypted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End-to-end_encryption"},{"link_name":"forward secrecy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_secrecy"},{"link_name":"open-source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"link_name":"security audit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_audit"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-secure-messaging-scorecard-83"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"Government Communications Headquarters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_Communications_Headquarters"},{"link_name":"mass surveillance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_surveillance"},{"link_name":"Optic Nerve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optic_Nerve_(GCHQ)"},{"link_name":"National Security Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Agency"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guardian-85"},{"link_name":"Alex Stamos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Stamos"},{"link_name":"Jeff Bonforte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Bonforte"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Perlroth-2016-09-29-86"}],"text":"On November 4, 2014, the Electronic Frontier Foundation listed Yahoo! Messenger on its \"Secure Messaging Scorecard\". Yahoo! Messenger received 1 out of 7 points on the scorecard. It received a point for encryption during transit, but missed points because communications were not encrypted with a key the provider didn't have access to (i.e. the communications were not end-to-end encrypted), users couldn't verify contacts' identities, past messages were not secure if the encryption keys were stolen (i.e. the service did not provide forward secrecy), the code was not open to independent review (i.e. the source code was not open-source), the security design was not properly documented, and there had not been a recent independent security audit.[83][84]The British intelligence agency Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ)'s secret mass surveillance program Optic Nerve and National Security Agency (NSA) were reported to be indiscriminately collecting still images from Yahoo webcam streams from millions of mostly innocent Yahoo webcam users from 2008 to 2010, among other things creating a database for facial recognition for future use. Optic Nerve took a still image from the webcam stream every 5 minutes.[85]In September 2016, The New York Times reported that Yahoo's security team, led by Alex Stamos, had pressed for Yahoo to adopt end-to-end encryption sometime between 2014 and 2015, but this had been resisted by Jeff Bonforte, Yahoo's senior vice president, \"because it would have hurt Yahoo's ability to index and search message data\".[86]","title":"Security"}]	[{"image_text":"The Yahoo! Messenger logo, used from 2002 to 2016","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/39/Yahoo_logo.svg/160px-Yahoo_logo.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Yahoo! Messenger 8.1 (September 2007[50]) buddy list","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/28/Yahoo_Messenger_8.1.png"},{"image_text":"Yahoo! Messenger for Vista buddy list","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/97/Yahoo_Messenger_Vista_screenshot.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Comparison of cross-platform instant messaging clients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_cross-platform_instant_messaging_clients"},{"title":"Comparison of instant messaging protocols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_instant_messaging_protocols"},{"title":"Comparison of Internet Relay Chat clients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_Internet_Relay_Chat_clients"},{"title":"Instant messaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_messaging"},{"title":"Yahoo Together","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo_Together"}]	[{"reference":"\"Stay In Touch With Yahoo Pager\". Archived from the original on December 20, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101220214553/http://yhoo.client.shareholder.com/press/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=173501","url_text":"\"Stay In Touch With Yahoo Pager\""},{"url":"http://yhoo.client.shareholder.com/press/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=173501","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Company Timeline\". Press Room. Investor Relations. Yahoo!. Archived from the original on July 13, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080713214826/http://yhoo.client.shareholder.com/press/timeline.cfm","url_text":"\"Company Timeline\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!","url_text":"Yahoo!"},{"url":"http://yhoo.client.shareholder.com/press/timeline.cfm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Change is in the Air: Updates to Yahoo Messenger Features\". Archived from the original on December 4, 2012. Retrieved December 1, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ymessengerblog.com/blog/2012/11/30/updates-to-yahoo-messenger-features/","url_text":"\"Change is in the Air: Updates to Yahoo Messenger Features\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121204065145/http://www.ymessengerblog.com/blog/2012/11/30/updates-to-yahoo-messenger-features","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Yahoo Messenger public chat rooms discontinuing on Dec. 14th\". Archived from the original on December 5, 2012. Retrieved December 1, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://help.yahoo.com/kb/index?page=content&y=PROD_MSNG&locale=en_US&id=SLN8407","url_text":"\"Yahoo Messenger public chat rooms discontinuing on Dec. 14th\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121205012501/http://help.yahoo.com/kb/index?page=content&y=PROD_MSNG&locale=en_US&id=SLN8407","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Features – Yahoo Messenger\". Archived from the original on March 10, 2008. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_(programming_language)	Crystal (programming language)	["1 History","2 Description","3 Examples","3.1 Hello World","3.2 HTTP server","3.3 TCP echo server","3.4 Type inference and union types","3.5 Concurrency","4 Further reading","5 References","6 External links"]	Object-oriented programming language This article is about the programming language. For other uses, see Crystal (disambiguation). CrystalParadigmMulti-paradigm: object-oriented, concurrentDesigned byAry Borenszweig, Juan Wajnerman, Brian CardiffDeveloperManas Technology SolutionsFirst appearedJune 19, 2014; 9 years ago (2014-06-19)Stable release1.12.1 / 11 April 2024; 2 months ago (11 April 2024) Typing disciplinestatic, inferred, nominal, duckImplementation languageCrystalPlatformIA-32 (i386), x86-64, AArch64OSLinux, macOS, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, WindowsLicenseApache License 2.0Filename extensions.crWebsitecrystal-lang.orgInfluenced byRuby, C, Rust, Go, C#, Python Crystal is a high-level general-purpose, object-oriented programming language, designed and developed by Ary Borenszweig, Juan Wajnerman, Brian Cardiff and more than 400 contributors. With syntax inspired by the language Ruby, it is a compiled language with static type-checking, but specifying the types of variables or method arguments is generally unneeded. Types are resolved by an advanced global type inference algorithm. Crystal is currently in active development. It is released as free and open-source software under the Apache License version 2.0. History Work on the language began in June 2011, with the aim of merging the elegance and productivity of Ruby with the speed, efficiency, and type safety of a compiled language. Initially named Joy, it was quickly renamed to Crystal. The Crystal compiler was first written in Ruby, but later rewritten in Crystal, thus becoming self-hosting, as of November 2013. The first official version was released in June 2014. In July 2016, Crystal joined the TIOBE index. Description Although resembling the Ruby language in syntax, Crystal compiles to much more efficient native code using an LLVM backend, at the cost of precluding the dynamic aspects of Ruby. The advanced global type inference used by the Crystal compiler, combined with union types, gives it more the feel of a higher-level scripting language than many other comparable programming languages. It has automated garbage collection and offers a Boehm collector. Crystal possesses a macro system and supports generics as well as method and operator overloading. Its concurrency model is inspired by communicating sequential processes (CSP) and implements lightweight fibers and channels (for interfiber communication) inspired by Go. Examples Hello World This is the simplest way to write the Hello World program in Crystal: puts "Hello World!" The same as in Ruby. Or using an object-oriented programming style: class Greeter def initialize(@name : String) end def salute puts "Hello #{@name}!" end end g = Greeter.new("world") g.salute HTTP server require "http/server" server = HTTP::Server.new do \|context\| context.response.content_type = "text/plain" context.response.print "Hello world! The time is #{Time.local}" end server.bind_tcp("0.0.0.0", 8080) puts "Listening on http://0.0.0.0:8080" server.listen TCP echo server require "socket" def handle_client(client) message = client.gets client.puts message end server = TCPServer.new("localhost", 1234) while client = server.accept? spawn handle_client(client) end Type inference and union types The following code defines an array containing different types with no usable common ancestor. Crystal automatically creates a union type out of the types of the individual items. desired_things = p typeof(desired_things.first) # typeof returns the compile time type, here (Symbol \| String \| Int32) p desired_things.first.class # the class method returns the runtime type, here Symbol Concurrency Channels can be used to communicate between fibers, which are initiated using the keyword spawn. channel = Channel(Int32).new spawn do puts "Before first send" channel.send(1) puts "Before second send" channel.send(2) end puts "Before first receive" value = channel.receive puts value # => 1 puts "Before second receive" value = channel.receive puts value # => 2 Further reading St. Laurent, Simon; Balbaert, Ivo (February 1, 2019), Programming Crystal (P1.0 ed.), Pragmatic Bookshelf, ISBN 978-1-68050-286-2 Dietrich, George; Bernal, Guilherme (May 27, 2022), Crystal Programming, Packt Publishing, ISBN 978-1801818674 Wartala, Ramon (March 2016), "Die Ruby-artige Programmiersprache Crystal" , Linux Magazin (in German), no. 3/2016, ISSN 1432-640X References ^ "Crystal 0.1.0 released!". crystal-lang. 19 June 2014. ^ "Release 1.12.1". 11 April 2024. Retrieved 22 April 2024. ^ a b "Crystal Platform Support". crystal-lang.org. ^ a b c d e Borenszweig, Ary (June 16, 2016). "Crystal 0.18.0 released!". crystal-lang.org. It's heavily inspired by Ruby, and other languages (like C#, Go and Python). ^ "Contributors". Retrieved July 25, 2019 – via GitHub. ^ Brian J., Cardiff (September 9, 2013). "Type inference part 1". crystal-lang.org. ^ "Programming with Crystal: 'A language for humans and computers'". devm.io. July 3, 2023. ^ a b c David, María Inti (April 1, 2016). "The story behind #CrystalLang". manas.tech. ^ Hsieh, Adler (September 20, 2015). "Why Crystal programming language?". motion-express.com. ^ Borenszweig, Ary (November 14, 2013). "Good bye Ruby Thursday". crystal-lang.org. ^ Borenszweig, Ary (June 19, 2014). "Crystal 0.1.0 released!". crystal-lang.org. External links Official website Documentation Crystal-lang on GitHub /r/crystal_programming subreddit Crystal Announcements	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"link_name":"Crystal (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"high-level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-level_programming_language"},{"link_name":"general-purpose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General-purpose_programming_language"},{"link_name":"object-oriented programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-contributors-5"},{"link_name":"Ruby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rel_0.18.0-4"},{"link_name":"compiled language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiled_language"},{"link_name":"static type-checking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_system#Static_type_checking"},{"link_name":"type inference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_inference"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-type-inference-i-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-devm-7"},{"link_name":"free and open-source software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_and_open-source_software"},{"link_name":"Apache License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_License"}],"text":"This article is about the programming language. For other uses, see Crystal (disambiguation).Crystal is a high-level general-purpose, object-oriented programming language, designed and developed by Ary Borenszweig, Juan Wajnerman, Brian Cardiff and more than 400 contributors.[5] With syntax inspired by the language Ruby,[4] it is a compiled language with static type-checking, but specifying the types of variables or method arguments is generally unneeded. Types are resolved by an advanced global type inference algorithm.[6][7] Crystal \nis currently in active development. It is released as free and open-source software under the Apache License version 2.0.","title":"Crystal (programming language)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-story-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-why_crystal-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-story-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-story-8"},{"link_name":"self-hosting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-hosting_(compilers)"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crystal_(programming_language)&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-goodbye_ruby-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rel_0.1.0-11"},{"link_name":"TIOBE index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIOBE_index"}],"text":"Work on the language began in June 2011,[8] with the aim of merging the elegance and productivity of Ruby with the speed, efficiency, and type safety of a compiled language.[9][8] Initially named Joy, it was quickly renamed to Crystal.[8]The Crystal compiler was first written in Ruby, but later rewritten in Crystal, thus becoming self-hosting, as of November 2013[update].[10] The first official version was released in June 2014.[11] In July 2016, Crystal joined the TIOBE index.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"LLVM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LLVM"},{"link_name":"union types","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_type"},{"link_name":"Boehm collector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boehm_garbage_collector"},{"link_name":"communicating sequential processes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicating_sequential_processes"},{"link_name":"Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rel_0.18.0-4"}],"text":"Although resembling the Ruby language in syntax, Crystal compiles to much more efficient native code using an LLVM backend, at the cost of precluding the dynamic aspects of Ruby. The advanced global type inference used by the Crystal compiler, combined with union types, gives it more the feel of a higher-level scripting language than many other comparable programming languages. It has automated garbage collection and offers a Boehm collector. Crystal possesses a macro system and supports generics as well as method and operator overloading. Its concurrency model is inspired by communicating sequential processes (CSP) and implements lightweight fibers and channels (for interfiber communication) inspired by Go.[4]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hello World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%22Hello,_World!%22_program"},{"link_name":"object-oriented programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming"}],"sub_title":"Hello World","text":"This is the simplest way to write the Hello World program in Crystal:puts \"Hello World!\"The same as in Ruby.Or using an object-oriented programming style:class Greeter\n def initialize(@name : String)\n end\n\n def salute\n puts \"Hello #{@name}!\"\n end\nend\n\ng = Greeter.new(\"world\")\ng.salute","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"HTTP server","text":"require \"http/server\"\n\nserver = HTTP::Server.new do \|context\|\n context.response.content_type = \"text/plain\"\n context.response.print \"Hello world! The time is #{Time.local}\"\nend\n\nserver.bind_tcp(\"0.0.0.0\", 8080)\nputs \"Listening on http://0.0.0.0:8080\"\nserver.listen","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"TCP echo server","text":"require \"socket\"\n\ndef handle_client(client)\n message = client.gets\n client.puts message\nend\n\nserver = TCPServer.new(\"localhost\", 1234)\nwhile client = server.accept?\n spawn handle_client(client)\nend","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Type inference and union types","text":"The following code defines an array containing different types with no usable common ancestor. Crystal automatically creates a union type out of the types of the individual items.desired_things = [:unicorns, \"butterflies\", 1_000_000]\np typeof(desired_things.first) # typeof returns the compile time type, here (Symbol \| String \| Int32)\np desired_things.first.class # the class method returns the runtime type, here Symbol","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Concurrency","text":"Channels can be used to communicate between fibers, which are initiated using the keyword spawn.channel = Channel(Int32).new\n\nspawn do\n puts \"Before first send\"\n channel.send(1)\n puts \"Before second send\"\n channel.send(2)\nend\n\nputs \"Before first receive\"\nvalue = channel.receive\nputs value # => 1\n\nputs \"Before second receive\"\nvalue = channel.receive\nputs value # => 2","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Programming Crystal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pragprog.com/book/crystal/programming-crystal"},{"link_name":"Pragmatic Bookshelf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatic_Bookshelf"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-68050-286-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-68050-286-2"},{"link_name":"Packt Publishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packt_Publishing"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1801818674","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1801818674"},{"link_name":"\"Die Ruby-artige Programmiersprache Crystal\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.linux-magazin.de/ausgaben/2016/03/crystal/"},{"link_name":"Linux Magazin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_Magazine"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1432-640X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1432-640X"}],"text":"St. Laurent, Simon; Balbaert, Ivo (February 1, 2019), Programming Crystal (P1.0 ed.), Pragmatic Bookshelf, ISBN 978-1-68050-286-2\nDietrich, George; Bernal, Guilherme (May 27, 2022), Crystal Programming, Packt Publishing, ISBN 978-1801818674\nWartala, Ramon (March 2016), \"Die Ruby-artige Programmiersprache Crystal\" [The Ruby-like programming language Crystal], Linux Magazin (in German), no. 3/2016, ISSN 1432-640X","title":"Further reading"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"St. Laurent, Simon; Balbaert, Ivo (February 1, 2019), Programming Crystal (P1.0 ed.), Pragmatic Bookshelf, ISBN 978-1-68050-286-2","urls":[{"url":"https://pragprog.com/book/crystal/programming-crystal","url_text":"Programming Crystal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatic_Bookshelf","url_text":"Pragmatic Bookshelf"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-68050-286-2","url_text":"978-1-68050-286-2"}]},{"reference":"Dietrich, George; Bernal, Guilherme (May 27, 2022), Crystal Programming, Packt Publishing, ISBN 978-1801818674","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packt_Publishing","url_text":"Packt Publishing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1801818674","url_text":"978-1801818674"}]},{"reference":"Wartala, Ramon (March 2016), \"Die Ruby-artige Programmiersprache Crystal\" [The Ruby-like programming language Crystal], Linux Magazin (in German), no. 3/2016, ISSN 1432-640X","urls":[{"url":"https://www.linux-magazin.de/ausgaben/2016/03/crystal/","url_text":"\"Die Ruby-artige Programmiersprache Crystal\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_Magazine","url_text":"Linux Magazin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1432-640X","url_text":"1432-640X"}]},{"reference":"\"Crystal 0.1.0 released!\". crystal-lang. 19 June 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://crystal-lang.org/2014/06/19/crystal-0.1.0-released.html","url_text":"\"Crystal 0.1.0 released!\""}]},{"reference":"\"Release 1.12.1\". 11 April 2024. Retrieved 22 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/crystal-lang/crystal/releases/tag/1.12.1","url_text":"\"Release 1.12.1\""}]},{"reference":"\"Crystal Platform Support\". crystal-lang.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://crystal-lang.org/reference/platform_support.html","url_text":"\"Crystal Platform Support\""}]},{"reference":"Borenszweig, Ary (June 16, 2016). \"Crystal 0.18.0 released!\". crystal-lang.org. It's heavily inspired by Ruby, and other languages (like C#, Go and Python).","urls":[{"url":"http://crystal-lang.org/2016/06/14/crystal-0.18.0-released.html#comment-2732771703","url_text":"\"Crystal 0.18.0 released!\""}]},{"reference":"\"Contributors\". Retrieved July 25, 2019 – via GitHub.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/crystal-lang/crystal/graphs/contributors","url_text":"\"Contributors\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"Brian J., Cardiff (September 9, 2013). \"Type inference part 1\". crystal-lang.org.","urls":[{"url":"http://crystal-lang.org/2013/09/23/type-inference-part-1.html","url_text":"\"Type inference part 1\""}]},{"reference":"\"Programming with Crystal: 'A language for humans and computers'\". devm.io. July 3, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://devm.io/ruby/crystal-ruby-programming","url_text":"\"Programming with Crystal: 'A language for humans and computers'\""}]},{"reference":"David, María Inti (April 1, 2016). \"The story behind #CrystalLang\". manas.tech.","urls":[{"url":"https://manas.tech/blog/2016/04/01/the-story-behind-crystal/","url_text":"\"The story behind #CrystalLang\""}]},{"reference":"Hsieh, Adler (September 20, 2015). \"Why Crystal programming language?\". motion-express.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://motion-express.com/blog/why-use-crystal-lang","url_text":"\"Why Crystal programming language?\""}]},{"reference":"Borenszweig, Ary (November 14, 2013). \"Good bye Ruby Thursday\". crystal-lang.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://crystal-lang.org/2013/11/14/good-bye-ruby-thursday.html","url_text":"\"Good bye Ruby Thursday\""}]},{"reference":"Borenszweig, Ary (June 19, 2014). \"Crystal 0.1.0 released!\". crystal-lang.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://crystal-lang.org/2014/06/19/crystal-0.1.0-released.html","url_text":"\"Crystal 0.1.0 released!\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://crystal-lang.org/","external_links_name":"crystal-lang.org"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crystal_(programming_language)&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://pragprog.com/book/crystal/programming-crystal","external_links_name":"Programming Crystal"},{"Link":"https://www.linux-magazin.de/ausgaben/2016/03/crystal/","external_links_name":"\"Die Ruby-artige Programmiersprache Crystal\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1432-640X","external_links_name":"1432-640X"},{"Link":"https://crystal-lang.org/2014/06/19/crystal-0.1.0-released.html","external_links_name":"\"Crystal 0.1.0 released!\""},{"Link":"https://github.com/crystal-lang/crystal/releases/tag/1.12.1","external_links_name":"\"Release 1.12.1\""},{"Link":"https://crystal-lang.org/reference/platform_support.html","external_links_name":"\"Crystal Platform Support\""},{"Link":"http://crystal-lang.org/2016/06/14/crystal-0.18.0-released.html#comment-2732771703","external_links_name":"\"Crystal 0.18.0 released!\""},{"Link":"https://github.com/crystal-lang/crystal/graphs/contributors","external_links_name":"\"Contributors\""},{"Link":"http://crystal-lang.org/2013/09/23/type-inference-part-1.html","external_links_name":"\"Type inference part 1\""},{"Link":"https://devm.io/ruby/crystal-ruby-programming","external_links_name":"\"Programming with Crystal: 'A language for humans and computers'\""},{"Link":"https://manas.tech/blog/2016/04/01/the-story-behind-crystal/","external_links_name":"\"The story behind #CrystalLang\""},{"Link":"http://motion-express.com/blog/why-use-crystal-lang","external_links_name":"\"Why Crystal programming language?\""},{"Link":"https://crystal-lang.org/2013/11/14/good-bye-ruby-thursday.html","external_links_name":"\"Good bye Ruby Thursday\""},{"Link":"https://crystal-lang.org/2014/06/19/crystal-0.1.0-released.html","external_links_name":"\"Crystal 0.1.0 released!\""},{"Link":"http://crystal-lang.org/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://crystal-lang.org/reference/","external_links_name":"Documentation"},{"Link":"https://github.com/crystal-lang","external_links_name":"Crystal-lang"},{"Link":"https://reddit.com/r/crystal_programming","external_links_name":"/r/crystal_programming subreddit"},{"Link":"https://crystal-ann.com/","external_links_name":"Crystal Announcements"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Rawle	Tim Rawle	["1 Biography","2 Bibliography","3 References","4 External links"]	English photographer Tim RawleRawle at the Round Church, Cambridge, 2005BornAshford, Kent, EnglandAlma materSt Martin's School of Art and Central School of Art and Design, LondonDowning College, CambridgeArchitectural Association, LondonOccupation(s)Architectural photographer and writerWebsitewww.timrawle.com Tim Rawle is an English architectural photographer and writer. He is best known for his photographs of buildings in Cambridge, England. Biography Tim Rawle was born in Ashford, Kent. After studying fine art and graphic design at St Martin's School of Art and at the Central School of Art and Design, London, he read architecture at Downing College, Cambridge, continuing his education at the Architectural Association, where he was Caldicott Scholar. He first came to attention with the publication of his book Cambridge Architecture in 1985. Besides providing the text and the photographs for this venture he also designed the book. The Daily Telegraph described it as "an astonishingly comprehensive book . . . a unique and valuable record". A revised edition was brought out by André Deutsch in 1993. In 1987 he provided the photography and design for Cinzia Maria Sicca's Committed to Classicism: The Building of Downing College, Cambridge. The following year he was commissioned to design a new pictorial book on the National Portrait Gallery's collection as well as a small guide to the NPG's outstation at Bodelwyddan Castle, North Wales. In 1991, he set up a small business called "The Cambridge Portfolio" to publish calendars, diaries, greetings cards and postcards featuring his photographs of Cambridge buildings and Cambridge town and gown. He did the photography and design for the official guide to King's College Chapel. For a period spanning several years he produced prospectuses for many Cambridge colleges and independent schools in south-east England. In 2005 he published the book Cambridge (Frances Lincoln). In his review in CAM, the university magazine, Peter Richards wrote: "At the heart of the book lies a fascinating exploration of seven hundred years of University architecture . . . This is, quite simply, the best introduction to Cambridge ever published." The Howard Foundation commissioned Rawle to be the author and photographer of a new book on Downing College published in 2015 and described by the Georgian as a "well-researched architectural history" with "exceptional photographs". Rawle was appointed a Fellow Commoner of Downing College, Cambridge in 1987. Bibliography Cambridge Architecture (1st ed., sponsored by Cambridge Consultants) London: Trefoil Books, 1985. 224 pp. ISBN 0862940591; paperback ISBN 0862940508 OCLC 12128315 Committed to Classicism: The Building of Downing College, Cambridge. With Cinzia Maria Sicca (main author), Edward Powell, Charles Harpum (contrib.) Cambridge: Downing College, Cambridge, 1987. 228 pp. ISBN 0951162012; paperback ISBN 0951162004 OCLC 14717806 Cambridge Architecture (2nd ed.) London: André Deutsch, 1993. 240 pp. ISBN 0233988181 OCLC 29468655 Cambridge (1st ed.). London: Frances Lincoln, 2005. 192 pp. ISBN 0711225494 OCLC 61176603 Classic Cambridge: 100 Photographs by Tim Rawle. Cambridge: The Cambridge Portfolio, 2012. 128 pp. ISBN 9780957286702 OCLC 858070726 The Chapel of Trinity College, Oxford. With Martin Kemp (author). London: Scala Arts & Heritage Publishers, 2014. 88 pp. ISBN 9781857598247 OCLC 834412864 A Classical Adventure: The Architectural History of Downing College, Cambridge. Tim Rawle (author), Tim Rawle and Louis Sinclair (photographers), John Adamson (editor). Cambridge: Oxbridge Portfolio, 2015, 200 pp. ISBN 978 0 9572867 4 0 OCLC 931005141 Cambridge. Tim Rawle (author and photographer), John Adamson (editor) (new edition with a foreword by William Bortrick). Cambridge: Oxbridge Portfolio, 2016, 204 pp. ISBN 978 0 9572867 2 6 References ^ See Rawle, Tim (1985). Cambridge Architecture (1st ed.). London: Trefoil Books. ISBN 0862940591. Paperback ISBN 0862940508. ^ Gray, Ronald. "Cambridge on parade", The Daily Telegraph, no. 40,369, London, Thursday, 4 April 1985. ^ Rawle, Tim (1993). Cambridge Architecture (2nd ed.). London: André Deutsch. ISBN 0233988181. ^ Sicca, Cinzia Maria (1987). Committed to Classicism: The Building of Downing College, Cambridge (1st ed.). Cambridge: Downing College, Cambridge. ISBN 0951162012. Paperback ISBN 0951162004. ^ Foister, Susan; Gibson, Robin; Rogers, Malcolm; Simon, Jacob (1988). The National Portrait Gallery Collection (1st ed.). London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. ISBN 0904017893. Paperback ISBN 0904017907; US cloth edition (Cambridge University Press) ISBN 0521373921; Foister, Susan (1988). The National Portrait Gallery at Bodelwyddan Castle. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. ISBN 0904017923. ^ Warrior, Josephine: A Guide to King's College Chapel, Cambridge with photography and design by Tim Rawle, Cambridge, 1994 (English edition), reprinted 1997, 2001, 2003, 2007, 2014. ^ Rawle, Tim (2005). Cambridge (1st ed.). London: Frances Lincoln. ISBN 0711225494. ^ Dr Peter Richards' Guardian obituary. ^ Richards, Peter (2006). "City of colour, city of contrasts". CAM: Cambridge Alumni Magazine (47): 25. ^ Howard Foundation. "News page". Retrieved 9 February 2015. Book entitled A Classical Adventure: The Architectural History of Downing College Cambridge (Oxbridge Portfolio. "Books". Retrieved 27 February 2015.). Review in the Georgian, spring 2016. ^ Downing College website. External links Tim Rawle's official site The Cambridge Portfolio site The Oxbridge Portfolio site Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway Israel United States Australia Netherlands Vatican Academics CiNii People Trove	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"architectural photographer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_photographers"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge"}],"text":"Tim Rawle is an English architectural photographer and writer. He is best known for his photographs of buildings in Cambridge, England.","title":"Tim Rawle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ashford, Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashford,_Kent"},{"link_name":"St Martin's School of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Martin%27s_School_of_Art"},{"link_name":"Central School of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_School_of_Art"},{"link_name":"Downing College, Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downing_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Architectural Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_Association_School_of_Architecture"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"André Deutsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Deutsch"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CambArchDeutsch-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"National Portrait Gallery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery_(London)"},{"link_name":"Bodelwyddan Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodelwyddan_Castle"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NPGCollection-5"},{"link_name":"King's College Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_College_Chapel,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_(book)"},{"link_name":"Frances Lincoln","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances_Lincoln_Publishers"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RawleCambridge-7"},{"link_name":"Peter Richards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter_Richards_(physician)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CAM47-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HowardFoundationwebsite-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Tim Rawle was born in Ashford, Kent. After studying fine art and graphic design at St Martin's School of Art and at the Central School of Art and Design, London, he read architecture at Downing College, Cambridge, continuing his education at the Architectural Association, where he was Caldicott Scholar.[1]He first came to attention with the publication of his book Cambridge Architecture in 1985. Besides providing the text and the photographs for this venture he also designed the book. The Daily Telegraph described it as \"an astonishingly comprehensive book . . . a unique and valuable record\".[2] A revised edition was brought out by André Deutsch in 1993.[3]In 1987 he provided the photography and design for Cinzia Maria Sicca's Committed to Classicism: The Building of Downing College, Cambridge.[4] The following year he was commissioned to design a new pictorial book on the National Portrait Gallery's collection as well as a small guide to the NPG's outstation at Bodelwyddan Castle, North Wales.[5]In 1991, he set up a small business called \"The Cambridge Portfolio\" to publish calendars, diaries, greetings cards and postcards featuring his photographs of Cambridge buildings and Cambridge town and gown. He did the photography and design for the official guide to King's College Chapel.[6] For a period spanning several years he produced prospectuses for many Cambridge colleges and independent schools in south-east England.[citation needed]In 2005 he published the book Cambridge (Frances Lincoln).[7] In his review in CAM, the university magazine, Peter Richards[8] wrote: \"At the heart of the book lies a fascinating exploration of seven hundred years of University architecture . . . This is, quite simply, the best introduction to Cambridge ever published.\"[9]The Howard Foundation commissioned Rawle to be the author and photographer of a new book on Downing College published in 2015 and described by the Georgian as a \"well-researched architectural history\" with \"exceptional photographs\".[10]Rawle was appointed a Fellow Commoner of Downing College, Cambridge in 1987.[11]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cambridge Consultants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Consultants"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0862940591","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0862940591"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0862940508","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0862940508"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"12128315","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/12128315"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0951162012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0951162012"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0951162004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0951162004"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"14717806","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/14717806"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0233988181","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0233988181"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"29468655","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/29468655"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_(book)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0711225494","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0711225494"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"61176603","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/61176603"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780957286702","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780957286702"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"858070726","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/858070726"},{"link_name":"Trinity College, Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"Martin Kemp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Kemp_(art_historian)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781857598247","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781857598247"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"834412864","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/834412864"},{"link_name":"A Classical Adventure: The Architectural History of Downing College, Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Classical_Adventure:_The_Architectural_History_of_Downing_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"John Adamson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adamson_(publisher)"},{"link_name":"Oxbridge Portfolio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxbridge_Portfolio&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978 0 9572867 4 0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B9572867%2B4%2B0"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"931005141","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/931005141"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_(book)"},{"link_name":"John Adamson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adamson_(publisher)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978 0 9572867 2 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B9572867%2B2%2B6"}],"text":"Cambridge Architecture (1st ed., sponsored by Cambridge Consultants) London: Trefoil Books, 1985. 224 pp. ISBN 0862940591; paperback ISBN 0862940508 OCLC 12128315\nCommitted to Classicism: The Building of Downing College, Cambridge. With Cinzia Maria Sicca (main author), Edward Powell, Charles Harpum (contrib.) Cambridge: Downing College, Cambridge, 1987. 228 pp. ISBN 0951162012; paperback ISBN 0951162004 OCLC 14717806\nCambridge Architecture (2nd ed.) London: André Deutsch, 1993. 240 pp. ISBN 0233988181 OCLC 29468655\nCambridge (1st ed.). London: Frances Lincoln, 2005. 192 pp. ISBN 0711225494 OCLC 61176603\nClassic Cambridge: 100 Photographs by Tim Rawle. Cambridge: The Cambridge Portfolio, 2012. 128 pp. ISBN 9780957286702 OCLC 858070726\nThe Chapel of Trinity College, Oxford. With Martin Kemp (author). London: Scala Arts & Heritage Publishers, 2014. 88 pp. ISBN 9781857598247 OCLC 834412864\nA Classical Adventure: The Architectural History of Downing College, Cambridge. Tim Rawle (author), Tim Rawle and Louis Sinclair (photographers), John Adamson (editor). Cambridge: Oxbridge Portfolio, 2015, 200 pp. ISBN 978 0 9572867 4 0 OCLC 931005141\nCambridge. Tim Rawle (author and photographer), John Adamson (editor) (new edition with a foreword by William Bortrick). Cambridge: Oxbridge Portfolio, 2016, 204 pp. ISBN 978 0 9572867 2 6","title":"Bibliography"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Rawle, Tim (1985). Cambridge Architecture (1st ed.). London: Trefoil Books. ISBN 0862940591.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0862940591","url_text":"0862940591"}]},{"reference":"Rawle, Tim (1993). Cambridge Architecture (2nd ed.). London: André Deutsch. ISBN 0233988181.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0233988181","url_text":"0233988181"}]},{"reference":"Sicca, Cinzia Maria (1987). Committed to Classicism: The Building of Downing College, Cambridge (1st ed.). Cambridge: Downing College, Cambridge. ISBN 0951162012.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0951162012","url_text":"0951162012"}]},{"reference":"Foister, Susan; Gibson, Robin; Rogers, Malcolm; Simon, Jacob (1988). The National Portrait Gallery Collection (1st ed.). London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. ISBN 0904017893.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0904017893","url_text":"0904017893"}]},{"reference":"Foister, Susan (1988). The National Portrait Gallery at Bodelwyddan Castle. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. ISBN 0904017923.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0904017923","url_text":"0904017923"}]},{"reference":"Rawle, Tim (2005). Cambridge (1st ed.). London: Frances Lincoln. ISBN 0711225494.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0711225494","url_text":"0711225494"}]},{"reference":"Richards, Peter (2006). \"City of colour, city of contrasts\". CAM: Cambridge Alumni Magazine (47): 25.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Howard Foundation. \"News page\". Retrieved 9 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.howard-foundation.com/News.htm","url_text":"\"News page\""}]},{"reference":"Oxbridge Portfolio. \"Books\". Retrieved 27 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.oxbridgeportfolio.com/","url_text":"\"Books\""}]}]	[{"Link":"http://www.timrawle.com/","external_links_name":"www.timrawle.com"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12128315","external_links_name":"12128315"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/14717806","external_links_name":"14717806"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/29468655","external_links_name":"29468655"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/61176603","external_links_name":"61176603"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/858070726","external_links_name":"858070726"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/834412864","external_links_name":"834412864"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/931005141","external_links_name":"931005141"},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2009/dec/14/peter-richards-obituary","external_links_name":"Dr Peter Richards' Guardian obituary."},{"Link":"http://www.howard-foundation.com/News.htm","external_links_name":"\"News page\""},{"Link":"http://www.oxbridgeportfolio.com/","external_links_name":"\"Books\""},{"Link":"http://www.dow.cam.ac.uk/index.php/people/fellows/108-fellowcommoners","external_links_name":"Downing College website"},{"Link":"http://www.timrawle.com/","external_links_name":"Tim Rawle's official site"},{"Link":"http://www.cambridge-portfolio.co.uk/","external_links_name":"The Cambridge Portfolio site"},{"Link":"http://www.oxbridgeportfolio.com/","external_links_name":"The Oxbridge Portfolio site"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000067412721","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/271190716","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJj4tCrkPfh6PpmcKWmKh3","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90917441","external_links_name":"Norway"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007375894905171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n86041536","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an40127686","external_links_name":"Australia"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p071181784","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/90856","external_links_name":"Vatican"},{"Link":"https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA18326529?l=en","external_links_name":"CiNii"},{"Link":"https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1443954","external_links_name":"Trove"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_conical_hat	Asian conical hat	["1 Regional names","2 Use","2.1 China","2.2 Japan","2.3 Philippines","2.4 Vietnam","2.5 Others","3 Gallery","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]	Cone-shaped hat worn in various parts of Asia Caping worn by a farmer in Indonesia Vietnamese nón lá The Asian conical hat is a simple style of conically shaped sun hat notable in modern-day nations and regions of China, Taiwan, parts of Outer Manchuria, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. It is kept on the head by a cloth or fiber chin strap, an inner headband, or both. Regional names English terms for the hat include sedge hat, rice hat, paddy hat, bamboo hat, and—historically but now only offensively—coolie hat. In Southeast Asia, it is known as do'un (ដួន) in Cambodia; caping or seraung in Indonesia; koup (ກຸບ) in Laos; terendak in Malaysia; ngop (งอบ) in Thailand; khamauk (ခမောက်) in Myanmar; salakót (ᜐᜎᜃᜓᜆ᜔), sarók, sadók, s'laong, hallidung, kallugong, and tabungaw among other names in the Philippines; and nón lá in Vietnam. In East Asia it is called dǒulì (斗笠, literally meaning a "one-dǒu bamboo hat") in China; kasa (笠) in Japan; and satgat (삿갓) in Korea. In South Asia, it is known as jaapi (জাপি) in Assam (India); in Bangladesh it is known as mathal (মাথাল). Use Asian conical hats are, throughout Asia, primarily used as a form of protection from the sun and rain. When made of straw or other woven materials, it can be dipped in water and worn as an impromptu evaporative cooling device. China In China, it was typically associated with farmers, while mandarins wore tighter circular caps, especially in the winter. There are several conical hat types worn during the Qing dynasty (see Qing official headwear). Japan Main article: Kasa (hat) A straw cone hat worn by a Japanese buddhist monkJapanese jingasa worn by samurai It is also widely understood in East Asia, most notably Japan, where they were known as kasa, as a symbol of Buddhism, as it is traditionally worn by pilgrims and Buddhist monks in search of alms. Sturdier, even metal, variants, known as jingasa (battle kasa), were also worn by samurai and foot-soldiers in Japan, as helmets. Philippines Main article: Salakot Spanish military uniforms in the Philippines in 1862 showing the salakot (right) worn as part of the traje de campaña (campaign uniform) and Rayadillo. This later evolved into pith helmet in British India. Filipina farmer wearing a salakot In the Philippines, the salakót is more commonly a pointed dome-shape, rather than conical, with a spike or knob finial. Unlike most other mainland Asian conical hats, it is characterized by an inner headband in addition to a chinstrap. It can be made from various materials including bamboo, rattan, nito, bottle gourd, buri straw, nipa leaves, pandan leaves, and carabao horn. The plain type is typically worn by farmers, but nobles in the pre-colonial period (and later principalia in the Spanish period) crafted ornate variations with jewels, precious metals, or tortoiseshell. These are considered heirloom objects passed down from generation to generation within families. The salakót was also commonly worn by native soldiers in the Spanish colonial army. It was adopted by Spanish troops in the early 18th century as part of their campaign uniform. In doing so, it became the direct precursor of the pith helmet (still called salacot or salacco in Spanish and French). Vietnam Main article: Nón lá In Vietnam, the nón lá, nón tơi (“hats”), nón gạo (“rice hat”), nón dang (“conical hat”) or nón trúc ("bamboo hat") forms a perfect right circular cone which tapers smoothly from the base to the apex. Special conical hats in Vietnam contain colourful hand-stitch depictions or words. The Huế varieties are famous for their nón bài thơ (lit. poem conical hats) and contain random poetic verses and Chữ Hán, which can be revealed when the hat is directed above one's head in the sunlight. In modernity, they have become part of Vietnam's national costume. Others In India, Bangladesh and Borneo, the plain conical hat was worn by commoners during their daily work, but more decoratively-colored ones were used for festivities. In Sabah, the colorful conical hat is worn for certain dances while in Assam they are hung in homes as decoration or worn by the upper classes for special occasions. Gallery A decorative Assamese jaapi constructed with bamboo while the decorations are felt, threads and tin glitter A farmer in Bangladesh wearing a mathal (মাথাল) A selection of conical hats in Hainan, China Souvenir nón tơi for tourists from Vietnam Rice farmer in northern Cambodia wearing a do'un Conical hats of the Dusun people in Sabah, Malaysia A silver inlaid Filipino salakót A Korean man in traditional mourning clothes and satgat Making conical hats (nón tơi) in Huế countryside, Vietnam Three Sama-Bajau women wearing saruk from Jolo, Sulu, Philippines, c.1900 Tortoiseshell and silver salakót from the Philippines A Philippine Salakót Fresco by 15th century Italian artist Piero della Francesca depicting a Persian soldier as an East Asian wearing a conical hat. See also Fulani hat Gat List of hats and headgear Mokoliʻi, an island in Hawaii with a nickname "Chinaman's Hat" Ngob Pointed hat Pilgrim's hat References ^ "Definition of COOLIE". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved January 5, 2022. ^ "Definition of coolie \| Dictionary.com". www.dictionary.com. Retrieved January 5, 2022. ^ "Coolie hat - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". ^ "Bamboo Craft". Banglapedia. ^ "Conical Hats". Nguyentientam.com. Retrieved May 23, 2012. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mandarin" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 55–559, see page 558, lines 3 to 5. The term 'mandarin' is ...... only to those who are entitled to wear a 'button,' which is a spherical knob, about an inch in diameter, affixed to the top of the official cap or hat ^ Peralta, Jesus T. (2013). Salakot and Other Headgear (PDF). National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA) & Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region (ICHCAP), UNESCO. p. 232. ^ Nocheseda, Elmer I. "The Filipino And The Salacot". Tagalog Dictionary. Retrieved March 3, 2020. ^ Antón, Jacinto (December 5, 2013). "La romántica elegancia de Salacot". El País. Archived from the original on April 3, 2017. Retrieved May 3, 2018 – via elpais.com. ^ "Vietnamese Costumes: Non toi". ^ মৃত্যুঞ্জয় রায় (April 17, 2022). "বাংলার মাথাল" . Daily Naya Diganta (in Bengali). Dhaka, Bangladesh. Retrieved November 14, 2023. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Conical straw hats. Conical hats in Vietnam Conical straw hats gallery vteHats and capsList of hat stylesWesterncultureFormal Cartwheel Cloche Cocktail Doll Draped turban Eugénie Fascinator Half Halo Juliet Mushroom Lampshade Picture Peach Pillbox Tam Top Opera Semi-formal Homburg Anthony Eden Boater Bowler Buntal Informal Cabbage-tree Chupalla Fedora Trilby Flat Coppola Newsboy Panama Pork pie Smoking Wideawake Uniforms Aviator Bearskin Bell-boy hat Bicorne Black Boonie Budenovka Busby Campaign Cap comforter Cappello Alpino Casquette d'Afrique Caubeen Cavalry Stetson Czapka Doctoral Feather bonnet Forage Karvalakki Fur wedge Hardee Jeep Kepi Mazepynka Nurse's Maintenance/Chapeau Military beret/Uniform beret Black Blue Green Maroon Red Tan Patrol Peaked Mariner's Sailor Printer's Rogatywka Shako Side Titovka Triglavka Ski Slouch Sou'wester Student Faluche Square academic Tricorne Utility cover ReligiousChristianWestern Biretta Canterbury Camauro Capirote Cappello romano Capuchon Christening cap Galero Head covering for Christian women Easter bonnet Mantilla Wimple Mitre Papal tiara Pilgrim's Salvation Army bonnet Shovel Zucchetto Eastern Klobuk Epanokalimavkion Kalimavkion Koukoulion Skufia Jewish Jewish Kashket Kippah Kolpik Spodik Shtreimel Casual Animal Ascot Barretina Beanie Beret Bobble Breton Bucket Chilote Cowboy Boss of the Plains Fruit Knit Monmouth Party Shower Tin foil Umbrella Whoopee Sports Cricket Baggy green Balaclava Facekini Baseball Trucker Bicycle clip Casquette Deerstalker Horse racing Mounteere Rally Sports visor Green eyeshade Stormy Kromer Swimming Water polo Historical Attifet Apex Beaver Bergère Boudoir Boyar Bycocket Capotain Cavalier Coal scuttle bonnet Coif Dolly Varden Dunce Fontange French hood Phrygian Hennin Kausia Kokoshnik Miner's Mob Modius Pamela Petasos Pileus Poke bonnet Pudding Toque Witch Gediminas' Cap Folk Arakhchin Asian conical Aso Oke Astrakhan (hat) Ayam Balmoral bonnet Bell-boy Beonggeoji Bhadgaunle Topi Birke topi Blangkon Blue bonnet Chapan Chullo Coloured Coonskin Cork Dhaka topi Doppa Dutch Energy dome Fez Four Winds Fujin Fulani Futou Gandhi Gat Glengarry Icelandic tail Jaapi Jeongjagwan Jobawi Kalpak Karakul Kasa Kashket Keffiyeh Kofia Kufi Kuma Labbade Lika Malahai Montenegrin Montera picona Mooskappe Nambawi Nón quai thao Ochipok Paag Pahlavi Pakol Papakha Pashteen Pungcha Qeleshe Qing Rastacap Šajkača Salako Salakot Senufo bird Shyade Šibenik Sindhi Sombrero Sombrero calañés Sombrero cordobés Sombrero de catite Sombrero vueltiao Song Songkok Stormy Kromer cap Straw Šubara Sun Tam o' shanter Tang Tanggeon Tantour Taqiyah Tembel Tokin Topor Tsunokakushi Tubeteika Tuque Tyrolean Upe Ushanka Welsh Yanggwan Wrappedheadwear Apostolnik Bashlyk Birrus Bonnet Boshiya Burqa Caul Chador Chaperon Cornette Dastar Do-rag Dumalla Emamah Għonnella Gook Gugel Gulle Haredi burqa sect Hijab Hogeon Hood Jang-ot Khăn vấn Litham Mysore peta Niqāb Pagri Paranja Pheta Puneri Pagadi Roach Snood Sudra Tichel Tudong Turban Veil Yashmak Hat parts Agal Aigrette Brim Bumper brim Campaign cord Cointoise Gamsbart Hackle Lappet Plume Sarpech Visor Accessories Cockade Feathers Hat box Hatpin vteFolk costumesAfrica Balgha Boubou Dashiki Djellaba Head tie Jellabiya Kanzu Kente cloth Kufi Litham Pareo Senegalese kaftan Tagelmust Wrapper AsiaCentral Afghanistan Pakol Chapan Deel Malahai Paranja East China Cheongsam Hanfu Mao suit Tangzhuang Japan Hachimaki Kimono Obi Korea Cheopji Daenggi Gache Hanbok Hwagwan Jokduri Manggeon South Bhutan Gho Kira Dhoti Dupatta India Lungi Nepal Pakistan Pathin Perak Peshawari pagri Sari Shalwar kameez Sherwani Southeast Burma Longyi Gaung baung Cambodia Chong Kben Krama Sompot Sbai Indonesia Baju bodo Batik Blangkon Ikat Kebaya Kemben Kupiah Songket Songkok Tanjak Ulos Laos Xout lao Suea pat Sinh Malaysia Baju Kurung Baju Melayu Songket Songkok Tengkolok Philippines Barong tagalog Baro't saya Buntal hat Malong Maria Clara gown Patadyong Salakot Thailand Banong Chong kraben Chut Thai Formal Chut Thai Pha khao ma Pha nung Raj pattern Sabai Sinh Suea pat Tabengman Tudong Vietnam Áo bà ba Áo dài Áo giao lĩnh Áo tứ thân Middle East Abaya Agal Assyria Bisht Boshiya Burqa Chador Izaar Jewish Kippah Sheitel Tallit Tallit katan Tefillin Tzitzit Jilbāb Keffiyeh Kurdish Niqāb Palestine Pandama Thawb Turban Hejazi EuropeBalkan Albania Brez Çorape Opinga Qeleshe Xhamadan Xhubleta Aromanian Croatia Fustanella Greek Chiton Chlamys Himation Macedonia Romania Serbia Kosovo British Isles Britain Country Court Windsor uniform Ireland Scottish highlands Aboyne Feather bonnet Kilt Sporran Wales Central Dirndl Lederhosen Poland Tracht Eastern Armenia Azerbaijan Kelaghayi Ukraine Kobeniak Kozhukh Kozhushanka Ochipok Sharovary Vyshyvanka Ukrainian wreath Russia Kokoshnik Kosovorotka Lapti Orenburg shawl Sarafan Western Netherlands Poffer Kraplap Oorijzer France Breton costume Spain Traje de flamenca Barretina Cachirulo Cordovan hat Sombrero de catite Mantilla Italy Ciocia Coppola cap Scandinavian Bunad Gákti Iceland Sweden Nationella dräkten Bäckadräkten Sverigedräkten South America Aguayo Chile Chamanto Chilote cap Chilote poncho Chupalla Chullo Guayabera Liqui liqui Lliklla Panama hat Pollera Poncho Ruana North America Inuit skin clothing Tignon Ceinture fléchée Western wear Bolo tie Chaps Huipil Mexico Huarache Mexican pointy boots Rebozo Serape Sombrero Quechquemitl Oceania Grass skirt Feather cloak I-sala Lap-lap Lavalava Kiekie Pareo Sulu Taʻovala Tēfui Tupenu vte Malaysian clothingTextiles Batik Blok Canting Ikat Celup Ikat Pua Loseng Limar Cindai Kulit Kayu Songket Tenun Traditional Baju Badu Badu Sipak Baju Batik Baju Kebaya Baju Kurung Baju Lok Chuan Baju Melayu Baju Muskat Baju Panjang Baju Sikap Kain Kelubung/Kemban Sarong Telekong Kelambi Cawat Headgear Dastar Ketapu Kopiah Mahkota/Ketopong Pemeleh Selayah Selendang Semutar Songkok Tengkolok/Tanjak Terendak Tudong Belts and sashes Bengkung Rawai Tinggi Samping Sebai Selempang Tali Pinggang Footwear Capal Kasut Kasut Getah Kasut Manik Kasut Tekat Selipar Terompah Accessories Aigrette Butang Canggai Caping Cincin Gandik Giring-giring Kamar Kancing Kancing Halkah Kantung Kerongsang Pending Rantai/Gelang Agok/Dokoh Kalung Pontoh Rantai Kaki Rantai Leher Rantai Tangan Gelang Sibar Layang/Teratai Subang Anting-anting Sunting Bunga Malai Cucuk Sanggul Sisir Gajah Olen Gempa Sunting Sanggul Lintang Sarempak Garigai Sugu Tinggi vteClothing of MyanmarClothes Longyi Paso (clothing) Htamein Jackets Htaingmathein Taikpon Royal and military attire Dayindaw Mahālatā Wutlone Thoyin-eingyi Pants Fisherman pants Headgear Gaung baung Magaik Tharaphu Sibone Okshaung Phawlone Maukto Khamauk Stitching and design Acheik Lotus silk Footwear Hnyat-phanat Authority control databases: National Israel United States Japan	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paddy_Field_Farmer_A.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hisu_lee_2015-08-16_(Unsplash).jpg"},{"link_name":"Vietnamese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_people"},{"link_name":"nón lá","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B3n_l%C3%A1"},{"link_name":"conically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointed_hat"},{"link_name":"sun hat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_hat"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"Outer Manchuria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_Manchuria"},{"link_name":"Bangladesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh"},{"link_name":"Bhutan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhutan"},{"link_name":"Cambodia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Laos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laos"},{"link_name":"Malaysia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia"},{"link_name":"Myanmar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"},{"link_name":"Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam"},{"link_name":"headband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headband"}],"text":"Caping worn by a farmer in IndonesiaVietnamese nón láThe Asian conical hat is a simple style of conically shaped sun hat notable in modern-day nations and regions of China, Taiwan, parts of Outer Manchuria, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. It is kept on the head by a cloth or fiber chin strap, an inner headband, or both.","title":"Asian conical hat"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"only offensively","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_slur"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"coolie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coolie"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Southeast Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia"},{"link_name":"Cambodia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia"},{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Laos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laos"},{"link_name":"Malaysia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia"},{"link_name":"งอบ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%9A"},{"link_name":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"},{"link_name":"Myanmar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"},{"link_name":"Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"East Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia"},{"link_name":"dǒu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_units#Volume"},{"link_name":"Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea"},{"link_name":"South Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia"},{"link_name":"jaapi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaapi"},{"link_name":"Assam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"English terms for the hat include sedge hat, rice hat, paddy hat, bamboo hat, and—historically but now only offensively[1][2]—coolie hat.[3]In Southeast Asia, it is known as do'un (ដួន) in Cambodia; caping or seraung in Indonesia; koup (ກຸບ) in Laos; terendak in Malaysia; ngop (งอบ) in Thailand; khamauk (ခမောက်) in Myanmar; salakót (ᜐᜎᜃᜓᜆ᜔), sarók, sadók, s'laong, hallidung, kallugong, and tabungaw among other names in the Philippines; and nón lá in Vietnam.[citation needed]In East Asia it is called dǒulì (斗笠, literally meaning a \"one-dǒu bamboo hat\") in China; kasa (笠) in Japan; and satgat (삿갓) in Korea.In South Asia, it is known as jaapi (জাপি) in Assam (India); in Bangladesh it is known as mathal (মাথাল).[4]","title":"Regional names"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Asian conical hats are, throughout Asia, primarily used as a form of protection from the sun and rain. When made of straw or other woven materials, it can be dipped in water and worn as an impromptu evaporative cooling device.[5]","title":"Use"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"mandarins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_(bureaucrat)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Qing official headwear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_official_headwear"}],"sub_title":"China","text":"In China, it was typically associated with farmers, while mandarins wore tighter circular caps, especially in the winter.[6] There are several conical hat types worn during the Qing dynasty (see Qing official headwear).","title":"Use"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Japanese_buddhist_monk_hat_by_Arashiyama_cut.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Return_of_the_Samurai_14.JPG"},{"link_name":"jingasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingasa"},{"link_name":"Buddhism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism"},{"link_name":"pilgrims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilgrims"},{"link_name":"alms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alms#Buddhism"},{"link_name":"jingasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasa_(hat)"},{"link_name":"samurai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samurai"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Japan","text":"A straw cone hat worn by a Japanese buddhist monkJapanese jingasa worn by samuraiIt is also widely understood in East Asia, most notably Japan, where they were known as kasa, as a symbol of Buddhism, as it is traditionally worn by pilgrims and Buddhist monks in search of alms.Sturdier, even metal, variants, known as jingasa (battle kasa), were also worn by samurai and foot-soldiers in Japan, as helmets.[citation needed]","title":"Use"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Philippine_military_uniforms_-_1862.jpg"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines"},{"link_name":"salakot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salakot"},{"link_name":"Rayadillo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayadillo"},{"link_name":"pith helmet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pith_helmet"},{"link_name":"British India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Raj"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Filipina_Salakot_farmer.jpg"},{"link_name":"salakot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salakot"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"},{"link_name":"finial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finial"},{"link_name":"bamboo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo"},{"link_name":"rattan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rattan"},{"link_name":"nito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lygodium"},{"link_name":"bottle gourd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottle_gourd"},{"link_name":"buri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buri_palm"},{"link_name":"nipa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nipa_palm"},{"link_name":"pandan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandanus"},{"link_name":"carabao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carabao"},{"link_name":"principalia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principalia"},{"link_name":"tortoiseshell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tortoiseshell"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Peralta-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nocheseda-8"},{"link_name":"Spanish colonial army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Army"},{"link_name":"pith helmet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pith_helmet"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pais-9"}],"sub_title":"Philippines","text":"Spanish military uniforms in the Philippines in 1862 showing the salakot (right) worn as part of the traje de campaña (campaign uniform) and Rayadillo. This later evolved into pith helmet in British India.Filipina farmer wearing a salakotIn the Philippines, the salakót is more commonly a pointed dome-shape, rather than conical, with a spike or knob finial. Unlike most other mainland Asian conical hats, it is characterized by an inner headband in addition to a chinstrap. It can be made from various materials including bamboo, rattan, nito, bottle gourd, buri straw, nipa leaves, pandan leaves, and carabao horn. The plain type is typically worn by farmers, but nobles in the pre-colonial period (and later principalia in the Spanish period) crafted ornate variations with jewels, precious metals, or tortoiseshell. These are considered heirloom objects passed down from generation to generation within families.[7][8]The salakót was also commonly worn by native soldiers in the Spanish colonial army. It was adopted by Spanish troops in the early 18th century as part of their campaign uniform. In doing so, it became the direct precursor of the pith helmet (still called salacot or salacco in Spanish and French).[9]","title":"Use"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam"},{"link_name":"cone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"Huế","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu%E1%BA%BF"},{"link_name":"Chữ Hán","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Vietnam","text":"In Vietnam, the nón lá, nón tơi (“hats”), nón gạo (“rice hat”), nón dang (“conical hat”) or nón trúc (\"bamboo hat\") forms a perfect right circular cone which tapers smoothly from the base to the apex. Special conical hats in Vietnam contain colourful hand-stitch depictions or words. The Huế varieties are famous for their nón bài thơ (lit. poem conical hats) and contain random poetic verses and Chữ Hán, which can be revealed when the hat is directed above one's head in the sunlight. In modernity, they have become part of Vietnam's national costume.[10]","title":"Use"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Sabah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabah"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Others","text":"In India, Bangladesh[11] and Borneo, the plain conical hat was worn by commoners during their daily work, but more decoratively-colored ones were used for festivities. In Sabah, the colorful conical hat is worn for certain dances while in Assam they are hung in homes as decoration or worn by the upper classes for special occasions.[citation needed]","title":"Use"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jaapi.jpg"},{"link_name":"Assamese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assamese_people"},{"link_name":"jaapi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaapi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Farmer_(9234094254).jpg"},{"link_name":"Bangladesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conical_hats_04.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hainan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hainan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:N%C3%B3n_l%C3%A1_%C4%91%E1%BB%93_ch%C6%A1i.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rice_02.jpg"},{"link_name":"Rice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice"},{"link_name":"Cambodia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Penampang_Sabah_Kaamatan-Celebrations-2014-07.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dusun people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dusun_people"},{"link_name":"Sabah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabah"},{"link_name":"Malaysia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Silver_enlaid_salakot.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_Corean_in_mourning_clothes.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Making_conical_hats_-_Hue_countryside.jpg"},{"link_name":"Huế","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu%E1%BA%BF"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Three_Moro_women_in_Jolo,_Sulu.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sama-Bajau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sama-Bajau"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Silver-inlaid_tortoiseshell_salakot.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tortoiseshell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tortoiseshell"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bangko_Sentral_ng_Pilipinas_Money_Museum_salakot_display.jpg"},{"link_name":"Philippine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"},{"link_name":"Salakót","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salakot"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piero_della_Francesca_-_8._Battle_between_Heraclius_and_Chosroes_-_WGA17551.jpg"},{"link_name":"Piero della Francesca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piero_della_Francesca"}],"text":"A decorative Assamese jaapi constructed with bamboo while the decorations are felt, threads and tin glitter\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA farmer in Bangladesh wearing a mathal (মাথাল)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA selection of conical hats in Hainan, China\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSouvenir nón tơi for tourists from Vietnam\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRice farmer in northern Cambodia wearing a do'un\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tConical hats of the Dusun people in Sabah, Malaysia\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA silver inlaid Filipino salakót\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA Korean man in traditional mourning clothes and satgat\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMaking conical hats (nón tơi) in Huế countryside, Vietnam\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThree Sama-Bajau women wearing saruk from Jolo, Sulu, Philippines, c.1900\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTortoiseshell and silver salakót from the Philippines\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA Philippine SalakótFresco by 15th century Italian artist Piero della Francesca depicting a Persian soldier as an East Asian wearing a conical hat.","title":"Gallery"}]	[{"image_text":"Caping worn by a farmer in Indonesia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Paddy_Field_Farmer_A.JPG/220px-Paddy_Field_Farmer_A.JPG"},{"image_text":"Vietnamese nón lá","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Hisu_lee_2015-08-16_%28Unsplash%29.jpg/220px-Hisu_lee_2015-08-16_%28Unsplash%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Spanish military uniforms in the Philippines in 1862 showing the salakot (right) worn as part of the traje de campaña (campaign uniform) and Rayadillo. This later evolved into pith helmet in British India.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Philippine_military_uniforms_-_1862.jpg/220px-Philippine_military_uniforms_-_1862.jpg"},{"image_text":"Filipina farmer wearing a salakot","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Filipina_Salakot_farmer.jpg/220px-Filipina_Salakot_farmer.jpg"},{"image_text":"Fresco by 15th century Italian artist Piero della Francesca depicting a Persian soldier as an East Asian wearing a conical hat.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Piero_della_Francesca_-_8._Battle_between_Heraclius_and_Chosroes_-_WGA17551.jpg/300px-Piero_della_Francesca_-_8._Battle_between_Heraclius_and_Chosroes_-_WGA17551.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Fulani hat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulani_hat"},{"title":"Gat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gat_(hat)"},{"title":"List of hats and headgear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hats_and_headgear"},{"title":"Mokoliʻi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mokoli%CA%BBi"},{"title":"Ngob","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_farmer%27s_hat"},{"title":"Pointed hat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointed_hat"},{"title":"Pilgrim's hat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilgrim%27s_hat"}]	[{"reference":"\"Definition of COOLIE\". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved January 5, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/coolie","url_text":"\"Definition of COOLIE\""}]},{"reference":"\"Definition of coolie \| Dictionary.com\". www.dictionary.com. Retrieved January 5, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dictionary.com/browse/coolie","url_text":"\"Definition of coolie \| Dictionary.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"Coolie hat - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/coolie%20hat","url_text":"\"Coolie hat - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary\""}]},{"reference":"\"Bamboo Craft\". Banglapedia.","urls":[{"url":"http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Bamboo_Craft","url_text":"\"Bamboo Craft\""}]},{"reference":"\"Conical Hats\". Nguyentientam.com. Retrieved May 23, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nguyentientam.com/conicalhat.html","url_text":"\"Conical Hats\""}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Mandarin\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 55–559, see page 558, lines 3 to 5. The term 'mandarin' is ...[applied]... only to those who are entitled to wear a 'button,' which is a spherical knob, about an inch in diameter, affixed to the top of the official cap or hat","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Mandarin","url_text":"\"Mandarin\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Peralta, Jesus T. (2013). Salakot and Other Headgear (PDF). National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA) & Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region (ICHCAP), UNESCO. p. 232.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unesco-ichcap.org/eng/ek/sub3/pdf_file/domain5/095_Salakot_and_Other_Headgear.pdf","url_text":"Salakot and Other Headgear"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO","url_text":"UNESCO"}]},{"reference":"Nocheseda, Elmer I. \"The Filipino And The Salacot\". Tagalog Dictionary. Retrieved March 3, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tagalog-dictionary.com/articles/the-filipino-and-the-salacot","url_text":"\"The Filipino And The Salacot\""}]},{"reference":"Antón, Jacinto (December 5, 2013). \"La romántica elegancia de Salacot\". El País. Archived from the original on April 3, 2017. Retrieved May 3, 2018 – via elpais.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://elpais.com/elpais/2013/12/05/icon/1386262369_386718.html","url_text":"\"La romántica elegancia de Salacot\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170403231049/http://elpais.com/elpais/2013/12/05/icon/1386262369_386718.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Vietnamese Costumes: Non toi\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.vietnamonline.com/culture/non-la.html","url_text":"\"Vietnamese Costumes: Non toi\""}]},{"reference":"মৃত্যুঞ্জয় রায় (April 17, 2022). \"বাংলার মাথাল\" [Mathal of Bengal]. Daily Naya Diganta (in Bengali). Dhaka, Bangladesh. Retrieved November 14, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dailynayadiganta.com/daily/657585/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2","url_text":"\"বাংলার মাথাল\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Naya_Diganta","url_text":"Daily Naya Diganta"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/coolie","external_links_name":"\"Definition of COOLIE\""},{"Link":"https://www.dictionary.com/browse/coolie","external_links_name":"\"Definition of coolie \| Dictionary.com\""},{"Link":"http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/coolie%20hat","external_links_name":"\"Coolie hat - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary\""},{"Link":"http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Bamboo_Craft","external_links_name":"\"Bamboo Craft\""},{"Link":"http://www.nguyentientam.com/conicalhat.html","external_links_name":"\"Conical Hats\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Mandarin","external_links_name":"\"Mandarin\""},{"Link":"https://www.unesco-ichcap.org/eng/ek/sub3/pdf_file/domain5/095_Salakot_and_Other_Headgear.pdf","external_links_name":"Salakot and Other Headgear"},{"Link":"https://www.tagalog-dictionary.com/articles/the-filipino-and-the-salacot","external_links_name":"\"The Filipino And The Salacot\""},{"Link":"https://elpais.com/elpais/2013/12/05/icon/1386262369_386718.html","external_links_name":"\"La romántica elegancia de Salacot\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170403231049/http://elpais.com/elpais/2013/12/05/icon/1386262369_386718.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.vietnamonline.com/culture/non-la.html","external_links_name":"\"Vietnamese Costumes: Non toi\""},{"Link":"https://www.dailynayadiganta.com/daily/657585/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2","external_links_name":"\"বাংলার মাথাল\""},{"Link":"https://www.rehahnphotographer.com/non-la-vietnamese-conical-hat","external_links_name":"Conical hats in Vietnam"},{"Link":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?search=conical+hat","external_links_name":"Conical straw hats gallery"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987012410244305171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2018003079","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00565082","external_links_name":"Japan"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_operations	Order of operations	["1 Conventional order","1.1 Examples","2 Special cases","2.1 Unary minus sign","2.2 Mixed division and multiplication","2.3 Serial exponentiation","3 Mnemonics","4 Calculators","5 Programming languages","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"]	Performing order of mathematical operations Not to be confused with Operations order. In mathematics and computer programming, the order of operations is a collection of rules that reflect conventions about which operations to perform first in order to evaluate a given mathematical expression. These rules are formalized with a ranking of the operations. The rank of an operation is called its precedence, and an operation with a higher precedence is performed before operations with lower precedence. Calculators generally perform operations with the same precedence from left to right, but some programming languages and calculators adopt different conventions. For example, multiplication is granted a higher precedence than addition, and it has been this way since the introduction of modern algebraic notation. Thus, in the expression 1 + 2 × 3, the multiplication is performed before addition, and the expression has the value 1 + (2 × 3) = 7, and not (1 + 2) × 3 = 9. When exponents were introduced in the 16th and 17th centuries, they were given precedence over both addition and multiplication and placed as a superscript to the right of their base. Thus 3 + 52 = 28 and 3 × 52 = 75. These conventions exist to avoid notational ambiguity while allowing notation to remain brief. Where it is desired to override the precedence conventions, or even simply to emphasize them, parentheses ( ) can be used. For example, (2 + 3) × 4 = 20 forces addition to precede multiplication, while (3 + 5)2 = 64 forces addition to precede exponentiation. If multiple pairs of parentheses are required in a mathematical expression (such as in the case of nested parentheses), the parentheses may be replaced by brackets or braces to avoid confusion, as in − 5 = 9. These rules are meaningful only when the usual notation (called infix notation) is used. When functional or Polish notation are used for all operations, the order of operations results from the notation itself. Conventional order The order of operations, that is, the order in which the operations in an expression are usually performed, results from a convention adopted throughout mathematics, science, technology and many computer programming languages. It is summarized as: Parentheses Exponentiation Multiplication and division Addition and subtraction This means that to evaluate an expression, one first evaluates any sub-expression inside parentheses, working inside to outside if there is more than one set. Whether inside parenthesis or not, the operation that is higher in the above list should be applied first. Operations of the same precedence are conventionally evaluated from left to right. If each division is replaced with multiplication by the reciprocal (multiplicative inverse) then the associative and commutative laws of multiplication allow the factors in each term to be multiplied together in any order. Sometimes multiplication and division are given equal precedence, or sometimes multiplication is given higher precedence than division; see § Mixed division and multiplication below. If each subtraction is replaced with addition of the opposite (additive inverse), then the associative and commutative laws of addition allow terms to be added in any order. The root symbol √ is traditionally prolongated by a bar (called vinculum) over the radicand (this avoids the need for parentheses around the radicand). Other functions use parentheses around the input to avoid ambiguity. The parentheses can be omitted if the input is a single numerical variable or constant, as in the case of sin x = sin(x) and sin π = sin(π). Traditionally this convention extends to monomials; thus, sin 3x = sin(3x) and even sin 1/2xy = sin(xy/2), but sin x + y = sin(x) + y, because x + y is not a monomial. However, this convention is not universally understood, and some authors prefer explicit parentheses. Some calculators and programming languages require parentheses around function inputs, some do not. Symbols of grouping can be used to override the usual order of operations. Grouped symbols can be treated as a single expression. Symbols of grouping can be removed using the associative and distributive laws, also they can be removed if the expression inside the symbol of grouping is sufficiently simplified so no ambiguity results from their removal. Examples Multiplication before addition: 1 + 2 × 3 = 1 + 6 = 7. {\displaystyle 1+2\times 3=1+6=7.} Parenthetical subexpressions are evaluated first: ( 1 + 2 ) × 3 = 3 × 3 = 9. {\displaystyle (1+2)\times 3=3\times 3=9.} Exponentiation before multiplication, multiplication before subtraction: 1 − 2 × 3 4 = 1 − 2 × 81 = 1 − 162 = − 161. {\displaystyle 1-2\times 3^{4}=1-2\times 81=1-162=-161.} When an expression is written as a superscript, the superscript is considered to be grouped by its position above its base: 1 + 2 3 + 4 = 1 + 2 7 = 1 + 128 = 129. {\displaystyle 1+2^{3+4}=1+2^{7}=1+128=129.} The operand of a root symbol is determined by the overbar: 1 + 3 + 5 = 4 + 5 = 2 + 5 = 7. {\displaystyle {\sqrt {1+3}}+5={\sqrt {4}}+5=2+5=7.} A horizontal fractional line also acts as a symbol of grouping: 1 + 2 3 + 4 + 5 = 3 7 + 5. {\displaystyle {\frac {1+2}{3+4}}+5={\frac {3}{7}}+5.} Parentheses can be nested, and should be evaluated from the inside outward. For legibility, outer parentheses can be made larger than inner parentheses. Alternately, other grouping symbols, such as curly braces { } or square brackets , are sometimes used along with parentheses ( ). For example: [ ( 1 + 2 ) ÷ ( 3 + 4 ) ] + 5 = ( 3 ÷ 7 ) + 5 {\displaystyle {\bigl }+5=(3\div 7)+5} Special cases Unary minus sign There are differing conventions concerning the unary operation '−' (usually pronounced "minus"). In written or printed mathematics, the expression −32 is interpreted to mean −(32) = −9. In some applications and programming languages, notably Microsoft Excel, PlanMaker (and other spreadsheet applications) and the programming language bc, unary operations have a higher priority than binary operations, that is, the unary minus has higher precedence than exponentiation, so in those languages −32 will be interpreted as (−3)2 = 9. This does not apply to the binary minus operation '−'; for example in Microsoft Excel while the formulas =-2^2, =-(2)^2 and =0+-2^2 return 4, the formulas =0-2^2 and =-(2^2) return −4. Mixed division and multiplication There is no universal convention for interpreting a term containing both division denoted by '÷' and multiplication denoted by '×'. Proposed conventions include assigning the operations equal precedence and evaluating them from left to right, or equivalently treating division as multiplication by the reciprocal and then evaluating in any order; evaluating all multiplications first followed by divisions from left to right; or eschewing such expressions and instead always disambiguating them by explicit parentheses. Beyond primary education, the symbol '÷' for division is seldom used, but is replaced by the use of algebraic fractions, typically written vertically with the numerator stacked above the denominator – which makes grouping explicit and unambiguous – but sometimes written inline using the slash or solidus symbol, '/'. Multiplication denoted by juxtaposition (also known as implied multiplication) creates a visual unit and has higher precedence than most other operations. In academic literature, when inline fractions are combined with implied multiplication without explicit parentheses, the multiplication is conventionally interpreted as having higher precedence than division, so that e.g. 1 / 2n is interpreted to mean 1 / (2 · n) rather than (1 / 2) · n. For instance, the manuscript submission instructions for the Physical Review journals directly state that multiplication has precedence over division, and this is also the convention observed in physics textbooks such as the Course of Theoretical Physics by Landau and Lifshitz and mathematics textbooks such as Concrete Mathematics by Graham, Knuth, and Patashnik. However, some authors recommend against expressions such as a / bc, preferring the explicit use of parenthesis a / (bc). More complicated cases are more ambiguous. For instance, the notation 1 / 2π(a + b) could plausibly mean either 1 / or · (a + b). Sometimes interpretation depends on context. The Physical Review submission instructions recommend against expressions of the form a / b / c; more explicit expressions (a / b) / c or a / (b / c) are unambiguous. 6÷2(1+2) is interpreted as 6÷(2×(1+2)) by a fx-82MS (upper), and (6÷2)×(1+2) by a TI-83 Plus calculator (lower), respectively. This ambiguity has been the subject of Internet memes such as "8 ÷ 2(2 + 2)", for which there are two conflicting interpretations: 8 ÷ = 1 and (8 ÷ 2) · (2 + 2) = 16. Mathematics education researcher Hung-Hsi Wu points out that "one never gets a computation of this type in real life", and calls such contrived examples "a kind of Gotcha! parlor game designed to trap an unsuspecting person by phrasing it in terms of a set of unreasonably convoluted rules." Serial exponentiation If exponentiation is indicated by stacked symbols using superscript notation, the usual rule is to work from the top down: abc = a(bc) which typically is not equal to (ab)c. This convention is useful because there is a property of exponentiation that (ab)c = abc, so it's unnecessary to use serial exponentiation for this. However, when exponentiation is represented by an explicit symbol such as a caret (^) or arrow (↑), there is no common standard. For example, Microsoft Excel and computation programming language MATLAB evaluate a^b^c as (ab)c, but Google Search and Wolfram Alpha as a(bc). Thus 4^3^2 is evaluated to 4,096 in the first case and to 262,144 in the second case. Mnemonics Mnemonics are often used to help students remember the rules, involving the first letters of words representing various operations. The acronym PEMDAS is common in the United States and France. It stands for Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication/Division, Addition/Subtraction. PEMDAS is sometimes expanded to the mnemonic "Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally" in schools. BEDMAS, standing for Brackets, Exponents, Division/Multiplication, Addition/Subtraction is common in Canada and New Zealand. The United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries may use BODMAS meaning Brackets, Operations, Division/Multiplication, Addition/Subtraction. Sometimes the O is expanded as "Of" or "Order" (i.e. powers/exponents or roots). BIDMAS is also used, standing for Brackets, Indices, Division/Multiplication, Addition/Subtraction. In Germany, the convention is simply taught as Punktrechnung vor Strichrechnung, dot operations prior line operations referring to the graphical shapes of the taught operator signs U+00B7 · MIDDLE DOT (multiplication), U+2236 ∶ RATIO (division), and U+002B + PLUS SIGN (addition), U+2212 − MINUS SIGN (subtraction). These mnemonics may be misleading when written this way. For example, misinterpreting any of the above rules to mean "addition first, subtraction afterward" would incorrectly evaluate the expression a − b + c {\displaystyle a-b+c} as a − ( b + c ) {\displaystyle a-(b+c)} , while the correct evaluation is ( a − b ) + c {\displaystyle (a-b)+c} . These values are different when c ≠ 0 {\displaystyle c\neq 0} . Mnemonic acronyms have been criticized for not developing a conceptual understanding of the order of operations, and not addressing student questions about its purpose or flexibility. Students learning the order of operations via mnemonic acronyms routinely make mistakes, as do some pre-service teachers. Even when students correctly learn the acronym, a disproportionate focus on memorization of trivia crowds out substantive mathematical content. The acronym's procedural application does not match experts' intuitive understanding of mathematical notation: mathematical notation indicates groupings in ways other than parentheses or brackets and a mathematical expression is a tree-like hierarchy rather than a linearly "ordered" structure; furthermore, there is no single order by which mathematical expressions must be simplified or evaluated and no universal canonical simplification for any particular expression, and experts fluently apply valid transformations and substitutions in whatever order is convenient, so learning a rigid procedure can lead students to a misleading and limiting understanding of mathematical notation. Calculators Main article: Calculator input methods Different calculators follow different orders of operations. Many simple calculators without a stack implement chain input, working in button-press order without any priority given to different operations, give a different result from that given by more sophisticated calculators. For example, on a simple calculator, typing 1 + 2 × 3 = yields 9, while a more sophisticated calculator will use a more standard priority, so typing 1 + 2 × 3 = yields 7. Calculators may associate exponents to the left or to the right. For example, the expression a^b^c is interpreted as a(bc) on the TI-92 and the TI-30XS MultiView in "Mathprint mode", whereas it is interpreted as (ab)c on the TI-30XII and the TI-30XS MultiView in "Classic mode". An expression like 1/2x is interpreted as 1/(2x) by TI-82, as well as many modern Casio calculators (configurable on some like the fx-9750GIII), but as (1/2)x by TI-83 and every other TI calculator released since 1996, as well as by all Hewlett-Packard calculators with algebraic notation. While the first interpretation may be expected by some users due to the nature of implied multiplication, the latter is more in line with the rule that multiplication and division are of equal precedence. When the user is unsure how a calculator will interpret an expression, parentheses can be used to remove the ambiguity. Order of operations arose due to the adaptation of infix notation in standard mathematical notation, which can be notationally ambiguous without such conventions, as opposed to postfix notation or prefix notation, which do not need orders of operations. Hence, calculators utilizing Reverse Polish notation (RPN) using a stack to enter expressions in the correct order of precedence do not need parentheses or any possibly model-specific order of execution. Programming languages Most programming languages use precedence levels that conform to the order commonly used in mathematics, though others, such as APL, Smalltalk, Occam and Mary, have no operator precedence rules (in APL, evaluation is strictly right to left; in Smalltalk, it is strictly left to right). Furthermore, because many operators are not associative, the order within any single level is usually defined by grouping left to right so that 16/4/4 is interpreted as (16/4)/4 = 1 rather than 16/(4/4) = 16; such operators are referred to as "left associative". Exceptions exist; for example, languages with operators corresponding to the cons operation on lists usually make them group right to left ("right associative"), e.g. in Haskell, 1:2:3:4: == 1:(2:(3:(4:))) == . Dennis Ritchie, creator of the C language, said of the precedence in C (shared by programming languages that borrow those rules from C, for example, C++, Perl and PHP) that it would have been preferable to move the bitwise operators above the comparison operators. Many programmers have become accustomed to this order, but more recent popular languages like Python and Ruby do have this order reversed. The relative precedence levels of operators found in many C-style languages are as follows: 1 () -> . :: Function call, scope, array/member access 2 ! ~ - + * & sizeof type cast ++ -- (most) unary operators, sizeof and type casts (right to left) 3 * / % MOD Multiplication, division, modulo 4 + - Addition and subtraction 5 << >> Bitwise shift left and right 6 < <= > >= Comparisons: less-than and greater-than 7 == != Comparisons: equal and not equal 8 & Bitwise AND 9 ^ Bitwise exclusive OR (XOR) 10 \| Bitwise inclusive (normal) OR 11 && Logical AND 12 \|\| Logical OR 13 ? : Conditional expression (ternary) 14 = += -= = /= %= &= \|= ^= <<= >>= Assignment operators (right to left) 15 , Comma operator Simplified formal grammar for arithmetical expressions in a programming language (left), and derivation of the example expression (a+b)^2/2 (right). The latter corresponds to a hierarchical structure ("syntax tree") which is unique for the given expression. The compiler generates machine code from the tree in such a way that operations originating at the lowest hierarchy level are executed first.Examples: !A + !B is interpreted as (!A) + (!B) ++A + !B is interpreted as (++A) + (!B) A + B C is interpreted as A + (B * C) A \|\| B && C is interpreted as A \|\| (B && C) A && B == C is interpreted as A && (B == C) A & B == C is interpreted as A & (B == C) (In Python, Ruby, PARI/GP and other popular languages, A & B == C is interpreted as (A & B) == C.) Source-to-source compilers that compile to multiple languages need to explicitly deal with the issue of different order of operations across languages. Haxe for example standardizes the order and enforces it by inserting brackets where it is appropriate. The accuracy of software developer knowledge about binary operator precedence has been found to closely follow their frequency of occurrence in source code. See also Common operator notation (for a more formal description) Hyperoperation Logical connective#Order of precedence Operator associativity Operator overloading Operator precedence in C and C++ Polish notation Reverse Polish notation Notes ^ a b Some authors deliberately avoid any omission of parentheses with functions even in the case of single numerical variable or constant arguments (i.e. Oldham in Atlas), whereas other authors (like NIST) apply this notational simplification only conditionally in conjunction with specific multi-character function names (like sin), but don't use it with generic function names (like f). ^ To avoid any ambiguity, this notational simplification for monomials is deliberately avoided in works such as Oldham's Atlas of Functions or the NIST Handbook of Mathematical Functions. ^ For example, the third edition of Mechanics by Landau and Lifshitz contains expressions such as hPz/2π (p. 22), and the first volume of the Feynman Lectures contains expressions such as 1/2√N (p. 6–7). In both books, these expressions are written with the convention that the solidus is evaluated last. ^ "Of" when used to mean a mathematical operation means multiplication. For example "half of fifty" is understood to mean "1/2 times 50", which equals 25. References ^ "Calculation operators and precedence: Excel". Microsoft Support. Microsoft. 2023. Retrieved 2023-09-17. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bronstein, Ilja Nikolaevič; Semendjajew, Konstantin Adolfovič (1987) . "2.4.1.1. Definition arithmetischer Ausdrücke" . In Grosche, Günter; Ziegler, Viktor; Ziegler, Dorothea (eds.). Taschenbuch der Mathematik (in German). Vol. 1. Translated by Ziegler, Viktor (23rd ed.). Thun, Switzerland: Harri Deutsch. pp. 115–120, 802. ISBN 3-87144-492-8. Regel 7: Ist F(A) Teilzeichenreihe eines arithmetischen Ausdrucks oder einer seiner Abkürzungen und F eine Funktionenkonstante und A eine Zahlenvariable oder Zahlenkonstante, so darf F A dafür geschrieben werden. ^ a b c d e f Peterson, Dave (September–October 2019). The Math Doctors (blog). Order of Operations: "Why?"; "Why These Rules?"; "Subtle Distinctions"; "Fractions, Evaluating, and Simplifying"; "Implicit Multiplication?"; "Historical Caveats". Retrieved 2024-02-11. Peterson, Dave (August–September 2023). The Math Doctors (blog). Implied Multiplication: "Not as Bad as You Think"; "Is There a Standard?"; "You Can't Prove It". Retrieved 2024-02-11. ^ Swokowski, Earl William (1978). Fundamentals of Algebra and Trigonometry (4 ed.). Boston: Prindle, Weber & Schmidt. ISBN 0-87150-252-6. p. 1: The language of algebra may be used as shorthand, to abbreviate and simplify long or complicated statements. ^ Weisstein, Eric Wolfgang. "Precedence". MathWorld. Retrieved 2020-08-22. ^ Oldham, Keith B.; Myland, Jan C.; Spanier, Jerome (2009) . An Atlas of Functions: with Equator, the Atlas Function Calculator (2nd ed.). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-48807-3. ISBN 978-0-387-48806-6. ^ a b Olver, Frank W. J.; Lozier, Daniel W.; Boisvert, Ronald F.; Clark, Charles W., eds. (2010). NIST Handbook of Mathematical Functions. National Institute of Standards and Technology. ISBN 978-0-521-19225-5. MR 2723248. ^ Angel, Allen R.; Runde, Dennis C.; Gilligan, Lawrence; Semmler, Richard (2010). Elementary Algebra for College Students (8th ed.). Prentice Hall. Ch. 1, §9, Objective 3. ISBN 978-0-321-62093-4. ^ "Formula Returns Unexpected Positive Value". Microsoft. 2005-08-15. Archived from the original on 2015-04-19. Retrieved 2012-03-05. ^ a b Chrystal, George (1904) . Algebra. Vol. 1 (5th ed.). "Division", Ch. 1 §§19–26, pp. 14–20. Chrystal's book was the canonical source in English about secondary school algebra of the turn of the 20th century, and plausibly the source for many later descriptions of the order of operations. However, while Chrystal's book initially establishes a rigid rule for evaluating expressions involving '÷' and '×' symbols, it later consistently gives implicit multiplication higher precedence than division when writing inline fractions, without ever explicitly discussing the discrepancy between formal rule and common practice. ^ Cajori, Florian (1928). A History of Mathematical Notations. Vol. 1. La Salle, Illinois: Open Court. §242. "Order of operations in terms containing both ÷ and ×", p. 274. ^ a b c Wu, Hung-Hsi (2007) . ""Order of operations" and other oddities in school mathematics" (PDF). Dept. of Mathematics, University of California. Retrieved 2007-07-03. ^ In the ISO 80000 standard, the division symbol '÷' is entirely disallowed in favor of a slash symbol: ISO 80000-2:2019, "Quantities and units – Part 2: Mathematics". International Standards Organization. ^ Lennes, N. J. (1917). "Discussions: Relating to the Order of Operations in Algebra". The American Mathematical Monthly. 24 (2): 93–95. doi:10.2307/2972726. JSTOR 2972726. ^ a b Strogatz, Steven (2019-08-02). "The Math Equation That Tried to Stump the Internet". The New York Times. Retrieved 2024-02-12. In this article, Strogatz describes the order of operations as taught in middle school. However, in a comment, he points out, "Several commenters appear to be using a different (and more sophisticated) convention than the elementary PEMDAS convention I described in the article. In this more sophisticated convention, which is often used in algebra, implicit multiplication (also known as multiplication by juxtaposition) is given higher priority than explicit multiplication or explicit division (in which one explicitly writes operators like × * / or ÷). Under this more sophisticated convention, the implicit multiplication in 2(2 + 2) is given higher priority than the explicit division implied by the use of ÷. That’s a very reasonable convention, and I agree that the answer is 1 if we are using this sophisticated convention. "But that convention is not universal. For example, the calculators built into Google and WolframAlpha use the less sophisticated convention that I described in the article; they make no distinction between implicit and explicit multiplication when they are asked to evaluate simple arithmetic expressions. " ^ a b "Physical Review Style and Notation Guide" (PDF). American Physical Society. 2012. § IV.E.2.e. Retrieved 2012-08-05. ^ Graham, Ronald L.; Knuth, Donald E.; Patashnik, Oren (1994). Concrete Mathematics (2nd ed.). Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley. "A Note on Notation", p. xi. ISBN 0-201-55802-5. MR 1397498. An expression of the form a/bc means the same as a/(bc). Moreover, log x/log y = (log x)/(log y) and 2n! = 2(n!). ^ Fateman, R. J.; Caspi, E. (1999). Parsing TEX into mathematics (PDF). International Symposium on Symbolic and Algebraic Computation, Vancouver, 28–31 July 1999. ^ Haelle, Tara (2013-03-12). "What Is the Answer to That Stupid Math Problem on Facebook? And why are people so riled up about it?". Slate. Retrieved 2023-09-17. ^ "Rules of arithmetic" (PDF). Mathcentre.ac.uk. 2009. Retrieved 2019-08-02. ^ Ginsburg, David (2011-01-01). "Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally (PEMDAS)--Forever!". Education Week - Coach G's Teaching Tips. Retrieved 2023-09-17. ^ Ali Rahman, Ernna Sukinnah; Shahrill, Masitah; Abbas, Nor Arifahwati; Tan, Abby (2017). "Developing Students' Mathematical Skills Involving Order of Operations" (PDF). International Journal of Research in Education and Science. 3 (2): 373–382. doi:10.21890/ijres.327896. p. 373: The PEMDAS is an acronym or mnemonic for the order of operations that stands for Parenthesis, Exponents, Multiplication, Division, Addition and Subtraction. This acronym is widely used in the United States of America. Meanwhile, in other countries such as United Kingdom and Canada, the acronyms used are BODMAS (Brackets, Order, Division, Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction) and BIDMAS (Brackets, Indices, Division, Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction). ^ "Le calcul qui divise : 6÷2(1+2)". Micmaths (Video) (in French). ^ a b Vanderbeek, Greg (2007). Order of Operations and RPN (Expository paper). Master of Arts in Teaching (MAT) Exam Expository Papers. Lincoln: University of Nebraska. Paper 46. Retrieved 2020-06-14. ^ a b c d Ball, John A. (1978). Algorithms for RPN calculators (1st ed.). Cambridge, Mass: Wiley. p. 31. ISBN 0-471-03070-8. ^ a b Naddor, Josh (2020). Order of Operations: Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally as her rule is deceiving (MA thesis). University of Georgia. ^ "Order of operations" (DOC). Syllabus.bos.nsw.edu.au. Retrieved 2019-08-02. ^ Foster, Colin (2008). "Higher Priorities". Mathematics in School. 37 (3): 17. JSTOR 30216129. ^ Ameis, Jerry A. (2011). "The Truth About PEDMAS". Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School. 16 (7): 414–420. doi:10.5951/MTMS.16.7.0414. JSTOR 41183631. ^ Cheng, Eugenia (2023). Is Math Real? How Simple Questions Lead Us to Mathematics' Deepest Truths. Basic Books. pp. 235–238. ISBN 978-1-541-60182-6. ^ Lee, Jae Ki; Licwinko, Susan; Taylor-Buckner, Nicole (2013). "Exploring Mathematical Reasoning of the Order of Operations: Rearranging the Procedural Component PEMDAS". Journal of Mathematics Education at Teachers College. 4 (2): 73–78. doi:10.7916/jmetc.v4i2.633. p. 73: students frequently make calculation errors with expressions which have either multiplication and division or addition and subtraction next to each other. ^ Dupree, Kami M. (2016). "Questioning the Order of Operations". Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School. 22 (3): 152–159. doi:10.5951/mathteacmiddscho.22.3.0152. ^ Taff, Jason (2017). "Rethinking the Order of Operations (or What Is the Matter with Dear Aunt Sally?)". The Mathematics Teacher. 111 (2): 126–132. doi:10.5951/mathteacher.111.2.0126. ^ "Calculation Priority Sequence". support.casio.com. Casio. Retrieved 2019-08-01. ^ "Implied Multiplication Versus Explicit Multiplication on TI Graphing Calculators". Texas Instruments. 2011. Retrieved 2015-08-24. ^ Announcing the TI Programmable 88! (PDF). Texas Instruments. 1982. Retrieved 2017-08-03. Now, implied multiplication is recognized by the AOS and the square root, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions can be followed by their arguments as when working with pencil and paper. (NB. The TI-88 only existed as a prototype and was never released to the public.) ^ Simons, Peter Murray (2021). "Łukasiewicz's Parenthesis-Free or Polish Notation". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Dept. of Philosophy, Stanford University. Retrieved 2022-03-26. ^ Krtolica, Predrag V.; Stanimirović, Predrag S. (1999). "On some properties of reverse Polish Notation". Filomat. 13: 157–172. JSTOR 43998756. ^ Henderson, Harry (2009) . "Operator Precedence". Henderson's Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology (Rev. ed.). New York: Facts on File. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-8160-6382-6. Retrieved 2023-09-17. ^ Ritchie, Dennis M. (1996). "The Development of the C Language". History of Programming Languages (2 ed.). ACM Press. ^ "6. Expressions". Python documentation. Retrieved 2023-12-31. ^ "precedence - RDoc Documentation". ruby-doc.org. Retrieved 2023-12-31. ^ Backus, John Warner; et al. (1963). "§ 3.3.1: Arithmetic expressions". In Naur, Peter (ed.). Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 60 (Report). Retrieved 2023-09-17. (CACM Vol. 6 pp. 1–17; The Computer Journal, Vol. 9, p. 349; Numerische Mathematik, Vol. 4, p. 420.) ^ Jones, Derek M. (2008) . "Developer beliefs about binary operator precedence". CVu. 18 (4): 14–21. Retrieved 2023-09-17. Further reading Fothe, Michael; Wilke, Thomas, eds. (2015). Keller, Stack und automatisches Gedächtnis – eine Struktur mit Potenzial (PDF). Kolloquium 14 Nov 2014 in Jena, Germany (in German). Bonn: Gesellschaft für Informatik. ISBN 978-3-88579-426-4. External links Bergman, George Mark (2013). "Order of arithmetic operations; in particular, the 48/2(9+3) question". Dept. of Mathematics, University of California. Retrieved 2020-07-22. Zachary, Joseph L. (1997) "Operator Precedence", supplement to Introduction to Scientific Programming. University of Utah. Maple worksheet, Mathematica notebook.	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Operations order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operations_order"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"computer programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programming"},{"link_name":"mathematical expression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_expression"},{"link_name":"Calculators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft-1"},{"link_name":"programming languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"link_name":"algebraic notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_notation"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BS-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Peterson-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BS-2"},{"link_name":"ambiguity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Swokowski-4"},{"link_name":"parentheses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bracket#Parentheses"},{"link_name":"exponentiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation"},{"link_name":"brackets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bracket#Square_brackets"},{"link_name":"braces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bracket#Curly_brackets"},{"link_name":"infix notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infix_notation"},{"link_name":"functional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_notation"},{"link_name":"Polish notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_notation"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Operations order.In mathematics and computer programming, the order of operations is a collection of rules that reflect conventions about which operations to perform first in order to evaluate a given mathematical expression.These rules are formalized with a ranking of the operations. The rank of an operation is called its precedence, and an operation with a higher precedence is performed before operations with lower precedence. Calculators generally perform operations with the same precedence from left to right,[1] but some programming languages and calculators adopt different conventions.For example, multiplication is granted a higher precedence than addition, and it has been this way since the introduction of modern algebraic notation.[2][3] Thus, in the expression 1 + 2 × 3, the multiplication is performed before addition, and the expression has the value 1 + (2 × 3) = 7, and not (1 + 2) × 3 = 9. When exponents were introduced in the 16th and 17th centuries, they were given precedence over both addition and multiplication and placed as a superscript to the right of their base.[2] Thus 3 + 52 = 28 and 3 × 52 = 75.These conventions exist to avoid notational ambiguity while allowing notation to remain brief.[4] Where it is desired to override the precedence conventions, or even simply to emphasize them, parentheses ( ) can be used. For example, (2 + 3) × 4 = 20 forces addition to precede multiplication, while (3 + 5)2 = 64 forces addition to precede exponentiation. If multiple pairs of parentheses are required in a mathematical expression (such as in the case of nested parentheses), the parentheses may be replaced by brackets or braces to avoid confusion, as in [2 × (3 + 4)] − 5 = 9.These rules are meaningful only when the usual notation (called infix notation) is used. When functional or Polish notation are used for all operations, the order of operations results from the notation itself.","title":"Order of operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"programming languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BS-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mathworld-5"},{"link_name":"Parentheses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols#Parentheses"},{"link_name":"Exponentiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation"},{"link_name":"Multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplication"},{"link_name":"division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Addition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition"},{"link_name":"subtraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtraction"},{"link_name":"reciprocal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplicative_inverse"},{"link_name":"associative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associative_property"},{"link_name":"commutative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative_property"},{"link_name":"term","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition#Terms"},{"link_name":"§ Mixed division and multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Mixed_division_and_multiplication"},{"link_name":"opposite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_inverse"},{"link_name":"vinculum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinculum_(symbol)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OMS-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NIST-7"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB3-8"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BS-2"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB3-8"},{"link_name":"monomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomial"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB4-9"},{"link_name":"Symbols of grouping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_grouping"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BS-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BS-2"},{"link_name":"distributive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributivity"}],"text":"The order of operations, that is, the order in which the operations in an expression are usually performed, results from a convention adopted throughout mathematics, science, technology and many computer programming languages. It is summarized as:[2][5]Parentheses\nExponentiation\nMultiplication and division\nAddition and subtractionThis means that to evaluate an expression, one first evaluates any sub-expression inside parentheses, working inside to outside if there is more than one set. Whether inside parenthesis or not, the operation that is higher in the above list should be applied first. Operations of the same precedence are conventionally evaluated from left to right.If each division is replaced with multiplication by the reciprocal (multiplicative inverse) then the associative and commutative laws of multiplication allow the factors in each term to be multiplied together in any order. Sometimes multiplication and division are given equal precedence, or sometimes multiplication is given higher precedence than division; see § Mixed division and multiplication below. If each subtraction is replaced with addition of the opposite (additive inverse), then the associative and commutative laws of addition allow terms to be added in any order.The root symbol √ is traditionally prolongated by a bar (called vinculum) over the radicand (this avoids the need for parentheses around the radicand). Other functions use parentheses around the input to avoid ambiguity.[6][7][a] The parentheses can be omitted if the input is a single numerical variable or constant,[2] as in the case of sin x = sin(x) and sin π = sin(π).[a] Traditionally this convention extends to monomials; thus, sin 3x = sin(3x) and even sin 1/2xy = sin(xy/2), but sin x + y = sin(x) + y, because x + y is not a monomial. However, this convention is not universally understood, and some authors prefer explicit parentheses.[b] Some calculators and programming languages require parentheses around function inputs, some do not.Symbols of grouping can be used to override the usual order of operations.[2] Grouped symbols can be treated as a single expression.[2] Symbols of grouping can be removed using the associative and distributive laws, also they can be removed if the expression inside the symbol of grouping is sufficiently simplified so no ambiguity results from their removal.","title":"Conventional order"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Examples","text":"Multiplication before addition:1\n +\n 2\n ×\n 3\n =\n 1\n +\n 6\n =\n 7.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1+2\\times 3=1+6=7.}Parenthetical subexpressions are evaluated first:(\n 1\n +\n 2\n )\n ×\n 3\n =\n 3\n ×\n 3\n =\n 9.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (1+2)\\times 3=3\\times 3=9.}Exponentiation before multiplication, multiplication before subtraction:1\n −\n 2\n ×\n \n 3\n \n 4\n \n \n =\n 1\n −\n 2\n ×\n 81\n =\n 1\n −\n 162\n =\n −\n 161.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1-2\\times 3^{4}=1-2\\times 81=1-162=-161.}When an expression is written as a superscript, the superscript is considered to be grouped by its position above its base:1\n +\n \n 2\n \n 3\n +\n 4\n \n \n =\n 1\n +\n \n 2\n \n 7\n \n \n =\n 1\n +\n 128\n =\n 129.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1+2^{3+4}=1+2^{7}=1+128=129.}The operand of a root symbol is determined by the overbar:1\n +\n 3\n \n \n +\n 5\n =\n \n \n 4\n \n \n +\n 5\n =\n 2\n +\n 5\n =\n 7.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt {1+3}}+5={\\sqrt {4}}+5=2+5=7.}A horizontal fractional line also acts as a symbol of grouping:1\n +\n 2\n \n \n 3\n +\n 4\n \n \n \n +\n 5\n =\n \n \n 3\n 7\n \n \n +\n 5.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {1+2}{3+4}}+5={\\frac {3}{7}}+5.}Parentheses can be nested, and should be evaluated from the inside outward. For legibility, outer parentheses can be made larger than inner parentheses. Alternately, other grouping symbols, such as curly braces { } or square brackets [ ], are sometimes used along with parentheses ( ). For example:[\n \n \n (\n 1\n +\n 2\n )\n ÷\n (\n 3\n +\n 4\n )\n \n \n ]\n \n \n +\n 5\n =\n (\n 3\n ÷\n 7\n )\n +\n 5\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\bigl [}(1+2)\\div (3+4){\\bigr ]}+5=(3\\div 7)+5}","title":"Conventional order"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Special cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"unary operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unary_operation"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BS-2"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ARGS-10"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Excel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Excel"},{"link_name":"PlanMaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlanMaker"},{"link_name":"the programming language bc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bc_programming_language"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_2005-11"}],"sub_title":"Unary minus sign","text":"There are differing conventions concerning the unary operation '−' (usually pronounced \"minus\"). In written or printed mathematics, the expression −32 is interpreted to mean −(32) = −9.[2][8]In some applications and programming languages, notably Microsoft Excel, PlanMaker (and other spreadsheet applications) and the programming language bc, unary operations have a higher priority than binary operations, that is, the unary minus has higher precedence than exponentiation, so in those languages −32 will be interpreted as (−3)2 = 9.[9] This does not apply to the binary minus operation '−'; for example in Microsoft Excel while the formulas =-2^2, =-(2)^2 and =0+-2^2 return 4, the formulas =0-2^2 and =-(2^2) return −4.","title":"Special cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chrystal-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cajori-13"},{"link_name":"algebraic fractions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_fraction"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wu-14"},{"link_name":"slash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slash_(punctuation)#Arithmetic"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iso-15"},{"link_name":"implied multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implied_multiplication"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BS-2"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chrystal-12"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lennes-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strogatz-17"},{"link_name":"Physical Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Review"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-APS-18"},{"link_name":"Course of Theoretical Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Course_of_Theoretical_Physics"},{"link_name":"Landau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Landau"},{"link_name":"Lifshitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evgeny_Lifshitz"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB1-19"},{"link_name":"Concrete Mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_Mathematics"},{"link_name":"Graham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Graham"},{"link_name":"Knuth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Knuth"},{"link_name":"Patashnik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oren_Patashnik"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GKP-20"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Peterson-3"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FatemanCaspi-21"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-APS-18"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Precedence62xplus.jpg"},{"link_name":"fx-82MS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fx-82MS"},{"link_name":"TI-83 Plus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TI-83_Plus"},{"link_name":"Internet memes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_meme"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strogatz-17"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haelle-22"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wu-14"}],"sub_title":"Mixed division and multiplication","text":"There is no universal convention for interpreting a term containing both division denoted by '÷' and multiplication denoted by '×'. Proposed conventions include assigning the operations equal precedence and evaluating them from left to right, or equivalently treating division as multiplication by the reciprocal and then evaluating in any order;[10] evaluating all multiplications first followed by divisions from left to right; or eschewing such expressions and instead always disambiguating them by explicit parentheses.[11]Beyond primary education, the symbol '÷' for division is seldom used, but is replaced by the use of algebraic fractions,[12] typically written vertically with the numerator stacked above the denominator – which makes grouping explicit and unambiguous – but sometimes written inline using the slash or solidus symbol, '/'.[13]Multiplication denoted by juxtaposition (also known as implied multiplication) creates a visual unit and has higher precedence than most other operations. In academic literature, when inline fractions are combined with implied multiplication without explicit parentheses, the multiplication is conventionally interpreted as having higher precedence than division, so that e.g. 1 / 2n is interpreted to mean 1 / (2 · n) rather than (1 / 2) · n.[2][10][14][15] For instance, the manuscript submission instructions for the Physical Review journals directly state that multiplication has precedence over division,[16] and this is also the convention observed in physics textbooks such as the Course of Theoretical Physics by Landau and Lifshitz[c] and mathematics textbooks such as Concrete Mathematics by Graham, Knuth, and Patashnik.[17] However, some authors recommend against expressions such as a / bc, preferring the explicit use of parenthesis a / (bc).[3]More complicated cases are more ambiguous. For instance, the notation 1 / 2π(a + b) could plausibly mean either\n1 / [2π · (a + b)] or [1 / (2π)] · (a + b).[18] Sometimes interpretation depends on context. The Physical Review submission instructions recommend against expressions of the form a / b / c; more explicit expressions (a / b) / c or a / (b / c) are unambiguous.[16]6÷2(1+2) is interpreted as 6÷(2×(1+2)) by a fx-82MS (upper), and (6÷2)×(1+2) by a TI-83 Plus calculator (lower), respectively.This ambiguity has been the subject of Internet memes such as \"8 ÷ 2(2 + 2)\", for which there are two conflicting interpretations: 8 ÷ [2 · (2 + 2)] = 1 and (8 ÷ 2) · (2 + 2) = 16.[15][19] Mathematics education researcher Hung-Hsi Wu points out that \"one never gets a computation of this type in real life\", and calls such contrived examples \"a kind of Gotcha! parlor game designed to trap an unsuspecting person by phrasing it in terms of a set of unreasonably convoluted rules.\"[12]","title":"Special cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"exponentiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BS-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NIST-7"},{"link_name":"a property of exponentiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation#Identities_and_properties"},{"link_name":"caret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caret"},{"link_name":"arrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrow_(symbol)"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Excel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Excel"},{"link_name":"MATLAB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MATLAB"},{"link_name":"Google Search","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Search"},{"link_name":"Wolfram Alpha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfram_Alpha"}],"sub_title":"Serial exponentiation","text":"If exponentiation is indicated by stacked symbols using superscript notation, the usual rule is to work from the top down:[2][7]abc = a(bc)which typically is not equal to (ab)c. This convention is useful because there is a property of exponentiation that (ab)c = abc, so it's unnecessary to use serial exponentiation for this.However, when exponentiation is represented by an explicit symbol such as a caret (^) or arrow (↑), there is no common standard. For example, Microsoft Excel and computation programming language MATLAB evaluate a^b^c as (ab)c, but Google Search and Wolfram Alpha as a(bc). Thus 4^3^2 is evaluated to 4,096 in the first case and to 262,144 in the second case.","title":"Special cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mnemonics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemonics"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mathcentre-23"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ginsburg-24"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_education_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ASAT-25"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Micmaths-26"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vanderbeek-27"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ball-28"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Naddor-29"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Naddor-29"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB2-30"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NSW_syllabus-31"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Foster-32"},{"link_name":"Punktrechnung vor Strichrechnung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punktrechnung_vor_Strichrechnung"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ball-28"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ball-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ameis-33"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cheng-34"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LLT-35"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dupree-36"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wu-14"},{"link_name":"tree-like hierarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_expression_tree"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Taff-37"}],"text":"Mnemonics are often used to help students remember the rules, involving the first letters of words representing various operations.[20][21]The acronym PEMDAS is common in the United States[22] and France.[23] It stands for Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication/Division, Addition/Subtraction.[24] PEMDAS is sometimes expanded to the mnemonic \"Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally\" in schools.[25]\nBEDMAS, standing for Brackets, Exponents, Division/Multiplication, Addition/Subtraction is common in Canada and New Zealand.[26]The United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries may use BODMAS meaning Brackets, Operations, Division/Multiplication, Addition/Subtraction.[26] Sometimes the O is expanded as \"Of\"[d] or \"Order\" (i.e. powers/exponents or roots).[27]\nBIDMAS is also used, standing for Brackets, Indices, Division/Multiplication, Addition/Subtraction.[28]\nIn Germany, the convention is simply taught as Punktrechnung vor Strichrechnung, dot operations prior line operations referring to the graphical shapes of the taught operator signs U+00B7 · MIDDLE DOT (multiplication), U+2236 ∶ RATIO (division), and U+002B + PLUS SIGN (addition), U+2212 − MINUS SIGN (subtraction).These mnemonics may be misleading when written this way.[25] For example, misinterpreting any of the above rules to mean \"addition first, subtraction afterward\" would incorrectly evaluate the expression[25] \n \n \n \n a\n −\n b\n +\n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a-b+c}\n \n as \n \n \n \n a\n −\n (\n b\n +\n c\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a-(b+c)}\n \n, while the correct evaluation is \n \n \n \n (\n a\n −\n b\n )\n +\n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (a-b)+c}\n \n. These values are different when \n \n \n \n c\n ≠\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c\\neq 0}\n \n.Mnemonic acronyms have been criticized for not developing a conceptual understanding of the order of operations, and not addressing student questions about its purpose or flexibility.[29][30] Students learning the order of operations via mnemonic acronyms routinely make mistakes,[31] as do some pre-service teachers.[32] Even when students correctly learn the acronym, a disproportionate focus on memorization of trivia crowds out substantive mathematical content.[12] The acronym's procedural application does not match experts' intuitive understanding of mathematical notation: mathematical notation indicates groupings in ways other than parentheses or brackets and a mathematical expression is a tree-like hierarchy rather than a linearly \"ordered\" structure; furthermore, there is no single order by which mathematical expressions must be simplified or evaluated and no universal canonical simplification for any particular expression, and experts fluently apply valid transformations and substitutions in whatever order is convenient, so learning a rigid procedure can lead students to a misleading and limiting understanding of mathematical notation.[33]","title":"Mnemonics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BS-2"},{"link_name":"stack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack_machine"},{"link_name":"chain input","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_input"},{"link_name":"TI-92","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TI-92"},{"link_name":"TI-30XS MultiView","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TI-30XS_MultiView"},{"link_name":"TI-30XII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TI-30XII"},{"link_name":"TI-82","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TI-82"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Peterson-3"},{"link_name":"Casio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casio"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Casio-38"},{"link_name":"fx-9750GIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casio_fx-9750GIII"},{"link_name":"TI-83","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TI-83"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TI_2011-39"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Peterson-3"},{"link_name":"Hewlett-Packard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"implied multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implied_multiplication"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TI_1982-40"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Peterson-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Peterson-3"},{"link_name":"infix notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infix_notation"},{"link_name":"standard mathematical notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_mathematical_notation"},{"link_name":"postfix notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postfix_notation"},{"link_name":"prefix notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefix_notation"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Simons-41"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KS-42"},{"link_name":"Reverse Polish notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_Polish_notation"},{"link_name":"stack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack_(data_structure)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ball-28"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vanderbeek-27"}],"text":"Different calculators follow different orders of operations.[2] Many simple calculators without a stack implement chain input, working in button-press order without any priority given to different operations, give a different result from that given by more sophisticated calculators. For example, on a simple calculator, typing 1 + 2 × 3 = yields 9, while a more sophisticated calculator will use a more standard priority, so typing 1 + 2 × 3 = yields 7.Calculators may associate exponents to the left or to the right. For example, the expression a^b^c is interpreted as a(bc) on the TI-92 and the TI-30XS MultiView in \"Mathprint mode\", whereas it is interpreted as (ab)c on the TI-30XII and the TI-30XS MultiView in \"Classic mode\".An expression like 1/2x is interpreted as 1/(2x) by TI-82,[3] as well as many modern Casio calculators[34] (configurable on some like the fx-9750GIII), but as (1/2)x by TI-83 and every other TI calculator released since 1996,[35][3] as well as by all Hewlett-Packard calculators with algebraic notation. While the first interpretation may be expected by some users due to the nature of implied multiplication,[36] the latter is more in line with the rule that multiplication and division are of equal precedence.[3]When the user is unsure how a calculator will interpret an expression, parentheses can be used to remove the ambiguity.[3]Order of operations arose due to the adaptation of infix notation in standard mathematical notation, which can be notationally ambiguous without such conventions, as opposed to postfix notation or prefix notation, which do not need orders of operations.[37][38] Hence, calculators utilizing Reverse Polish notation (RPN) using a stack to enter expressions in the correct order of precedence do not need parentheses or any possibly model-specific order of execution.[25][24]","title":"Calculators"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"programming languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_languages"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Henderson-43"},{"link_name":"APL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APL_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Smalltalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smalltalk"},{"link_name":"Occam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operator_(programming)"},{"link_name":"cons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cons"},{"link_name":"Haskell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haskell_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Dennis Ritchie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Ritchie"},{"link_name":"C language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"Perl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl"},{"link_name":"PHP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHP"},{"link_name":"bitwise operators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitwise_operation"},{"link_name":"comparison operators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational_operator"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ritchie-44"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Python-45"},{"link_name":"Ruby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ruby-46"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Algol_grammar_expr_svg.svg"},{"link_name":"formal grammar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context-free_grammar"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Algol-47"},{"link_name":"syntax tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_syntax_tree"},{"link_name":"compiler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler"},{"link_name":"machine code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_code"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Ruby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"PARI/GP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PARI/GP"},{"link_name":"Source-to-source compilers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source-to-source_compiler"},{"link_name":"Haxe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haxe"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jones-48"}],"text":"Most programming languages use precedence levels that conform to the order commonly used in mathematics,[39] though others, such as APL, Smalltalk, Occam and Mary, have no operator precedence rules (in APL, evaluation is strictly right to left; in Smalltalk, it is strictly left to right).Furthermore, because many operators are not associative, the order within any single level is usually defined by grouping left to right so that 16/4/4 is interpreted as (16/4)/4 = 1 rather than 16/(4/4) = 16; such operators are referred to as \"left associative\". Exceptions exist; for example, languages with operators corresponding to the cons operation on lists usually make them group right to left (\"right associative\"), e.g. in Haskell, 1:2:3:4:[] == 1:(2:(3:(4:[]))) == [1,2,3,4].Dennis Ritchie, creator of the C language, said of the precedence in C (shared by programming languages that borrow those rules from C, for example, C++, Perl and PHP) that it would have been preferable to move the bitwise operators above the comparison operators.[40] Many programmers have become accustomed to this order, but more recent popular languages like Python[41] and Ruby[42] do have this order reversed. The relative precedence levels of operators found in many C-style languages are as follows:Simplified formal grammar for arithmetical expressions in a programming language (left),[43] and derivation of the example expression (a+b)^2/2 (right). The latter corresponds to a hierarchical structure (\"syntax tree\") which is unique for the given expression. The compiler generates machine code from the tree in such a way that operations originating at the lowest hierarchy level are executed first.Examples:!A + !B is interpreted as (!A) + (!B)\n++A + !B is interpreted as (++A) + (!B)\nA + B * C is interpreted as A + (B * C)\nA \|\| B && C is interpreted as A \|\| (B && C)\nA && B == C is interpreted as A && (B == C)\nA & B == C is interpreted as A & (B == C)(In Python, Ruby, PARI/GP and other popular languages, A & B == C is interpreted as (A & B) == C.)Source-to-source compilers that compile to multiple languages need to explicitly deal with the issue of different order of operations across languages. Haxe for example standardizes the order and enforces it by inserting brackets where it is appropriate.The accuracy of software developer knowledge about binary operator precedence has been found to closely follow their frequency of occurrence in source code.[44]","title":"Programming languages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB3_8-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB3_8-1"},{"link_name":"Oldham in Atlas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFOldhamMylandSpanier2009"},{"link_name":"NIST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFOlverLozierBoisvertClark2010"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB4_9-0"},{"link_name":"monomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomial"},{"link_name":"Oldham's Atlas of Functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFOldhamMylandSpanier2009"},{"link_name":"NIST Handbook of Mathematical Functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFOlverLozierBoisvertClark2010"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB1_19-0"},{"link_name":"Landau and Lifshitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_and_Lifshitz_(book)"},{"link_name":"Feynman Lectures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feynman_Lectures"},{"link_name":"(p. 6–7)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_06.html"},{"link_name":"solidus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slash_(punctuation)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB2_30-0"}],"text":"^ a b Some authors deliberately avoid any omission of parentheses with functions even in the case of single numerical variable or constant arguments (i.e. Oldham in Atlas), whereas other authors (like NIST) apply this notational simplification only conditionally in conjunction with specific multi-character function names (like sin), but don't use it with generic function names (like f).\n\n^ To avoid any ambiguity, this notational simplification for monomials is deliberately avoided in works such as Oldham's Atlas of Functions or the NIST Handbook of Mathematical Functions.\n\n^ For example, the third edition of Mechanics by Landau and Lifshitz contains expressions such as hPz/2π (p. 22), and the first volume of the Feynman Lectures contains expressions such as 1/2√N (p. 6–7). In both books, these expressions are written with the convention that the solidus is evaluated last.\n\n^ \"Of\" when used to mean a mathematical operation means multiplication. For example \"half of fifty\" is understood to mean \"1/2 times 50\", which equals 25.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Keller, Stack und automatisches Gedächtnis – eine Struktur mit Potenzial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//dl.gi.de/bitstream/handle/20.500.12116/4381/lni-t-7.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-88579-426-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-88579-426-4"}],"text":"Fothe, Michael; Wilke, Thomas, eds. (2015). Keller, Stack und automatisches Gedächtnis – eine Struktur mit Potenzial [Cellar, stack and automatic memory – a structure with potential] (PDF). Kolloquium 14 Nov 2014 in Jena, Germany (in German). Bonn: Gesellschaft für Informatik. ISBN 978-3-88579-426-4.","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"6÷2(1+2) is interpreted as 6÷(2×(1+2)) by a fx-82MS (upper), and (6÷2)×(1+2) by a TI-83 Plus calculator (lower), respectively.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Precedence62xplus.jpg/220px-Precedence62xplus.jpg"},{"image_text":"Simplified formal grammar for arithmetical expressions in a programming language (left),[43] and derivation of the example expression (a+b)^2/2 (right). The latter corresponds to a hierarchical structure (\"syntax tree\") which is unique for the given expression. The compiler generates machine code from the tree in such a way that operations originating at the lowest hierarchy level are executed first.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Algol_grammar_expr_svg.svg/500px-Algol_grammar_expr_svg.svg.png"}]	[{"title":"Common operator notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_operator_notation"},{"title":"Hyperoperation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperoperation"},{"title":"Logical connective#Order of precedence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_connective#Order_of_precedence"},{"title":"Operator associativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operator_associativity"},{"title":"Operator overloading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operator_overloading"},{"title":"Operator precedence in C and C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operator_precedence_in_C_and_C%2B%2B"},{"title":"Polish notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_notation"},{"title":"Reverse Polish notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_Polish_notation"}]	[{"reference":"\"Calculation operators and precedence: Excel\". Microsoft Support. Microsoft. 2023. Retrieved 2023-09-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/office/calculation-operators-and-precedence-36de9366-46fe-43a3-bfa8-cf6d8068eacc","url_text":"\"Calculation operators and precedence: Excel\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"}]},{"reference":"Bronstein, Ilja Nikolaevič; Semendjajew, Konstantin Adolfovič (1987) [1945]. \"2.4.1.1. Definition arithmetischer Ausdrücke\" [Definition of arithmetic expressions]. In Grosche, Günter; Ziegler, Viktor; Ziegler, Dorothea (eds.). Taschenbuch der Mathematik [Pocketbook of mathematics] (in German). Vol. 1. Translated by Ziegler, Viktor (23rd ed.). Thun, Switzerland: Harri Deutsch. pp. 115–120, 802. ISBN 3-87144-492-8. Regel 7: Ist F(A) Teilzeichenreihe eines arithmetischen Ausdrucks oder einer seiner Abkürzungen und F eine Funktionenkonstante und A eine Zahlenvariable oder Zahlenkonstante, so darf F A dafür geschrieben werden. [Darüber hinaus ist noch die Abkürzung Fn(A) für (F(A))n üblich. Dabei kann F sowohl Funktionenkonstante als auch Funktionenvariable sein.]","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilya_Nikolaevich_Bronshtein","url_text":"Bronstein, Ilja Nikolaevič"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Adolfovic_Semendyayev","url_text":"Semendjajew, Konstantin Adolfovič"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronstein_and_Semendjajew","url_text":"Taschenbuch der Mathematik"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verlag_Harri_Deutsch","url_text":"Harri Deutsch"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-87144-492-8","url_text":"3-87144-492-8"}]},{"reference":"Swokowski, Earl William (1978). Fundamentals of Algebra and Trigonometry (4 ed.). Boston: Prindle, Weber & Schmidt. ISBN 0-87150-252-6. p. 1: The language of algebra [...] may be used as shorthand, to abbreviate and simplify long or complicated statements.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bZdfLRHFGw8C","url_text":"Fundamentals of Algebra and Trigonometry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87150-252-6","url_text":"0-87150-252-6"}]},{"reference":"Weisstein, Eric Wolfgang. \"Precedence\". MathWorld. Retrieved 2020-08-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Wolfgang_Weisstein","url_text":"Weisstein, Eric Wolfgang"},{"url":"https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Precedence.html","url_text":"\"Precedence\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathWorld","url_text":"MathWorld"}]},{"reference":"Oldham, Keith B.; Myland, Jan C.; Spanier, Jerome (2009) [1987]. An Atlas of Functions: with Equator, the Atlas Function Calculator (2nd ed.). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-48807-3. ISBN 978-0-387-48806-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-48807-3","url_text":"10.1007/978-0-387-48807-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-48806-6","url_text":"978-0-387-48806-6"}]},{"reference":"Olver, Frank W. J.; Lozier, Daniel W.; Boisvert, Ronald F.; Clark, Charles W., eds. (2010). NIST Handbook of Mathematical Functions. National Institute of Standards and Technology. ISBN 978-0-521-19225-5. MR 2723248.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIST_Handbook_of_Mathematical_Functions","url_text":"NIST Handbook of Mathematical Functions"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology","url_text":"National Institute of Standards and Technology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19225-5","url_text":"978-0-521-19225-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2723248","url_text":"2723248"}]},{"reference":"Angel, Allen R.; Runde, Dennis C.; Gilligan, Lawrence; Semmler, Richard (2010). Elementary Algebra for College Students (8th ed.). Prentice Hall. Ch. 1, §9, Objective 3. ISBN 978-0-321-62093-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prentice_Hall","url_text":"Prentice Hall"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-62093-4","url_text":"978-0-321-62093-4"}]},{"reference":"\"Formula Returns Unexpected Positive Value\". Microsoft. 2005-08-15. Archived from the original on 2015-04-19. Retrieved 2012-03-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150419091629/https://support.microsoft.com/en-gb/kb/kbview/132686","url_text":"\"Formula Returns Unexpected Positive Value\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"},{"url":"https://support.microsoft.com/en-gb/kb/kbview/132686","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chrystal, George (1904) [1886]. Algebra. Vol. 1 (5th ed.). \"Division\", Ch. 1 §§19–26, pp. 14–20.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Chrystal","url_text":"Chrystal, George"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/algebraelementar01chryuoft/page/14/","url_text":"\"Division\", Ch. 1 §§19–26"}]},{"reference":"Cajori, Florian (1928). A History of Mathematical Notations. Vol. 1. La Salle, Illinois: Open Court. §242. \"Order of operations in terms containing both ÷ and ×\", p. 274.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florian_Cajori","url_text":"Cajori, Florian"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_Mathematical_Notations","url_text":"A History of Mathematical Notations"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/b29980343_0001/page/274/","url_text":"§242. \"Order of operations in terms containing both ÷ and ×\""}]},{"reference":"Wu, Hung-Hsi (2007) [2004]. \"\"Order of operations\" and other oddities in school mathematics\" (PDF). Dept. of Mathematics, University of California. Retrieved 2007-07-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://math.berkeley.edu/~wu/order5.pdf","url_text":"\"\"Order of operations\" and other oddities in school mathematics\""}]},{"reference":"Lennes, N. J. (1917). \"Discussions: Relating to the Order of Operations in Algebra\". The American Mathematical Monthly. 24 (2): 93–95. doi:10.2307/2972726. JSTOR 2972726.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2972726","url_text":"10.2307/2972726"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2972726","url_text":"2972726"}]},{"reference":"Strogatz, Steven (2019-08-02). \"The Math Equation That Tried to Stump the Internet\". The New York Times. Retrieved 2024-02-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Strogatz","url_text":"Strogatz, Steven"},{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/02/science/math-equation-pedmas-bemdas-bedmas.html","url_text":"\"The Math Equation That Tried to Stump the Internet\""}]},{"reference":"\"Physical Review Style and Notation Guide\" (PDF). American Physical Society. 2012. § IV.E.2.e. Retrieved 2012-08-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://publish.aps.org/files/styleguide-pr.pdf","url_text":"\"Physical Review Style and Notation Guide\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Physical_Society","url_text":"American Physical Society"}]},{"reference":"Graham, Ronald L.; Knuth, Donald E.; Patashnik, Oren (1994). Concrete Mathematics (2nd ed.). Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley. \"A Note on Notation\", p. xi. ISBN 0-201-55802-5. MR 1397498. An expression of the form a/bc means the same as a/(bc). Moreover, log x/log y = (log x)/(log y) and 2n! = 2(n!).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_L._Graham","url_text":"Graham, Ronald L."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_E._Knuth","url_text":"Knuth, Donald E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oren_Patashnik","url_text":"Patashnik, Oren"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-55802-5","url_text":"0-201-55802-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1397498","url_text":"1397498"}]},{"reference":"Fateman, R. J.; Caspi, E. (1999). Parsing TEX into mathematics (PDF). International Symposium on Symbolic and Algebraic Computation, Vancouver, 28–31 July 1999.","urls":[{"url":"https://people.eecs.berkeley.edu/~fateman/papers/parsing_tex.pdf","url_text":"Parsing TEX into mathematics"}]},{"reference":"Haelle, Tara (2013-03-12). \"What Is the Answer to That Stupid Math Problem on Facebook? And why are people so riled up about it?\". Slate. Retrieved 2023-09-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://slate.com/technology/2013/03/facebook-math-problem-why-pemdas-doesnt-always-give-a-clear-answer.html","url_text":"\"What Is the Answer to That Stupid Math Problem on Facebook? And why are people so riled up about it?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Rules of arithmetic\" (PDF). Mathcentre.ac.uk. 2009. Retrieved 2019-08-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mathcentre.ac.uk/resources/uploaded/mc-ty-rules-2009-1.pdf","url_text":"\"Rules of arithmetic\""}]},{"reference":"Ginsburg, David (2011-01-01). \"Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally (PEMDAS)--Forever!\". Education Week - Coach G's Teaching Tips. Retrieved 2023-09-17.","urls":[{"url":"http://blogs.edweek.org/teachers/coach_gs_teaching_tips/2011/01/math_teachers_please_excuse_dear_aunt_sally--forever.html","url_text":"\"Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally (PEMDAS)--Forever!\""}]},{"reference":"Ali Rahman, Ernna Sukinnah; Shahrill, Masitah; Abbas, Nor Arifahwati; Tan, Abby (2017). \"Developing Students' Mathematical Skills Involving Order of Operations\" (PDF). International Journal of Research in Education and Science. 3 (2): 373–382. doi:10.21890/ijres.327896. p. 373: The PEMDAS is an acronym or mnemonic for the order of operations that stands for Parenthesis, Exponents, Multiplication, Division, Addition and Subtraction. This acronym is widely used in the United States of America. Meanwhile, in other countries such as United Kingdom and Canada, the acronyms used are BODMAS (Brackets, Order, Division, Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction) and BIDMAS (Brackets, Indices, Division, Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction).","urls":[{"url":"https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1148460.pdf","url_text":"\"Developing Students' Mathematical Skills Involving Order of Operations\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.21890%2Fijres.327896","url_text":"10.21890/ijres.327896"}]},{"reference":"\"Le calcul qui divise : 6÷2(1+2)\". Micmaths (Video) (in French).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tYf3CpbqAVo","url_text":"\"Le calcul qui divise : 6÷2(1+2)\""}]},{"reference":"Vanderbeek, Greg (2007). Order of Operations and RPN (Expository paper). Master of Arts in Teaching (MAT) Exam Expository Papers. Lincoln: University of Nebraska. Paper 46. 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JSTOR 41183631.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5951%2FMTMS.16.7.0414","url_text":"10.5951/MTMS.16.7.0414"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/41183631","url_text":"41183631"}]},{"reference":"Cheng, Eugenia (2023). Is Math Real? How Simple Questions Lead Us to Mathematics' Deepest Truths. Basic Books. pp. 235–238. ISBN 978-1-541-60182-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenia_Cheng","url_text":"Cheng, Eugenia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-541-60182-6","url_text":"978-1-541-60182-6"}]},{"reference":"Lee, Jae Ki; Licwinko, Susan; Taylor-Buckner, Nicole (2013). \"Exploring Mathematical Reasoning of the Order of Operations: Rearranging the Procedural Component PEMDAS\". Journal of Mathematics Education at Teachers College. 4 (2): 73–78. doi:10.7916/jmetc.v4i2.633. p. 73: [...] students frequently make calculation errors with expressions which have either multiplication and division or addition and subtraction next to each other. [...]","urls":[{"url":"https://journals.library.columbia.edu/index.php/jmetc/article/download/633/79","url_text":"\"Exploring Mathematical Reasoning of the Order of Operations: Rearranging the Procedural Component PEMDAS\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Mathematics_Education_at_Teachers_College","url_text":"Journal of Mathematics Education at Teachers College"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.7916%2Fjmetc.v4i2.633","url_text":"10.7916/jmetc.v4i2.633"}]},{"reference":"Dupree, Kami M. (2016). \"Questioning the Order of Operations\". Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School. 22 (3): 152–159. doi:10.5951/mathteacmiddscho.22.3.0152.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5951%2Fmathteacmiddscho.22.3.0152","url_text":"10.5951/mathteacmiddscho.22.3.0152"}]},{"reference":"Taff, Jason (2017). \"Rethinking the Order of Operations (or What Is the Matter with Dear Aunt Sally?)\". The Mathematics Teacher. 111 (2): 126–132. doi:10.5951/mathteacher.111.2.0126.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5951%2Fmathteacher.111.2.0126","url_text":"10.5951/mathteacher.111.2.0126"}]},{"reference":"\"Calculation Priority Sequence\". support.casio.com. Casio. 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Now, implied multiplication is recognized by the AOS and the square root, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions can be followed by their arguments as when working with pencil and paper.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.datamath.net/Leaflets/TI-88_Announcement.pdf","url_text":"Announcing the TI Programmable 88!"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments","url_text":"Texas Instruments"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_Operating_System","url_text":"AOS"}]},{"reference":"Simons, Peter Murray (2021). \"Łukasiewicz's Parenthesis-Free or Polish Notation\". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Dept. of Philosophy, Stanford University. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewald_summation	Ewald summation	["1 Derivation","2 Particle mesh Ewald (PME) method","3 Dipole term","4 History","5 Scaling","6 See also","7 References"]	Ewald summation, named after Paul Peter Ewald, is a method for computing long-range interactions (e.g. electrostatic interactions) in periodic systems. It was first developed as the method for calculating the electrostatic energies of ionic crystals, and is now commonly used for calculating long-range interactions in computational chemistry. Ewald summation is a special case of the Poisson summation formula, replacing the summation of interaction energies in real space with an equivalent summation in Fourier space. In this method, the long-range interaction is divided into two parts: a short-range contribution, and a long-range contribution which does not have a singularity. The short-range contribution is calculated in real space, whereas the long-range contribution is calculated using a Fourier transform. The advantage of this method is the rapid convergence of the energy compared with that of a direct summation. This means that the method has high accuracy and reasonable speed when computing long-range interactions, and it is thus the de facto standard method for calculating long-range interactions in periodic systems. The method requires charge neutrality of the molecular system to accurately calculate the total Coulombic interaction. A study of the truncation errors introduced in the energy and force calculations of disordered point-charge systems is provided by Kolafa and Perram. Derivation Ewald summation rewrites the interaction potential as the sum of two terms, φ ( r ) = d e f φ s r ( r ) + φ ℓ r ( r ) , {\displaystyle \varphi (\mathbf {r} )\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ \varphi _{sr}(\mathbf {r} )+\varphi _{\ell r}(\mathbf {r} ),} where φ s r ( r ) {\displaystyle \varphi _{sr}(\mathbf {r} )} represents the short-range term whose sum quickly converges in real space and φ ℓ r ( r ) {\displaystyle \varphi _{\ell r}(\mathbf {r} )} represents the long-range term whose sum quickly converges in Fourier (reciprocal) space. The long-ranged part should be finite for all arguments (most notably r = 0) but may have any convenient mathematical form, most typically a Gaussian distribution. The method assumes that the short-range part can be summed easily; hence, the problem becomes the summation of the long-range term. Due to the use of the Fourier sum, the method implicitly assumes that the system under study is infinitely periodic (a sensible assumption for the interiors of crystals). One repeating unit of this hypothetical periodic system is called a unit cell. One such cell is chosen as the "central cell" for reference and the remaining cells are called images. The long-range interaction energy is the sum of interaction energies between the charges of a central unit cell and all the charges of the lattice. Hence, it can be represented as a double integral over two charge density fields representing the fields of the unit cell and the crystal lattice E ℓ r = ∬ d r d r ′ ρ TOT ( r ) ρ u c ( r ′ ) φ ℓ r ( r − r ′ ) {\displaystyle E_{\ell r}=\iint d\mathbf {r} \,d\mathbf {r} ^{\prime }\,\rho _{\text{TOT}}(\mathbf {r} )\rho _{uc}(\mathbf {r} ^{\prime })\ \varphi _{\ell r}(\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} ^{\prime })} where the unit-cell charge density field ρ u c ( r ) {\displaystyle \rho _{uc}(\mathbf {r} )} is a sum over the positions r k {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} _{k}} of the charges q k {\displaystyle q_{k}} in the central unit cell ρ u c ( r ) = d e f ∑ c h a r g e s k q k δ ( r − r k ) {\displaystyle \rho _{uc}(\mathbf {r} )\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ \sum _{\mathrm {charges} \ k}q_{k}\delta (\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} _{k})} and the total charge density field ρ TOT ( r ) {\displaystyle \rho _{\text{TOT}}(\mathbf {r} )} is the same sum over the unit-cell charges q k {\displaystyle q_{k}} and their periodic images ρ TOT ( r ) = d e f ∑ n 1 , n 2 , n 3 ∑ c h a r g e s k q k δ ( r − r k − n 1 a 1 − n 2 a 2 − n 3 a 3 ) {\displaystyle \rho _{\text{TOT}}(\mathbf {r} )\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ \sum _{n_{1},n_{2},n_{3}}\sum _{\mathrm {charges} \ k}q_{k}\delta (\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} _{k}-n_{1}\mathbf {a} _{1}-n_{2}\mathbf {a} _{2}-n_{3}\mathbf {a} _{3})} Here, δ ( x ) {\displaystyle \delta (\mathbf {x} )} is the Dirac delta function, a 1 {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} _{1}} , a 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} _{2}} and a 3 {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} _{3}} are the lattice vectors and n 1 {\displaystyle n_{1}} , n 2 {\displaystyle n_{2}} and n 3 {\displaystyle n_{3}} range over all integers. The total field ρ TOT ( r ) {\displaystyle \rho _{\text{TOT}}(\mathbf {r} )} can be represented as a convolution of ρ u c ( r ) {\displaystyle \rho _{uc}(\mathbf {r} )} with a lattice function L ( r ) {\displaystyle L(\mathbf {r} )} L ( r ) = d e f ∑ n 1 , n 2 , n 3 δ ( r − n 1 a 1 − n 2 a 2 − n 3 a 3 ) {\displaystyle L(\mathbf {r} )\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ \sum _{n_{1},n_{2},n_{3}}\delta (\mathbf {r} -n_{1}\mathbf {a} _{1}-n_{2}\mathbf {a} _{2}-n_{3}\mathbf {a} _{3})} Since this is a convolution, the Fourier transformation of ρ TOT ( r ) {\displaystyle \rho _{\text{TOT}}(\mathbf {r} )} is a product ρ ~ TOT ( k ) = L ~ ( k ) ρ ~ u c ( k ) {\displaystyle {\tilde {\rho }}_{\text{TOT}}(\mathbf {k} )={\tilde {L}}(\mathbf {k} ){\tilde {\rho }}_{uc}(\mathbf {k} )} where the Fourier transform of the lattice function is another sum over delta functions L ~ ( k ) = ( 2 π ) 3 Ω ∑ m 1 , m 2 , m 3 δ ( k − m 1 b 1 − m 2 b 2 − m 3 b 3 ) {\displaystyle {\tilde {L}}(\mathbf {k} )={\frac {\left(2\pi \right)^{3}}{\Omega }}\sum _{m_{1},m_{2},m_{3}}\delta (\mathbf {k} -m_{1}\mathbf {b} _{1}-m_{2}\mathbf {b} _{2}-m_{3}\mathbf {b} _{3})} where the reciprocal space vectors are defined b 1 = d e f 2 π a 2 × a 3 Ω {\displaystyle \mathbf {b} _{1}\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ 2\pi {\frac {\mathbf {a} _{2}\times \mathbf {a} _{3}}{\Omega }}} (and cyclic permutations) where Ω = d e f a 1 ⋅ ( a 2 × a 3 ) {\displaystyle \Omega \ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ \mathbf {a} _{1}\cdot \left(\mathbf {a} _{2}\times \mathbf {a} _{3}\right)} is the volume of the central unit cell (if it is geometrically a parallelepiped, which is often but not necessarily the case). Note that both L ( r ) {\displaystyle L(\mathbf {r} )} and L ~ ( k ) {\displaystyle {\tilde {L}}(\mathbf {k} )} are real, even functions. For brevity, define an effective single-particle potential v ( r ) = d e f ∫ d r ′ ρ u c ( r ′ ) φ ℓ r ( r − r ′ ) {\displaystyle v(\mathbf {r} )\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ \int d\mathbf {r} ^{\prime }\,\rho _{uc}(\mathbf {r} ^{\prime })\ \varphi _{\ell r}(\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} ^{\prime })} Since this is also a convolution, the Fourier transformation of the same equation is a product V ~ ( k ) = d e f ρ ~ u c ( k ) Φ ~ ( k ) {\displaystyle {\tilde {V}}(\mathbf {k} )\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ {\tilde {\rho }}_{uc}(\mathbf {k} ){\tilde {\Phi }}(\mathbf {k} )} where the Fourier transform is defined V ~ ( k ) = ∫ d r v ( r ) e − i k ⋅ r {\displaystyle {\tilde {V}}(\mathbf {k} )=\int d\mathbf {r} \ v(\mathbf {r} )\ e^{-i\mathbf {k} \cdot \mathbf {r} }} The energy can now be written as a single field integral E ℓ r = ∫ d r ρ TOT ( r ) v ( r ) {\displaystyle E_{\ell r}=\int d\mathbf {r} \ \rho _{\text{TOT}}(\mathbf {r} )\ v(\mathbf {r} )} Using Plancherel theorem, the energy can also be summed in Fourier space E ℓ r = ∫ d k ( 2 π ) 3 ρ ~ TOT ∗ ( k ) V ~ ( k ) = ∫ d k ( 2 π ) 3 L ~ ∗ ( k ) \| ρ ~ u c ( k ) \| 2 Φ ~ ( k ) = 1 Ω ∑ m 1 , m 2 , m 3 \| ρ ~ u c ( k ) \| 2 Φ ~ ( k ) {\displaystyle E_{\ell r}=\int {\frac {d\mathbf {k} }{\left(2\pi \right)^{3}}}\ {\tilde {\rho }}_{\text{TOT}}^{}(\mathbf {k} ){\tilde {V}}(\mathbf {k} )=\int {\frac {d\mathbf {k} }{\left(2\pi \right)^{3}}}{\tilde {L}}^{}(\mathbf {k} )\left\|{\tilde {\rho }}_{uc}(\mathbf {k} )\right\|^{2}{\tilde {\Phi }}(\mathbf {k} )={\frac {1}{\Omega }}\sum _{m_{1},m_{2},m_{3}}\left\|{\tilde {\rho }}_{uc}(\mathbf {k} )\right\|^{2}{\tilde {\Phi }}(\mathbf {k} )} where k = m 1 b 1 + m 2 b 2 + m 3 b 3 {\displaystyle \mathbf {k} =m_{1}\mathbf {b} _{1}+m_{2}\mathbf {b} _{2}+m_{3}\mathbf {b} _{3}} in the final summation. This is the essential result. Once ρ ~ u c ( k ) {\displaystyle {\tilde {\rho }}_{uc}(\mathbf {k} )} is calculated, the summation/integration over k {\displaystyle \mathbf {k} } is straightforward and should converge quickly. The most common reason for lack of convergence is a poorly defined unit cell, which must be charge neutral to avoid infinite sums. Particle mesh Ewald (PME) method Ewald summation was developed as a method in theoretical physics, long before the advent of computers. However, the Ewald method has enjoyed widespread use since the 1970s in computer simulations of particle systems, especially those whose particles interact via an inverse square force law such as gravity or electrostatics. Recently, PME has also been used to calculate the r − 6 {\displaystyle r^{-6}} part of the Lennard-Jones potential in order to eliminate artifacts due to truncation. Applications include simulations of plasmas, galaxies and molecules. In the particle mesh method, just as in standard Ewald summation, the generic interaction potential is separated into two terms φ ( r ) = d e f φ s r ( r ) + φ ℓ r ( r ) {\displaystyle \varphi (\mathbf {r} )\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ \varphi _{sr}(\mathbf {r} )+\varphi _{\ell r}(\mathbf {r} )} . The basic idea of particle mesh Ewald summation is to replace the direct summation of interaction energies between point particles E TOT = ∑ i , j φ ( r j − r i ) = E s r + E ℓ r {\displaystyle E_{\text{TOT}}=\sum _{i,j}\varphi (\mathbf {r} _{j}-\mathbf {r} _{i})=E_{sr}+E_{\ell r}} with two summations, a direct sum E s r {\displaystyle E_{sr}} of the short-ranged potential in real space E s r = ∑ i , j φ s r ( r j − r i ) {\displaystyle E_{sr}=\sum _{i,j}\varphi _{sr}(\mathbf {r} _{j}-\mathbf {r} _{i})} (this is the particle part of particle mesh Ewald) and a summation in Fourier space of the long-ranged part E ℓ r = ∑ k Φ ~ ℓ r ( k ) \| ρ ~ ( k ) \| 2 {\displaystyle E_{\ell r}=\sum _{\mathbf {k} }{\tilde {\Phi }}_{\ell r}(\mathbf {k} )\left\|{\tilde {\rho }}(\mathbf {k} )\right\|^{2}} where Φ ~ ℓ r {\displaystyle {\tilde {\Phi }}_{\ell r}} and ρ ~ ( k ) {\displaystyle {\tilde {\rho }}(\mathbf {k} )} represent the Fourier transforms of the potential and the charge density (this is the Ewald part). Since both summations converge quickly in their respective spaces (real and Fourier), they may be truncated with little loss of accuracy and great improvement in required computational time. To evaluate the Fourier transform ρ ~ ( k ) {\displaystyle {\tilde {\rho }}(\mathbf {k} )} of the charge density field efficiently, one uses the fast Fourier transform, which requires that the density field be evaluated on a discrete lattice in space (this is the mesh part). Due to the periodicity assumption implicit in Ewald summation, applications of the PME method to physical systems require the imposition of periodic symmetry. Thus, the method is best suited to systems that can be simulated as infinite in spatial extent. In molecular dynamics simulations this is normally accomplished by deliberately constructing a charge-neutral unit cell that can be infinitely "tiled" to form images; however, to properly account for the effects of this approximation, these images are reincorporated back into the original simulation cell. The overall effect is called a periodic boundary condition. To visualize this most clearly, think of a unit cube; the upper face is effectively in contact with the lower face, the right with the left face, and the front with the back face. As a result, the unit cell size must be carefully chosen to be large enough to avoid improper motion correlations between two faces "in contact", but still small enough to be computationally feasible. The definition of the cutoff between short- and long-range interactions can also introduce artifacts. The restriction of the density field to a mesh makes the PME method more efficient for systems with "smooth" variations in density, or continuous potential functions. Localized systems or those with large fluctuations in density may be treated more efficiently with the fast multipole method of Greengard and Rokhlin. Dipole term The electrostatic energy of a polar crystal (i.e. a crystal with a net dipole p u c {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} _{uc}} in the unit cell) is conditionally convergent, i.e. depends on the order of the summation. For example, if the dipole-dipole interactions of a central unit cell with unit cells located on an ever-increasing cube, the energy converges to a different value than if the interaction energies had been summed spherically. Roughly speaking, this conditional convergence arises because (1) the number of interacting dipoles on a shell of radius R {\displaystyle R} grows like R 2 {\textstyle R^{2}} ; (2) the strength of a single dipole-dipole interaction falls like 1 / R 3 {\textstyle 1/{R^{3}}} ; and (3) the mathematical summation ∑ n = 1 ∞ 1 n {\textstyle \sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{n}}} diverges. This somewhat surprising result can be reconciled with the finite energy of real crystals because such crystals are not infinite, i.e. have a particular boundary. More specifically, the boundary of a polar crystal has an effective surface charge density on its surface σ = P ⋅ n {\displaystyle \sigma =\mathbf {P} \cdot \mathbf {n} } where n {\displaystyle \mathbf {n} } is the surface normal vector and P {\displaystyle \mathbf {P} } represents the net dipole moment per volume. The interaction energy U {\displaystyle U} of the dipole in a central unit cell with that surface charge density can be written U = 1 2 V u c ∫ ( p u c ⋅ r ) ( p u c ⋅ n ) r 3 d S {\displaystyle U={\frac {1}{2V_{uc}}}\int {\frac {\left(\mathbf {p} _{uc}\cdot \mathbf {r} \right)\left(\mathbf {p} _{uc}\cdot \mathbf {n} \right)}{r^{3}}}\,dS} where p u c {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} _{uc}} and V u c {\displaystyle V_{uc}} are the net dipole moment and volume of the unit cell, d S {\displaystyle dS} is an infinitesimal area on the crystal surface and r {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} } is the vector from the central unit cell to the infinitesimal area. This formula results from integrating the energy d U = − p u c ⋅ d E {\displaystyle dU=-\mathbf {p} _{uc}\cdot d\mathbf {E} } where d E {\displaystyle d\mathbf {E} } represents the infinitesimal electric field generated by an infinitesimal surface charge d q = d e f σ d S {\displaystyle dq\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ \sigma dS} (Coulomb's law) d E = d e f ( − 1 4 π ϵ ) d q r r 3 = ( − 1 4 π ϵ ) σ d S r r 3 {\displaystyle d\mathbf {E} \ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ \left({\frac {-1}{4\pi \epsilon }}\right){\frac {dq\ \mathbf {r} }{r^{3}}}=\left({\frac {-1}{4\pi \epsilon }}\right){\frac {\sigma \,dS\ \mathbf {r} }{r^{3}}}} The negative sign derives from the definition of r {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} } , which points towards the charge, not away from it. History The Ewald summation was developed by Paul Peter Ewald in 1921 (see References below) to determine the electrostatic energy (and, hence, the Madelung constant) of ionic crystals. Scaling Generally, different Ewald summation methods give different time complexities. Direct calculation gives O ( N 2 ) {\displaystyle O(N^{2})} , where N {\displaystyle N} is the number of atoms in the system. The PME method gives O ( N log ⁡ N ) {\displaystyle O(N\,\log N)} . See also Paul Peter Ewald Madelung constant Poisson summation formula Molecular modeling Wolf summation References ^ Kolafa, Jiri; Perram, John W. (September 1992). "Cutoff Errors in the Ewald Summation Formulae for Point Charge Systems". Molecular Simulation. 9 (5): 351–368. doi:10.1080/08927029208049126. ^ Di Pierro, M.; Elber, R.; Leimkuhler, B. (2015), "A Stochastic Algorithm for the Isobaric-Isothermal Ensemble with Ewald Summations for all Long Range Forces.", Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation, 11 (12): 5624–5637, doi:10.1021/acs.jctc.5b00648, PMC 4890727, PMID 26616351 ^ Herce, HD; Garcia, AE; Darden, T (28 March 2007). "The electrostatic surface term: (I) periodic systems". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 126 (12): 124106. Bibcode:2007JChPh.126l4106H. doi:10.1063/1.2714527. PMID 17411107. ^ Darden, Tom; York, Darrin; Pedersen, Lee (1993-06-15). "Particle mesh Ewald: An N ⋅log( N ) method for Ewald sums in large systems". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 98 (12): 10089–10092. Bibcode:1993JChPh..9810089D. doi:10.1063/1.464397. ISSN 0021-9606. Ewald, P (1921). "Die Berechnung optischer und elektrostatischer Gitterpotentiale". Ann. Phys. 369 (3): 253–287. Bibcode:1921AnP...369..253E. doi:10.1002/andp.19213690304. Darden, T; Perera, L; Li, L; Pedersen, L (1999). "New tricks for modelers from the crystallography toolkit: the particle mesh Ewald algorithm and its use in nucleic acid simulations". Structure. 7 (3): R55–R60. doi:10.1016/S0969-2126(99)80033-1. PMID 10368306. S2CID 40964921. Frenkel, D., & Smit, B. (2001). Understanding molecular simulation: from algorithms to applications, Academic press.	[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Ewald summation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dirac delta function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_delta_function"},{"link_name":"convolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convolution"},{"link_name":"convolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convolution"},{"link_name":"Fourier transformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_transformation"},{"link_name":"Plancherel theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plancherel_theorem"}],"text":"Ewald summation rewrites the interaction potential as the sum of two terms,φ\n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n e\n f\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n φ\n \n s\n r\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n +\n \n φ\n \n ℓ\n r\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi (\\mathbf {r} )\\ {\\stackrel {\\mathrm {def} }{=}}\\ \\varphi _{sr}(\\mathbf {r} )+\\varphi _{\\ell r}(\\mathbf {r} ),}φ\n \n s\n r\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi _{sr}(\\mathbf {r} )}φ\n \n ℓ\n r\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi _{\\ell r}(\\mathbf {r} )}rGaussian distributionperiodicunit cellimagesThe long-range interaction energy is the sum of interaction energies between the charges of a central unit cell and all the charges of the lattice. Hence, it can be represented as a double integral over two charge density fields representing the fields of the unit cell and the crystal latticeE\n \n ℓ\n r\n \n \n =\n ∬\n d\n \n r\n \n \n d\n \n \n r\n \n \n ′\n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n TOT\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n ρ\n \n u\n c\n \n \n (\n \n \n r\n \n \n ′\n \n \n )\n \n \n φ\n \n ℓ\n r\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n −\n \n \n r\n \n \n ′\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\ell r}=\\iint d\\mathbf {r} \\,d\\mathbf {r} ^{\\prime }\\,\\rho _{\\text{TOT}}(\\mathbf {r} )\\rho _{uc}(\\mathbf {r} ^{\\prime })\\ \\varphi _{\\ell r}(\\mathbf {r} -\\mathbf {r} ^{\\prime })}ρ\n \n u\n c\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{uc}(\\mathbf {r} )}r\n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} _{k}}q\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle q_{k}}ρ\n \n u\n c\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n e\n f\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n \n c\n h\n a\n r\n g\n e\n s\n \n \n k\n \n \n \n q\n \n k\n \n \n δ\n (\n \n r\n \n −\n \n \n r\n \n \n k\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{uc}(\\mathbf {r} )\\ {\\stackrel {\\mathrm {def} }{=}}\\ \\sum _{\\mathrm {charges} \\ k}q_{k}\\delta (\\mathbf {r} -\\mathbf {r} _{k})}totalρ\n \n TOT\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{\\text{TOT}}(\\mathbf {r} )}q\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle q_{k}}ρ\n \n TOT\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n e\n f\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n \n n\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n n\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n \n c\n h\n a\n r\n g\n e\n s\n \n \n k\n \n \n \n q\n \n k\n \n \n δ\n (\n \n r\n \n −\n \n \n r\n \n \n k\n \n \n −\n \n n\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n n\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n 3\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{\\text{TOT}}(\\mathbf {r} )\\ {\\stackrel {\\mathrm {def} }{=}}\\ \\sum _{n_{1},n_{2},n_{3}}\\sum _{\\mathrm {charges} \\ k}q_{k}\\delta (\\mathbf {r} -\\mathbf {r} _{k}-n_{1}\\mathbf {a} _{1}-n_{2}\\mathbf {a} _{2}-n_{3}\\mathbf {a} _{3})}Here, \n \n \n \n δ\n (\n \n x\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\delta (\\mathbf {x} )}\n \n is the Dirac delta function, \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {a} _{1}}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {a} _{2}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {a} _{3}}\n \n are the lattice vectors and \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{1}}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{2}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{3}}\n \n range over all integers. The total field \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n TOT\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{\\text{TOT}}(\\mathbf {r} )}\n \n can be represented as a convolution of \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n u\n c\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{uc}(\\mathbf {r} )}\n \n with a lattice function \n \n \n \n L\n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L(\\mathbf {r} )}L\n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n e\n f\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n \n n\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n n\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n δ\n (\n \n r\n \n −\n \n n\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n n\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n 3\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L(\\mathbf {r} )\\ {\\stackrel {\\mathrm {def} }{=}}\\ \\sum _{n_{1},n_{2},n_{3}}\\delta (\\mathbf {r} -n_{1}\\mathbf {a} _{1}-n_{2}\\mathbf {a} _{2}-n_{3}\\mathbf {a} _{3})}Since this is a convolution, the Fourier transformation of \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n TOT\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{\\text{TOT}}(\\mathbf {r} )}\n \n is a productρ\n ~\n \n \n \n \n TOT\n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n =\n \n \n \n L\n ~\n \n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n ρ\n ~\n \n \n \n \n u\n c\n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tilde {\\rho }}_{\\text{TOT}}(\\mathbf {k} )={\\tilde {L}}(\\mathbf {k} ){\\tilde {\\rho }}_{uc}(\\mathbf {k} )}L\n ~\n \n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n =\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n 2\n π\n \n )\n \n \n 3\n \n \n Ω\n \n \n \n ∑\n \n \n m\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n m\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n m\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n δ\n (\n \n k\n \n −\n \n m\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n b\n \n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n m\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n b\n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n m\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n b\n \n \n 3\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tilde {L}}(\\mathbf {k} )={\\frac {\\left(2\\pi \\right)^{3}}{\\Omega }}\\sum _{m_{1},m_{2},m_{3}}\\delta (\\mathbf {k} -m_{1}\\mathbf {b} _{1}-m_{2}\\mathbf {b} _{2}-m_{3}\\mathbf {b} _{3})}b\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n e\n f\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n π\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ×\n \n \n a\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n Ω\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {b} _{1}\\ {\\stackrel {\\mathrm {def} }{=}}\\ 2\\pi {\\frac {\\mathbf {a} _{2}\\times \\mathbf {a} _{3}}{\\Omega }}}Ω\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n e\n f\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ⋅\n \n (\n \n \n \n a\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ×\n \n \n a\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Omega \\ {\\stackrel {\\mathrm {def} }{=}}\\ \\mathbf {a} _{1}\\cdot \\left(\\mathbf {a} _{2}\\times \\mathbf {a} _{3}\\right)}parallelepipedL\n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L(\\mathbf {r} )}L\n ~\n \n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tilde {L}}(\\mathbf {k} )}For brevity, define an effective single-particle potentialv\n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n e\n f\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∫\n d\n \n \n r\n \n \n ′\n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n u\n c\n \n \n (\n \n \n r\n \n \n ′\n \n \n )\n \n \n φ\n \n ℓ\n r\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n −\n \n \n r\n \n \n ′\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle v(\\mathbf {r} )\\ {\\stackrel {\\mathrm {def} }{=}}\\ \\int d\\mathbf {r} ^{\\prime }\\,\\rho _{uc}(\\mathbf {r} ^{\\prime })\\ \\varphi _{\\ell r}(\\mathbf {r} -\\mathbf {r} ^{\\prime })}Since this is also a convolution, the Fourier transformation of the same equation is a productV\n ~\n \n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n e\n f\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n ~\n \n \n \n \n u\n c\n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n \n \n \n Φ\n ~\n \n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tilde {V}}(\\mathbf {k} )\\ {\\stackrel {\\mathrm {def} }{=}}\\ {\\tilde {\\rho }}_{uc}(\\mathbf {k} ){\\tilde {\\Phi }}(\\mathbf {k} )}V\n ~\n \n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n =\n ∫\n d\n \n r\n \n \n v\n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n e\n \n −\n i\n \n k\n \n ⋅\n \n r\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tilde {V}}(\\mathbf {k} )=\\int d\\mathbf {r} \\ v(\\mathbf {r} )\\ e^{-i\\mathbf {k} \\cdot \\mathbf {r} }}The energy can now be written as a single field integralE\n \n ℓ\n r\n \n \n =\n ∫\n d\n \n r\n \n \n \n ρ\n \n TOT\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n v\n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\ell r}=\\int d\\mathbf {r} \\ \\rho _{\\text{TOT}}(\\mathbf {r} )\\ v(\\mathbf {r} )}Using Plancherel theorem, the energy can also be summed in Fourier spaceE\n \n ℓ\n r\n \n \n =\n ∫\n \n \n \n d\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n 2\n π\n \n )\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n ~\n \n \n \n \n TOT\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n \n \n \n V\n ~\n \n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n =\n ∫\n \n \n \n d\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n 2\n π\n \n )\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n L\n ~\n \n \n \n \n ∗\n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n \n \n \|\n \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n ~\n \n \n \n \n u\n c\n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n \n \|\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n Φ\n ~\n \n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n =\n \n \n 1\n Ω\n \n \n \n ∑\n \n \n m\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n m\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n m\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \|\n \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n ~\n \n \n \n \n u\n c\n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n \n \|\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n Φ\n ~\n \n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\ell r}=\\int {\\frac {d\\mathbf {k} }{\\left(2\\pi \\right)^{3}}}\\ {\\tilde {\\rho }}_{\\text{TOT}}^{}(\\mathbf {k} ){\\tilde {V}}(\\mathbf {k} )=\\int {\\frac {d\\mathbf {k} }{\\left(2\\pi \\right)^{3}}}{\\tilde {L}}^{}(\\mathbf {k} )\\left\|{\\tilde {\\rho }}_{uc}(\\mathbf {k} )\\right\|^{2}{\\tilde {\\Phi }}(\\mathbf {k} )={\\frac {1}{\\Omega }}\\sum _{m_{1},m_{2},m_{3}}\\left\|{\\tilde {\\rho }}_{uc}(\\mathbf {k} )\\right\|^{2}{\\tilde {\\Phi }}(\\mathbf {k} )}where \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n =\n \n m\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n b\n \n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n m\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n b\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n m\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n b\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {k} =m_{1}\\mathbf {b} _{1}+m_{2}\\mathbf {b} _{2}+m_{3}\\mathbf {b} _{3}}\n \n in the final summation.This is the essential result. Once \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n ~\n \n \n \n \n u\n c\n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tilde {\\rho }}_{uc}(\\mathbf {k} )}\n \n is calculated, the summation/integration over \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {k} }\n \n is straightforward and should converge quickly. The most common reason for lack of convergence is a poorly defined unit cell, which must be charge neutral to avoid infinite sums.","title":"Derivation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"theoretical physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physics"},{"link_name":"computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer"},{"link_name":"computer simulations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_simulation"},{"link_name":"inverse square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_square_law"},{"link_name":"force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force"},{"link_name":"gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity"},{"link_name":"electrostatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatics"},{"link_name":"Lennard-Jones potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lennard-Jones_potential"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"plasmas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_(physics)"},{"link_name":"galaxies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy"},{"link_name":"molecules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecules"},{"link_name":"Fourier transforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_transform"},{"link_name":"potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential"},{"link_name":"charge density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_density"},{"link_name":"fast Fourier transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Fourier_transform"},{"link_name":"molecular dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_dynamics"},{"link_name":"periodic boundary condition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_boundary_conditions"},{"link_name":"fast multipole method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_multipole_method"}],"text":"Ewald summation was developed as a method in theoretical physics, long before the advent of computers. However, the Ewald method has enjoyed widespread use since the 1970s in computer simulations of particle systems, especially those whose particles interact via an inverse square force law such as gravity or electrostatics. Recently, PME has also been used to calculate the \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n −\n 6\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle r^{-6}}\n \n part of the Lennard-Jones potential in order to eliminate artifacts due to truncation.[2] Applications include simulations of plasmas, galaxies and molecules.In the particle mesh method, just as in standard Ewald summation, the generic interaction potential is separated into two terms \n \n \n \n φ\n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n e\n f\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n φ\n \n s\n r\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n +\n \n φ\n \n ℓ\n r\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi (\\mathbf {r} )\\ {\\stackrel {\\mathrm {def} }{=}}\\ \\varphi _{sr}(\\mathbf {r} )+\\varphi _{\\ell r}(\\mathbf {r} )}\n \n. The basic idea of particle mesh Ewald summation is to replace the direct summation of interaction energies between point particlesE\n \n TOT\n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n ,\n j\n \n \n φ\n (\n \n \n r\n \n \n j\n \n \n −\n \n \n r\n \n \n i\n \n \n )\n =\n \n E\n \n s\n r\n \n \n +\n \n E\n \n ℓ\n r\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\text{TOT}}=\\sum _{i,j}\\varphi (\\mathbf {r} _{j}-\\mathbf {r} _{i})=E_{sr}+E_{\\ell r}}E\n \n s\n r\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{sr}}E\n \n s\n r\n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n ,\n j\n \n \n \n φ\n \n s\n r\n \n \n (\n \n \n r\n \n \n j\n \n \n −\n \n \n r\n \n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{sr}=\\sum _{i,j}\\varphi _{sr}(\\mathbf {r} _{j}-\\mathbf {r} _{i})}particleparticle mesh EwaldE\n \n ℓ\n r\n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Φ\n ~\n \n \n \n \n ℓ\n r\n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n \n \n \|\n \n \n \n \n ρ\n ~\n \n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n \n \|\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\ell r}=\\sum _{\\mathbf {k} }{\\tilde {\\Phi }}_{\\ell r}(\\mathbf {k} )\\left\|{\\tilde {\\rho }}(\\mathbf {k} )\\right\|^{2}}where \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Φ\n ~\n \n \n \n \n ℓ\n r\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tilde {\\Phi }}_{\\ell r}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n ~\n \n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tilde {\\rho }}(\\mathbf {k} )}\n \n represent the Fourier transforms of the potential and the charge density (this is the Ewald part). Since both summations converge quickly in their respective spaces (real and Fourier), they may be truncated with little loss of accuracy and great improvement in required computational time. To evaluate the Fourier transform \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n ~\n \n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tilde {\\rho }}(\\mathbf {k} )}\n \n of the charge density field efficiently, one uses the fast Fourier transform, which requires that the density field be evaluated on a discrete lattice in space (this is the mesh part).Due to the periodicity assumption implicit in Ewald summation, applications of the PME method to physical systems require the imposition of periodic symmetry. Thus, the method is best suited to systems that can be simulated as infinite in spatial extent. In molecular dynamics simulations this is normally accomplished by deliberately constructing a charge-neutral unit cell that can be infinitely \"tiled\" to form images; however, to properly account for the effects of this approximation, these images are reincorporated back into the original simulation cell. The overall effect is called a periodic boundary condition. To visualize this most clearly, think of a unit cube; the upper face is effectively in contact with the lower face, the right with the left face, and the front with the back face. As a result, the unit cell size must be carefully chosen to be large enough to avoid improper motion correlations between two faces \"in contact\", but still small enough to be computationally feasible. The definition of the cutoff between short- and long-range interactions can also introduce artifacts.The restriction of the density field to a mesh makes the PME method more efficient for systems with \"smooth\" variations in density, or continuous potential functions. Localized systems or those with large fluctuations in density may be treated more efficiently with the fast multipole method of Greengard and Rokhlin.","title":"Particle mesh Ewald (PME) method"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"conditionally convergent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditionally_convergent"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The electrostatic energy of a polar crystal (i.e. a crystal with a net dipole \n \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n u\n c\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {p} _{uc}}\n \n in the unit cell) is conditionally convergent, i.e. depends on the order of the summation. For example, if the dipole-dipole interactions of a central unit cell with unit cells located on an ever-increasing cube, the energy converges to a different value than if the interaction energies had been summed spherically. Roughly speaking, this conditional convergence arises because (1) the number of interacting dipoles on a shell of radius \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R}\n \n grows like \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle R^{2}}\n \n; (2) the strength of a single dipole-dipole interaction falls like \n \n \n \n 1\n \n /\n \n \n \n R\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle 1/{R^{3}}}\n \n; and (3) the mathematical summation \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n n\n =\n 1\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n \n \n 1\n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle \\sum _{n=1}^{\\infty }{\\frac {1}{n}}}\n \n diverges.This somewhat surprising result can be reconciled with the finite energy of real crystals because such crystals are not infinite, i.e. have a particular boundary. More specifically, the boundary of a polar crystal has an effective surface charge density on its surface \n \n \n \n σ\n =\n \n P\n \n ⋅\n \n n\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma =\\mathbf {P} \\cdot \\mathbf {n} }\n \n where \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {n} }\n \n is the surface normal vector and \n \n \n \n \n P\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {P} }\n \n represents the net dipole moment per volume. The interaction energy \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U}\n \n of the dipole in a central unit cell with that surface charge density can be written[3]U\n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n \n V\n \n u\n c\n \n \n \n \n \n ∫\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n p\n \n \n u\n c\n \n \n ⋅\n \n r\n \n \n )\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n p\n \n \n u\n c\n \n \n ⋅\n \n n\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n r\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n d\n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U={\\frac {1}{2V_{uc}}}\\int {\\frac {\\left(\\mathbf {p} _{uc}\\cdot \\mathbf {r} \\right)\\left(\\mathbf {p} _{uc}\\cdot \\mathbf {n} \\right)}{r^{3}}}\\,dS}p\n \n \n u\n c\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {p} _{uc}}V\n \n u\n c\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{uc}}d\n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle dS}r\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} }d\n U\n =\n −\n \n \n p\n \n \n u\n c\n \n \n ⋅\n d\n \n E\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle dU=-\\mathbf {p} _{uc}\\cdot d\\mathbf {E} }d\n \n E\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle d\\mathbf {E} }d\n q\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n e\n f\n \n \n \n \n \n \n σ\n d\n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle dq\\ {\\stackrel {\\mathrm {def} }{=}}\\ \\sigma dS}Coulomb's lawd\n \n E\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n e\n f\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n 4\n π\n ϵ\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n d\n q\n \n \n r\n \n \n \n r\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n (\n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n 4\n π\n ϵ\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n d\n S\n \n \n r\n \n \n \n r\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle d\\mathbf {E} \\ {\\stackrel {\\mathrm {def} }{=}}\\ \\left({\\frac {-1}{4\\pi \\epsilon }}\\right){\\frac {dq\\ \\mathbf {r} }{r^{3}}}=\\left({\\frac {-1}{4\\pi \\epsilon }}\\right){\\frac {\\sigma \\,dS\\ \\mathbf {r} }{r^{3}}}}r\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} }","title":"Dipole term"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Paul Peter Ewald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Peter_Ewald"},{"link_name":"Madelung constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madelung_constant"}],"text":"The Ewald summation was developed by Paul Peter Ewald in 1921 (see References below) to determine the electrostatic energy (and, hence, the Madelung constant) of ionic crystals.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"time complexities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_complexity"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Darden1993-4"}],"text":"Generally, different Ewald summation methods give different time complexities. Direct calculation gives \n \n \n \n O\n (\n \n N\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(N^{2})}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n N\n \n \n {\\displaystyle N}\n \n is the number of atoms in the system. The PME method gives \n \n \n \n O\n (\n N\n \n log\n ⁡\n N\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(N\\,\\log N)}\n \n.[4]","title":"Scaling"}]	[]	[{"title":"Paul Peter Ewald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Peter_Ewald"},{"title":"Madelung constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madelung_constant"},{"title":"Poisson summation formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisson_summation_formula"},{"title":"Molecular modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_modeling"},{"title":"Wolf summation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_summation"}]	[{"reference":"Kolafa, Jiri; Perram, John W. (September 1992). \"Cutoff Errors in the Ewald Summation Formulae for Point Charge Systems\". Molecular Simulation. 9 (5): 351–368. doi:10.1080/08927029208049126.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08927029208049126","url_text":"10.1080/08927029208049126"}]},{"reference":"Di Pierro, M.; Elber, R.; Leimkuhler, B. (2015), \"A Stochastic Algorithm for the Isobaric-Isothermal Ensemble with Ewald Summations for all Long Range Forces.\", Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation, 11 (12): 5624–5637, doi:10.1021/acs.jctc.5b00648, PMC 4890727, PMID 26616351","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Chemical_Theory_and_Computation","url_text":"Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.jctc.5b00648","url_text":"10.1021/acs.jctc.5b00648"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4890727","url_text":"4890727"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26616351","url_text":"26616351"}]},{"reference":"Herce, HD; Garcia, AE; Darden, T (28 March 2007). \"The electrostatic surface term: (I) periodic systems\". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 126 (12): 124106. Bibcode:2007JChPh.126l4106H. doi:10.1063/1.2714527. PMID 17411107.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JChPh.126l4106H","url_text":"2007JChPh.126l4106H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2714527","url_text":"10.1063/1.2714527"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17411107","url_text":"17411107"}]},{"reference":"Darden, Tom; York, Darrin; Pedersen, Lee (1993-06-15). \"Particle mesh Ewald: An N ⋅log( N ) method for Ewald sums in large systems\". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 98 (12): 10089–10092. Bibcode:1993JChPh..9810089D. doi:10.1063/1.464397. ISSN 0021-9606.","urls":[{"url":"https://pubs.aip.org/jcp/article/98/12/10089/461765/Particle-mesh-Ewald-An-N-log-N-method-for-Ewald","url_text":"\"Particle mesh Ewald: An N ⋅log( N ) method for Ewald sums in large systems\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993JChPh..9810089D","url_text":"1993JChPh..9810089D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.464397","url_text":"10.1063/1.464397"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9606","url_text":"0021-9606"}]},{"reference":"Ewald, P (1921). \"Die Berechnung optischer und elektrostatischer Gitterpotentiale\". Ann. Phys. 369 (3): 253–287. Bibcode:1921AnP...369..253E. doi:10.1002/andp.19213690304.","urls":[{"url":"https://zenodo.org/record/1424363","url_text":"\"Die Berechnung optischer und elektrostatischer Gitterpotentiale\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1921AnP...369..253E","url_text":"1921AnP...369..253E"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19213690304","url_text":"10.1002/andp.19213690304"}]},{"reference":"Darden, T; Perera, L; Li, L; Pedersen, L (1999). \"New tricks for modelers from the crystallography toolkit: the particle mesh Ewald algorithm and its use in nucleic acid simulations\". Structure. 7 (3): R55–R60. doi:10.1016/S0969-2126(99)80033-1. PMID 10368306. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Cup	Apple Cup	["1 Series history","2 Game results","3 Coaching records since 1945","3.1 Washington","3.2 Washington State","4 See also","5 References"]	American college football rivalry Apple Cup Washington Huskies Washington State Cougars SportCollege footballFirst meetingNovember 30, 1900Tie, 5–5Latest meetingNovember 25, 2023Washington, 24–21Next meetingSeptember 14, 2024in SeattleStadiumsHusky StadiumMartin StadiumTrophyGovernor's Trophy(1934–c.1946)Apple Cup Trophy(since 1963)StatisticsMeetings total115All-time seriesWashington leads,76–33–6 (.687)Largest victoryWashington, 51–3 (2000)Longest win streakWashington, 8(1959–1966, 1974–1981)Current win streakWashington, 2(2022–present) The Apple Cup is an American college football rivalry game between the University of Washington Huskies and Washington State University Cougars, the two largest universities in the state of Washington. Both were members of the Pac-12 Conference until 2024. First played in 1900, 124 years ago, the matchup was traditionally the final game of the regular season for both teams and generally took place on the Saturday preceding Thanksgiving. With the NCAA's extension of the regular season to twelve games in 2006, the game is often played at a later date. From 2011 to 2023, it was most commonly held on the Friday after Thanksgiving. Due to the rivalry becoming a non-conference game with the demise of the Pac-12 Conference in 2024, the 2024 Apple Cup is scheduled to occur on Saturday, September 14. Since 1946, the game has been held in odd years in Seattle at Husky Stadium (except 2011, at CenturyLink Field), while Washington State has hosted during even years at Rogers Field (1946, 1948, 1954) and Martin Stadium (since 1982) in Pullman, and Joe Albi Stadium in Spokane. The games in eastern Washington from 1935 to 1948, all in Pullman, were held in mid-October. The exception was in 1945, when two games were played: the first in Seattle in mid-October, and the second in Pullman in late November. This will change in 2024, as Seattle will host for 2024, 2026, and 2028 while Pullman hosts in 2025 and 2027. First awarded in 1963, the Apple Cup Trophy is presented to the winner by the state's governor at the conclusion of the game. Series history The Governor's Trophy, engraved with game results for 1934–1939, on display at the Washington State Capitol. The teams played for the Governor's Trophy starting in 1934. This bronze shield was made by sculptor Dudley Pratt and donated and awarded by Governor Clarence D. Martin, an alumnus of the University of Washington and the namesake of Pullman's Martin Stadium. The winners for the years 1934–1939 are etched on the shield. The trophy was awarded until at least 1946.: 7 200km125miles Washington State Washington Locations of Washington and Washington State In 1963 the Big Apple Trophy was donated to the competition by the Washington Apple Commission, emblematic of Washington's national reputation as a major producer of apples. This award was colloquially referred to as the Apple Cup, which later came to metonymically refer to the game itself. In 1989 the apple was recognized as Washington's state fruit during the state's centennial celebration. When the college football regular season was lengthened from eleven to twelve games in 2006, there was a movement to change the date of the game from the Saturday before Thanksgiving to the weekend following, which would have allowed a bye week for both teams during the season. In 2006, both teams played twelve straight weeks without a bye, leaving the two teams noticeably fatigued. The 2007 game was played on the Saturday after Thanksgiving for the first time; but the 2008 game was returned to the Saturday before the holiday. The media joked that the 2008 game won by the Cougars in Pullman was the "Crapple Cup" and "full of worms," because WSU (1–10) hosted winless UW (0–10). The game returned to the Saturday after Thanksgiving in 2009 in Seattle. The 2011 game in Seattle was moved to CenturyLink Field to allow an early start on the renovation of Husky Stadium. From 1950 through 1980 (except for 1954), the WSU home games in the series were played in Spokane at Joe Albi Stadium (Memorial Stadium until 1962). The Cougars won three of these fifteen games (1958, 1968, 1972). In 1910, the WSU home game in Spokane was played at Recreation Park (47°40′05″N 117°22′05″W / 47.668°N 117.368°W / 47.668; -117.368). The first game in 1900 resulted in a 5–5 tie. The series has been played continuously since 1945, when there were two games, one in Seattle and one in Pullman. The 2020 game was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Game results Washington victoriesWashington State victoriesNo.DateLocationWinnerScore1 November 30, 1900 Seattle Tie5–52 November 1, 1901 Pullman Washington Agricultural 10–03 November 27, 1902 Seattle Washington 16–04 October 30, 1903 Pullman Washington 10–05 October 29, 1904 Seattle Washington 12–66 November 21, 1907 Seattle Washington State 10–57 November 7, 1908 Seattle Tie6–68 November 12, 1910 Spokane Washington 16–09 November 30, 1911 Seattle Washington 30–610 November 28, 1912 Seattle Washington 19–011 November 27, 1913 Seattle Washington 20–012 November 26, 1914 Seattle Washington 45–013 November 29, 1917 Seattle Washington State 14–014 November 15, 1919 Pullman Washington 13–715 November 24, 1921 Seattle Washington State 14–016 October 28, 1922 Pullman Washington 16–1317 November 24, 1923 Seattle Washington 24–718 November 22, 1924 Seattle Washington 14–019 October 31, 1925 Pullman Washington 23–020 October 23, 1926 Seattle Washington State 9–621 October 22, 1927 Seattle Washington 14–022 November 29, 1928 Seattle Washington 6–023 October 19, 1929 Pullman Washington State 20–1324 November 15, 1930 Seattle Washington State 3–025 November 14, 1931 Seattle Washington 12–026 November 12, 1932 Seattle Tie0–027 November 25, 1933 Pullman Washington State17–628 November 24, 1934 Seattle Tie0–029 October 19, 1935 Pullman Washington 21–030 November 26, 1936 Seattle #6 Washington 40–031 October 16, 1937 Pullman Tie7–732 November 26, 1938 Seattle Washington 26–033 October 14, 1939 Pullman Washington State 6–034 November 30, 1940 Seattle #12 Washington 33–935 October 11, 1941 Pullman Washington 23–1336 November 28, 1942 Seattle Tie0–037 October 13, 1945 Seattle Washington 6–038 November 24, 1945 Pullman Washington State 7–039 October 12, 1946 Pullman Washington 21–740 November 22, 1947 Seattle Washington 20–041 October 16, 1948 Pullman Washington State 10–042 November 19, 1949 Seattle Washington 34–2143 November 25, 1950 Spokane #18 Washington 52–2144 November 24, 1951 Seattle Washington State 27–2545 November 29, 1952 Spokane Washington 33–2746 November 21, 1953 Seattle Washington State 25–2047 November 20, 1954 Pullman Washington State 26–748 November 19, 1955 Seattle Washington 27–749 November 24, 1956 Spokane Washington 40–2650 November 23, 1957 Seattle Washington State 27–751 November 22, 1958 Spokane Washington State 18–1452 November 21, 1959 Seattle #14 Washington 20–053 November 19, 1960 Spokane #5 Washington 8–754 November 25, 1961 Seattle Washington 21–1755 November 24, 1962 Spokane Washington 26–2156 November 30, 1963 Seattle Washington 16–057 November 21, 1964 Spokane Washington 14–058 November 20, 1965 Seattle Washington 27–959 November 19, 1966 Spokane Washington 19–7No.DateLocationWinnerScore60 November 18, 1967 Seattle Washington State 9–761 November 23, 1968 Spokane Washington State 24–062 November 22, 1969 Seattle Washington 30–2163 November 21, 1970 Spokane Washington 43–2564 November 20, 1971 Seattle Washington 28–2065 November 18, 1972 Spokane #20 Washington State 27–1066 November 24, 1973 Seattle Washington State 52–2667 November 23, 1974 Spokane Washington 24–1768 November 22, 1975 Seattle Washington 28–2769 November 20, 1976 Spokane Washington 51–3270 November 19, 1977 Seattle #19 Washington 35–1571 November 25, 1978 Spokane Washington 38–872 November 17, 1979 Seattle #16 Washington 17–773 November 22, 1980 Spokane #16 Washington 30–2374 November 21, 1981 Seattle #17 Washington 23–1075 November 20, 1982 Pullman Washington State 24–2076 November 19, 1983 Seattle Washington State 17–677 November 17, 1984 Pullman #8 Washington 38–2978 November 23, 1985 Seattle Washington State 21–2079 November 22, 1986 Pullman #12 Washington 44–2380 November 21, 1987 Seattle Washington 34–1981 November 19, 1988 Pullman Washington State 32–3182 November 18, 1989 Seattle Washington 20–983 November 17, 1990 Pullman #10 Washington 55–1084 November 23, 1991 Seattle #2 Washington 56–2185 November 21, 1992 Pullman #25 Washington State 42–2386 November 20, 1993 Seattle Washington 26–387 November 19, 1994 Pullman Washington State 23–688 November 18, 1995 Seattle #22 Washington 33–3089 November 23, 1996 Pullman #12 Washington 31–24OT90 November 22, 1997 Seattle #11 Washington State 41–3591 November 21, 1998 Pullman Washington 16–992 November 20, 1999 Seattle Washington 24–1493 November 18, 2000 Pullman #6 Washington 51–394 November 17, 2001 Seattle #16 Washington 26–1495 November 23, 2002 Pullman Washington 29–263OT96 November 22, 2003 Seattle Washington 27–1997 November 20, 2004 Pullman Washington State 28–2598 November 19, 2005 Seattle Washington State 26–2299 November 18, 2006 Pullman Washington 35–32100 November 24, 2007 Seattle Washington State 42–35101 November 22, 2008 Pullman Washington State 16–132OT102 November 28, 2009 Seattle Washington 30–0103 December 4, 2010 Pullman Washington 35–28104 November 26, 2011 Seattle^ Washington 38–21105 November 23, 2012 Pullman Washington State 31–28OT106 November 29, 2013 Seattle Washington 27–17107 November 29, 2014 Pullman Washington 31–13108 November 27, 2015 Seattle Washington 45–10109 November 25, 2016 Pullman #6 Washington 45–17110 November 25, 2017 Seattle #15 Washington 41–14111 November 23, 2018 Pullman #16 Washington 28–15112 November 29, 2019 Seattle Washington 31–13113 November 26, 2021 Seattle Washington State 40–13114 November 26, 2022 Pullman #13 Washington 51–33115 November 25, 2023 Seattle #4 Washington 24–21116 September 14, 2024 SeattleSeries: Washington leads 76–33–6^ The 2011 game was played at CenturyLink Field in Seattleto expedite the Husky Stadium renovation project. Overtime was introduced for Division I-A (FBS) in 1996 and has been used four times in the Apple Cup, all in Pullman.Each team has two overtime victories: UW in 1996 and 2002, WSU in 2008 and 2012. OT → Overtime (1996, 2012) 2OT → Double Overtime (2008) 3OT → Triple Overtime (2002) After a two-year hiatus in 1943 and 1944, two games were played in 1945.The 2020 game scheduled in Pullman was declared No Contest by the league due to Washington State not having the minimum number of scholarship players available for the game as a result of a positive football student-athlete COVID-19 cases. Prior to 1959, WSU was WSC. Coaching records since 1945 Washington Head Coach Team Games Seasons Wins Losses Ties Pct. Ralph Welch Washington 4 1945–1947 3 1 0 .750 Howard Odell Washington 5 1948–1952 2 3 0 .400 John Cherberg Washington 3 1953–1955 1 2 0 .333 Darrell Royal Washington 1 1956 1 0 0 1.000 Jim Owens Washington 18 1957–1974 12 6 0 .667 Don James Washington 18 1975–1992 13 5 0 .722 Jim Lambright Washington 6 1993–1998 4 2 0 .667 Rick Neuheisel Washington 4 1999–2002 4 0 1.000 Keith Gilbertson Washington 2 2003–2004 1 1 .500 Tyrone Willingham Washington 4 2005–2008 1 3 .250 Steve Sarkisian Washington 5 2009–2013 4 1 .800 Chris Petersen Washington 6 2014–2019 6 0 1.000 Bob Gregory (Interim) Washington 1 2021 0 1 .000 Kalen DeBoer Washington 2 2022–2023 2 0 1.000 Jedd Fisch Washington 0 2024–present 0 0 – Source: Washington State Head Coach Team Games Seasons Wins Losses Ties Pct. Phil Sarboe Washington State 6 1945–1949 2 4 0 .333 Forest Evashevski Washington State 2 1950–1951 1 1 0 .500 Al Kircher Washington State 4 1952–1955 2 2 0 .500 Jim Sutherland Washington State 8 1956–1963 2 6 0 .250 Bert Clark Washington State 4 1964–1967 1 3 0 .250 Jim Sweeney Washington State 8 1968–1975 3 5 0 .375 Jackie Sherrill Washington State 1 1976 0 1 0 .000 Warren Powers Washington State 1 1977 0 1 0 .000 Jim Walden Washington State 9 1978–1986 3 6 0 .333 Dennis Erickson Washington State 2 1987–1988 1 1 0 .500 Mike Price Washington State 14 1989–2002 3 11 0 .214 Bill Doba Washington State 5 2003–2007 3 2 .600 Paul Wulff Washington State 4 2008–2011 1 3 .250 Mike Leach Washington State 8 2012–2019 1 7 .125 Jake Dickert Washington State 3 2021–2023 1 2 .333 Source: Last tie was in 1942, overtime began in 1996 in Division I-A Two games were played in 1945 Jimmy Lake (UW) and Nick Rolovich (WSU) both coached for the 2020 and 2021 seasons, but neither in an Apple Cup; the 2020 game was canceled amid the COVID-19 pandemic, and both were fired prior to the 2021 matchup. See also List of NCAA college football rivalry games List of most-played college football series in NCAA Division I Washington–Washington State men's basketball rivalry References ^ a b "Winsipedia – Washington Huskies vs. Washington State Cougars football series history". Winsipedia. ^ a b "A tie at Seattle". Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington). November 30, 1900. p. 2. ^ "Pullman still claims the lead". Spokane Daily Chronicle. (Washington). December 1, 1900. p. 5. ^ "Football men return". Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington). December 2, 1900. p. 5. ^ Withers, Bud (January 6, 2014). "Apple Cup moving back to Saturday for 2014". Seattle Times. Retrieved January 25, 2014. ^ Boeing Apple Cup Countdown to Kickoff ^ "Important W.S.C.-Husky game on at Pullman today". Spokesman-Review. Spokane, Washington. November 24, 1945. p. 9. ^ "Cougars beat Huskies; make bid for Rose Bowl". Lewiston Morning Tribune. Idaho. Associated Press. November 25, 1945. p. 10. ^ Ashlock, Herb (November 26, 1945). "Two factors remain in path of W.S.C.'s Rose Bowl hopes". Spokane Daily Chronicle. Washington. p. 13. ^ "U.W. Is First Home for Apple Cup". The Seattle Times. December 1, 1963. p. B. NEW TROPHY: the Apple Cup Trophy which will be awarded each year to the winner in the cross-state football game. The Huskies won first possession of the cup by downing the Cougars, 16–0. ^ a b "Trophy for U.W.–State Grid Clash". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. October 7, 1934. p. 19. A "Governor's Trophy" for the Washington–Washington State football struggle. That was the announcement made yesterday by University of Washington officials who said that such a cup had been donated by Governor Martin. The game will be played in Seattle on November 24. ^ "'Big Stick' Stays Trophy Travels To Be Awarded". Seattle Times. October 17, 1935. The "Big 'W' Stick"—center of an annual college feud between University of Washington and Washington State college students—will not be taken to Pullman Instead, the governor's trophy, donated last year by Gov. Clarence D. Martin to end the threat of annual riots over the stick, will be presented to the winning school ^ a b c Yanity, Molly (November 22, 2007). "Apple Cup Preview: After 107 rollicking years, even the trophy has a history". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Archived from the original on December 11, 2013. Retrieved October 5, 2022. The Apple Cup has been awarded to the winner of the Huskies-Cougars game since 1962, but on this 100th renewal, another relic of the fabled annual game has surfaced — the original Governor's Trophy. On it, a Husky and Cougar are jousting over the state shield and, etched into rectangles beneath them, are the scores of the games from 1934 to 1939. ^ "Huskies Playing Underdog Role in State Scrap". The Seattle Times. November 27, 1942. p. 22. Victor in tomorrow's game will take over possession of the Governor's Trophy, an award offered by former Governor Clarence Martin to be held by the winner of the annual Washington–W.S.C. game. ^ Stan Mataya, ed. (October 12, 1946). The Cougar Huddle: Washington vs. Washington State. Rogers Field, Pullman, Washington: Associated Students of the State College of Washington. ^ "U.W. or W.S.U.? State's Big Apple Trophy Up for Grabs". The Seattle Times. November 21, 1963. p. 27. Who will get the first bite? The Big Apple Trophy, a new award symbolizing rivalry and competition between Washington State University and the University of Washington football teams. The perpetual trophy will be presented for the first time Saturday after the Husky–Cougar Homecoming game by Sun Dodgers, men's spirit organization. The Washington Apple Commission donated the trophy. ^ "Apple Cup Is On The Line". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. November 21, 1964. p. 8. The Big Apple Trophy, symbolic of victory in the Washington–Washington State football series, will go on the line today when the two teams play in Spokane. Donated by the Washington State Apple Commission last year, ^ "RCW 1.20.035 (1989 c 354 § 63.)". Washington State Legislature. November 2, 2017. Retrieved November 12, 2017. The official fruit of the state of Washington is the apple. ^ "Washington-Washington State playing for pride in Apple Cup – Austin Murphy". SI.com. February 24, 2009. Archived from the original on February 24, 2009. Retrieved November 26, 2017. ^ "UW stadium go out for 1954; COP may appear". Spokesman-Review. Spokane, Washington. November 26, 1953. p. 17. ^ "Apple Cup between UW, WSU canceled this year due to coronavirus". King 5. November 22, 2020. Retrieved November 23, 2020. ^ "W.S.C. defeats varsity in mud". Spokesman-Review. Spokane, Washington. November 22, 1907. p. 15. ^ "Pac-12 statement on Washington at Washington State football game". November 22, 2020. Retrieved November 22, 2020. ^ "New name for WSC near O.K." Spokane Daily Chronicle. Washington. February 4, 1959. p. 2. ^ "New name near for State College". Spokane Daily Chronicle. Washington. August 5, 1959. p. 18. ^ "2017 Football Media Guide" (PDF). University of Washington Athletics. pp. 175, 211. Retrieved December 4, 2018. ^ "2018 Football Media Guide" (PDF). Washington State University Athletics. pp. 86, 116. Retrieved December 4, 2018. vteWashington Huskies footballVenues Various (1889–1894) Denny Field (1895–1920) CenturyLink Field (2011–2012) Husky Stadium (1920–2011, 2013–present) Bowls & rivalries Bowl games Oregon Washington State: Apple Cup Northwest Championship Culture & lore Dubs Harry the Husky "Bow Down to Washington" Husky Marching Band Quarterback U The Wave 1985 Oregon State game Whammy in Miami People Head coaches Statistical leaders Starting quarterbacks NFL draftees Annual awards Seasons 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 National championship seasons in bold vteWashington State Cougars footballVenues Rogers Field (1895–1969) Joe Albi Stadium (1950–1983 as alternate; 1970–1971 as sole) Martin Stadium (1972–present) Bowls & rivalries Bowl games Idaho: Battle of the Palouse Washington: Apple Cup Northwest Championship Culture & lore Butch T. Cougar "Fight Song" Marching band Coug it Ol' Crimson People Head coaches NFL draftees Statistical leaders Seasons 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943–1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 vtePac-12 football rivalriesConference Arizona–Arizona State (Territorial Cup) Big Game (California–Stanford) California–UCLA Colorado–Utah (Rumble in the Rockies) Northwest Championship (Oregon–Oregon State–Washington–Washington State) Oregon–Oregon State (Platypus Trophy) Oregon–Washington Stanford–USC UCLA–USC (Victory Bell) Washington–Washington State (Apple Cup) Non-conference Arizona–New Mexico BYU–Utah (Holy War) BYU–Utah–Utah State (Beehive Boot) Colorado–Colorado State (Rocky Mountain Showdown) Colorado–Kansas State Colorado–Nebraska Idaho–Washington State (Battle of the Palouse) Notre Dame–Stanford Notre Dame–USC Oregon–Saint Mary's (Governors' Trophy Game) San Jose State–Stanford (Bill Walsh Legacy Game) Utah–Utah State (Battle of the Brothers)	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"college football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_football"},{"link_name":"rivalry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_rivalry"},{"link_name":"University of Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washington"},{"link_name":"Huskies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Huskies_football"},{"link_name":"Washington State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_State_University"},{"link_name":"Cougars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_State_Cougars_football"},{"link_name":"Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_(state)"},{"link_name":"Pac-12 Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pac-12_Conference"},{"link_name":"1900","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1900_Washington_football_team"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atasea-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-psclmld-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fmretn-4"},{"link_name":"Thanksgiving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanksgiving_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"2006","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_NCAA_Division_I_FBS_football_season"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"1946","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1946_Washington_Huskies_football_team"},{"link_name":"Seattle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle"},{"link_name":"Husky Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husky_Stadium"},{"link_name":"2011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Washington_Huskies_football_team"},{"link_name":"CenturyLink Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CenturyLink_Field"},{"link_name":"Rogers Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogers_Field_(Washington)"},{"link_name":"Martin Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Stadium"},{"link_name":"1982","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_Washington_State_Cougars_football_team"},{"link_name":"Pullman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pullman,_Washington"},{"link_name":"Joe Albi Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Albi_Stadium"},{"link_name":"Spokane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spokane,_Washington"},{"link_name":"eastern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Washington"},{"link_name":"1945","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945_Washington_Huskies_football_team"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-imgapt-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mbidfrb-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tfremip-9"},{"link_name":"1963","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1963_Washington_Huskies_football_team"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1963FirstHomeForAppleCup-10"},{"link_name":"governor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_Washington"}],"text":"The Apple Cup is an American college football rivalry game between the University of Washington Huskies and Washington State University Cougars, the two largest universities in the state of Washington. Both were members of the Pac-12 Conference until 2024.First played in 1900, 124 years ago,[2][3][4] the matchup was traditionally the final game of the regular season for both teams and generally took place on the Saturday preceding Thanksgiving. With the NCAA's extension of the regular season to twelve games in 2006, the game is often played at a later date. From 2011 to 2023, it was most commonly held on the Friday after Thanksgiving.[5] Due to the rivalry becoming a non-conference game with the demise of the Pac-12 Conference in 2024, the 2024 Apple Cup is scheduled to occur on Saturday, September 14. [6]Since 1946, the game has been held in odd years in Seattle at Husky Stadium (except 2011, at CenturyLink Field), while Washington State has hosted during even years at Rogers Field (1946, 1948, 1954) and Martin Stadium (since 1982) in Pullman, and Joe Albi Stadium in Spokane. The games in eastern Washington from 1935 to 1948, all in Pullman, were held in mid-October. The exception was in 1945, when two games were played: the first in Seattle in mid-October, and the second in Pullman in late November.[7][8][9] This will change in 2024, as Seattle will host for 2024, 2026, and 2028 while Pullman hosts in 2025 and 2027.First awarded in 1963,[10] the Apple Cup Trophy is presented to the winner by the state's governor at the conclusion of the game.","title":"Apple Cup"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Governor%27s_Trophy.png"},{"link_name":"Governor's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor_of_Washington"},{"link_name":"Washington State Capitol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_State_Capitol"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1934GovernorsTrophy-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1935BigStickStays-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GovernorsTrophy2007-13"},{"link_name":"Dudley Pratt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dudley_Pratt"},{"link_name":"Clarence D. Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence_D._Martin"},{"link_name":"Pullman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pullman,_Washington"},{"link_name":"Martin Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Stadium"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1934GovernorsTrophy-11"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GovernorsTrophy2007-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GovernorsTrophy2007-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1942GovernorsTrophy-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1946Program-15"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Map/5/47.1562/-120.20234/en"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.openstreetmap.org/copyright"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Policy:Maps_Terms_of_Use"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Map/6/47.1562/-120.20234/en"},{"link_name":"Washington Apple Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Apple_Commission"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1963BigAppleTrophy-16"},{"link_name":"Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_(state)"},{"link_name":"apples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1964AppleCupTrophy-17"},{"link_name":"metonymically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonymically"},{"link_name":"state fruit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_foods"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"centennial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centennial"},{"link_name":"2006","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_NCAA_Division_I_FBS_football_season"},{"link_name":"Thanksgiving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanksgiving_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_Washington_State_Cougars_football_team"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uwsgotff-20"},{"link_name":"Joe Albi Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Albi_Stadium"},{"link_name":"1958","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1958_Washington_State_Cougars_football_team"},{"link_name":"1968","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Washington_State_Cougars_football_team"},{"link_name":"1972","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_Washington_State_Cougars_football_team"},{"link_name":"47°40′05″N 117°22′05″W / 47.668°N 117.368°W / 47.668; -117.368","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Apple_Cup&params=47.668_N_117.368_W_"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"The Governor's Trophy, engraved with game results for 1934–1939, on display at the Washington State Capitol.The teams played for the Governor's Trophy starting in 1934.[11][12][13] This bronze shield was made by sculptor Dudley Pratt and donated and awarded by Governor Clarence D. Martin, an alumnus of the University of Washington and the namesake of Pullman's Martin Stadium.[11][13] The winners for the years 1934–1939 are etched on the shield.[13] The trophy was awarded until at least 1946.[14][15]: 7200km125miles\nWashington State\n\nWashington Locations of Washington and Washington StateIn 1963 the Big Apple Trophy was donated to the competition by the Washington Apple Commission,[16] emblematic of Washington's national reputation as a major producer of apples. This award was colloquially referred to as the Apple Cup,[17] which later came to metonymically refer to the game itself. In 1989 the apple was recognized as Washington's state fruit[18] during the state's centennial celebration.When the college football regular season was lengthened from eleven to twelve games in 2006, there was a movement to change the date of the game from the Saturday before Thanksgiving to the weekend following, which would have allowed a bye week for both teams during the season. In 2006, both teams played twelve straight weeks without a bye, leaving the two teams noticeably fatigued. The 2007 game was played on the Saturday after Thanksgiving for the first time; but the 2008 game was returned to the Saturday before the holiday.The media joked that the 2008 game won by the Cougars in Pullman was the \"Crapple Cup\" and \"full of worms,\" because WSU (1–10) hosted winless UW (0–10).[19] The game returned to the Saturday after Thanksgiving in 2009 in Seattle. The 2011 game in Seattle was moved to CenturyLink Field to allow an early start on the renovation of Husky Stadium.From 1950 through 1980 (except for 1954),[20] the WSU home games in the series were played in Spokane at Joe Albi Stadium (Memorial Stadium until 1962). The Cougars won three of these fifteen games (1958, 1968, 1972). In 1910, the WSU home game in Spokane was played at Recreation Park (47°40′05″N 117°22′05″W / 47.668°N 117.368°W / 47.668; -117.368).The first game in 1900 resulted in a 5–5 tie. The series has been played continuously since 1945, when there were two games, one in Seattle and one in Pullman. The 2020 game was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. [21]","title":"Series history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Division I-A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_I-A"},{"link_name":"(FBS)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football_Bowl_Subdivision"},{"link_name":"1996","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996_NCAA_Division_I-A_football_season"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WSU_Covid-19-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nrokffn-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nnfsc-25"}],"text":"Overtime was introduced for Division I-A (FBS) in 1996 and has been used four times in the Apple Cup, all in Pullman.Each team has two overtime victories: UW in 1996 and 2002, WSU in 2008 and 2012.\n\nOT → Overtime (1996, 2012)\n2OT → Double Overtime (2008)\n3OT → Triple Overtime (2002)\nAfter a two-year hiatus in 1943 and 1944, two games were played in 1945.The 2020 game scheduled in Pullman was declared No Contest by the league due to Washington State not having the minimum number of scholarship players available for the game as a result of a positive football student-athlete COVID-19 cases.[23] Prior to 1959, WSU was WSC.[24][25]","title":"Game results"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Coaching records since 1945"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uwmgdsvtn-26"}],"sub_title":"Washington","text":"Source:[26]","title":"Coaching records since 1945"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsumgdsvtn-27"},{"link_name":"1996","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996_NCAA_Division_I-A_football_season"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Lake"},{"link_name":"Nick Rolovich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Rolovich"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Washington_(state)"}],"sub_title":"Washington State","text":"Source:[27]Last tie was in 1942, overtime began in 1996 in Division I-A\nTwo games were played in 1945\nJimmy Lake (UW) and Nick Rolovich (WSU) both coached for the 2020 and 2021 seasons, but neither in an Apple Cup; the 2020 game was canceled amid the COVID-19 pandemic, and both were fired prior to the 2021 matchup.","title":"Coaching records since 1945"}]	[{"image_text":"The Governor's Trophy, engraved with game results for 1934–1939, on display at the Washington State Capitol.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/The_Governor%27s_Trophy.png/220px-The_Governor%27s_Trophy.png"}]	[{"title":"List of NCAA college football rivalry games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NCAA_college_football_rivalry_games"},{"title":"List of most-played college football series in NCAA Division I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most-played_college_football_series_in_NCAA_Division_I"},{"title":"Washington–Washington State men's basketball rivalry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%E2%80%93Washington_State_men%27s_basketball_rivalry"}]	[{"reference":"\"Winsipedia – Washington Huskies vs. Washington State Cougars football series history\". Winsipedia.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.winsipedia.com/washington/vs/washington-state","url_text":"\"Winsipedia – Washington Huskies vs. Washington State Cougars football series history\""}]},{"reference":"\"A tie at Seattle\". Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington). November 30, 1900. p. 2.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=r9EUAAAAIBAJ&sjid=RZsDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6294%2C2358509","url_text":"\"A tie at Seattle\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pullman still claims the lead\". Spokane Daily Chronicle. (Washington). December 1, 1900. p. 5.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HbVXAAAAIBAJ&sjid=2fMDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3896%2C4098407","url_text":"\"Pullman still claims the lead\""}]},{"reference":"\"Football men return\". Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington). December 2, 1900. p. 5.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=sNEUAAAAIBAJ&sjid=RZsDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6736%2C2482762","url_text":"\"Football men return\""}]},{"reference":"Withers, Bud (January 6, 2014). \"Apple Cup moving back to Saturday for 2014\". Seattle Times. Retrieved January 25, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://seattletimes.com/html/huskyfootball/2022608967_applecup07xml.html","url_text":"\"Apple Cup moving back to Saturday for 2014\""}]},{"reference":"Boeing Apple Cup Countdown to Kickoff","urls":[{"url":"https://gohuskies.com/gameday/football-vs-washington-state/football/426/","url_text":"Boeing Apple Cup Countdown to Kickoff"}]},{"reference":"\"Important W.S.C.-Husky game on at Pullman today\". Spokesman-Review. Spokane, Washington. November 24, 1945. p. 9.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=xnNWAAAAIBAJ&sjid=m-QDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4718%2C5762240","url_text":"\"Important W.S.C.-Husky game on at Pullman today\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cougars beat Huskies; make bid for Rose Bowl\". Lewiston Morning Tribune. Idaho. Associated Press. November 25, 1945. p. 10.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=P79eAAAAIBAJ&sjid=NjEMAAAAIBAJ&pg=2984%2C4074000","url_text":"\"Cougars beat Huskies; make bid for Rose Bowl\""}]},{"reference":"Ashlock, Herb (November 26, 1945). \"Two factors remain in path of W.S.C.'s Rose Bowl hopes\". Spokane Daily Chronicle. Washington. p. 13.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=3dpXAAAAIBAJ&sjid=kPUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7347%2C5076290","url_text":"\"Two factors remain in path of W.S.C.'s Rose Bowl hopes\""}]},{"reference":"\"U.W. Is First Home for Apple Cup\". The Seattle Times. December 1, 1963. p. B. NEW TROPHY: [...] the Apple Cup Trophy which will be awarded each year to the winner in the cross-state football game. The Huskies won first possession of the cup by downing the Cougars, 16–0.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Trophy for U.W.–State Grid Clash\". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. October 7, 1934. p. 19. A \"Governor's Trophy\" for the Washington–Washington State football struggle. That was the announcement made yesterday by University of Washington officials who said that such a cup had been donated by Governor Martin. The game will be played in Seattle on November 24.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"'Big Stick' Stays Trophy Travels To Be Awarded\". Seattle Times. October 17, 1935. The \"Big 'W' Stick\"—center of an annual college feud between University of Washington and Washington State college students—will not be taken to Pullman [...] Instead, the governor's trophy, donated last year by Gov. Clarence D. Martin to end the threat of annual riots over the stick, will be presented to the winning school","urls":[]},{"reference":"Yanity, Molly (November 22, 2007). \"Apple Cup Preview: After 107 rollicking years, even the trophy has a history\". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Archived from the original on December 11, 2013. Retrieved October 5, 2022. The Apple Cup has been awarded to the winner of the Huskies-Cougars game since 1962, but on this 100th renewal, another relic of the fabled annual game has surfaced — the original Governor's Trophy. [...] On it, a Husky and Cougar are jousting over the state shield and, etched into rectangles beneath them, are the scores of the games from 1934 to 1939.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131211104820/https://www.seattlepi.com/sports/article/Apple-Cup-Preview-After-107-rollicking-years-1256458.php","url_text":"\"Apple Cup Preview: After 107 rollicking years, even the trophy has a history\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle_Post-Intelligencer","url_text":"Seattle Post-Intelligencer"},{"url":"https://www.seattlepi.com/sports/article/Apple-Cup-Preview-After-107-rollicking-years-1256458.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Huskies Playing Underdog Role in State Scrap\". The Seattle Times. November 27, 1942. p. 22. Victor in tomorrow's game will take over possession of the Governor's Trophy, an award offered by former Governor Clarence Martin to be held by the winner of the annual Washington–W.S.C. game.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Stan Mataya, ed. (October 12, 1946). The Cougar Huddle: Washington vs. Washington State. Rogers Field, Pullman, Washington: Associated Students of the State College of Washington.","urls":[{"url":"https://content.libraries.wsu.edu/digital/collection/wsu_fb/id/2079/rec/92","url_text":"The Cougar Huddle: Washington vs. Washington State"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogers_Field_(Washington)","url_text":"Rogers Field"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pullman,_Washington","url_text":"Pullman, Washington"}]},{"reference":"\"U.W. or W.S.U.? State's Big Apple Trophy Up for Grabs\". The Seattle Times. November 21, 1963. p. 27. Who will get the first bite? The Big Apple Trophy, a new award symbolizing rivalry and competition between Washington State University and the University of Washington football teams. The perpetual trophy will be presented for the first time Saturday after the Husky–Cougar Homecoming game by Sun Dodgers, men's spirit organization. The Washington Apple Commission donated the trophy.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Apple_Commission","url_text":"Washington Apple Commission"}]},{"reference":"\"Apple Cup Is On The Line\". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. November 21, 1964. p. 8. The Big Apple Trophy, symbolic of victory in the Washington–Washington State football series, will go on the line today when the two teams play in Spokane. [...] Donated by the Washington State Apple Commission last year,","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"RCW 1.20.035 (1989 c 354 § 63.)\". Washington State Legislature. November 2, 2017. Retrieved November 12, 2017. The official fruit of the state of Washington is the apple.","urls":[{"url":"http://apps.leg.wa.gov/rcw/default.aspx?cite=1.20.035","url_text":"\"RCW 1.20.035 (1989 c 354 § 63.)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Washington-Washington State playing for pride in Apple Cup – Austin Murphy\". SI.com. February 24, 2009. Archived from the original on February 24, 2009. Retrieved November 26, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090224012130/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2008/writers/austin_murphy/11/20/apple.cup/index.html","url_text":"\"Washington-Washington State playing for pride in Apple Cup – Austin Murphy\""},{"url":"http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2008/writers/austin_murphy/11/20/apple.cup/index.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"UW stadium go out for 1954; COP may appear\". Spokesman-Review. Spokane, Washington. November 26, 1953. p. 17.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ki9WAAAAIBAJ&sjid=POYDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6006%2C4572002","url_text":"\"UW stadium go out for 1954; COP may appear\""}]},{"reference":"\"Apple Cup between UW, WSU canceled this year due to coronavirus\". King 5. November 22, 2020. Retrieved November 23, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.king5.com/article/sports/apple-cup-canceled-this-year-due-to-coronavirus/281-79a613db-0aa0-4174-b40e-ea6fb12cb5b3","url_text":"\"Apple Cup between UW, WSU canceled this year due to coronavirus\""}]},{"reference":"\"W.S.C. defeats varsity in mud\". Spokesman-Review. Spokane, Washington. November 22, 1907. p. 15.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=-9gUAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7MADAAAAIBAJ&pg=6333%2C841575","url_text":"\"W.S.C. defeats varsity in mud\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pac-12 statement on Washington at Washington State football game\". November 22, 2020. Retrieved November 22, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://pac-12.com/article/2020/11/22/pac-12-statement-washington-washington-state-football-game","url_text":"\"Pac-12 statement on Washington at Washington State football game\""}]},{"reference":"\"New name for WSC near O.K.\" Spokane Daily Chronicle. Washington. February 4, 1959. p. 2.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=JP1XAAAAIBAJ&sjid=O_cDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5907%2C481257","url_text":"\"New name for WSC near O.K.\""}]},{"reference":"\"New name near for State College\". Spokane Daily Chronicle. Washington. August 5, 1959. p. 18.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=1gFYAAAAIBAJ&sjid=H_cDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5197%2C1025216","url_text":"\"New name near for State College\""}]},{"reference":"\"2017 Football Media Guide\" (PDF). University of Washington Athletics. pp. 175, 211. Retrieved December 4, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://s3.amazonaws.com/sidearm.sites/washington.sidearmsports.com/documents/2017/7/24/2017_FB_Guide.pdf","url_text":"\"2017 Football Media Guide\""}]},{"reference":"\"2018 Football Media Guide\" (PDF). Washington State University Athletics. pp. 86, 116. Retrieved December 4, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://wsucougars.com/documents/2018/8/4/2018_WSU_FB_Media_Guide_Color_2.pdf","url_text":"\"2018 Football Media Guide\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Apple_Cup&params=47.668_N_117.368_W_","external_links_name":"47°40′05″N 117°22′05″W / 47.668°N 117.368°W / 47.668; -117.368"},{"Link":"http://www.winsipedia.com/washington/vs/washington-state","external_links_name":"\"Winsipedia – Washington Huskies vs. Washington State Cougars football series history\""},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=r9EUAAAAIBAJ&sjid=RZsDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6294%2C2358509","external_links_name":"\"A tie at Seattle\""},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HbVXAAAAIBAJ&sjid=2fMDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3896%2C4098407","external_links_name":"\"Pullman still claims the lead\""},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=sNEUAAAAIBAJ&sjid=RZsDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6736%2C2482762","external_links_name":"\"Football men return\""},{"Link":"http://seattletimes.com/html/huskyfootball/2022608967_applecup07xml.html","external_links_name":"\"Apple Cup moving back to Saturday for 2014\""},{"Link":"https://gohuskies.com/gameday/football-vs-washington-state/football/426/","external_links_name":"Boeing Apple Cup Countdown to Kickoff"},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=xnNWAAAAIBAJ&sjid=m-QDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4718%2C5762240","external_links_name":"\"Important W.S.C.-Husky game on at Pullman today\""},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=P79eAAAAIBAJ&sjid=NjEMAAAAIBAJ&pg=2984%2C4074000","external_links_name":"\"Cougars beat Huskies; make bid for Rose Bowl\""},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=3dpXAAAAIBAJ&sjid=kPUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7347%2C5076290","external_links_name":"\"Two factors remain in path of W.S.C.'s Rose Bowl hopes\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131211104820/https://www.seattlepi.com/sports/article/Apple-Cup-Preview-After-107-rollicking-years-1256458.php","external_links_name":"\"Apple Cup Preview: After 107 rollicking years, even the trophy has a history\""},{"Link":"https://www.seattlepi.com/sports/article/Apple-Cup-Preview-After-107-rollicking-years-1256458.php","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://content.libraries.wsu.edu/digital/collection/wsu_fb/id/2079/rec/92","external_links_name":"The Cougar Huddle: Washington vs. Washington State"},{"Link":"http://apps.leg.wa.gov/rcw/default.aspx?cite=1.20.035","external_links_name":"\"RCW 1.20.035 (1989 c 354 § 63.)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090224012130/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2008/writers/austin_murphy/11/20/apple.cup/index.html","external_links_name":"\"Washington-Washington State playing for pride in Apple Cup – Austin Murphy\""},{"Link":"http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2008/writers/austin_murphy/11/20/apple.cup/index.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ki9WAAAAIBAJ&sjid=POYDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6006%2C4572002","external_links_name":"\"UW stadium go out for 1954; COP may appear\""},{"Link":"https://www.king5.com/article/sports/apple-cup-canceled-this-year-due-to-coronavirus/281-79a613db-0aa0-4174-b40e-ea6fb12cb5b3","external_links_name":"\"Apple Cup between UW, WSU canceled this year due to coronavirus\""},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=-9gUAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7MADAAAAIBAJ&pg=6333%2C841575","external_links_name":"\"W.S.C. defeats varsity in mud\""},{"Link":"https://pac-12.com/article/2020/11/22/pac-12-statement-washington-washington-state-football-game","external_links_name":"\"Pac-12 statement on Washington at Washington State football game\""},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=JP1XAAAAIBAJ&sjid=O_cDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5907%2C481257","external_links_name":"\"New name for WSC near O.K.\""},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=1gFYAAAAIBAJ&sjid=H_cDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5197%2C1025216","external_links_name":"\"New name near for State College\""},{"Link":"https://s3.amazonaws.com/sidearm.sites/washington.sidearmsports.com/documents/2017/7/24/2017_FB_Guide.pdf","external_links_name":"\"2017 Football Media Guide\""},{"Link":"https://wsucougars.com/documents/2018/8/4/2018_WSU_FB_Media_Guide_Color_2.pdf","external_links_name":"\"2018 Football Media Guide\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrox_Press	Wrox Press	["1 References","2 External links"]	Technical publishing imprint Wrox Press (established in 1992) is a computer book publisher, originally based in Birmingham, England. Wrox uses a "programmer to programmer" approach, as all books published by Wrox are written by software developers. The original books were easily recognized by their red covers and black and white pictures of the authors. The holding company of the original Wrox Press, Peer Information, liquidated its assets in an insolvency process executed during 2003. The name and some of the more successful titles (but not the company itself) were acquired by John Wiley & Sons, which continues to publish under the Wrox imprint. References ^ Nick Lecrenski (13 May 2010). Silverlight 4: Problem - Design - Solution. John Wiley and Sons. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-470-88168-2. Retrieved 26 April 2011. ^ Dr. Dobb's journal: software tools for the professional programmer. M&T Pub. July 2004. Retrieved 26 April 2011. ^ Leyden, John (17 March 2003). "Wrox hit the rocks as Glasshaus cracks : IT publishing community collapses". The Register. Retrieved 17 September 2015. ^ Archived January 21, 2007, at the Wayback Machine ^ "Wiley buys rights to Wrox Press". ITWeb. 13 July 2003. Retrieved 24 March 2021. External links Wrox website	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer"},{"link_name":"book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book"},{"link_name":"publisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publisher"},{"link_name":"Birmingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham"},{"link_name":"software developers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_developer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lecrenski2010-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dr._Dobb's_journal:_software_tools_for_the_professional_programmer-2"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"John Wiley & Sons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Wrox Press (established in 1992) is a computer book publisher, originally based in Birmingham, England. Wrox uses a \"programmer to programmer\" approach, as all books published by Wrox are written by software developers.[1][2][page needed] The original books were easily recognized by their red covers and black and white pictures of the authors.The holding company of the original Wrox Press, Peer Information, liquidated its assets in an insolvency process executed during 2003.[3] The name and some of the more successful titles (but not the company itself) were acquired by John Wiley & Sons, which continues to publish under the Wrox imprint.[4][5]","title":"Wrox Press"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Nick Lecrenski (13 May 2010). Silverlight 4: Problem - Design - Solution. John Wiley and Sons. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-470-88168-2. Retrieved 26 April 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=IIFpueOpwV4C&pg=PT14","url_text":"Silverlight 4: Problem - Design - Solution"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-88168-2","url_text":"978-0-470-88168-2"}]},{"reference":"Dr. Dobb's journal: software tools for the professional programmer. M&T Pub. July 2004. Retrieved 26 April 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=gWlVAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"Dr. Dobb's journal: software tools for the professional programmer"}]},{"reference":"Leyden, John (17 March 2003). \"Wrox hit the rocks as Glasshaus cracks : IT publishing community collapses\". The Register. Retrieved 17 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theregister.co.uk/2003/03/17/wrox_hit_the_rocks_as/","url_text":"\"Wrox hit the rocks as Glasshaus cracks : IT publishing community collapses\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Register","url_text":"The Register"}]},{"reference":"\"Wiley buys rights to Wrox Press\". ITWeb. 13 July 2003. Retrieved 24 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.itweb.co.za/content/WnxpEv4DYQkvV8XL","url_text":"\"Wiley buys rights to Wrox Press\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=IIFpueOpwV4C&pg=PT14","external_links_name":"Silverlight 4: Problem - Design - Solution"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=gWlVAAAAMAAJ","external_links_name":"Dr. Dobb's journal: software tools for the professional programmer"},{"Link":"https://www.theregister.co.uk/2003/03/17/wrox_hit_the_rocks_as/","external_links_name":"\"Wrox hit the rocks as Glasshaus cracks : IT publishing community collapses\""},{"Link":"http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/Section/id-102191.html/","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070121202213/http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/Section/id-102191.html/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.itweb.co.za/content/WnxpEv4DYQkvV8XL","external_links_name":"\"Wiley buys rights to Wrox Press\""},{"Link":"http://www.wrox.com/","external_links_name":"Wrox website"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Greco_(philosopher)	John Greco (philosopher)	["1 References"]	American philosopher (born 1961) John GrecoBorn (1961-04-24) April 24, 1961 (age 63)Academic backgroundAlma materGeorgetown UniversityBrown UniversityDoctoral advisorErnest Sosa John Greco (born April 24, 1961) is the Robert L. McDevitt and Catherine H. McDevitt Professor of Philosophy at Georgetown University. Before coming to Georgetown, Greco taught at Saint Louis University. Greco received his A.B. from Georgetown University in 1983 and completed his Ph.D. at Brown University in 1989 under Ernest Sosa. His research interests are in epistemology and metaphysics and he has published widely on virtue epistemology, epistemic normativity, skepticism, and Thomas Reid. From 2013 until 2020, he was the Editor of American Philosophical Quarterly. For 2013–15, together with Eleonore Stump, he held a $3.3 million grant from the John Templeton Foundation for a project on intellectual humility. References ^ "John Greco". Retrieved 2020-06-01. ^ The Blackwell Guide to Epistemology , back cover. ^ "The Philosophy and Theology of Intellectual humility". Archived from the original on 2019-02-09. Retrieved 2014-04-24. Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway France BnF data Catalonia Germany Israel Belgium United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic Korea Croatia Netherlands Poland Academics CiNii ORCID PhilPeople Other SNAC IdRef This biography of an American philosopher is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Georgetown University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgetown_University"},{"link_name":"Saint Louis University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Louis_University"},{"link_name":"Georgetown University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgetown_University"},{"link_name":"Brown University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_University"},{"link_name":"Ernest Sosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Sosa"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"epistemology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology"},{"link_name":"metaphysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics"},{"link_name":"American Philosophical Quarterly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Philosophical_Quarterly"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Eleonore Stump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleonore_Stump"},{"link_name":"John Templeton Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Templeton_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-humility-3"}],"text":"John Greco (born April 24, 1961) is the Robert L. McDevitt and Catherine H. McDevitt Professor of Philosophy at Georgetown University. Before coming to Georgetown, Greco taught at Saint Louis University.Greco received his A.B. from Georgetown University in 1983 and completed his Ph.D. at Brown University in 1989 under Ernest Sosa.[1] His research interests are in epistemology and metaphysics and he has published widely on virtue epistemology, epistemic normativity, skepticism, and Thomas Reid. From 2013 until 2020, he was the Editor of American Philosophical Quarterly.[2] For 2013–15, together with Eleonore Stump, he held a $3.3 million grant from the John Templeton Foundation for a project on intellectual humility.[3]","title":"John Greco (philosopher)"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"John Greco\". Retrieved 2020-06-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://sites.google.com/georgetown.edu/johngreco","url_text":"\"John Greco\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Philosophy and Theology of Intellectual humility\". Archived from the original on 2019-02-09. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_Games_v._Apple	Epic Games v. Apple	["1 Background","2 Onset of legal action","2.1 Countersuit","3 District court","3.1 Preliminary hearing","3.2 Pre-trial","3.3 Trial","3.4 Decision","4 Appeals","5 Aftermath","6 Reactions","7 Epic Games v. Google","8 Related actions","8.1 By Epic Games","8.2 Others","9 References"]	2020 U.S. lawsuit Epic Games v. AppleCourtUnited States District Court for the Northern District of CaliforniaFull case nameEpic Games, Inc. v. Apple Inc.ArguedMay 3–24, 2021DecidedSeptember 10, 2021HoldingWhile Apple is not considered a monopoly and did not engage in antitrust behavior on nine of ten counts, Apple's conduct in enforcing anti-steering restrictions is anticompetitive.Court membershipJudge sittingYvonne Gonzalez Rogers Epic Games, Inc. v. Apple Inc. was a lawsuit brought by Epic Games against Apple in August 2020 in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California, related to Apple's practices in the iOS App Store. Epic Games specifically had challenged Apple's restrictions on apps from having other in-app purchasing methods outside of the one offered by the App Store. Epic Games's founder Tim Sweeney had previously challenged the 30% revenue cut that Apple takes on each purchase made in the App Store, and with their game Fortnite, wanted to either bypass Apple or have Apple take less of a cut. Epic implemented changes in Fortnite intentionally on August 13, 2020, to bypass the App Store payment system, prompting Apple to block the game from the App Store and leading to Epic filing its lawsuit. Apple filed a countersuit, asserting Epic purposely breached its terms of contract with Apple to goad it into action, and defended itself from Epic's suit. The trial ran from May 3 to May 24, 2021. In a September 2021 ruling in the first part of the case, Judge Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers decided in favor of Apple on nine of ten counts, but found against Apple on its anti-steering policies under the California Unfair Competition Law. Rogers prohibited Apple from stopping developers from informing users of other payment systems within apps. Epic appealed the ruling to the Supreme Court in July of 2023. Apple also filed an appeal of the ruling. Justice Kagan declined to grant Epic's emergency request for a stay of the ruling in August of 2023. In January of 2024, the Supreme Court denied the full appeals of both Apple and Epic in the case, leaving the case primarily a victory for Apple but still requiring them to allow developers to include notices of alternate payment systems in apps. Epic also filed another lawsuit, Epic Games v. Google, the same day, which challenges Google's similar practices on the Google Play app store for Android, after Google pulled Fortnite following the update for similar reasons as Apple. However, that case centered more on the practices and deals that Google, as a dominant tech giant, wielded over partners to assure use of the Play Store. In December 2023, a jury ruled against Google in that it had unlawfully maintained its monopoly on the Android environment. Background Epic Games's founder and CEO Tim Sweeney Since 2015, Epic Games's founder and CEO Tim Sweeney had questioned the need for digital storefronts like Valve's Steam, Apple's App Store for iOS devices, and Google Play, to take a 30% revenue sharing cut, and argued that when accounting for current rates of content distribution and other factors needed, a revenue cut of 8% should be sufficient to run any digital storefront profitably. While a 30% revenue cut was an industry standard across computers, consoles, and mobile platforms in 2019, Sweeney stated that higher revenue shares made sense on consoles where "there's enormous investment in hardware, often sold below cost, and marketing campaigns in broad partnership with publishers", but did not extend to open platforms like mobile devices and personal computers. Part of the reasoning for creating the Epic Games Store was to demonstrate that Epic could operate at a lower commission percentage (12%). As Fortnite expanded from personal computers to other platforms with the popularity of the Battle Royale mode in 2018, Epic Games sought to bring the free-to-play game to mobile devices. When Epic first released its Android client, it offered it as a sideloaded package, rather than as a Google Play store app, as they did not want Google to take any revenue from the microtransactions in the game. However, this resulted in a number of security concerns and numerous unscrupulous clones attempting to pass themselves off as the real Fortnite game in the Google Play store, and by April 2020, Epic discontinued the sideloaded version and placed the game on the Google Play store. As Apple does not allow sideloading on iOS devices, Epic had just released the client on the App Store directly in 2018. In mid-2020, Sweeney reiterated his stance on the 30% revenue cut that Apple and Google took, ahead of a large United States Congressional hearing investigating antitrust charges on Big Tech companies, including Google, and during similar investigations of Apple in the European Union. Sweeney said in a July CNBC interview that "Apple has locked down and crippled the ecosystem by inventing an absolute monopoly on the distribution of software, on the monetization of software", and "Google essentially intentionally stifles competing stores by having user interface barriers and obstruction". Sweeney further stated that "If every developer could accept their own payments and avoid the 30% tax by Apple and Google we could pass the savings along to all our consumers and players would get a better deal on items. And you'd have economic competition." After Apple stated that cloud gaming services like Microsoft's xCloud were not allowed on the iOS platform as they would allow content that bypassed Apple's content review, Sweeney wrote "Apple has outlawed the metaverse. The principle they state, taken literally, would rule out all cross-platform ecosystems and games with user created modes: not just xCloud, Stadia, and GeForce NOW, but also Fortnite, Minecraft, and Roblox." Apple has argued that the 30% cut it takes though In-App Purchases (IAP) "reflects the immense value of the App Store" and beyond the visible features it offers developers, that cut covers "Apple's technology, tools, software for app development and testing, marketing efforts, platinum-level customer service, and distribution of developers' apps and digital content." Apple has further argued that it requires iOS apps to use its storefront to "ensure that iOS apps meet Apple's high standards for privacy, security, content, and quality" and avoid exposing iOS users to risks from alternative storefronts. Legal review of the cases identify the key issue is whether Apple's control of the iOS App Store is a monopoly or not. Epic Games has argued that Apple maintains a monopoly for iOS-enabled devices, and thus its behavior in restricting alternative payment systems and storefronts are anticompetitive. Apple contends that the marketplace that Epic participates in is multiple platforms, not just the iOS, and in that perspective, Apple does not have a monopoly. Onset of legal action In an interview with CNN, Sweeney stated that Epic planned out a course of action over several months prior to August 2020, codenamed "Project Liberty", aimed to force Apple and Google's hands, either to alter their store policies or to initiate legal action. As determined through the course of the trial, Epic initiated "Project Liberty" by first introducing a standard patch to Fortnite that had to be approved by Apple and Google, but which had secretly contained code that would allow users to be able to purchase the in-game currency, "V-Bucks", directly from Epic. Epic did not make mention of this feature to Apple or Google, so the patch was approved. Then, on August 13, 2020, Epic released a hotfix (which did not require prior approval) to the mobile versions, triggering visibility of this purchasing option. At the same time, Epic announced for all platforms that purchases of V-Bucks directly through Epic would be discounted by 20%. For iOS and Android users, Epic cautioned users that if they purchased through the Apple or Google storefront, they were not given this discount, as Epic said they could not extend the discount due to the 30% revenue cut taken by Apple and Google. Within hours of this hotfix going live, both Apple and Google had removed Fortnite from their storefronts stating the means of bypassing their payment systems violated their terms of service. Epic immediately filed separate lawsuits against Apple and Google for antitrust and anticompetitive behavior in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. In 2019, Epic retained Cravath, Swaine & Moore and its tandem lawsuits were represented by Katherine B. Forrest and led by the chair of its antitrust division, Christine A. Varney, former lead of the Antitrust Division of the U.S. Department of Justice under the Obama administration. Apple was represented in the suits by Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher partner Mark Perry. On the day the lawsuit was filed, Epic released a video called "Nineteen Eighty-Fortnite", parodying Apple's "1984" advertisement using Fortnite assets, which Epic points out in their lawsuit had been used by Apple then to challenge the weight of IBM at the time. In its suit against Apple, Epic accused Apple of antitrust behavior with its practices around the App Store and its payment system, charging that these were in violation of the federal Sherman Act and the California Cartwright Act. In its suit against Google, Epic challenged Google's past mantra of "Don't be evil" and claimed that its practices around the Google Play store and its payment system violate the Sherman Act and California's Cartwright Act. Epic stated that Google's restrictions on the Android system interfered with deals for pre-loading Fortnite on phones from OnePlus and LG. They state in the claim "Notwithstanding its promises to make Android devices open to competition, Google has erected contractual and technological barriers that foreclose competing ways of distributing apps to Android users, ensuring that the Google Play Store accounts for nearly all the downloads of apps from app stores on Android devices." Epic did not seek monetary damages in either case, but instead was "seeking injunctive relief to allow fair competition in these two key markets that directly affect hundreds of millions of consumers and tens of thousands, if not more, of third-party app developers." In comments on social media the next day, Sweeney said that they undertook the actions as "we're fighting for the freedom of people who bought smartphones to install apps from sources of their choosing, the freedom for creators of apps to distribute them as they choose, and the freedom of both groups to do business directly. The primary opposing argument is: 'Smartphone markers can do whatever they want.' This as an awful notion. We all have rights, and we need to fight to defend our rights against whoever would deny them." Google, in response to the lawsuit, stated to The Verge that "For game developers who choose to use the Play Store, we have consistent policies that are fair to developers and keep the store safe for users. While Fortnite remains available on Android, we can no longer make it available on Play because it violates our policies. However, we welcome the opportunity to continue our discussions with Epic and bring Fortnite back to Google Play." By August 17, 2020, Apple had informed Epic that it would terminate its access to developers accounts and tools for the App Store and iOS and macOS by August 28, 2020. This led Epic to file a motion for a preliminary injunction to block this as well as prevent Apple from delisting Fortnite from the App Store, asserting that lack of access to the development tools for iOS and macOS would affect Unreal Engine development and subsequently impact all developers that used the engine. Apple stated in response to the request for preliminary injunction that Epic had approached them in June to ask for a special deal for Epic to operate Fortnite on the App Store to allow users to pay Epic directly, and when Apple had failed to grant them this, Epic had contacted them prior to updating the version on August 13, 2020, to state they were willingly going to violate the App Store terms. Apple further requested the court deny Epic the preliminary junction, calling the "emergency" situation one that Epic had created itself. Sweeney stated in response that as his emails in Apple's complaint said, he was looking for Apple to extend to this type of exemption to all iOS developers and not just for Epic Games. Epic filed a response to Apple's complaint with support of Microsoft, specifically asking the court to block Apple from taking away its iOS development tool access as this would impact all developers that have used the Unreal Engine. Microsoft wrote in their support, "Denying Epic access to Apple's SDK and other development tools will prevent Epic from supporting Unreal Engine on iOS and macOS and will place Unreal Engine and those game creators that have built, are building, and may build games on it at a substantial disadvantage." On August 24, 2020, after a court hearing Judge Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers granted Epic's request to prevent Apple from taking away its developer licenses for iOS and macOS, but did not grant the preliminary injunction to overturn Apple's decision to remove Fortnite from the iOS store. Rogers wrote that the removal of the developers licenses had "potential significant damage to both the Unreal Engine platform itself, and to the gaming industry generally" and Apple "has chosen to act severely" in threatening that step. On terms of Fortnite, Rogers agreed with Apple that "Epic Games has not yet demonstrated irreparable harm. The current predicament appears of its own making." Subsequently, Apple terminated Epic's iOS developer account on August 28, 2020, thereby preventing the company from uploading further material to the App Store but otherwise still being able to develop for the platform. Prior to the first hearing on September 28, 2020, Epic filed paperwork ahead of the hearing in which they intend to seek a preliminary injunction to require Apple to rehost Fortnite. Countersuit Apple filed a countersuit against Epic on September 8, 2020. Apple asserted in their suit that Epic breached their contract and was seeking to block the use of Epic's payment system from any app, including Fortnite, on the iOS storefront, and sought monetary damages to recover funds that Epic had made while their version of Fortnite was active on August 13, 2020. Apple called Epic's suit an attempt "to be part of a marketing campaign designed to reinvigorate interest in Fortnite". Judge Rogers dismissed Apple's monetary claims of theft in November 2020, stating that the claims cannot be considered "independently wrongful" of the breach of contract claims, leaving these breach claims otherwise in place. District court Preliminary hearing At the first court hearing on the matter on September 28, 2020, Judge Rogers appeared likely to deny Epic's demand to require Apple to rehost Fortnite on the App Store unless Epic conforms to the App Store policy, consistent with Apple's argument that Epic itself had created the situation leading to its removal, but otherwise ready to maintain the restraining order related to the Unreal Engine and Epic's developer accounts. Judge Rogers indicated that she was in favor of a jury trial when the case would be heard, then expected to be in July 2021, stating during the hearing "I think it's important enough to understand what real people think. Do these security issues concern people or not? Are the concerns of the developers incredibly important? I think many people would feel it is. I do think that this is something for which jury insights would be important." In post-hearing filings, both Epic and Apple argued that the case should be decided by a judge rather than a jury. Judge Rogers agreed, scheduling a bench trial to commence in May 2021. In October 2020, Judge Rogers denied Epic Games's request for a temporary injunction that would require Apple to allow Fortnite in its current state (with Epic's storefront), but made permanent the injunction preventing Apple from terminating Epic's developer accounts such that it could continue to maintain the Unreal Engine for iOS and macOS systems. In her decision, Rogers stated that a key aspect of her review of the case would be Epic's contention that the App Store is unique and its arguments as to why Apple's antitrust behavior is limited to the App Store and not to the other closed systems such as Xbox Live, PlayStation Store or the Nintendo eShop. Rogers said that "a final decision should be better informed regarding the impact of the walled garden model given the potential for significant and serious ramifications for Sony, Nintendo and Microsoft and their video game platforms." Pre-trial Facebook stated in December 2020 that it will fully support Epic Games in the lawsuit during its discovery phase. Facebook itself had been in prior conflict with Apple over its App Store policies and had amassed its own collection of information they plan to share with Epic. As part of its case, Apple had attempted to subpoena records from Valve related to several hundred games and their sales on Steam, given that Steam is a direct competitor to Epic Games's storefront in the personal computer space. Valve declined to comply with these requests, arguing that Apple's requests are overly broad and unrelated to their complaint with Epic. The judge ruled in Apple's favor, stating that Valve was not the only target of Apple's subpoenas seeking similar storefront data, and thus the request was not unreasonable. Trial The trial commenced on May 3, 2021. Due to the nature of the case, Judge Gonzalez Rogers required that all parties be physically present at the court, with additional steps made to account for safety due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The trial ran for three weeks, with testimony ending on May 21, 2021 and closing arguments given on May 24, 2021. The law firm Cravath, Swaine & Moore represented Epic Games while Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher represented Apple. Among aspects covered by the trial included: Epic Games and Apple discussed whether other apps such as Minecraft and Roblox should be defined as "games" or "metaverses". Though they agreed that Minecraft is a game, they disagreed over how to define Roblox. Epic argued that Roblox, like Fortnite, is a metaverse, while Apple argued that Roblox is a singular game and that games within it are "experiences", comparable to individual worlds within Minecraft. As a result, in May 2021, Roblox immediately altered its branding to remove the word "game" from its website, replacing it with "experience" in an effort to comply with Apple's app store policies. Apple defended its curation of content on the iOS app store, a restriction that had previously prevented cloud gaming services like GeForce Now or Google Stadia from offering a direct app on the iOS store, as each game would require approval by Apple under Apple's rules but would allow for these services to be offered through a progressive web application run through Safari or Chrome. Apple pointed to the recent addition of itch.io, an indie game storefront, to the Epic Game Store, stating that as itch.io lacked any type of moderation of content, this had allowed the Epic Game Store to effectively include a large amount of mature and adult content that was otherwise disallowed by Epic's own store guidelines, while Apple's policies require moderation of app-by-app content to prevent such a situation. Epic pointed out that it only distributed the itch.io client and was not responsible for any of the games that the client itself distributed or sold. Apple's anti-steering policies, which prevent any app from directing or informing its users to a different storefront outside of Apple's iOS one to make purchases, were brought into question as related to potential antitrust charges. Anti-steering policies had been deemed acceptable in practice in the 2018 U.S. Supreme Court case Ohio v. American Express Co. as long as no harm was shown to either side of the two-sided market in considering the absence of anti-steering policies. Epic attempted to argue that with Apple banning developers from directing users to alternative payment systems and storefronts, they were taking a larger share of app revenues, and thus that these anti-steering provisions should be eliminated from Apple's policies. During the trial, a number of documents that were part of evidence collected by Epic and Apple were made public during proceedings, some containing confidential information related to third parties. Some of these documents were meant to be sealed but were instead misplaced into online public court records, and revealed some of the past inner workings of the video game industry, in addition to details on Epic's financials related to the Epic Game Store. This included Epic previously approaching Sony Interactive Entertainment in early 2018 to try to convince them to allow for cross-platform play on the PlayStation consoles; Epic approaching Microsoft to try to get them to allow free-to-play games to be played on the Xbox consoles without the need for an Xbox Live Gold paid subscription; and an unannounced game streaming service planned by Walmart. Judge Rogers took steps after the second day to try to make sure that appropriately sealed documents were kept out of the online public records. Decision Judge Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers oversaw proceedings at the District Court. Judge Rogers issued her first ruling on September 10, 2021, which was considered a split decision by law professor Mark Lemley. Rogers found in favor of Apple on nine of ten counts brought up against them in the case, including Epic's charges related to Apple's 30% revenue cut and Apple's prohibition against third-party marketplaces on the iOS environment. Rogers did rule against Apple on the final charge related to anti-steering provisions, and issued a permanent injunction that, in 90 days from the ruling, blocked Apple from preventing developers from linking app users to other storefronts from within apps to complete purchases or from collecting information within an app, such as an email, to notify users of these storefronts. In her decision, Rogers identified that the market of concern was neither games (Apple's stance) nor Apple's App Store (Epic's stance) but digital mobile gaming transactions. Rogers identified that the demographics for mobile games was far different from computer or console games, and mobile games most often use the freemium payment model in which games are offered for free on the App Store but include additional features, such as cosmetic features or power-up bonuses, available for purchase, making this particular market sufficiently different from the overall video game market. Under this market definition, Judge Rogers concluded that Apple was not a monopoly and mostly a duopoly alongside Google, with potential competition to come from Nintendo and Google Stadia, and while Apple "enjoys considerable market share of over 55% and extraordinary high profit margins", that type of success was not an illegal monopoly. In this light, Judge Rogers ruled that Epic had failed to show that Apple violated federal or state antitrust laws, but ruled that Apple did violate the California Unfair Competition Law through the anti-competitive behavior of disallowing any mention of other payment systems within apps. In line with Epic's arguments, Rogers identified that some of Apple's practices may be of concern due to the lack of competition in the digital game purchases market, but as having determined that Apple was not a monopoly, could not take immediate action to remedy. Rogers stated that the lack of competition in this area was of concern and that Apple only seemed to be motivated to innovate or change its App Store policies when subject to litigation. Rogers believed that the 30% revenue cut that Apple charges may be "unjustified" relative to the value they offer, but without significant competition to compare alternate schemes, she could not make any direct order on this. Rogers did write that "The point is that a third-party app store could put pressure on Apple to innovate by providing features that Apple has neglected." However, she disagreed with Epic's stance that Apple should not require apps to include the IAP feature for payment features, stating that Apple has a right to take some fee for licensing its intellectual property to developers. Rogers agreed with Apple that there was a valid interest in their policies to require oversight on app approval for the App Store for security purposes, which Epic had argued was used to shut down app approvals. However, Rogers did not fully accept Apple's argument that app review had to be tied directly to app distribution as the only means to prevent malware and other security issues, believing that more app reviewers would help separate these functions within the App Store. Judge Rogers also ruled against Epic, requiring them to pay Apple $3.6 million, 30% of the revenue that was withheld to Apple related to their attempts to bypass the App Store, and further stated that Epic did violate its contractual terms as a developer with Apple in how they deployed the update to Fortnite in August 2020 that instigated events, such that Apple may block Epic in the future from providing apps to the App Store. Rogers stated that Apple's single offense against California's law was not sufficiently severe to justify Epic's rulebreaking. Appeals On the day of Rogers's decision, a representative for Apple stated that "Today the Court has affirmed what we've known all along: the App Store is not in violation of antitrust law." However, in October 2021, Apple filed an appeal of the decision, seeking to overturn the preliminary injunction related to anti-steering practices which was due to go into effect in December 2021. Apple claimed the injunction was no longer necessary as they were planning on deleting the anti-steering provisions from their AUP as a result of the settlement from a separate lawsuit, Cameron v. Apple, completed in August 2021. Judge Rogers denied a stay of the injunction related to the anti-steering provisions in November 2021, requiring Apple to comply by December 9, 2021, 90 days from the initial order. The Ninth Circuit issued a stay on the portion of Judge Rogers's order related to provide in-app links to alternate payment systems on December 8, 2021, ruling that Apple had shown likelihood to succeed on their appeal, though the order requiring Apple to allow apps to communicate to users about such payment systems outside of the app was upheld. Epic Games's Sweeney stated that the decision "isn't a win for developers or for consumers", that Epic would not be bringing Fortnite back to iOS until "Epic can offer in-app payment in fair competition with Apple in-app payment, passing along the savings to consumers", and that they would continue to litigate on this matter. Epic filed notice of its appeal to the Ninth Circuit on September 12, 2021, challenging Judge Rogers's conclusion that Apple was not a monopoly. Following their appeal on September 22, Sweeney stated that Apple had told Epic they would not let Fortnite back onto the App Store until the completion of all litigation related to the suit, which Sweeney later believed that this particular process would take "a minimum of five years, if not more", thereby prolonging the lawsuit until 2026. A coalition of 35 states, Microsoft, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, and several other groups filed amicus briefs in support of Epic's position, arguing that Apple held a monopoly and thus that Epic should prevail in its lawsuit. Court hearings for the appeals began on November 14, 2022, in the Ninth Circuit. The Ninth Circuit issued its opinion on April 24, 2023. The three judge panel all agreed that the lower court ruling should be upheld. However, the Ninth Circuit agreed to stay the injunction requiring Apple to offer third-party payment options in July 2023, allowing time for Apple to submit its appeal to the Supreme Court. Both Apple and Epic Games have appealed this decision to the Supreme Court in July 2023. Justice Elena Kagan declined Epic's emergency request to lift the Ninth Circuit's stay in August 2023. On January 16, 2024, the Supreme Court declined to hear the appeals from Apple and Epic in the case. Aftermath With the Supreme Court's refusal to hear either appeal, the case ended with all charges dismissed exception for the anti-steering charge. To implement this, Apple allowed developers to include "metadata buttons, external links, or other calls to action that direct customers to purchasing mechanisms", but required that developers give Apple 27% of all sales made within seven days of being directed to these sites, which Apple described as a "reasonable means to account for the substantial value Apple provides developers, including in facilitating linked transactions". In addition, the App Store posts a warning screen stating that Apple is not responsible for any security or privacy issues related to third-party payment systems when clicking through to one of these systems. Sweeney stated that these changes are in bad faith compliance with the court orders, maintaining a 27% anti-competitive tax and a "scare screen" that are intended to dissuade developers from using third-party payment systems. Epic filed its request to Rogers in March 2024 to enforce the anti-steering provision that she had outlined for Apple. Apple had requested the lower court to order Epic Games to pay 90% of Apple's legal fees estimated at $73 million, based on the fact that nine of the ten claims Epic filed were dismissed by the court. Apple announced on January 2024 that to comply with the European Union's Digital Markets Act (DMA) that it will allow third party storefronts to be loaded onto iOS devices in March 2024. In response, Epic stated they plan to bring the Epic Games Store as well as Fortnite to iOS in Europe. Sweeney still argued that the new terms for use in the EU were "a new instance of Malicious Compliance" and would continue to challenge those through legal routes. While Epic had originally been approved for an Apple developer account through its Sweden office in preparation to release Fortnite on iOS in early 2024, Apple nullified the account on March 6, 2024, stating that Epic Games was untrustworthy and threatened the iOS environment. Epic published letters it had obtained from Apple that Epic claimed demonstrated the account termination was retaliatory for Sweeney's comments on Apple's compliance with the DMA and vowed to fight Apple as needed. The EU stated the next day they were seeking more details from Apple and whether the action was compliant under the DMA. Following that, on March 8, Apple reversed the ban on Epic's Sweden account, which Sweeney stated was "a big win for European rule of law, for the European Commission, and for the freedom of developers worldwide to speak up." The United Kingdom passed the Digital Markets, Competition and Consumers Bill (DMCC) in May 2024, which made similar requirements on app stores as the EU's DMA. After its passage, Epic Games stated they plan to bring their own Epic Games Store and Fortnite to iOS systems in the UK in the second half of 2025. Reactions Companies like Facebook, Spotify, and the Match Group supported Epic Games in its lawsuit and spoke of their own past issues with Apple's App Store policies related to their services. Digital Content Next, a non-profit trade group representing media outlets like The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, also backed Epic's suit, asserting among other issues that Apple has given out uniquely favorable deals to some providers like Amazon but not to others. After the initial ban, some people attempted to sell mobile iOS devices with Fortnite still installed for thousands of dollars. When the game was removed from the App Store, it did not surprise many users as most people were anticipating it from the beginning and it seemed that many players purely jumped "on board for the memes", according to Polygon. In September 2020, Epic Games, together with thirteen other companies, launched the Coalition for App Fairness, which aims for better conditions for the inclusion of apps in the app stores. On October 8, 2020, Microsoft announced a commitment to ten fairness principles in the operation of its Microsoft Store on Windows 10, which included promises of transparency over its guidelines, not blocking competing app stores from being used on Windows, and not removing apps from the store based on their business model, how they handle payments, or how their services are delivered. In December 2020, Apple announced that it would be lowering the revenue cut Apple takes for app developers making $1M or less from 30% to 15% if app developers fill out an application for the lowered revenue cut. Epic Games v. Google Main article: Epic Games v. Google The events and initial actions on Epic's lawsuit against Google were brought on the same day as Epic's suit against Apple, but Google stressed the legal situation around their case is far different. Google asserted that the Android operating system does not have the same single storefront restriction as Apple's iOS, and thus allows different Android phone manufacturers to bundle different storefronts and apps as they desire. Google said they are negotiating with Epic Games far differently from Apple in their case. Following a lawsuit filed by 36 states and the District of Columbia over antitrust violations related to the Play Store in early July 2021, Epic amended its claim in the Google suit later that month to reflect information supporting the states' case. Epic specifically focused on Google's actions when Epic had started working with Samsung to offer Fortnite through their own storefront, with evidence from the states that corroborated anti-competitive behavior. Google countersued Epic in October 2021, asserting that by introducing a version of Fortnite that did not use Google Play's payment systems, Epic had violated their contract with Google, and because this version still exists and can be obtained in other formats outside of Google Play, Epic "has alternatively been unjustly enriched at Google's expense", and seek to recover monetary damages from this version. After a jury trial over November and December 2023, the jury ruled in favor of Epic Games on December 11, 2023, finding that Google has a monopoly in the Android device space with Google Play, and engaged in unlawful practices to maintain that monopoly. The jury also concluded that Google also unlawfully tied Google Play to its billing systems. Related actions By Epic Games In December 2020, Epic Games filed separate complaints against Apple and Google in the United Kingdom's Competition Appeal Tribunal related to the companies' anticompetitive behavior in both the UK and European Union, with similar charges as Epic asserted in their U.S. cases. They have also launched legal action in Australia, and the European Union. On February 22, 2021, the Competition Appeal Tribunal rejected Epic's lawsuit against Apple in the UK however allowed their lawsuit against Google to proceed. Epic Games later released a statement stating that they would reconsider pursuing their lawsuit against Apple in the UK following the resolution of the U.S. lawsuit while also stated that they were "pleased" with the tribunal's decision regarding their case against Google. Epic also filed similar charges against Apple in Australia. On April 9, 2021, Judge Nye Perram ordered a three-month stay on Epic's lawsuit against Apple in Australia while stating that the stay would become permanent in the event Epic does not file in the U.S. but under the Australian Consumer Law within that time frame. Epic appealed Judge Perram's ruling, which was granted in a ruling in July 2021, allowing its case in Australia to go forward. Epic had acquired Bandcamp in March 2022. Bandcamp allowed music creators to sell music with a 10-15% revenue split, which was kept following Epic's acquisition. Google announced a planned change in its Google Play Store policy that required all apps to use its Play Store payment systems or face removal by June 2022. Bandcamp, supported by Epic, sued Google in April 2022 and sought a preliminary injunction to block this action by Google, arguing that the 30% revenue cut demanded by the Play Store payment system would destroy their financial model. Google responded that they have offered a Media Experience Program that for media apps that provide appropriate integration with Google's services, that they can use a 10% revenue cut through the Play Store instead. By May 2022, an agreement had been arranged that while Epic's suit continues, Bandcamp could continue to use its in-app purchasing system, though they will retain the 10% fee on each sale in escrow until the conclusion of the case. Additional filings by Epic assert that Google had paid competitors significant sums of money to dissuade them from making a competition app store to Google Play, with the highest being $360 million paid to Activision Blizzard. Epic Games said these payments helped Google to maintain its monopoly on storefronts via Google Play on the Android operating system. Others In the United States, forty states filed suit against Google in July 2021 arguing its app store practices, including its 30% revenue cut, were anti-competitive, similar to the factors that Epic sought in its case. Later, in August 2021, Senators Richard Blumenthal, Marsha Blackburn, and Amy Klobuchar introduced the Open App Markets Act bill, which would prevent app stores from forcing developers from exclusively using the app store's payment system. The bill passed out of the Senate committee by February 2022. It died at the end of the 117th Congress. In August 2021, as part of a settlement to Cameron v. Apple, a similar class-action lawsuit filed by app developers, Apple announced that it would allow developers to collect information within apps such as email addresses from users so that the developers can subsequently tell customers about ways to pay outside of the App Store. 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Retrieved September 10, 2021. vteEpic GamesList of gamesGames developedJazz Jackrabbit Jazz Jackrabbit Jazz Jackrabbit 2 Unreal Unreal Facing Worlds Tournament (1999) Tournament 2003 Championship Tournament 2004 Championship 2: The Liandri Conflict Tournament 3 Tournament (cancelled) Gears of War Gears of War Gears of War 2 Gears of War 3 Gears of War: Judgment Infinity Blade Infinity Blade Infinity Blade II Infinity Blade III Fortnite Save the World Battle Royale "Tilted Towers" Creative "Fortnite Holocaust Museum" Lego Fortnite Rocket Racing Fortnite Festival Other ZZT Jill of the Jungle Kiloblaster Silverball Xargon Extreme Pinball 7th Legion Age of Wonders Shadow Complex Bulletstorm Robo Recall Paragon The Matrix Awakens Third-party publishingEpic MegaGames Castle of the Winds Brix Electro Man Ken's Labyrinth Ancients 1: Death Watch Solar Winds Zone 66 The Adventures of Robbo Epic Pinball Heartlight Highway Hunter One Must Fall: 2097 Traffic Department 2192 Radix: Beyond the Void Tyrian Seek and Destroy Epic Games Publishing Kid A Mnesia Exhibition PC Building Simulator 2 Rumbleverse Alan Wake II Technology Unreal Engine Epic Citadel Epic Games Store The Matrix Awakens Houseparty Sketchfab Bink Video SubsidiariesCurrent Chair Entertainment Cloudgine Harmonix Psyonix Mediatonic Former Impossible Studios Titan Studios Pitbull Studio People Can Fly Bandcamp PeopleCurrent Tim Sweeney Mark Rein Steve Polge Sjoerd De Jong Former Rod Fergusson Cliff Bleszinski Mike Capps Related Make Something Unreal Fortnite World Cup Epic Games v. Apple Epic Games v. Google CategoryvteVideo game controversies List of controversial video games Video game culture Game-specific Death Race Custer's Revenge Mortal Kombat Night Trap Jynx Islamic Fun The Guy Game Hot Coffee JFK Reloaded Super Columbine Massacre RPG! Muslim Massacre RapeLay V-Tech Rampage "No Russian" Six Days in Fallujah Mass Effect 3 ending Digital Homicide Studios Active Shooter Harassment andworkplace misconduct Crunch culture Activision Blizzard ABK Workers Alliance Gamergate Other controversies Blitzchung controversy Cheating in video games esports online games Death of Brandon Crisp Swatting 2017 Wichita swatting Counter-Strike match fixing scandal Social aspects Censorship banned games regionally censored games Cyberbullying Form of art Gender representation LGBTQ+ themes Health problems addiction Simulator sickness VR sickness Race Review bomb List Religion Sexual content Eroge Lolicon Shotacon Violence Women Sexism Legal Intellectual property rights Video Recordings Act 1984 1993 U.S. Senate hearings Family Entertainment Protection Act Shutdown law Truth in Video Game Rating Act Video Game Decency Act Law 3037/2002 Microtransactions Loot boxes Video game piracy Skin gambling Lawsuits Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association Entertainment Software Ass'n v. Foti Epic Games v. Apple Epic Games v. Google Strickland v. Sony	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Epic Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_Games"},{"link_name":"Apple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"United States District Court for the Northern District of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Northern_District_of_California"},{"link_name":"iOS App Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/App_Store_(iOS)"},{"link_name":"Tim Sweeney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Sweeney_(game_developer)"},{"link_name":"revenue cut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revenue_sharing"},{"link_name":"Fortnite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortnite"},{"link_name":"Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yvonne_Gonzalez_Rogers"},{"link_name":"California Unfair Competition Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Unfair_Competition_Law"},{"link_name":"Epic Games v. Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_Games_v._Google"},{"link_name":"Google Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Play"},{"link_name":"Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"tech giant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tech_giant"}],"text":"Epic Games, Inc. v. Apple Inc. was a lawsuit brought by Epic Games against Apple in August 2020 in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California, related to Apple's practices in the iOS App Store. Epic Games specifically had challenged Apple's restrictions on apps from having other in-app purchasing methods outside of the one offered by the App Store. Epic Games's founder Tim Sweeney had previously challenged the 30% revenue cut that Apple takes on each purchase made in the App Store, and with their game Fortnite, wanted to either bypass Apple or have Apple take less of a cut. Epic implemented changes in Fortnite intentionally on August 13, 2020, to bypass the App Store payment system, prompting Apple to block the game from the App Store and leading to Epic filing its lawsuit. Apple filed a countersuit, asserting Epic purposely breached its terms of contract with Apple to goad it into action, and defended itself from Epic's suit.The trial ran from May 3 to May 24, 2021. In a September 2021 ruling in the first part of the case, Judge Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers decided in favor of Apple on nine of ten counts, but found against Apple on its anti-steering policies under the California Unfair Competition Law. Rogers prohibited Apple from stopping developers from informing users of other payment systems within apps. Epic appealed the ruling to the Supreme Court in July of 2023. Apple also filed an appeal of the ruling. Justice Kagan declined to grant Epic's emergency request for a stay of the ruling in August of 2023. In January of 2024, the Supreme Court denied the full appeals of both Apple and Epic in the case, leaving the case primarily a victory for Apple but still requiring them to allow developers to include notices of alternate payment systems in apps.Epic also filed another lawsuit, Epic Games v. Google, the same day, which challenges Google's similar practices on the Google Play app store for Android, after Google pulled Fortnite following the update for similar reasons as Apple. However, that case centered more on the practices and deals that Google, as a dominant tech giant, wielded over partners to assure use of the Play Store. In December 2023, a jury ruled against Google in that it had unlawfully maintained its monopoly on the Android environment.","title":"Epic Games v. Apple"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GDC_2016_TXT8604_Tim_Sweeney_(25730674112)_(cropped2).jpg"},{"link_name":"Tim Sweeney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Sweeney_(game_developer)"},{"link_name":"Tim Sweeney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Sweeney_(game_developer)"},{"link_name":"Steam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_(service)"},{"link_name":"revenue sharing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revenue_sharing"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Epic Games Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_Games_Store"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"free-to-play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-to-play"},{"link_name":"sideloaded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sideloading"},{"link_name":"microtransactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtransaction"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"clones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_clone"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"antitrust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antitrust"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"CNBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNBC"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnbc_july_2020-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnbc_july_2020-11"},{"link_name":"cloud gaming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_gaming"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"xCloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XCloud"},{"link_name":"metaverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaverse"},{"link_name":"Stadia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Stadia"},{"link_name":"GeForce NOW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeForce_Now"},{"link_name":"Minecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minecraft"},{"link_name":"Roblox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roblox"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-arstech_summary-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-arstech_summary-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-arstech_summary-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Epic Games's founder and CEO Tim SweeneySince 2015, Epic Games's founder and CEO Tim Sweeney had questioned the need for digital storefronts like Valve's Steam, Apple's App Store for iOS devices, and Google Play, to take a 30% revenue sharing cut, and argued that when accounting for current rates of content distribution and other factors needed, a revenue cut of 8% should be sufficient to run any digital storefront profitably.[1][2] While a 30% revenue cut was an industry standard across computers, consoles, and mobile platforms in 2019,[3] Sweeney stated that higher revenue shares made sense on consoles where \"there's enormous investment in hardware, often sold below cost, and marketing campaigns in broad partnership with publishers\", but did not extend to open platforms like mobile devices and personal computers.[4] Part of the reasoning for creating the Epic Games Store was to demonstrate that Epic could operate at a lower commission percentage (12%).[5]As Fortnite expanded from personal computers to other platforms with the popularity of the Battle Royale mode in 2018, Epic Games sought to bring the free-to-play game to mobile devices. When Epic first released its Android client, it offered it as a sideloaded package, rather than as a Google Play store app, as they did not want Google to take any revenue from the microtransactions in the game.[6] However, this resulted in a number of security concerns and numerous unscrupulous clones attempting to pass themselves off as the real Fortnite game in the Google Play store,[7] and by April 2020, Epic discontinued the sideloaded version and placed the game on the Google Play store.[8] As Apple does not allow sideloading on iOS devices, Epic had just released the client on the App Store directly in 2018.[9]In mid-2020, Sweeney reiterated his stance on the 30% revenue cut that Apple and Google took, ahead of a large United States Congressional hearing investigating antitrust charges on Big Tech companies, including Google, and during similar investigations of Apple in the European Union.[10] Sweeney said in a July CNBC interview that \"Apple has locked down and crippled the ecosystem by inventing an absolute monopoly on the distribution of software, on the monetization of software\", and \"Google essentially intentionally stifles competing stores by having user interface barriers and obstruction\".[11] Sweeney further stated that \"If every developer could accept their own payments and avoid the 30% tax by Apple and Google we could pass the savings along to all our consumers and players would get a better deal on items. And you'd have economic competition.\"[11] After Apple stated that cloud gaming services like Microsoft's xCloud were not allowed on the iOS platform as they would allow content that bypassed Apple's content review, Sweeney wrote \"Apple has outlawed the metaverse. The principle they state, taken literally, would rule out all cross-platform ecosystems and games with user created modes: not just xCloud, Stadia, and GeForce NOW, but also Fortnite, Minecraft, and Roblox.\"[12]Apple has argued that the 30% cut it takes though In-App Purchases (IAP) \"reflects the immense value of the App Store\" and beyond the visible features it offers developers, that cut covers \"Apple's technology, tools, software for app development and testing, marketing efforts, platinum-level customer service, and distribution of developers' apps and digital content.\"[13] Apple has further argued that it requires iOS apps to use its storefront to \"ensure that iOS apps meet Apple's high standards for privacy, security, content, and quality\" and avoid exposing iOS users to risks from alternative storefronts.[13]Legal review of the cases identify the key issue is whether Apple's control of the iOS App Store is a monopoly or not. Epic Games has argued that Apple maintains a monopoly for iOS-enabled devices, and thus its behavior in restricting alternative payment systems and storefronts are anticompetitive. Apple contends that the marketplace that Epic participates in is multiple platforms, not just the iOS, and in that perspective, Apple does not have a monopoly.[13][14]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CNN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnn_sweeney_feb2021-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"hotfix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotfix"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge_aug132020_google-19"},{"link_name":"United States District Court for the Northern District of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Northern_District_of_California"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes_epic_apple_google-20"},{"link_name":"Cravath, Swaine & Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cravath,_Swaine_%26_Moore"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Katherine B. Forrest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_B._Forrest"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scarcella-22"},{"link_name":"antitrust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antitrust"},{"link_name":"Christine A. Varney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_A._Varney"},{"link_name":"Antitrust Division of the U.S. Department of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Antitrust_Division"},{"link_name":"Obama administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obama_administration"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibson,_Dunn_%26_Crutcher"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scarcella-22"},{"link_name":"1984","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_(advertisement)"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes_epic_apple_google-20"},{"link_name":"Sherman Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherman_Act"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge_epic_apple_suit-24"},{"link_name":"Don't be evil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_be_evil"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-epic_google_lawsuit-25"},{"link_name":"OnePlus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OnePlus"},{"link_name":"LG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LG"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-epic_google_lawsuit-25"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge_epic_apple_suit-24"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"The Verge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Verge"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-epic_google_lawsuit-25"},{"link_name":"Unreal Engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unreal_Engine"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yvonne_Gonzalez_Rogers"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"text":"In an interview with CNN, Sweeney stated that Epic planned out a course of action over several months prior to August 2020, codenamed \"Project Liberty\", aimed to force Apple and Google's hands, either to alter their store policies or to initiate legal action.[15]As determined through the course of the trial, Epic initiated \"Project Liberty\" by first introducing a standard patch to Fortnite that had to be approved by Apple and Google, but which had secretly contained code that would allow users to be able to purchase the in-game currency, \"V-Bucks\", directly from Epic. Epic did not make mention of this feature to Apple or Google, so the patch was approved.[16] Then, on August 13, 2020, Epic released a hotfix (which did not require prior approval) to the mobile versions, triggering visibility of this purchasing option. At the same time, Epic announced for all platforms that purchases of V-Bucks directly through Epic would be discounted by 20%. For iOS and Android users, Epic cautioned users that if they purchased through the Apple or Google storefront, they were not given this discount, as Epic said they could not extend the discount due to the 30% revenue cut taken by Apple and Google.[17]Within hours of this hotfix going live, both Apple and Google had removed Fortnite from their storefronts stating the means of bypassing their payment systems violated their terms of service.[18][19] Epic immediately filed separate lawsuits against Apple and Google for antitrust and anticompetitive behavior in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California.[20] In 2019, Epic retained Cravath, Swaine & Moore[21] and its tandem lawsuits were represented by Katherine B. Forrest[22] and led by the chair of its antitrust division, Christine A. Varney, former lead of the Antitrust Division of the U.S. Department of Justice under the Obama administration.[23] Apple was represented in the suits by Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher partner Mark Perry.[22]On the day the lawsuit was filed, Epic released a video called \"Nineteen Eighty-Fortnite\", parodying Apple's \"1984\" advertisement using Fortnite assets, which Epic points out in their lawsuit had been used by Apple then to challenge the weight of IBM at the time.[20] In its suit against Apple, Epic accused Apple of antitrust behavior with its practices around the App Store and its payment system, charging that these were in violation of the federal Sherman Act and the California Cartwright Act.[24] In its suit against Google, Epic challenged Google's past mantra of \"Don't be evil\" and claimed that its practices around the Google Play store and its payment system violate the Sherman Act and California's Cartwright Act.[25] Epic stated that Google's restrictions on the Android system interfered with deals for pre-loading Fortnite on phones from OnePlus and LG.[26] They state in the claim \"Notwithstanding its promises to make Android devices open to competition, Google has erected contractual and technological barriers that foreclose competing ways of distributing apps to Android users, ensuring that the Google Play Store accounts for nearly all the downloads of apps from app stores on Android devices.\"[25]Epic did not seek monetary damages in either case, but instead was \"seeking injunctive relief to allow fair competition in these two key markets that directly affect hundreds of millions of consumers and tens of thousands, if not more, of third-party app developers.\"[24] In comments on social media the next day, Sweeney said that they undertook the actions as \"we're fighting for the freedom of people who bought smartphones to install apps from sources of their choosing, the freedom for creators of apps to distribute them as they choose, and the freedom of both groups to do business directly. The primary opposing argument is: 'Smartphone markers can do whatever they want.' This as an awful notion.[sic] We all have rights, and we need to fight to defend our rights against whoever would deny them.\"[27]Google, in response to the lawsuit, stated to The Verge that \"For game developers who choose to use the Play Store, we have consistent policies that are fair to developers and keep the store safe for users. While Fortnite remains available on Android, we can no longer make it available on Play because it violates our policies. However, we welcome the opportunity to continue our discussions with Epic and bring Fortnite back to Google Play.\"[25]By August 17, 2020, Apple had informed Epic that it would terminate its access to developers accounts and tools for the App Store and iOS and macOS by August 28, 2020. This led Epic to file a motion for a preliminary injunction to block this as well as prevent Apple from delisting Fortnite from the App Store, asserting that lack of access to the development tools for iOS and macOS would affect Unreal Engine development and subsequently impact all developers that used the engine.[28][29] Apple stated in response to the request for preliminary injunction that Epic had approached them in June to ask for a special deal for Epic to operate Fortnite on the App Store to allow users to pay Epic directly, and when Apple had failed to grant them this, Epic had contacted them prior to updating the version on August 13, 2020, to state they were willingly going to violate the App Store terms. Apple further requested the court deny Epic the preliminary junction, calling the \"emergency\" situation one that Epic had created itself.[30] Sweeney stated in response that as his emails in Apple's complaint said, he was looking for Apple to extend to this type of exemption to all iOS developers and not just for Epic Games.[31] Epic filed a response to Apple's complaint with support of Microsoft, specifically asking the court to block Apple from taking away its iOS development tool access as this would impact all developers that have used the Unreal Engine. Microsoft wrote in their support, \"Denying Epic access to Apple's SDK and other development tools will prevent Epic from supporting Unreal Engine on iOS and macOS and will place Unreal Engine and those game creators that have built, are building, and may build games on it at a substantial disadvantage.\"[32]On August 24, 2020, after a court hearing Judge Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers granted Epic's request to prevent Apple from taking away its developer licenses for iOS and macOS, but did not grant the preliminary injunction to overturn Apple's decision to remove Fortnite from the iOS store. Rogers wrote that the removal of the developers licenses had \"potential significant damage to both the Unreal Engine platform itself, and to the gaming industry generally\" and Apple \"has chosen to act severely\" in threatening that step. On terms of Fortnite, Rogers agreed with Apple that \"Epic Games has not yet demonstrated irreparable harm. The current predicament appears of its own making.\"[33] Subsequently, Apple terminated Epic's iOS developer account on August 28, 2020, thereby preventing the company from uploading further material to the App Store but otherwise still being able to develop for the platform.[34]Prior to the first hearing on September 28, 2020, Epic filed paperwork ahead of the hearing in which they intend to seek a preliminary injunction to require Apple to rehost Fortnite.[35]","title":"Onset of legal action"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"Countersuit","text":"Apple filed a countersuit against Epic on September 8, 2020. Apple asserted in their suit that Epic breached their contract and was seeking to block the use of Epic's payment system from any app, including Fortnite, on the iOS storefront, and sought monetary damages to recover funds that Epic had made while their version of Fortnite was active on August 13, 2020.[36] Apple called Epic's suit an attempt \"to be part of a marketing campaign designed to reinvigorate interest in Fortnite\".[37][38] Judge Rogers dismissed Apple's monetary claims of theft in November 2020, stating that the claims cannot be considered \"independently wrongful\" of the breach of contract claims, leaving these breach claims otherwise in place.[39]","title":"Onset of legal action"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"District court"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Xbox Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_Live"},{"link_name":"PlayStation Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_Store"},{"link_name":"Nintendo eShop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_eShop"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"Nintendo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"Preliminary hearing","text":"At the first court hearing on the matter on September 28, 2020, Judge Rogers appeared likely to deny Epic's demand to require Apple to rehost Fortnite on the App Store unless Epic conforms to the App Store policy, consistent with Apple's argument that Epic itself had created the situation leading to its removal, but otherwise ready to maintain the restraining order related to the Unreal Engine and Epic's developer accounts. Judge Rogers indicated that she was in favor of a jury trial when the case would be heard, then expected to be in July 2021, stating during the hearing \"I think it's important enough to understand what real people think. Do these security issues concern people or not? Are the concerns of the developers incredibly important? I think many people would feel it is. I do think that this is something for which jury insights would be important.\"[40]In post-hearing filings, both Epic and Apple argued that the case should be decided by a judge rather than a jury.[41] Judge Rogers agreed, scheduling a bench trial to commence in May 2021.[42] In October 2020, Judge Rogers denied Epic Games's request for a temporary injunction that would require Apple to allow Fortnite in its current state (with Epic's storefront), but made permanent the injunction preventing Apple from terminating Epic's developer accounts such that it could continue to maintain the Unreal Engine for iOS and macOS systems.[43] In her decision, Rogers stated that a key aspect of her review of the case would be Epic's contention that the App Store is unique and its arguments as to why Apple's antitrust behavior is limited to the App Store and not to the other closed systems such as Xbox Live, PlayStation Store or the Nintendo eShop. Rogers said that \"a final decision should be better informed regarding the impact of the walled garden model given the potential for significant and serious ramifications for Sony, Nintendo and Microsoft and their video game platforms.\"[44]","title":"District court"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Valve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valve_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Steam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_(service)"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"sub_title":"Pre-trial","text":"Facebook stated in December 2020 that it will fully support Epic Games in the lawsuit during its discovery phase. Facebook itself had been in prior conflict with Apple over its App Store policies and had amassed its own collection of information they plan to share with Epic.[45]As part of its case, Apple had attempted to subpoena records from Valve related to several hundred games and their sales on Steam, given that Steam is a direct competitor to Epic Games's storefront in the personal computer space. Valve declined to comply with these requests, arguing that Apple's requests are overly broad and unrelated to their complaint with Epic.[46] The judge ruled in Apple's favor, stating that Valve was not the only target of Apple's subpoenas seeking similar storefront data, and thus the request was not unreasonable.[47]","title":"District court"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Cravath, Swaine & Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cravath,_Swaine_%26_Moore"},{"link_name":"Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibson,_Dunn_%26_Crutcher"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Minecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minecraft"},{"link_name":"Roblox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roblox"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"cloud gaming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_gaming"},{"link_name":"GeForce Now","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeForce_Now"},{"link_name":"Google Stadia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Stadia"},{"link_name":"progressive web application","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_web_application"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"itch.io","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itch.io"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wapost_may13-59"},{"link_name":"Ohio v. American Express Co.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio_v._American_Express_Co."},{"link_name":"two-sided market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-sided_market"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"sealed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_sealing"},{"link_name":"Sony Interactive Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Interactive_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"cross-platform play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-platform_play"},{"link_name":"PlayStation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Xbox Live Gold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_Live_Gold"},{"link_name":"Walmart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walmart"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"}],"sub_title":"Trial","text":"The trial commenced on May 3, 2021. Due to the nature of the case, Judge Gonzalez Rogers required that all parties be physically present at the court, with additional steps made to account for safety due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.[48][49] The trial ran for three weeks, with testimony ending on May 21, 2021 and closing arguments given on May 24, 2021.[50] The law firm Cravath, Swaine & Moore represented Epic Games while Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher represented Apple.[51]Among aspects covered by the trial included:Epic Games and Apple discussed whether other apps such as Minecraft and Roblox should be defined as \"games\" or \"metaverses\". Though they agreed that Minecraft is a game, they disagreed over how to define Roblox.[52] Epic argued that Roblox, like Fortnite, is a metaverse, while Apple argued that Roblox is a singular game and that games within it are \"experiences\", comparable to individual worlds within Minecraft. As a result, in May 2021, Roblox immediately altered its branding to remove the word \"game\" from its website, replacing it with \"experience\" in an effort to comply with Apple's app store policies.[53][54][55][56]\nApple defended its curation of content on the iOS app store, a restriction that had previously prevented cloud gaming services like GeForce Now or Google Stadia from offering a direct app on the iOS store, as each game would require approval by Apple under Apple's rules but would allow for these services to be offered through a progressive web application run through Safari or Chrome.[57][58] Apple pointed to the recent addition of itch.io, an indie game storefront, to the Epic Game Store, stating that as itch.io lacked any type of moderation of content, this had allowed the Epic Game Store to effectively include a large amount of mature and adult content that was otherwise disallowed by Epic's own store guidelines, while Apple's policies require moderation of app-by-app content to prevent such a situation. Epic pointed out that it only distributed the itch.io client and was not responsible for any of the games that the client itself distributed or sold.[59]\nApple's anti-steering policies, which prevent any app from directing or informing its users to a different storefront outside of Apple's iOS one to make purchases, were brought into question as related to potential antitrust charges. Anti-steering policies had been deemed acceptable in practice in the 2018 U.S. Supreme Court case Ohio v. American Express Co. as long as no harm was shown to either side of the two-sided market in considering the absence of anti-steering policies. Epic attempted to argue that with Apple banning developers from directing users to alternative payment systems and storefronts, they were taking a larger share of app revenues, and thus that these anti-steering provisions should be eliminated from Apple's policies.[60]During the trial, a number of documents that were part of evidence collected by Epic and Apple were made public during proceedings, some containing confidential information related to third parties. Some of these documents were meant to be sealed but were instead misplaced into online public court records, and revealed some of the past inner workings of the video game industry, in addition to details on Epic's financials related to the Epic Game Store. This included Epic previously approaching Sony Interactive Entertainment in early 2018 to try to convince them to allow for cross-platform play on the PlayStation consoles; Epic approaching Microsoft to try to get them to allow free-to-play games to be played on the Xbox consoles without the need for an Xbox Live Gold paid subscription; and an unannounced game streaming service planned by Walmart. Judge Rogers took steps after the second day to try to make sure that appropriately sealed documents were kept out of the online public records.[61][62]","title":"District court"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Judge-Yvonne-Gonzalez-Rogers.jpg"},{"link_name":"Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yvonne_Gonzalez_Rogers"},{"link_name":"Mark Lemley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Lemley"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-npr_decision-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes_decision-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"freemium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemium"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge_decision_summary-66"},{"link_name":"duopoly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duopoly"},{"link_name":"Nintendo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo"},{"link_name":"Google Stadia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Stadia"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge_decision_summary-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc_decision-67"},{"link_name":"California Unfair Competition Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Unfair_Competition_Law"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge_decision_summary-66"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge_decision_summary-66"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge_decision_summary-66"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge_decision_summary-66"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge_decision_summary-66"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge_decision_summary-66"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-npr_decision-63"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge_decision_summary-66"}],"sub_title":"Decision","text":"Judge Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers oversaw proceedings at the District Court.Judge Rogers issued her first ruling on September 10, 2021, which was considered a split decision by law professor Mark Lemley.[63] Rogers found in favor of Apple on nine of ten counts brought up against them in the case, including Epic's charges related to Apple's 30% revenue cut and Apple's prohibition against third-party marketplaces on the iOS environment.[64] Rogers did rule against Apple on the final charge related to anti-steering provisions, and issued a permanent injunction that, in 90 days from the ruling, blocked Apple from preventing developers from linking app users to other storefronts from within apps to complete purchases or from collecting information within an app, such as an email, to notify users of these storefronts.[65]In her decision, Rogers identified that the market of concern was neither games (Apple's stance) nor Apple's App Store (Epic's stance) but digital mobile gaming transactions. Rogers identified that the demographics for mobile games was far different from computer or console games, and mobile games most often use the freemium payment model in which games are offered for free on the App Store but include additional features, such as cosmetic features or power-up bonuses, available for purchase, making this particular market sufficiently different from the overall video game market.[66] Under this market definition, Judge Rogers concluded that Apple was not a monopoly and mostly a duopoly alongside Google, with potential competition to come from Nintendo and Google Stadia, and while Apple \"enjoys considerable market share of over 55% and extraordinary high profit margins\", that type of success was not an illegal monopoly.[66][67] In this light, Judge Rogers ruled that Epic had failed to show that Apple violated federal or state antitrust laws, but ruled that Apple did violate the California Unfair Competition Law through the anti-competitive behavior of disallowing any mention of other payment systems within apps.[68][66]In line with Epic's arguments, Rogers identified that some of Apple's practices may be of concern due to the lack of competition in the digital game purchases market, but as having determined that Apple was not a monopoly, could not take immediate action to remedy.[66] Rogers stated that the lack of competition in this area was of concern and that Apple only seemed to be motivated to innovate or change its App Store policies when subject to litigation.[66] Rogers believed that the 30% revenue cut that Apple charges may be \"unjustified\" relative to the value they offer, but without significant competition to compare alternate schemes, she could not make any direct order on this.[69] Rogers did write that \"The point is that a third-party app store could put pressure on Apple to innovate by providing features that Apple has neglected.\"[66] However, she disagreed with Epic's stance that Apple should not require apps to include the IAP feature for payment features, stating that Apple has a right to take some fee for licensing its intellectual property to developers.[66] Rogers agreed with Apple that there was a valid interest in their policies to require oversight on app approval for the App Store for security purposes, which Epic had argued was used to shut down app approvals. However, Rogers did not fully accept Apple's argument that app review had to be tied directly to app distribution as the only means to prevent malware and other security issues, believing that more app reviewers would help separate these functions within the App Store.[66]Judge Rogers also ruled against Epic, requiring them to pay Apple $3.6 million, 30% of the revenue that was withheld to Apple related to their attempts to bypass the App Store,[63] and further stated that Epic did violate its contractual terms as a developer with Apple in how they deployed the update to Fortnite in August 2020 that instigated events, such that Apple may block Epic in the future from providing apps to the App Store.[70] Rogers stated that Apple's single offense against California's law was not sufficiently severe to justify Epic's rulebreaking.[66]","title":"District court"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes_decision-64"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"Ninth Circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninth_Circuit"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Ninth Circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Ninth_Circuit"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"Electronic Frontier Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Ninth Circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninth_Circuit"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"Elena Kagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elena_Kagan"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"}],"text":"On the day of Rogers's decision, a representative for Apple stated that \"Today the Court has affirmed what we've known all along: the App Store is not in violation of antitrust law.\"[64] However, in October 2021, Apple filed an appeal of the decision, seeking to overturn the preliminary injunction related to anti-steering practices which was due to go into effect in December 2021. Apple claimed the injunction was no longer necessary as they were planning on deleting the anti-steering provisions from their AUP as a result of the settlement from a separate lawsuit, Cameron v. Apple, completed in August 2021.[71] Judge Rogers denied a stay of the injunction related to the anti-steering provisions in November 2021, requiring Apple to comply by December 9, 2021, 90 days from the initial order.[72] The Ninth Circuit issued a stay on the portion of Judge Rogers's order related to provide in-app links to alternate payment systems on December 8, 2021, ruling that Apple had shown likelihood to succeed on their appeal, though the order requiring Apple to allow apps to communicate to users about such payment systems outside of the app was upheld.[73]Epic Games's Sweeney stated that the decision \"isn't a win for developers or for consumers\", that Epic would not be bringing Fortnite back to iOS until \"Epic can offer in-app payment in fair competition with Apple in-app payment, passing along the savings to consumers\", and that they would continue to litigate on this matter.[74] Epic filed notice of its appeal to the Ninth Circuit on September 12, 2021, challenging Judge Rogers's conclusion that Apple was not a monopoly.[75] Following their appeal on September 22, Sweeney stated that Apple had told Epic they would not let Fortnite back onto the App Store until the completion of all litigation related to the suit, which Sweeney later believed that this particular process would take \"a minimum of five years, if not more\", thereby prolonging the lawsuit until 2026.[76]A coalition of 35 states, Microsoft, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, and several other groups filed amicus briefs in support of Epic's position, arguing that Apple held a monopoly and thus that Epic should prevail in its lawsuit.[77]Court hearings for the appeals began on November 14, 2022, in the Ninth Circuit.[78]The Ninth Circuit issued its opinion on April 24, 2023. The three judge panel all agreed that the lower court ruling should be upheld. However, the Ninth Circuit agreed to stay the injunction requiring Apple to offer third-party payment options in July 2023, allowing time for Apple to submit its appeal to the Supreme Court.[79] Both Apple and Epic Games have appealed this decision to the Supreme Court in July 2023.[80][81] Justice Elena Kagan declined Epic's emergency request to lift the Ninth Circuit's stay in August 2023.[82]On January 16, 2024, the Supreme Court declined to hear the appeals from Apple and Epic in the case. [83]","title":"Appeals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eurogamer_scotus_deny-84"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eurogamer_scotus_deny-84"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eurogamer_scotus_deny-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Digital Markets Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Markets_Act"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Malicious Compliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malicious_compliance"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"Digital Markets, Competition and Consumers Bill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Markets,_Competition_and_Consumers_Bill"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"}],"text":"With the Supreme Court's refusal to hear either appeal, the case ended with all charges dismissed exception for the anti-steering charge. To implement this, Apple allowed developers to include \"metadata buttons, external links, or other calls to action that direct customers to purchasing mechanisms\", but required that developers give Apple 27% of all sales made within seven days of being directed to these sites, which Apple described as a \"reasonable means to account for the substantial value Apple provides developers, including in facilitating linked transactions\".[84] In addition, the App Store posts a warning screen stating that Apple is not responsible for any security or privacy issues related to third-party payment systems when clicking through to one of these systems.[84] Sweeney stated that these changes are in bad faith compliance with the court orders, maintaining a 27% anti-competitive tax and a \"scare screen\" that are intended to dissuade developers from using third-party payment systems. Epic filed its request to Rogers in March 2024 to enforce the anti-steering provision that she had outlined for Apple.[84][85]Apple had requested the lower court to order Epic Games to pay 90% of Apple's legal fees estimated at $73 million, based on the fact that nine of the ten claims Epic filed were dismissed by the court.[86]Apple announced on January 2024 that to comply with the European Union's Digital Markets Act (DMA) that it will allow third party storefronts to be loaded onto iOS devices in March 2024. In response, Epic stated they plan to bring the Epic Games Store as well as Fortnite to iOS in Europe. [87] Sweeney still argued that the new terms for use in the EU were \"a new instance of Malicious Compliance\" and would continue to challenge those through legal routes.[88] While Epic had originally been approved for an Apple developer account through its Sweden office in preparation to release Fortnite on iOS in early 2024, Apple nullified the account on March 6, 2024, stating that Epic Games was untrustworthy and threatened the iOS environment. Epic published letters it had obtained from Apple that Epic claimed demonstrated the account termination was retaliatory for Sweeney's comments on Apple's compliance with the DMA and vowed to fight Apple as needed.[89] The EU stated the next day they were seeking more details from Apple and whether the action was compliant under the DMA.[90] Following that, on March 8, Apple reversed the ban on Epic's Sweden account, which Sweeney stated was \"a big win for European rule of law, for the European Commission, and for the freedom of developers worldwide to speak up.\"[91]The United Kingdom passed the Digital Markets, Competition and Consumers Bill (DMCC) in May 2024, which made similar requirements on app stores as the EU's DMA. After its passage, Epic Games stated they plan to bring their own Epic Games Store and Fortnite to iOS systems in the UK in the second half of 2025.[92]","title":"Aftermath"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"Spotify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spotify"},{"link_name":"Match Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Match_Group"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"Digital Content Next","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Content_Next"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"The Wall Street Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal"},{"link_name":"Amazon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_(company)"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"Polygon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygon_(website)"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"Coalition for App Fairness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalition_for_App_Fairness"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Store_(digital)"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Apple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"}],"text":"Companies like Facebook, Spotify, and the Match Group supported Epic Games in its lawsuit and spoke of their own past issues with Apple's App Store policies related to their services.[93] Digital Content Next, a non-profit trade group representing media outlets like The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, also backed Epic's suit, asserting among other issues that Apple has given out uniquely favorable deals to some providers like Amazon but not to others.[94]After the initial ban, some people attempted to sell mobile iOS devices with Fortnite still installed for thousands of dollars.[95] When the game was removed from the App Store, it did not surprise many users as most people were anticipating it from the beginning and it seemed that many players purely jumped \"on board for the memes\", according to Polygon.[96] In September 2020, Epic Games, together with thirteen other companies, launched the Coalition for App Fairness, which aims for better conditions for the inclusion of apps in the app stores.[97]On October 8, 2020, Microsoft announced a commitment to ten fairness principles in the operation of its Microsoft Store on Windows 10, which included promises of transparency over its guidelines, not blocking competing app stores from being used on Windows, and not removing apps from the store based on their business model, how they handle payments, or how their services are delivered.[98]In December 2020, Apple announced that it would be lowering the revenue cut Apple takes for app developers making $1M or less from 30% to 15% if app developers fill out an application for the lowered revenue cut.[99]","title":"Reactions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"Samsung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"Google Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Play"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"}],"text":"The events and initial actions on Epic's lawsuit against Google were brought on the same day as Epic's suit against Apple, but Google stressed the legal situation around their case is far different. Google asserted that the Android operating system does not have the same single storefront restriction as Apple's iOS, and thus allows different Android phone manufacturers to bundle different storefronts and apps as they desire. Google said they are negotiating with Epic Games far differently from Apple in their case.[100]Following a lawsuit filed by 36 states and the District of Columbia over antitrust violations related to the Play Store in early July 2021, Epic amended its claim in the Google suit later that month to reflect information supporting the states' case. Epic specifically focused on Google's actions when Epic had started working with Samsung to offer Fortnite through their own storefront, with evidence from the states that corroborated anti-competitive behavior.[101]Google countersued Epic in October 2021, asserting that by introducing a version of Fortnite that did not use Google Play's payment systems, Epic had violated their contract with Google, and because this version still exists and can be obtained in other formats outside of Google Play, Epic \"has alternatively been unjustly enriched at Google's expense\", and seek to recover monetary damages from this version.[102]After a jury trial over November and December 2023, the jury ruled in favor of Epic Games on December 11, 2023, finding that Google has a monopoly in the Android device space with Google Play, and engaged in unlawful practices to maintain that monopoly. The jury also concluded that Google also unlawfully tied Google Play to its billing systems.[103]","title":"Epic Games v. Google"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Related actions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Competition Appeal Tribunal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition_Appeal_Tribunal"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"Competition Appeal Tribunal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition_Appeal_Tribunal"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"Nye Perram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nye_Perram"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"Bandcamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandcamp"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"escrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escrow"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"}],"sub_title":"By Epic Games","text":"In December 2020, Epic Games filed separate complaints against Apple and Google in the United Kingdom's Competition Appeal Tribunal related to the companies' anticompetitive behavior in both the UK and European Union, with similar charges as Epic asserted in their U.S. cases.[104] They have also launched legal action in Australia,[105][106] and the European Union.[107] On February 22, 2021, the Competition Appeal Tribunal rejected Epic's lawsuit against Apple in the UK however allowed their lawsuit against Google to proceed. Epic Games later released a statement stating that they would reconsider pursuing their lawsuit against Apple in the UK following the resolution of the U.S. lawsuit while also stated that they were \"pleased\" with the tribunal's decision regarding their case against Google.[108]Epic also filed similar charges against Apple in Australia. On April 9, 2021, Judge Nye Perram ordered a three-month stay on Epic's lawsuit against Apple in Australia while stating that the stay would become permanent in the event Epic does not file in the U.S. but under the Australian Consumer Law within that time frame.[109] Epic appealed Judge Perram's ruling, which was granted in a ruling in July 2021, allowing its case in Australia to go forward.[110]Epic had acquired Bandcamp in March 2022. Bandcamp allowed music creators to sell music with a 10-15% revenue split, which was kept following Epic's acquisition. Google announced a planned change in its Google Play Store policy that required all apps to use its Play Store payment systems or face removal by June 2022. Bandcamp, supported by Epic, sued Google in April 2022 and sought a preliminary injunction to block this action by Google, arguing that the 30% revenue cut demanded by the Play Store payment system would destroy their financial model. Google responded that they have offered a Media Experience Program that for media apps that provide appropriate integration with Google's services, that they can use a 10% revenue cut through the Play Store instead.[111] By May 2022, an agreement had been arranged that while Epic's suit continues, Bandcamp could continue to use its in-app purchasing system, though they will retain the 10% fee on each sale in escrow until the conclusion of the case.[112]Additional filings by Epic assert that Google had paid competitors significant sums of money to dissuade them from making a competition app store to Google Play, with the highest being $360 million paid to Activision Blizzard. Epic Games said these payments helped Google to maintain its monopoly on storefronts via Google Play on the Android operating system.[113]","title":"Related actions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"Richard Blumenthal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Blumenthal"},{"link_name":"Marsha Blackburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsha_Blackburn"},{"link_name":"Amy Klobuchar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Klobuchar"},{"link_name":"Open App Markets Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_App_Markets_Act"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"117th Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/117th_Congress"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"}],"sub_title":"Others","text":"In the United States, forty states filed suit against Google in July 2021 arguing its app store practices, including its 30% revenue cut, were anti-competitive, similar to the factors that Epic sought in its case.[114] Later, in August 2021, Senators Richard Blumenthal, Marsha Blackburn, and Amy Klobuchar introduced the Open App Markets Act bill, which would prevent app stores from forcing developers from exclusively using the app store's payment system.[115] The bill passed out of the Senate committee by February 2022.[116] It died at the end of the 117th Congress.In August 2021, as part of a settlement to Cameron v. Apple, a similar class-action lawsuit filed by app developers, Apple announced that it would allow developers to collect information within apps such as email addresses from users so that the developers can subsequently tell customers about ways to pay outside of the App Store.[117]South Korea passed a law in August 2021 amending their Telecommunications Business Act that required app stores like Apple's and Google's to allow app developers to use alternative payment systems other than the storefront, in addition to giving the government more involvement in mediations over app store issues in conflicts between the operators and developers and users. This was the first such law passed at a national level.[118] Epic asked Apple to allow Fortnite onto the Korean version of the store due to this policy in September 2021, but Apple rejected this as the law had yet to come into effect.[119]","title":"Related actions"}]	[{"image_text":"Epic Games's founder and CEO Tim Sweeney","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/GDC_2016_TXT8604_Tim_Sweeney_%2825730674112%29_%28cropped2%29.jpg/170px-GDC_2016_TXT8604_Tim_Sweeney_%2825730674112%29_%28cropped2%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Judge Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers oversaw proceedings at the District Court.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Judge-Yvonne-Gonzalez-Rogers.jpg/170px-Judge-Yvonne-Gonzalez-Rogers.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"Jones, Richard-Scott (August 23, 2017). \"Steam could be profitable with an 8% cut rather than 30%, says Tim Sweeney\". PCGamesN. Archived from the original on January 20, 2019. Retrieved December 14, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcgamesn.com/steam-revenue-cut-tim-sweeney","url_text":"\"Steam could be profitable with an 8% cut rather than 30%, says Tim Sweeney\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCGamesN","url_text":"PCGamesN"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190120080728/https://www.pcgamesn.com/steam-revenue-cut-tim-sweeney","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"D'Anastasio, Cecelia (May 7, 2021). \"Epic's Years-Long Plan to Paint Itself as Gaming's Good Guy\". Wired. Archived from the original on May 11, 2021. Retrieved May 7, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wired.com/story/epic-games-plan-paint-itself-as-good-guy/","url_text":"\"Epic's Years-Long Plan to Paint Itself as Gaming's Good Guy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_(magazine)","url_text":"Wired"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210511121943/https://www.wired.com/story/epic-games-plan-paint-itself-as-good-guy/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Marks, Tom (January 13, 2020). \"Report: Steam's 30% Cut Is Actually the Industry Standard\". IGN. Archived from the original on August 18, 2021. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto	Vilfredo Pareto	["1 Biography","1.1 From civil engineer to classical liberal economist","1.2 Economics and sociology","1.3 Personal life","2 Sociology","3 Fascism and power distribution","4 Economic concepts","4.1 Concepts","5 Major works","5.1 English translations","5.2 Articles","6 See also","7 References","8 Further reading","8.1 Primary sources","9 External links"]	Italian polymath (1848–1923) Vilfredo ParetoPareto in the 1870sBornWilfried Fritz Pareto(1848-07-15)15 July 1848Paris, FranceDied19 August 1923(1923-08-19) (aged 75)Céligny, SwitzerlandNationalityItalianAcademic careerInstitutionsUniversity of LausanneField Microeconomics Socioeconomics School ortradition Lausanne School Italian school of elitism Alma materPolytechnic University of TurinInfluences Comte Machiavelli Smith Hume Burke Maistre Molinari Mosca Pantaleoni Sorel Spencer Walras Contributions Circulation of elite Ophelimity Pareto analysis Pareto chart Pareto distribution Pareto efficiency Pareto index Pareto interpolation Pareto priority index Pareto principle The Mind and Society Signature Vilfredo Federico Damaso Pareto (UK: /pæˈreɪtoʊ, -ˈriːt-/ parr-AY-toh, -⁠EE-, US: /pəˈreɪtoʊ/ pə-RAY-toh, Italian: , Ligurian: ; born Wilfried Fritz Pareto; 15 July 1848 – 19 August 1923) was an Italian polymath, whose areas of interest included sociology, civil engineering, economics, political science, and philosophy. He made several important contributions to economics, particularly in the study of income distribution and in the analysis of individuals' choices. He was also responsible for popularising the use of the term "elite" in social analysis. He introduced the concept of Pareto efficiency and helped develop the field of microeconomics. He was also the first to claim that income follows a Pareto distribution, which is a power law probability distribution. The Pareto principle was named after him, and it was built on his observations that 80% of the wealth in Italy belonged to about 20% of the population. He also contributed to the fields of sociology and mathematics. Biography Pareto was born of an exiled noble Genoese family on 15 July 1848 in Paris, the centre of the popular revolutions of that year. His father, Raffaele Pareto (1812–1882), was an Italian civil engineer and Ligurian marquis who had left Italy much as Giuseppe Mazzini and other Italian nationalists had. His mother, Marie Metenier, was a French woman. Enthusiastic about the revolutions of 1848 in the German states, his parents named him Wilfried Fritz, which became Vilfredo Federico upon his family's move back to Italy in 1858. In his childhood, Pareto lived in a middle-class environment, receiving a high standard of education, attending the newly created Istituto Tecnico Leardi where Ferdinando Pio Rosellini was his mathematics professor. In 1869, he earned a doctorate in engineering from what is now the Polytechnic University of Turin (then the Technical School for Engineers), with a dissertation entitled "The Fundamental Principles of Equilibrium in Solid Bodies". His later interest in equilibrium analysis in economics and sociology can be traced back to this dissertation. Pareto was among the contributors to the Rome-based magazine La Ronda between 1919 and 1922. From civil engineer to classical liberal economist For some years after graduation, he worked as a civil engineer, first for the state-owned Italian Railway Company and later in private industry. He was manager of the Iron Works of San Giovanni Valdarno and later general manager of Italian Iron Works. He did not begin serious work in economics until his mid-forties. He started his career as a fiery advocate of classical liberalism, besetting the most ardent British liberals with his attacks on any form of government intervention in the free market. In 1886, he became a lecturer on economics and management at the University of Florence. His stay in Florence was marked by political activity, much of it fueled by his own frustrations with government regulators. In 1889, after the death of his parents, Pareto changed his lifestyle, quitting his job and marrying a Russian woman, Alessandrina Bakunina. Economics and sociology In 1893, he succeeded Léon Walras to the chair of Political Economy at the University of Lausanne in Switzerland where he remained for the rest of his life. He published there in 1896-1897 a textbook containing the Pareto distribution of how wealth is distributed, which he believed was a constant "through any human society, in any age, or country". In 1906, he made the famous observation that twenty per cent of the population owned eighty per cent of the property in Italy, later generalised by Joseph M. Juran into the Pareto principle (also termed the 80–20 rule). Pareto maintained cordial personal relationships with individual socialists, but he always thought their economic ideas were severely flawed. He later became suspicious of their motives and denounced socialist leaders as an 'aristocracy of brigands' who threatened to despoil the country and criticized the government of the Italian statesman Giovanni Giolitti for not taking a tougher stance against worker strikes. Growing unrest among labour in the Kingdom of Italy led him to the anti-socialist and anti-democratic camp. His attitude towards Italian fascism in his last years is a matter of controversy. Pareto's relationship with scientific sociology in the age of the foundation is grafted in a paradigmatic way at the moment in which he, starting from the political economy, criticizes positivism as a totalizing and metaphysical system devoid of a rigorous logical-experimental method. In this sense we can read the fate of the Paretian production within a history of the social sciences that continues to show its peculiarity and interest for its contributions in the 21st century. The story of Pareto is also part of the multidisciplinary research of a scientific model that privileges sociology as a critique of cumulative models of knowledge as well as a discipline tending to the affirmation of relational models of science. Personal life In 1889, Pareto married Alessandrina Bakunina, a Russian woman. She left him in 1902 for a young servant. Twenty years later in 1923, he married Jeanne Regis, a French woman, just before his death in Geneva, Switzerland on 19 August 1923. Sociology Pareto's later years were spent in collecting the material for his best-known work, Trattato di sociologia generale (1916) (The Mind and Society, published in 1935). His final work was Compendio di sociologia generale (1920). In his Trattato di Sociologia Generale (1916, rev. French trans. 1917), published in English by Harcourt, Brace in a four-volume edition edited by Arthur Livingston under the title The Mind and Society (1935), Pareto developed the notion of the circulation of elites, the first social cycle theory in sociology. He is famous for saying "history is a graveyard of aristocracies". Pareto seems to have turned to sociology for an understanding of why his abstract mathematical economic theories did not work out in practice, in the belief that unforeseen or uncontrollable social factors intervened. His sociology holds that much social action is nonlogical and that much personal action is designed to give spurious logicality to non-rational actions. We are driven, he taught, by certain "residues" and by "derivations" from these residues. The more important of these have to do with conservatism and risk-taking, and human history is the story of the alternate dominance of these sentiments in the ruling elite, which comes into power strong in conservatism but gradually changes over to the philosophy of the "foxes" or speculators. A catastrophe results, with a return to conservatism; the "lion" mentality follows. This cycle might be broken by the use of force, says Pareto, but the elite becomes weak and humanitarian and shrinks from violence. Among those who introduced Pareto's sociology to the United States were George Homans and Lawrence J. Henderson at Harvard, and Paretian ideas gained considerable influence, especially on Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons, who developed a systems approach to society and economics that argues the status quo is usually functional. The American historian Bernard DeVoto played an important role in introducing Pareto's ideas to these Cambridge intellectuals and other Americans in the 1930s. Wallace Stegner, in his biography of DeVoto, recounts these developments and says this about the often misunderstood distinction between "residues" and "derivations": "Basic to Pareto's method is the analysis of society through its non-rational 'residues,' which are persistent and unquestioned social habits, beliefs, and assumptions, and its 'derivations,' which are the explanations, justifications, and rationalizations we make of them. One of the commonest errors of social thinkers is to assume rationality and logic in social attitudes and structures; another is to confuse residues and derivations." Fascism and power distribution Renato Cirillo wrote that Vilfredo Pareto had frequently been considered a predecessor of fascism as a result of his support for the movement when it began. However, Cirillo disagreed with this interpretation, suggesting that Pareto was critical of fascism in his private letters. Pareto argued that democracy was an illusion and that a ruling class always emerged and enriched itself. For him, the key question was how actively the rulers ruled. For this reason, he called for a drastic reduction of the state and welcomed Benito Mussolini's rule as a transition to this minimal state so as to liberate the "pure" economic forces. When he was still a young student, the future leader of Italian fascism Benito Mussolini attended some of Pareto's lectures at the University of Lausanne in 1904. It has been argued that Mussolini's move away from socialism towards a form of "elitism" may be attributed to Pareto's ideas. Franz Borkenau, a biographer, argued that Mussolini followed Pareto's policy ideas during the beginning of his tenure as prime minister.: 18 Karl Popper dubbed Pareto the "theoretician of totalitarianism", but, according to Renato Cirillo, there is no evidence in Popper's published work that he read Pareto in any detail before repeating what was then a common but dubious judgement in anti-fascist circles. Economic concepts Pareto Theory of Maximum Economics Pareto turned his interest to economic matters, and he became an advocate of free trade, finding himself in conflict with the Italian government. His writings reflected the ideas of Léon Walras that economics is essentially a mathematical science. Pareto was a leader of the "Lausanne School" and represents the second generation of the Neoclassical Revolution. His "tastes-and-obstacles" approach to general equilibrium theory was resurrected during the great "Paretian Revival" of the 1930s and has influenced theoretical economics since. In his Manual of Political Economy (1906) the focus is on equilibrium in terms of solutions to individual problems of "objectives and constraints". He used the indifference curve of Edgeworth (1881) extensively, for the theory of the consumer and, another great novelty, in his theory of the producer. He gave the first presentation of the trade-off box now known as the "Edgeworth-Bowley" box. Pareto was the first to realize that cardinal utility could be dispensed with, and economic equilibrium thought of in terms of ordinal utility – that is, it was not necessary to know how much a person valued this or that, only that he preferred X of this to Y of that. Utility was a preference-ordering. With this, Pareto not only inaugurated modern microeconomics, but he also demolished the alliance of economics and utilitarian philosophy (which calls for the greatest good for the greatest number; Pareto said "good" cannot be measured). He replaced it with the notion of Pareto-optimality, the idea that a system is enjoying maximum economic satisfaction when no one can be made better off without making someone else worse off. Pareto optimality is widely used in welfare economics and game theory. A standard theorem is that a perfectly competitive market creates distributions of wealth that are Pareto optimal. Concepts Some economic concepts in current use are based on his work: The Pareto index is a measure of the inequality of income distribution. He argued that in all countries and times, the distribution of income and wealth is highly skewed, with a few holding most of the wealth. He argued that all observed societies follow a regular logarithmic pattern: N = A x m {\displaystyle \ N=Ax^{m}} where N is the number of people with wealth higher than x, and A and m are constants. Over the years, Pareto's Law has proved remarkably close to observed data: The Pareto chart is a special type of histogram, used to view the causes of a problem in order of severity from largest to smallest. It is a statistical tool that graphically demonstrates the Pareto principle or the 80–20 rule. Pareto's law concerns the distribution of income. The Pareto distribution is a probability distribution used, among other things, as a mathematical realization of Pareto's law. Ophelimity is a measure of purely economic satisfaction. Major works Compendio di sociologia generale, 1920 Cours d'Économie Politique Professé a l'Université de Lausanne (in French), 1896–97. (Vol. I, Vol. II) Les Systèmes Socialistes (in French), 1902. (Vol. I, Vol. II) Manuale di economia politica con una introduzione alla scienza sociale (in Italian), 1906. Trattato di sociologia generale (in Italian), G. Barbéra, Florence, 1916. (Vol. I, Vol. II) Compendio di sociologia generale (in Italian). Florence: Barbèra. 1920. (Abridgement of Trattato di sociologia generale) with Bo Gabriel Montgomery. Politique financière d'aujourd'hui, principalement en considération de la situation financière et économique en Suisse. Attinger Frères, 1919. Fatti e teorie (in Italian), 1920. (Collection of previously published articles with an original epilogue) Trasformazione della democrazia (in Italian), 1921. (Collection of previously published articles with an original appendix) English translations The Mind and Society. Translated by Bongiorno, Andrew; Livingston, Arthur. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. 1935.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: translators list (link) (translation of Trattato di sociologia generale). (Vol. I, Vol. II, Vol. III, Vol. IV) Compendium of General Sociology, University of Minnesota Press, 1980 (abridgement of The Mind and Society; translation of Compendio di sociologia generale). Sociological Writings, Praeger, 1966 (translations of excerpts from major works). Manual of Political Economy, Augustus M. Kelley, 1971 (translation of 1927 French edition of Manuale di economia politica con una introduzione alla scienza sociale). The Transformation of Democracy, Transaction Books, 1984 (translation of Trasformazione della democrazia). The Rise and Fall of Elites: An Application of Theoretical Sociology, Transaction Publishers, 1991 (translation of essay Un applicazione di teorie sociologiche). Articles "The Parliamentary Régime in Italy," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. VIII, Ginn & Company, 1893. "The New Theories of Economics," Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 5, No. 4, Sep. 1897. "An Italian View," The Living Age, November 1922. See also Elite theory Gaetano Mosca Curtis Yarvin References ^ Robert A. Nye (1977). The Anti-Democratic Sources of Elite Theory: Pareto, Mosca, Michels. Sage. p. 22. ^ J. J. Chambliss, ed. (2013). Philosophy of Education: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 179. ^ a b c d Rothbard, Murray (2006). "After Mill: Bastiat and the French laissez-faire tradition". An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought. Vol. Classical economics. Ludwig von Mises Institute. pp. 456–457. ^ Geoffrey Duncan Mitchell. A Hundred Years of Sociology. Transaction Publishers, 1968. p. 115. ISBN 9780202366647 ^ "Pareto". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 4 February 2021. ^ "Pareto". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 28 July 2019. ^ Boccara, Nino (9 September 2010). Modeling Complex Systems. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 372. ISBN 978-1-4419-6562-2. ^ a b c "The Encyclopedia Sponsored by Statistics and Probability Societies". StatProb. 19 August 1923. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 4 November 2015. among a menagerie of cats that he and his French lover kept the local divorce laws prevented him from divorcing his wife and remarrying until just a few months prior to his death. ^ a b c d e Amoroso, Luigi (January 1938). "Vilfredo Pareto". Econometrica. 6 (1): 1–21. doi:10.2307/1910081. JSTOR 1910081. ^ van Suntum, Ulrich (2005). The Invisible Hand. Springer. p. 30. ISBN 3-540-20497-0. ^ Giacalone-Monaco, Tommaso (1966). "Ricerche intorno alla giovinezza di Vilfredo Pareto". Giornale degli Economisti e Annali di Economia (in Italian). 25 (1/2): 97–104. ISSN 0017-0097. JSTOR 23239355. ^ Simone Germini (31 May 2013). "Riviste letterarie del Novecento – La Ronda". iMalpensanti (in Italian). Retrieved 24 June 2023. ^ Bellamy, Richard (1990). "From Ethical to Economic Liberalism – The Sociology of Pareto's Politics". Economy and Society. 19 (4): 431–55. doi:10.1080/03085149000000016. ^ a b Cirillo, Renato (1983). "Was Vilfredo Pareto really a 'precursor' of fascism?". American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 42 (2): 235–246. doi:10.1111/j.1536-7150.1983.tb01708.x. JSTOR 3486644. Vilfredo Pareto has been labelled a fascist and 'a precursor of fascism' largely because he welcomed the advent of fascism in Italy and was honoured by the new regime. Some have seen in his sociological works the foundations of fascism. This is not correct: Even fascist writers did not find much merit in these works, and definitely condemned his economic theories. As a political thinker, he remained a radical libertarian till the end and continued to express serious reservations about fascism, and to voice opposition to its basic policies. This is evident from his correspondence with his close friends. There are strong reasons to believe that, had he lived long enough, Pareto would have revolted against fascism ^ Campbell, Stuart L. (1986). "The four Paretos of Raymond Aron". Journal of the History of Ideas. 47 (2): 287–298. doi:10.2307/2709815. JSTOR 2709815. ^ Giovanni Busino, Sugli studi paretiani all'alba del XXI secolo in Omaggio a Vilfredo Pareto, Numero monografico in memoria di Giorgio Sola a cura di Stefano Monti Bragadin, "Storia Politica Società", Quaderni di Scienze Umane, anno IX, n. 15, giugno-dicembre 2009, p. 1 e sg. ^ Guglielmo Rinzivillo, Vilfredo Pareto e i modelli interdisciplinari nella scienza, "Sociologia", A. XXIX, n. 1, New Series, 1995, pp. 2017–2222 ^ Guglielmo Rinzivillo, Una epistemologia senza storia, Rome, New Culture, 2013, pp. 13–29, ISBN 978-88-6812-222-5 ^ Rossides, Daniel W. (1998) Social Theory: Its Origins, History, and Contemporary Relevance. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 203. ISBN 1882289501. ^ Aron, Raymond. (1967) Main Currents in Sociological Thought: Durkheim, Pareto, Weber – Vol. 2 online edition Archived 4 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine; excerpt and text search ^ Homans, George C., and Charles P. Curtis Jr. (1934) An Introduction to Pareto: His Sociology Archived 4 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Alfred A. Knopf. New York. ^ Wallace Stegner, The Uneasy Chair: A Biography of Bernard DeVoto (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1974), p. 141. ^ Cirillo, Renato (1983). "Was Vilfredo Pareto Really a 'Precursor' of Fascism?". American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 42 (2): 235–246. doi:10.1111/j.1536-7150.1983.tb01708.x. ^ Eatwell, Roger; Anthony Wright (1999). Contemporary Political Ideologies. London: Continuum. pp. 38–39. ISBN 082645173X. ^ Di Scala, Spencer M.; Gentile, Emilio, eds. (2016). Mussolini 1883–1915: Triumph and Transformation of a Revolutionary Socialist. USA: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-53486-6. ^ Borkenau, Franz (1936). Pareto. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ^ Mandelbrot, Benoit; Richard L Hudson (2004). The (mis)behavior of markets : a fractal view of risk, ruin, and reward. New York: Basic Books. pp. 152–155. ISBN 0465043577. ^ Cirillo, Renato (1978) The Economics of Vilfredo Pareto ^ Mclure, Michael (2001) Pareto, Economics and Society: The Mechanical Analogy Archived 4 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Aspers, Patrik (April 2001). "Crossing the Boundary of Economics and Sociology: The Case of Vilfredo Pareto" (PDF). The American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 60 (2): 519–545. doi:10.1111/1536-7150.00073. JSTOR 3487932. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 November 2020. Retrieved 6 September 2020. ^ Mathur, Vijay K (2014). "How Well Do We Know Pareto Optimality?". The Journal of Economic Education. 22 (2): 172–178. doi:10.1080/00220485.1991.10844705. JSTOR 1182422. ^ Price, L.L., Book Review of "Politique financière d'aujourd'hui" in "Economic Journal", June 1922. Further reading Amoroso, Luigi. "Vilfredo Pareto," Econometrica, Vol. 6, No. 1, Jan. 1938. Bruno, G. (1987). "Pareto, Vilfredo" The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 5, pp. 799–804. Buchanan, James (2008). "Italian Fiscal Theorists". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). Italian Economic Theorists. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 258–60. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n156. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. Busino, Giovanni. The Signification of Vilfredo Pareto’s Sociology, Revue Européenne des Sciences Sociales, XXXVIII, 2000. Eisermann, G.(2001). "Pareto, Vilfredo (1848–1923)", International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, pp. 11048–51. Abstract. Femia, Joseph V. Pareto and Political Theory (2006) excerpt and text search Kirman, A. P. (1987). "Pareto as an economist" The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 5, pp. 804–08. Livingston, Arthur. "Vilfredo Pareto: A Biographical Portrait," The Saturday Review, 25 May 1935. Millikan, Max. "Pareto's Sociology," Econometrica, Vol. 4, No. 4, Oct. 1936. Osipova, Elena; Translated by H. Campbell Creighton, M.A. (Oxon) (1989) "The Sociological System of Vilfredo Pareto" in Igor Kon (ed.) A History of Classical Sociology Moscow: Progress Publishers pp. 312–36 Palda, Filip (2011) Pareto's Republic and the New Science of Peace 2011 Archived 27 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine chapters online. Published by Cooper-Wolfling. ISBN 978-0-9877880-0-9 Parsons, Talcott. The Structure of Social Action, The Free Press, 1949. Tarascio, Vincent J. (1968) Pareto's Methodological Approach to Economics: A Study in the History of Some Scientific Aspects of Economic Thought 1968 online edition Archived 4 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine Forte F., Silvestri P., Pareto's sociological maximum of the utility of the community and the theory of the elites, in J. G. Backhaus (ed.), Essentials of Fiscal Sociology. Conceptions of an Encyclopedia, Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main, 2013, pp. 231–65. Della Pelle, P., (a cura di), Introduction a K. Marx, Le Capital par V. Pareto, edizione critica con il testo italiano a fronte, Aracne, Canterano 2018. Primary sources Pareto, Vilfredo (1935). "The Mind and Society ". Harcourt, Brace. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires \|journal= (help) External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vilfredo Pareto. Wikiquote has quotations related to Vilfredo Pareto. The Two Biggest Ideas of Vilfredo Pareto in Economics Further information from New School University Review materials for studying Vilfredo Pareto "Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923)". The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. Library of Economics and Liberty (2nd ed.). Liberty Fund. 2008. Vilfredo Pareto: A Concise Overview of His Life, Works, and Philosophy, by Fr. James Thornton Works by Vilfredo Pareto at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Vilfredo Pareto at Internet Archive More complete list of works vteVilfredo ParetoBooks The Rise and Fall of the Elites (1900) The Mind and Society (1916) Concepts Circulation of elites Ophelimity Pareto efficiency Miscellaneous Pareto principle vteSocial philosophyConcepts Anomie Convention Customs Cultural heritage Culturalism Inter Mono Multi Culture Counter Familialism History Honour Human nature Identity Formation Ideology Institutions Invisible hand Loyalty Modernity Morality Public Mores National character Natural law Reification Ressentiment Rights Sittlichkeit Social alienation Social norms Spontaneous order Stewardship Traditions Values Family Volksgeist Worldview Schools Budapest School Catholic social teaching Distributism Communitarianism Confucianism Conservatism Social Frankfurt School Personalism PhilosophersAncient Augustine Cicero Confucius Lactantius Laozi Mencius Mozi Origen Philo Plato 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oblige Open society Ordered liberty Original position Overton window Separation of powers Social contract State of nature Statolatry Tyranny of the majority PhilosophersAntiquity Aristotle Chanakya Cicero Confucius Han Fei Lactantius Mencius Mozi Plato political philosophy Polybius Shang Sun Tzu Thucydides Xenophon Middle Ages Alpharabius Aquinas Averroes Bruni Dante Gelasius al-Ghazali Ibn Khaldun Marsilius Muhammad Nizam al-Mulk Ockham Plethon Wang Early modernperiod Boétie Bodin Bossuet Calvin Campanella Filmer Grotius Guicciardini Hobbes political philosophy James Leibniz Locke Luther Machiavelli Milton More Müntzer Pufendorf Spinoza Suárez 18th and 19thcenturies Bakunin Bastiat Beccaria Bentham Bolingbroke Bonald Burke Carlyle Comte Condorcet Constant Cortés Engels Fichte Fourier Franklin Godwin Haller Hegel Herder Hume Iqbal political philosophy Jefferson Kant political philosophy Le Bon Le Play Madison Maistre Marx Mazzini Mill Montesquieu Nietzsche Owen Paine Renan Rousseau 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Vatican Academics CiNii MathSciNet zbMATH People Italian People Deutsche Biographie Trove Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland SNAC IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English"},{"link_name":"/pæˈreɪtoʊ, -ˈriːt-/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"parr-AY-toh, -⁠EE-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"US","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English"},{"link_name":"/pəˈreɪtoʊ/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"pə-RAY-toh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[vilˈfreːdo paˈreːto]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Italian"},{"link_name":"[paˈɾeːtu]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Ligurian"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"polymath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymath"},{"link_name":"sociology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology"},{"link_name":"civil engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_engineering"},{"link_name":"economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"},{"link_name":"political science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_science"},{"link_name":"philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"},{"link_name":"income distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Income_distribution"},{"link_name":"Pareto efficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_efficiency"},{"link_name":"microeconomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microeconomics"},{"link_name":"Pareto distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_distribution"},{"link_name":"power law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_law"},{"link_name":"Pareto principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_principle"}],"text":"Vilfredo Federico Damaso Pareto[4] (UK: /pæˈreɪtoʊ, -ˈriːt-/ parr-AY-toh, -⁠EE-,[5] US: /pəˈreɪtoʊ/ pə-RAY-toh,[6] Italian: [vilˈfreːdo paˈreːto], Ligurian: [paˈɾeːtu]; born Wilfried Fritz Pareto;[7] 15 July 1848 – 19 August 1923) was an Italian polymath, whose areas of interest included sociology, civil engineering, economics, political science, and philosophy. He made several important contributions to economics, particularly in the study of income distribution and in the analysis of individuals' choices. He was also responsible for popularising the use of the term \"elite\" in social analysis.He introduced the concept of Pareto efficiency and helped develop the field of microeconomics. He was also the first to claim that income follows a Pareto distribution, which is a power law probability distribution. The Pareto principle was named after him, and it was built on his observations that 80% of the wealth in Italy belonged to about 20% of the population. He also contributed to the fields of sociology and mathematics.","title":"Vilfredo Pareto"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Genoese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoa"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wife-8"},{"link_name":"Ligurian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liguria"},{"link_name":"Giuseppe Mazzini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Amoroso-9"},{"link_name":"revolutions of 1848 in the German states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_German_states"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"middle-class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle-class"},{"link_name":"Ferdinando Pio Rosellini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinando_Pio_Rosellini"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Polytechnic University of Turin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politecnico_di_Torino"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Amoroso-9"},{"link_name":"economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"sociology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"La Ronda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Ronda_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Pareto was born of an exiled noble Genoese family on 15 July 1848 in Paris,[8] the centre of the popular revolutions of that year. His father, Raffaele Pareto (1812–1882), was an Italian civil engineer and Ligurian marquis who had left Italy much as Giuseppe Mazzini and other Italian nationalists had.[9] His mother, Marie Metenier, was a French woman. Enthusiastic about the revolutions of 1848 in the German states, his parents named him Wilfried Fritz, which became Vilfredo Federico upon his family's move back to Italy in 1858.[10] In his childhood, Pareto lived in a middle-class environment, receiving a high standard of education, attending the newly created Istituto Tecnico Leardi where Ferdinando Pio Rosellini was his mathematics professor.[11] In 1869, he earned a doctorate in engineering from what is now the Polytechnic University of Turin[9] (then the Technical School for Engineers), with a dissertation entitled \"The Fundamental Principles of Equilibrium in Solid Bodies\". His later interest in equilibrium analysis in economics and sociology can be traced back to this dissertation. Pareto was among the contributors to the Rome-based magazine La Ronda between 1919 and 1922.[12]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"civil engineer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_engineer"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Amoroso-9"},{"link_name":"classical liberalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_liberalism"},{"link_name":"free market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_market"},{"link_name":"economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"},{"link_name":"management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management"},{"link_name":"University of Florence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Florence"},{"link_name":"Florence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wife-8"}],"sub_title":"From civil engineer to classical liberal economist","text":"For some years after graduation, he worked as a civil engineer, first for the state-owned Italian Railway Company and later in private industry. He was manager of the Iron Works of San Giovanni Valdarno and later general manager of Italian Iron Works.[9]He did not begin serious work in economics until his mid-forties. He started his career as a fiery advocate of classical liberalism, besetting the most ardent British liberals with his attacks on any form of government intervention in the free market. In 1886, he became a lecturer on economics and management at the University of Florence. His stay in Florence was marked by political activity, much of it fueled by his own frustrations with government regulators. In 1889, after the death of his parents, Pareto changed his lifestyle, quitting his job and marrying a Russian woman, Alessandrina Bakunina.[8]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Léon Walras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras"},{"link_name":"University of Lausanne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Lausanne"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Amoroso-9"},{"link_name":"Pareto distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_distribution"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Amoroso-9"},{"link_name":"Joseph M. Juran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran"},{"link_name":"Pareto principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_principle"},{"link_name":"Giovanni Giolitti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Italian fascism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_fascism"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RenatoCirillo-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"positivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Economics and sociology","text":"In 1893, he succeeded Léon Walras to the chair of Political Economy at the University of Lausanne in Switzerland where he remained for the rest of his life.[9] He published there in 1896-1897 a textbook containing the Pareto distribution of how wealth is distributed, which he believed was a constant \"through any human society, in any age, or country\".[9] In 1906, he made the famous observation that twenty per cent of the population owned eighty per cent of the property in Italy, later generalised by Joseph M. Juran into the Pareto principle (also termed the 80–20 rule).Pareto maintained cordial personal relationships with individual socialists, but he always thought their economic ideas were severely flawed. He later became suspicious of their motives and denounced socialist leaders as an 'aristocracy of brigands' who threatened to despoil the country and criticized the government of the Italian statesman Giovanni Giolitti for not taking a tougher stance against worker strikes. Growing unrest among labour in the Kingdom of Italy led him to the anti-socialist and anti-democratic camp.[13] His attitude towards Italian fascism in his last years is a matter of controversy.[14][15]Pareto's relationship with scientific sociology in the age of the foundation is grafted in a paradigmatic way at the moment in which he, starting from the political economy, criticizes positivism as a totalizing and metaphysical system devoid of a rigorous logical-experimental method. In this sense we can read the fate of the Paretian production within a history of the social sciences that continues to show its peculiarity and interest for its contributions in the 21st century.[16] The story of Pareto is also part of the multidisciplinary research of a scientific model that privileges sociology as a critique of cumulative models of knowledge as well as a discipline tending to the affirmation of relational models of science.[17][18]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bakunina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakunin_family"},{"link_name":"Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wife-8"}],"sub_title":"Personal life","text":"In 1889, Pareto married Alessandrina Bakunina, a Russian woman. She left him in 1902 for a young servant. Twenty years later in 1923, he married Jeanne Regis, a French woman, just before his death in Geneva, Switzerland on 19 August 1923.[8]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Harcourt, Brace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harcourt,_Brace"},{"link_name":"Arthur Livingston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Livingston"},{"link_name":"The Mind and Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mind_and_Society"},{"link_name":"circulation of elites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulation_of_elite"},{"link_name":"social cycle theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_cycle_theory"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"George Homans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_C._Homans"},{"link_name":"Lawrence J. Henderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Joseph_Henderson"},{"link_name":"Talcott Parsons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talcott_Parsons"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Bernard DeVoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_DeVoto"},{"link_name":"Wallace Stegner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_Stegner"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"Pareto's later years were spent in collecting the material for his best-known work, Trattato di sociologia generale (1916) (The Mind and Society, published in 1935). His final work was Compendio di sociologia generale (1920).In his Trattato di Sociologia Generale (1916, rev. French trans. 1917), published in English by Harcourt, Brace in a four-volume edition edited by Arthur Livingston under the title The Mind and Society (1935), Pareto developed the notion of the circulation of elites, the first social cycle theory in sociology. He is famous for saying \"history is a graveyard of aristocracies\".[19]Pareto seems to have turned to sociology for an understanding of why his abstract mathematical economic theories did not work out in practice, in the belief that unforeseen or uncontrollable social factors intervened. His sociology holds that much social action is nonlogical and that much personal action is designed to give spurious logicality to non-rational actions. We are driven, he taught, by certain \"residues\" and by \"derivations\" from these residues. The more important of these have to do with conservatism and risk-taking, and human history is the story of the alternate dominance of these sentiments in the ruling elite, which comes into power strong in conservatism but gradually changes over to the philosophy of the \"foxes\" or speculators. A catastrophe results, with a return to conservatism; the \"lion\" mentality follows. This cycle might be broken by the use of force, says Pareto, but the elite becomes weak and humanitarian and shrinks from violence.[20]Among those who introduced Pareto's sociology to the United States were George Homans and Lawrence J. Henderson at Harvard, and Paretian ideas gained considerable influence, especially on Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons, who developed a systems approach to society and economics that argues the status quo is usually functional.[21] The American historian Bernard DeVoto played an important role in introducing Pareto's ideas to these Cambridge intellectuals and other Americans in the 1930s. Wallace Stegner, in his biography of DeVoto, recounts these developments and says this about the often misunderstood distinction between \"residues\" and \"derivations\": \"Basic to Pareto's method is the analysis of society through its non-rational 'residues,' which are persistent and unquestioned social habits, beliefs, and assumptions, and its 'derivations,' which are the explanations, justifications, and rationalizations we make of them. One of the commonest errors of social thinkers is to assume rationality and logic in social attitudes and structures; another is to confuse residues and derivations.\"[22]","title":"Sociology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fascism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Benito Mussolini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Italian fascism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_fascism"},{"link_name":"Benito Mussolini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini"},{"link_name":"University of Lausanne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Lausanne"},{"link_name":"socialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism"},{"link_name":"elitism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elitism"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-musso-25"},{"link_name":"Franz Borkenau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Borkenau"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Karl Popper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Popper"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RenatoCirillo-14"}],"text":"Renato Cirillo wrote that Vilfredo Pareto had frequently been considered a predecessor of fascism as a result of his support for the movement when it began. However, Cirillo disagreed with this interpretation, suggesting that Pareto was critical of fascism in his private letters.[23]Pareto argued that democracy was an illusion and that a ruling class always emerged and enriched itself. For him, the key question was how actively the rulers ruled. For this reason, he called for a drastic reduction of the state and welcomed Benito Mussolini's rule as a transition to this minimal state so as to liberate the \"pure\" economic forces.[24]When he was still a young student, the future leader of Italian fascism Benito Mussolini attended some of Pareto's lectures at the University of Lausanne in 1904. It has been argued that Mussolini's move away from socialism towards a form of \"elitism\" may be attributed to Pareto's ideas.[25] Franz Borkenau, a biographer, argued that Mussolini followed Pareto's policy ideas during the beginning of his tenure as prime minister.[26]: 18Karl Popper dubbed Pareto the \"theoretician of totalitarianism\",[27] but, according to Renato Cirillo, there is no evidence in Popper's published work that he read Pareto in any detail before repeating what was then a common but dubious judgement in anti-fascist circles.[14]","title":"Fascism and power distribution"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Léon Walras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras"},{"link_name":"Lausanne School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lausanne_School"},{"link_name":"Neoclassical Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassical_Revolution"},{"link_name":"general equilibrium theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_equilibrium_theory"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aspers-30"},{"link_name":"Pareto-optimality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_efficiency"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"Pareto Theory of Maximum EconomicsPareto turned his interest to economic matters, and he became an advocate of free trade, finding himself in conflict with the Italian government. His writings reflected the ideas of Léon Walras that economics is essentially a mathematical science. Pareto was a leader of the \"Lausanne School\" and represents the second generation of the Neoclassical Revolution. His \"tastes-and-obstacles\" approach to general equilibrium theory was resurrected during the great \"Paretian Revival\" of the 1930s and has influenced theoretical economics since.[28]In his Manual of Political Economy (1906) the focus is on equilibrium in terms of solutions to individual problems of \"objectives and constraints\". He used the indifference curve of Edgeworth (1881) extensively, for the theory of the consumer and, another great novelty, in his theory of the producer. He gave the first presentation of the trade-off box now known as the \"Edgeworth-Bowley\" box.[29]Pareto was the first to realize that cardinal utility could be dispensed with, and economic equilibrium thought of in terms of ordinal utility[30] – that is, it was not necessary to know how much a person valued this or that, only that he preferred X of this to Y of that. Utility was a preference-ordering. With this, Pareto not only inaugurated modern microeconomics, but he also demolished the alliance of economics and utilitarian philosophy (which calls for the greatest good for the greatest number; Pareto said \"good\" cannot be measured). He replaced it with the notion of Pareto-optimality, the idea that a system is enjoying maximum economic satisfaction when no one can be made better off without making someone else worse off. Pareto optimality is widely used in welfare economics and game theory. A standard theorem is that a perfectly competitive market creates distributions of wealth that are Pareto optimal.[31]","title":"Economic concepts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pareto index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_index"},{"link_name":"Pareto chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_chart"},{"link_name":"histogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histogram"},{"link_name":"Pareto's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_principle"},{"link_name":"Pareto distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_distribution"},{"link_name":"probability distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_distribution"},{"link_name":"Ophelimity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophelimity"}],"sub_title":"Concepts","text":"Some economic concepts in current use are based on his work:The Pareto index is a measure of the inequality of income distribution.He argued that in all countries and times, the distribution of income and wealth is highly skewed, with a few holding most of the wealth. He argued that all observed societies follow a regular logarithmic pattern:N\n =\n A\n \n x\n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ N=Ax^{m}}where N is the number of people with wealth higher than x, and A and m are constants. Over the years, Pareto's Law has proved remarkably close to observed data:The Pareto chart is a special type of histogram, used to view the causes of a problem in order of severity from largest to smallest. It is a statistical tool that graphically demonstrates the Pareto principle or the 80–20 rule.\nPareto's law concerns the distribution of income.\nThe Pareto distribution is a probability distribution used, among other things, as a mathematical realization of Pareto's law.\nOphelimity is a measure of purely economic satisfaction.","title":"Economic concepts"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pareto,_Vilfredo_%E2%80%93_Compendio_di_sociologia_generale,_1920_%E2%80%93_BEIC_15668284.jpg"},{"link_name":"Vol. I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160407212541/http://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Cours-d%C3%A9conomie-politique-Tome-I-Vilfredo-Pareto.pdf"},{"link_name":"Vol. II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20180128205541/http://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Cours-d%C3%A9conomie-politique-Tome-II-Vilfredo-Pareto.pdf"},{"link_name":"Vol. I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/LesSystmesSocialistesPareto/page/n5/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"Vol. II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/dli.ernet.286973"},{"link_name":"Manuale di economia politica con una introduzione alla scienza sociale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/it:Manuale_di_economia_politica_con_una_introduzione_alla_scienza_sociale"},{"link_name":"Vol. I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/ParetoTrattatoDiSociologiaGeneraleVol1"},{"link_name":"Vol. II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/ParetoTrattatoDiSociologiaGeneraleVol2/page/n1/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"Compendio di sociologia generale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=15668284"},{"link_name":"Abridgement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abridgement"},{"link_name":"Bo Gabriel Montgomery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bo_Gabriel_Montgomery"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Fatti e teorie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/fattieteorie00pare/page/n3/mode/2up"}],"text":"Compendio di sociologia generale, 1920Cours d'Économie Politique Professé a l'Université de Lausanne (in French), 1896–97. (Vol. I, Vol. II)\nLes Systèmes Socialistes (in French), 1902. (Vol. I, Vol. II)\nManuale di economia politica con una introduzione alla scienza sociale (in Italian), 1906.\nTrattato di sociologia generale (in Italian), G. Barbéra, Florence, 1916. (Vol. I, Vol. II)\nCompendio di sociologia generale (in Italian). Florence: Barbèra. 1920. (Abridgement of Trattato di sociologia generale)\nwith Bo Gabriel Montgomery. Politique financière d'aujourd'hui, principalement en considération de la situation financière et économique en Suisse. Attinger Frères, 1919.[32]\nFatti e teorie (in Italian), 1920. (Collection of previously published articles with an original epilogue)\nTrasformazione della democrazia (in Italian), 1921. (Collection of previously published articles with an original appendix)","title":"Major works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Mind and Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mind_and_Society"},{"link_name":"cite book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_translators_list"},{"link_name":"Vol. I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/stream/mindsocietytratt01pare#page/n9/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"Vol. II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/TheMindAndSocietyVolIii"},{"link_name":"Vol. III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.166857"},{"link_name":"Vol. IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/stream/mindsocietytratt04pare#page/n7/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"Augustus M. Kelley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_M._Kelley"}],"sub_title":"English translations","text":"The Mind and Society. Translated by Bongiorno, Andrew; Livingston, Arthur. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. 1935.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: translators list (link) (translation of Trattato di sociologia generale). (Vol. I, Vol. II, Vol. III, Vol. IV)\nCompendium of General Sociology, University of Minnesota Press, 1980 (abridgement of The Mind and Society; translation of Compendio di sociologia generale).\nSociological Writings, Praeger, 1966 (translations of excerpts from major works).\nManual of Political Economy, Augustus M. Kelley, 1971 (translation of 1927 French edition of Manuale di economia politica con una introduzione alla scienza sociale).\nThe Transformation of Democracy, Transaction Books, 1984 (translation of Trasformazione della democrazia).\nThe Rise and Fall of Elites: An Application of Theoretical Sociology, Transaction Publishers, 1991 (translation of essay Un applicazione di teorie sociologiche).","title":"Major works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The Parliamentary Régime in Italy,\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/stream/parliamentaryrg00paregoog#page/n103/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"\"The New Theories of Economics,\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/1821012"},{"link_name":"\"An Italian View,\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/stream/livingage2884090bostuoft#page/446/mode/2up"}],"sub_title":"Articles","text":"\"The Parliamentary Régime in Italy,\" Political Science Quarterly, Vol. VIII, Ginn & Company, 1893.\n\"The New Theories of Economics,\" Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 5, No. 4, Sep. 1897.\n\"An Italian View,\" The Living Age, November 1922.","title":"Major works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Palgrave:_A_Dictionary_of_Economics"},{"link_name":"Buchanan, James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_M._Buchanan"},{"link_name":"Hamowy, Ronald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy"},{"link_name":"Italian Economic Theorists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC"},{"link_name":"SAGE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAGE_Publishing"},{"link_name":"Cato Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cato_Institute"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.4135/9781412965811.n156","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n156"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4129-6580-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4"},{"link_name":"LCCN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2008009151","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//lccn.loc.gov/2008009151"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"750831024","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024"},{"link_name":"The Signification of Vilfredo Pareto’s Sociology,","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//ress.revues.org/730"},{"link_name":"International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_the_Social_%26_Behavioral_Sciences"},{"link_name":"Abstract.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20090919114136/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B7MRM-4MT09VJ-2BX&_rdoc=111&_hierId=151000072&_refWorkId=21&_explode=151000072&_fmt=summary&_orig=na&_docanchor=&_idxType=SC&view=c&_ct=148&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=e1c6152199127c6e49da0b4fab6216d2"},{"link_name":"excerpt and text search","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//observedwww.amazon.com/Pareto-Political-Routledge-Studies-Thought/dp/0415288134/"},{"link_name":"permanent dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"},{"link_name":"Osipova, Elena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elena_Osipova_(sociologist)"},{"link_name":"\"The Sociological System of Vilfredo Pareto\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/stream/AHistoryOfClassicalSociology_573/Kon_History_of_Classical_Sociology#page/n183/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"Igor Kon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Kon"},{"link_name":"Progress Publishers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_Publishers"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.paretorepublic.com"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20220127013934/http://www.paretorepublic.com/"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-9877880-0-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9877880-0-9"},{"link_name":"The Structure of Social Action,","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/stream/structureofsocia00pars#page/n7/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"online edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.questia.com/read/98701469"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20120504090954/http://www.questia.com/read/98701469"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"}],"text":"Amoroso, Luigi. \"Vilfredo Pareto,\" Econometrica, Vol. 6, No. 1, Jan. 1938.\nBruno, G. (1987). \"Pareto, Vilfredo\" The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 5, pp. 799–804.\nBuchanan, James (2008). \"Italian Fiscal Theorists\". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). Italian Economic Theorists. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 258–60. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n156. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.\nBusino, Giovanni. The Signification of Vilfredo Pareto’s Sociology, Revue Européenne des Sciences Sociales, XXXVIII, 2000.\nEisermann, G.(2001). \"Pareto, Vilfredo (1848–1923)\", International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, pp. 11048–51. Abstract.\nFemia, Joseph V. Pareto and Political Theory (2006) excerpt and text search[permanent dead link]\nKirman, A. P. (1987). \"Pareto as an economist\" The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 5, pp. 804–08.\nLivingston, Arthur. \"Vilfredo Pareto: A Biographical Portrait,\" The Saturday Review, 25 May 1935.\nMillikan, Max. \"Pareto's Sociology,\" Econometrica, Vol. 4, No. 4, Oct. 1936.\nOsipova, Elena; Translated by H. Campbell Creighton, M.A. (Oxon) (1989) \"The Sociological System of Vilfredo Pareto\" in Igor Kon (ed.) A History of Classical Sociology Moscow: Progress Publishers pp. 312–36\nPalda, Filip (2011) Pareto's Republic and the New Science of Peace 2011 [1] Archived 27 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine chapters online. Published by Cooper-Wolfling. ISBN 978-0-9877880-0-9\nParsons, Talcott. The Structure of Social Action, The Free Press, 1949.\nTarascio, Vincent J. (1968) Pareto's Methodological Approach to Economics: A Study in the History of Some Scientific Aspects of Economic Thought 1968 online edition Archived 4 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine\nForte F., Silvestri P., Pareto's sociological maximum of the utility of the community and the theory of the elites, in J. G. Backhaus (ed.), Essentials of Fiscal Sociology. Conceptions of an Encyclopedia, Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main, 2013, pp. 231–65.\nDella Pelle, P., (a cura di), Introduction a K. Marx, Le Capital par V. Pareto, edizione critica con il testo italiano a fronte, Aracne, Canterano 2018.","title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cite journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal"},{"link_name":"help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical"}],"sub_title":"Primary sources","text":"Pareto, Vilfredo (1935). \"The Mind and Society [Trattato Di Sociologia Generale]\". Harcourt, Brace. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires \|journal= (help)","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"Compendio di sociologia generale, 1920","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Pareto%2C_Vilfredo_%E2%80%93_Compendio_di_sociologia_generale%2C_1920_%E2%80%93_BEIC_15668284.jpg/220px-Pareto%2C_Vilfredo_%E2%80%93_Compendio_di_sociologia_generale%2C_1920_%E2%80%93_BEIC_15668284.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Elite theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elite_theory"},{"title":"Gaetano Mosca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca"},{"title":"Curtis Yarvin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtis_Yarvin"}]	[{"reference":"Compendio di sociologia generale (in Italian). Florence: Barbèra. 1920.","urls":[{"url":"https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=15668284","url_text":"Compendio di sociologia generale"}]},{"reference":"The Mind and Society. Translated by Bongiorno, Andrew; Livingston, Arthur. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. 1935.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mind_and_Society","url_text":"The Mind and Society"}]},{"reference":"Robert A. Nye (1977). The Anti-Democratic Sources of Elite Theory: Pareto, Mosca, Michels. Sage. p. 22.","urls":[]},{"reference":"J. J. Chambliss, ed. (2013). Philosophy of Education: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 179.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Rothbard, Murray (2006). \"After Mill: Bastiat and the French laissez-faire tradition\". An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought. Vol. Classical economics. Ludwig von Mises Institute. pp. 456–457.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Rothbard","url_text":"Rothbard, Murray"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Austrian_Perspective_on_the_History_of_Economic_Thought","url_text":"An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought"}]},{"reference":"\"Pareto\". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 4 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210204074531/https://www.lexico.com/definition/pareto","url_text":"\"Pareto\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexico","url_text":"Lexico"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"},{"url":"http://www.lexico.com/definition/Pareto","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Pareto\". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 28 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Pareto","url_text":"\"Pareto\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merriam-Webster","url_text":"Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary"}]},{"reference":"Boccara, Nino (9 September 2010). Modeling Complex Systems. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 372. ISBN 978-1-4419-6562-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=boUorPmcbKMC&dq=Wilfried+Fritz+Pareto&pg=PA372","url_text":"Modeling Complex Systems"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-6562-2","url_text":"978-1-4419-6562-2"}]},{"reference":"\"The Encyclopedia Sponsored by Statistics and Probability Societies\". StatProb. 19 August 1923. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 4 November 2015. among a menagerie of cats that he and his French lover kept [in their villa;] the local divorce laws prevented him from divorcing his wife and remarrying until just a few months prior to his death.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304204438/http://statprob.com/encyclopedia/VilfredoFederigoSamasoPARETO.html","url_text":"\"The Encyclopedia Sponsored by Statistics and Probability Societies\""},{"url":"http://statprob.com/encyclopedia/VilfredoFederigoSamasoPARETO.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Amoroso, Luigi (January 1938). \"Vilfredo Pareto\". Econometrica. 6 (1): 1–21. doi:10.2307/1910081. JSTOR 1910081.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1910081","url_text":"10.2307/1910081"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1910081","url_text":"1910081"}]},{"reference":"van Suntum, Ulrich (2005). The Invisible Hand. Springer. p. 30. ISBN 3-540-20497-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ulrichvansuntumi00sunt","url_text":"The Invisible Hand"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ulrichvansuntumi00sunt/page/n40","url_text":"30"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-20497-0","url_text":"3-540-20497-0"}]},{"reference":"Giacalone-Monaco, Tommaso (1966). \"Ricerche intorno alla giovinezza di Vilfredo Pareto\". Giornale degli Economisti e Annali di Economia (in Italian). 25 (1/2): 97–104. ISSN 0017-0097. JSTOR 23239355.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0017-0097","url_text":"0017-0097"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/23239355","url_text":"23239355"}]},{"reference":"Simone Germini (31 May 2013). \"Riviste letterarie del Novecento – La Ronda\". iMalpensanti (in Italian). Retrieved 24 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://imalpensanti.it/2013/05/riviste-letterarie-del-novecento-la-ronda/","url_text":"\"Riviste letterarie del Novecento – La Ronda\""}]},{"reference":"Bellamy, Richard (1990). \"From Ethical to Economic Liberalism – The Sociology of Pareto's Politics\". Economy and Society. 19 (4): 431–55. doi:10.1080/03085149000000016.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03085149000000016","url_text":"10.1080/03085149000000016"}]},{"reference":"Cirillo, Renato (1983). \"Was Vilfredo Pareto really a 'precursor' of fascism?\". American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 42 (2): 235–246. doi:10.1111/j.1536-7150.1983.tb01708.x. JSTOR 3486644. Vilfredo Pareto has been labelled a fascist and 'a precursor of fascism' largely because he welcomed the advent of fascism in Italy and was honoured by the new regime. Some have seen in his sociological works the foundations of fascism. This is not correct: Even fascist writers did not find much merit in these works, and definitely condemned his economic theories. As a political thinker, he remained a radical libertarian till the end and continued to express serious reservations about fascism, and to voice opposition to its basic policies. This is evident from his correspondence with his close friends. There are strong reasons to believe that, had he lived long enough, Pareto would have revolted against fascism","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1536-7150.1983.tb01708.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1536-7150.1983.tb01708.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3486644","url_text":"3486644"}]},{"reference":"Campbell, Stuart L. (1986). \"The four Paretos of Raymond Aron\". Journal of the History of Ideas. 47 (2): 287–298. doi:10.2307/2709815. JSTOR 2709815.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2709815","url_text":"10.2307/2709815"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2709815","url_text":"2709815"}]},{"reference":"Cirillo, Renato (1983). \"Was Vilfredo Pareto Really a 'Precursor' of Fascism?\". American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 42 (2): 235–246. doi:10.1111/j.1536-7150.1983.tb01708.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1536-7150.1983.tb01708.x","url_text":"\"Was Vilfredo Pareto Really a 'Precursor' of Fascism?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1536-7150.1983.tb01708.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1536-7150.1983.tb01708.x"}]},{"reference":"Eatwell, Roger; Anthony Wright (1999). Contemporary Political Ideologies. London: Continuum. pp. 38–39. ISBN 082645173X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/082645173X","url_text":"082645173X"}]},{"reference":"Di Scala, Spencer M.; Gentile, Emilio, eds. (2016). Mussolini 1883–1915: Triumph and Transformation of a Revolutionary Socialist. USA: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-53486-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-53486-6","url_text":"978-1-137-53486-6"}]},{"reference":"Borkenau, Franz (1936). Pareto. New York: John Wiley & Sons.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Borkenau","url_text":"Borkenau, Franz"}]},{"reference":"Aspers, Patrik (April 2001). \"Crossing the Boundary of Economics and Sociology: The Case of Vilfredo Pareto\" (PDF). The American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 60 (2): 519–545. doi:10.1111/1536-7150.00073. JSTOR 3487932. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 November 2020. Retrieved 6 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201105222435/https://www.alexandria.unisg.ch/260702/1/01_Pareto_AJES.pdf","url_text":"\"Crossing the Boundary of Economics and Sociology: The Case of Vilfredo Pareto\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1536-7150.00073","url_text":"10.1111/1536-7150.00073"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3487932","url_text":"3487932"},{"url":"https://www.alexandria.unisg.ch/260702/1/01_Pareto_AJES.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Mathur, Vijay K (2014). \"How Well Do We Know Pareto Optimality?\". The Journal of Economic Education. 22 (2): 172–178. doi:10.1080/00220485.1991.10844705. JSTOR 1182422.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00220485.1991.10844705","url_text":"10.1080/00220485.1991.10844705"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1182422","url_text":"1182422"}]},{"reference":"Buchanan, James (2008). \"Italian Fiscal Theorists\". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). Italian Economic Theorists. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 258–60. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n156. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_M._Buchanan","url_text":"Buchanan, James"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy","url_text":"Hamowy, Ronald"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC","url_text":"Italian Economic Theorists"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAGE_Publishing","url_text":"SAGE"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cato_Institute","url_text":"Cato Institute"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n156","url_text":"10.4135/9781412965811.n156"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4","url_text":"978-1-4129-6580-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151","url_text":"2008009151"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024","url_text":"750831024"}]},{"reference":"Pareto, Vilfredo (1935). \"The Mind and Society [Trattato Di Sociologia Generale]\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorary_citizen	Honorary citizenship	["1 North America","1.1 Canada","1.2 United States","2 Europe","2.1 Germany","2.2 Greece","2.3 Ireland","2.4 Russian Empire","3 Asia","3.1 Israel","4 Oceania","4.1 Australia","5 Examples","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]	Status bestowed by a city on an individual considered especially admirable or worthy This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Honorary citizenship" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A certificate of honorary citizenship of Massenricht, a former municipality of Amberg-Sulzbach, Bavaria, Germany issued to Hermann Frieser Honorary Texas Citizen certificate issued to Israeli Prime Minister Levi Eshkol Honorary citizenship is a status bestowed by a city or other government on a foreign or native individual whom it considers to be especially admirable or otherwise worthy of the distinction. The honour usually is symbolic and does not confer any change to citizenship or nationality. North America Canada Honorary Canadian citizenship requires unanimous approval in both houses of Parliament. The only people to ever receive honorary Canadian citizenship are Raoul Wallenberg posthumously in 1985; Nelson Mandela in 2001; the 14th Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso in 2006; Aung San Suu Kyi in 2007 (revoked in 2018); Prince Karim Aga Khan in 2009; and Malala Yousafzai in 2014. United States By act of United States Congress and presidential assent, an individual may be named an honorary citizen of the United States. Since 1963, it has been awarded to only eight individuals. Europe Germany See also: List of honorary citizens of Munich In Germany, Section 14 of the Nationality Act allows the Federal Minister of the Interior to naturalise any foreigner without any requirements, regardless of whether they live in Germany or not, if there are "ties to Germany that justify naturalisation". Within the Federal States, honorary citizenship (Ehrenbürgerschaft) is the highest distinction that can be awarded to an individual by a municipality. It is awarded by cities, towns, and sometimes federal states. The honorary citizenship is perpetual and persists after the death of the honoree, but can be revoked in exceptional cases by the council or parliament of the city, town, or state. In the case of war criminals, all such honours were taken away by "Article VIII, section II, letter i of the directive 38 of the Allied Control Council for Germany" on 12 October 1946. Greece In Greece, provisions are in place for the naturalization of foreigners residing in the country who have Greek national origin (expatriates/co-ethnics). Primarily, this applies to expatriates from Albania and those from the countries of the former USSR, under Articles 23 of Law 3838/2010 and 39 of Law 4606/2018, respectively. The Greek Nationality Code (Article 10) also allows for the naturalization of expatriates living abroad. Furthermore, the Code offers honorary naturalization (Article 13) for foreign nationals who have rendered special services to Greece or whose naturalization may serve the country's best interest. Such individuals can be granted Greek citizenship through a Presidential Decree, upon a justified proposal by the Minister of Interior. Ireland In Ireland, honorary citizenship bestowed on a foreigner is full legal citizenship including the right to reside and vote. Russian Empire In Russian Empire, honorary citizens constituted a social estate (sosloviye, sostoyaniye) which was a privileged subcategory of the estate of urban dwellers . Asia Israel Members of the Righteous Among the Nations may be conferred honorary Israeli citizenship by Yad Vashem, or commemorative citizenship if deceased. Those who choose to live in Israel are entitled to a pension, free health care, and assistance with housing and nursing care. In 2010, legislation was passed by the Knesset to confer honorary Israeli citizenship to all members of the Israeli defense forces and paramilitary organizations that operated in Mandate Palestine who died between 29 November 1947 and 31 December 1948. Oceania Australia In Australia honorary citizenship is conferred by the Governor-General and as of 2024 has only been granted once. Examples Berlin awarded Lucius D. Clay 1962 for his role as military governor and for creating the Berlin airlift and Mikhail Gorbachev for his change in world politics that led to the fall of the Berlin Wall and the reunification of Germany. In 2002 South Korea awarded honorary citizenship to Dutch football (soccer) coach Guus Hiddink who successfully and unexpectedly took the national team to the semi-finals of the 2002 FIFA World Cup. Honorary citizenship was also awarded to Hines Ward, an American football player of Korean and African-American descent, in 2006 for his efforts to minimize discrimination in Korea against half-Koreans. To mark the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the first successful ascent of Everest the Nepalese government conferred honorary citizenship upon Edmund Hillary at a special Golden Jubilee celebration in Kathmandu, Nepal. He was the first foreign national to receive that honour. At the end of their studies, all the students of the College of Europe are invited to the city hall by the mayor of Bruges to become honorary citizens of the city of Bruges. In 2011, Lady Gaga received the title of honorary citizen of Sydney for her support of the LGBT+ community. In April 2013, Raoul Wallenberg became the first person to be granted an honorary Australian citizenship. In August 2013, French actor Gérard Depardieu received an honorary citizenship by Belgium. In October 2013, Argentinian football coach José Pekerman received Colombian citizenship after he qualified Colombia to the 2014 FIFA World Cup, the first World Cup for the country after a 16-year hiatus. On 12 April 2017, Malala Yousafzai of Pakistan was awarded honorary Canadian citizenship by PM Justin Trudeau for her work on providing education to girls in her hometown Swat during Taliban occupation. On 12 July 2017, Ariana Grande was made an honorary citizen of Manchester for her efforts to raise funds for victims of 22 May 2017 terrorist attack in Manchester Arena. In August 2019, Guillermo Rodriguez, a security guard on Jimmy Kimmel Live, became an honorary citizen of Dildo, Newfoundland, Canada, after TV host Jimmy Kimmel ran for mayor. On 7 October 2019, Afghanistan granted honorary Afghan citizenship to Japanese physician Tetsu Nakamura for his long-standing humanitarian work in the country. On 9 June 2022, a House Resolution granted the title of honorary Brazilian citizen to British Formula 1 driver Lewis Hamilton. See also Freedom of the City References ^ "Ehrenbürger der Landeshauptstadt". Landeshauptstadt Saarbrücken (in German). 16 May 2022. Retrieved 3 August 2023. ^ Pathways to citizenship for third-country nationals in the EU Member States National Report: Greece (PDF) (Report). European Migration Network. 10 March 2024. Retrieved 10 March 2024. ^ "Irish Nationality and Citizenship Act, 1956 Section 12". Archived from the original on 10 February 2007. ^ "Гражданство почетное" . Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary (in Russian). 1906. ^ חוק הענקת אזרחות כבוד לחללי מלחמת הקוממיות, התש"ע-2010 (in Hebrew) ^ a b "Governor-General to confer Honorary Australian Citizenship" (Press release). Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia. 1 May 2013. Retrieved 6 May 2013. ^ "Berliner Ehrenbürger: Lucius Dubignon Clay" . Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin (in German). Retrieved 17 January 2016. ^ "Berliner Ehrenbürger: Michael Sergejewitsch Gorbatschow" . Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin (in German). Archived from the original on 4 March 2014. Retrieved 17 January 2016. ^ Notable Honorary Citizenship of Seoul ^ "Mountaineering Great Edmund Hillary passes away". The Rising Nepal. 12 January 2008. Archived from the original on 4 March 2008 – via gorkhapatra.org.np. ^ "Welcome to Bruges". College of Europe. Retrieved 16 October 2022. ^ "Lady Gaga gets honorary Sydney citizenship". ABC News. 11 July 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2022. ^ "Holocaust hero named Australia's first honorary citizen". The Australian. 15 April 2013. Retrieved 6 May 2013. ^ "Gerard Depardieu throws house-warming barbecue in Belgium". BBC News. Retrieved 24 August 2013. ^ "Pékerman podrá tener la nacionalidad colombiana cuando quiera: Santos" . Caracol Radio (in Spanish). 11 October 2013. Retrieved 13 October 2013. ^ Parveen, Nazia (12 July 2017). "Ariana Grande made honorary citizen of Manchester". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 June 2019. ^ "Jimmy Kimmel - Mayor of Dildo!", Jimmy Kimmel Live, archived from the original on 12 December 2021, retrieved 19 August 2019 – via YouTube ^ "Nakamura ishi ni meiyo shimin-ken Afugan seifu, kangai shien o hyōka" 中村医師に名誉市民権アフガン政府、灌漑支援を評価 . The Nikkei (in Japanese). 10 October 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2019. ^ "Resoluçao da camara conczde titulo de xidadao brasileiro ao piloto Lewis Hamilton" . camara br (in Portuguese). 9 June 2022. Retrieved 9 June 2022. External links Media related to Honorary citizenship at Wikimedia Commons vteHonorary citizenship around the worldCountries Afghanistan Canada Ireland Israel Nepal San Marino Singapore South Korea Palestine United States Cities and regions Abuja Baltimore Bathurst Beijing Belgrade Berlin Birgu Bratislava Brussels Bucharest Buenos Aires Chechnya Chernihiv Copenhagen Gdansk Gyumri Hamburg Jerusalem Kampala Manchester Megève Milan Montalcino Moscow Munich Naples Nice Niš Novi Sad Palermo Paris Rapallo Reykjavík Roquebrune-Cap-Martin Sarajevo Schleswig-Holstein Seoul Skopje Sofia Split Tbilisi Tel Aviv Valletta Vienna Vilnius Warsaw Zagreb Zrenjanin See also Europe Revolutionary France Category Commons Authority control databases: National Germany Israel United States Latvia Czech Republic	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hermann_Frieser_Ehrenb%C3%BCrgerurkunde.jpg"},{"link_name":"Amberg-Sulzbach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amberg-Sulzbach"},{"link_name":"Bavaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavaria"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Hermann Frieser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hermann_Frieser&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HonoraryTexasCitizen-LeviEshkol.jpg"},{"link_name":"Levi Eshkol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi_Eshkol"},{"link_name":"citizenship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenship"}],"text":"A certificate of honorary citizenship of Massenricht, a former municipality of Amberg-Sulzbach, Bavaria, Germany issued to Hermann FrieserHonorary Texas Citizen certificate issued to Israeli Prime Minister Levi EshkolHonorary citizenship is a status bestowed by a city or other government on a foreign or native individual whom it considers to be especially admirable or otherwise worthy of the distinction. The honour usually is symbolic and does not confer any change to citizenship or nationality.","title":"Honorary citizenship"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"North America"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Honorary Canadian citizenship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorary_Canadian_citizenship"},{"link_name":"Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Raoul Wallenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raoul_Wallenberg"},{"link_name":"Nelson Mandela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_Mandela"},{"link_name":"14th Dalai Lama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama"},{"link_name":"Aung San Suu Kyi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi"},{"link_name":"Prince Karim Aga Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aga_Khan_IV"},{"link_name":"Malala Yousafzai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malala_Yousafzai"}],"sub_title":"Canada","text":"Honorary Canadian citizenship requires unanimous approval in both houses of Parliament. The only people to ever receive honorary Canadian citizenship are Raoul Wallenberg posthumously in 1985; Nelson Mandela in 2001; the 14th Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso in 2006; Aung San Suu Kyi in 2007 (revoked in 2018); Prince Karim Aga Khan in 2009; and Malala Yousafzai in 2014.","title":"North America"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"act of United States Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Congress"},{"link_name":"honorary citizen of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorary_citizen_of_the_United_States"}],"sub_title":"United States","text":"By act of United States Congress and presidential assent, an individual may be named an honorary citizen of the United States. Since 1963, it has been awarded to only eight individuals.","title":"North America"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of honorary citizens of Munich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_honorary_citizens_of_Munich"},{"link_name":"Nationality Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_nationality_law"},{"link_name":"Federal Minister of the Interior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Ministry_of_the_Interior_(Germany)"},{"link_name":"municipality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipality"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Germany","text":"See also: List of honorary citizens of MunichIn Germany, Section 14 of the Nationality Act allows the Federal Minister of the Interior to naturalise any foreigner without any requirements, regardless of whether they live in Germany or not, if there are \"ties to Germany that justify naturalisation\".Within the Federal States, honorary citizenship (Ehrenbürgerschaft) is the highest distinction that can be awarded to an individual by a municipality.[1] It is awarded by cities, towns, and sometimes federal states. The honorary citizenship is perpetual and persists after the death of the honoree, but can be revoked in exceptional cases by the council or parliament of the city, town, or state. In the case of war criminals, all such honours were taken away by \"Article VIII, section II, letter i of the directive 38 of the Allied Control Council for Germany\" on 12 October 1946.[citation needed]","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"sub_title":"Greece","text":"In Greece, provisions are in place for the naturalization of foreigners residing in the country who have Greek national origin (expatriates/co-ethnics). Primarily, this applies to expatriates from Albania and those from the countries of the former USSR, under Articles 23 of Law 3838/2010 and 39 of Law 4606/2018, respectively. The Greek Nationality Code (Article 10) also allows for the naturalization of expatriates living abroad. Furthermore, the Code offers honorary naturalization (Article 13) for foreign nationals who have rendered special services to Greece or whose naturalization may serve the country's best interest. Such individuals can be granted Greek citizenship through a Presidential Decree, upon a justified proposal by the Minister of Interior. [2]","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"honorary citizenship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_nationality_law#Honorary"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Ireland","text":"In Ireland, honorary citizenship bestowed on a foreigner is full legal citizenship including the right to reside and vote.[3]","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"honorary citizens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Honorary_citizen_(social_estate)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%87%D1%91%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5_(%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B5)"},{"link_name":"social estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_estates_in_the_Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"estate of urban dwellers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estate_of_urban_dwellers&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Russian Empire","text":"In Russian Empire, honorary citizens [ru] constituted a social estate (sosloviye, sostoyaniye) which was a privileged subcategory of the estate of urban dwellers [ru].[4]","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Asia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Righteous Among the Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations"},{"link_name":"Yad Vashem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yad_Vashem"},{"link_name":"Knesset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knesset"},{"link_name":"Mandate Palestine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_Palestine"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"Israel","text":"Members of the Righteous Among the Nations may be conferred honorary Israeli citizenship by Yad Vashem, or commemorative citizenship if deceased. Those who choose to live in Israel are entitled to a pension, free health care, and assistance with housing and nursing care.In 2010, legislation was passed by the Knesset to confer honorary Israeli citizenship to all members of the Israeli defense forces and paramilitary organizations that operated in Mandate Palestine who died between 29 November 1947 and 31 December 1948.[5]","title":"Asia"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Oceania"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Governor-General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor-General_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"}],"sub_title":"Australia","text":"In Australia honorary citizenship is conferred by the Governor-General and as of 2024 has only been granted once.[6]","title":"Oceania"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lucius D. Clay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_D._Clay"},{"link_name":"military governor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Military_Government,_United_States"},{"link_name":"Berlin airlift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_airlift"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Mikhail Gorbachev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev"},{"link_name":"Berlin Wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Wall"},{"link_name":"reunification of Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reunification_of_Germany"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"},{"link_name":"Guus Hiddink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guus_Hiddink"},{"link_name":"2002 FIFA World Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002_FIFA_World_Cup"},{"link_name":"Hines Ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hines_Ward"},{"link_name":"American football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_football"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Nepalese government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepalese_government"},{"link_name":"Edmund Hillary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hillary"},{"link_name":"Golden Jubilee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Jubilee"},{"link_name":"Kathmandu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathmandu"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"College of Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Europe"},{"link_name":"Bruges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruges"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Lady Gaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Gaga"},{"link_name":"Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney"},{"link_name":"LGBT+ community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_community"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Raoul Wallenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raoul_Wallenberg"},{"link_name":"Australian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"Gérard Depardieu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Depardieu"},{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"José Pekerman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Pekerman"},{"link_name":"Colombian citizenship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombian_nationality_law"},{"link_name":"2014 FIFA World Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_FIFA_World_Cup"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Malala Yousafzai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malala_Yousafzai"},{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan"},{"link_name":"Canadian citizenship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_nationality_law"},{"link_name":"Justin Trudeau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Trudeau"},{"link_name":"Swat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swat_District"},{"link_name":"Taliban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taliban"},{"link_name":"Ariana Grande","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariana_Grande"},{"link_name":"Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester"},{"link_name":"terrorist attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Arena_bombing"},{"link_name":"Manchester Arena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Arena"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Guillermo Rodriguez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillermo_Rodriguez_(comedian)"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Kimmel Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Kimmel_Live"},{"link_name":"Dildo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dildo,_Newfoundland"},{"link_name":"Newfoundland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newfoundland"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Kimmel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Kimmel"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Tetsu Nakamura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetsu_Nakamura"},{"link_name":"humanitarian work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitarian_aid"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Brazilian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilians"},{"link_name":"Formula 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_1"},{"link_name":"Lewis Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Hamilton"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"Berlin awarded Lucius D. Clay 1962 for his role as military governor and for creating the Berlin airlift[7] and Mikhail Gorbachev for his change in world politics that led to the fall of the Berlin Wall and the reunification of Germany.[8]\nIn 2002 South Korea awarded honorary citizenship to Dutch football (soccer) coach Guus Hiddink who successfully and unexpectedly took the national team to the semi-finals of the 2002 FIFA World Cup. Honorary citizenship was also awarded to Hines Ward, an American football player of Korean and African-American descent, in 2006 for his efforts to minimize discrimination in Korea against half-Koreans.[9]\nTo mark the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the first successful ascent of Everest the Nepalese government conferred honorary citizenship upon Edmund Hillary at a special Golden Jubilee celebration in Kathmandu, Nepal. He was the first foreign national to receive that honour.[10]\nAt the end of their studies, all the students of the College of Europe are invited to the city hall by the mayor of Bruges to become honorary citizens of the city of Bruges.[11]\nIn 2011, Lady Gaga received the title of honorary citizen of Sydney for her support of the LGBT+ community.[12]\nIn April 2013, Raoul Wallenberg became the first person to be granted an honorary Australian citizenship.[13][6]\nIn August 2013, French actor Gérard Depardieu received an honorary citizenship by Belgium.[14]\nIn October 2013, Argentinian football coach José Pekerman received Colombian citizenship after he qualified Colombia to the 2014 FIFA World Cup, the first World Cup for the country after a 16-year hiatus.[15]\nOn 12 April 2017, Malala Yousafzai of Pakistan was awarded honorary Canadian citizenship by PM Justin Trudeau for her work on providing education to girls in her hometown Swat during Taliban occupation.\nOn 12 July 2017, Ariana Grande was made an honorary citizen of Manchester for her efforts to raise funds for victims of 22 May 2017 terrorist attack in Manchester Arena.[16]\nIn August 2019, Guillermo Rodriguez, a security guard on Jimmy Kimmel Live, became an honorary citizen of Dildo, Newfoundland, Canada, after TV host Jimmy Kimmel ran for mayor.[17]\nOn 7 October 2019, Afghanistan granted honorary Afghan citizenship to Japanese physician Tetsu Nakamura for his long-standing humanitarian work in the country.[18]\nOn 9 June 2022, a House Resolution granted the title of honorary Brazilian citizen to British Formula 1 driver Lewis Hamilton.[19]","title":"Examples"}]	[{"image_text":"A certificate of honorary citizenship of Massenricht, a former municipality of Amberg-Sulzbach, Bavaria, Germany issued to Hermann Frieser","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hermann_Frieser_Ehrenb%C3%BCrgerurkunde.jpg/170px-Hermann_Frieser_Ehrenb%C3%BCrgerurkunde.jpg"},{"image_text":"Honorary Texas Citizen certificate issued to Israeli Prime Minister Levi Eshkol","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/HonoraryTexasCitizen-LeviEshkol.jpg/220px-HonoraryTexasCitizen-LeviEshkol.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Freedom of the City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_the_City"}]	[{"reference":"\"Ehrenbürger der Landeshauptstadt\". Landeshauptstadt Saarbrücken (in German). 16 May 2022. Retrieved 3 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.saarbruecken.de/kultur/stadtgeschichte/ehrenbuerger","url_text":"\"Ehrenbürger der Landeshauptstadt\""}]},{"reference":"Pathways to citizenship for third-country nationals in the EU Member States National Report: Greece (PDF) (Report). European Migration Network. 10 March 2024. Retrieved 10 March 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2020-03/greece_pathways_to_citizenship_en.pdf","url_text":"Pathways to citizenship for third-country nationals in the EU Member States National Report: Greece"}]},{"reference":"\"Irish Nationality and Citizenship Act, 1956 Section 12\". Archived from the original on 10 February 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070210221826/http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZA26Y1956S12.html","url_text":"\"Irish Nationality and Citizenship Act, 1956 Section 12\""},{"url":"http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZA26Y1956S12.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Гражданство почетное\" . Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary (in Russian). 1906.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ru:%D0%AD%D0%A1%D0%91%D0%95/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_","url_text":"\"Гражданство почетное\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brockhaus_and_Efron_Encyclopedic_Dictionary","url_text":"Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary"}]},{"reference":"\"Governor-General to confer Honorary Australian Citizenship\" (Press release). Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia. 1 May 2013. Retrieved 6 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://gg.gov.au/media-release/media-advisory-governor-general-confer-honorary-australian-citizenship","url_text":"\"Governor-General to confer Honorary Australian Citizenship\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor-General_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Australia","url_text":"Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Berliner Ehrenbürger: Lucius Dubignon Clay\" [Berlin honorary citizen: Lucius Dubignon Clay]. Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin (in German). Retrieved 17 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.parlament-berlin.de/de/Das-Haus/Berliner-Ehrenbuerger/Lucius-Dubignon-Clay?open&ref=9BV9PW136SHEQ","url_text":"\"Berliner Ehrenbürger: Lucius Dubignon Clay\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abgeordnetenhaus_of_Berlin","url_text":"Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin"}]},{"reference":"\"Berliner Ehrenbürger: Michael Sergejewitsch Gorbatschow\" [Berlin honorary citizen: Michael Sergejewitsch Gorbatschow]. Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin (in German). Archived from the original on 4 March 2014. Retrieved 17 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140304141716/http://www.parlament-berlin.de/de/Das-Haus/Berliner-Ehrenbuerger/Michael-Sergejewitsch-Gorbatschow?open&ref=9BV9PW136SHEQ","url_text":"\"Berliner Ehrenbürger: Michael Sergejewitsch Gorbatschow\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abgeordnetenhaus_of_Berlin","url_text":"Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin"},{"url":"http://www.parlament-berlin.de/de/Das-Haus/Berliner-Ehrenbuerger/Michael-Sergejewitsch-Gorbatschow?open&ref=9BV9PW136SHEQ","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Mountaineering Great Edmund Hillary passes away\". The Rising Nepal. 12 January 2008. Archived from the original on 4 March 2008 – via gorkhapatra.org.np.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080304025552/http://www.gorkhapatra.org.np/content.php?nid=34096","url_text":"\"Mountaineering Great Edmund Hillary passes away\""},{"url":"http://www.gorkhapatra.org.np/content.php?nid=34096","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Welcome to Bruges\". College of Europe. Retrieved 16 October 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.coleurope.eu/about-college/bruges-welcomes-you","url_text":"\"Welcome to Bruges\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lady Gaga gets honorary Sydney citizenship\". ABC News. 11 July 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-07-12/lady-gaga-gets-honorary-sydney-citizenship/2790816","url_text":"\"Lady Gaga gets honorary Sydney citizenship\""}]},{"reference":"\"Holocaust hero named Australia's first honorary citizen\". The Australian. 15 April 2013. 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Retrieved 26 June 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/music/2017/jul/12/ariana-grande-made-honorary-citizen-of-manchester","url_text":"\"Ariana Grande made honorary citizen of Manchester\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]},{"reference":"\"Jimmy Kimmel - Mayor of Dildo!\", Jimmy Kimmel Live, archived from the original on 12 December 2021, retrieved 19 August 2019 – via YouTube","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wK3HWT7NIN4","url_text":"\"Jimmy Kimmel - Mayor of Dildo!\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Kimmel_Live","url_text":"Jimmy Kimmel Live"},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/wK3HWT7NIN4","url_text":"archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube","url_text":"YouTube"}]},{"reference":"\"Nakamura ishi ni meiyo shimin-ken Afugan seifu, kangai shien o hyōka\" 中村医師に名誉市民権アフガン政府、灌漑支援を評価 [Honorary citizenship granted to Dr. Nakamura Afghan government appreciates irrigation assistance]. The Nikkei (in Japanese). 10 October 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://r.nikkei.com/article/DGXMZO50840860Q9A011C1ACYZ00","url_text":"\"Nakamura ishi ni meiyo shimin-ken Afugan seifu, kangai shien o hyōka\" 中村医師に名誉市民権アフガン政府、灌漑支援を評価"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nikkei","url_text":"The Nikkei"}]},{"reference":"\"Resoluçao da camara conczde titulo de xidadao brasileiro ao piloto Lewis Hamilton\" [Chamber resolution grants title of Brazilian citizen to pilot Lewis Hamilton]. camara br (in Portuguese). 9 June 2022. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_law	Labour law	["1 History","1.1 Child labour","1.2 Working conditions","2 Individual labour law","2.1 Employment terms","2.2 Minimum wage","2.3 Living wage","2.4 Hours","2.5 Health and safety","2.6 Discrimination","2.7 Dismissal","2.8 Child labour","3 Collective labour law","3.1 Trade unions","3.2 Workplace participation","3.3 Information and consultation","3.4 Collective bargaining","3.5 Collective action","4 International labour law","4.1 International Labour Organization","4.2 Work in multiple countries","4.3 EU law","5 National labour laws","5.1 Angola","5.2 Australia","5.3 Benin","5.4 Belgium","5.5 Canada","5.6 China","5.7 Czech Republic","5.8 France","5.9 Poland","5.10 India","5.11 Indonesia","5.12 Iran","5.13 Israel","5.14 Japan","5.15 Lithuania","5.16 Mexico","5.17 Singapore","5.18 South Africa","5.19 Sweden","5.20 Switzerland","5.21 United Kingdom","5.22 United States","5.23 Halakhah (Jewish religious law)","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"]	Laws that mediate the relationship between workers, employers, unions and governments Labour laws (also spelled as labor laws), labour code or employment laws are those that mediate the relationship between workers, employing entities, trade unions, and the government. Collective labour law relates to the tripartite relationship between employee, employer, and union. Individual labour law concerns employees' rights at work also through the contract for work. Employment standards are social norms (in some cases also technical standards) for the minimum socially acceptable conditions under which employees or contractors are allowed to work. Government agencies (such as the former US Employment Standards Administration) enforce labour law (legislature, regulatory, or judicial). History Main articles: History of labour law, Collegium (ancient Rome), Guild, and Trade union Following the unification of the city-states in Assyria and Sumer by Sargon of Akkad into a single empire ruled from his home city circa 2334 BC, common Mesopotamian standards for length, area, volume, weight, and time used by artisan guilds in each city was promulgated by Naram-Sin of Akkad (c. 2254–2218 BC), Sargon's grandson, including for shekels. Code of Hammurabi Law 234 (c. 1755–1750 BC) stipulated a 2-shekel prevailing wage for each 60-gur (300-bushel) vessel constructed in an employment contract between a shipbuilder and a ship-owner. Law 275 stipulated a ferry rate of 3-gerah per day on a charterparty between a ship charterer and a shipmaster. Law 276 stipulated a 21⁄2-gerah per day freight rate on a contract of affreightment between a charterer and shipmaster, while Law 277 stipulated a 1⁄6-shekel per day freight rate for a 60-gur vessel. In 1816, an archeological excavation in Minya, Egypt (under an Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire) produced a Nerva–Antonine dynasty-era tablet from the ruins of the Temple of Antinous in Antinoöpolis, Aegyptus that prescribed the rules and membership dues of a burial society collegium established in Lanuvium, Italia in approximately 133 AD during the reign of Hadrian (117–138) of the Roman Empire. A collegium was any association in ancient Rome that acted as a legal entity. Following the passage of the Lex Julia during the reign of Julius Caesar as Consul and Dictator of the Roman Republic (49–44 BC), and their reaffirmation during the reign of Caesar Augustus as Princeps senatus and Imperator of the Roman Army (27 BC–14 AD), collegia required the approval of the Roman Senate or the Emperor in order to be authorized as legal bodies. Ruins at Lambaesis date the formation of burial societies among Roman Army soldiers and Roman Navy mariners to the reign of Septimius Severus (193–211) in 198 AD. In September 2011, archeological investigations done at the site of the artificial harbour Portus in Rome revealed inscriptions in a shipyard constructed during the reign of Trajan (98–117) indicating the existence of a shipbuilders guild. Rome's La Ostia port was home to a guildhall for a corpus naviculariorum, a collegium of merchant mariners. Collegium also included fraternities of Roman priests overseeing ritual sacrifices, practicing augury, keeping scriptures, arranging festivals, and maintaining specific religious cults. Labour law arose in parallel with the Industrial Revolution as the relationship between worker and employer changed from small-scale production studios to large-scale factories. Workers sought better conditions and the right to join a labour union, while employers sought a more predictable, flexible and less costly workforce. The state of labour law at any one time is therefore both the product of and a component of struggles between various social forces. As England was the first country to industrialize, it was also the first to face the often appalling consequences of the industrial revolution in a less regulated economic framework. Over the course of the late 18th and early to the mid-19th century the foundation for modern labour law was slowly laid, as some of the more egregious aspects of working conditions were steadily ameliorated through legislation. This was largely achieved through the concerted pressure from social reformers, notably Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, and others. Child labour A serious outbreak of fever in 1784 in cotton mills near Manchester drew widespread public opinion against the use of children in dangerous conditions. A local inquiry presided over by Dr Thomas Percival, was instituted by the justices of the peace for Lancashire, and the resulting report recommended the limitation of children's working hours. In 1802, the first major piece of labour legislation was passed − the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act. This was the first, albeit modest, step towards the protection of labour. The act limited working hours to twelve a day and abolished night work. It required the provision of a basic level of education for all apprentices, as well as adequate sleeping accommodation and clothing. The rapid industrialisation of manufacturing at the turn of the 19th century led to a rapid increase in child employment, and public opinion was steadily made aware of the terrible conditions these children were forced to endure. The Cotton Mills and Factories Act 1819 was the outcome of the efforts of the industrialist Robert Owen and prohibited child labour under nine years of age and limited the working hours to twelve. A great milestone in labour law was reached with the Factories Act 1833, which limited the employment of children under eighteen years of age, prohibited all night work, and, crucially, provided for inspectors to enforce the law. Pivotal in the campaigning for and the securing of this legislation were Michael Sadler and the Earl of Shaftesbury. This act was an important step forward, in that it mandated skilled inspection of workplaces and rigorous enforcement of the law by an independent governmental body. A lengthy campaign to limit the working day to ten hours was led by Shaftesbury and included support from the Anglican Church. Many committees were formed in support of the cause and some previously established groups lent their support as well. The campaign finally led to the passage of the Factory Act 1847, which restricted the working hours of women and children in British factories to effectively 10 hours per day. Working conditions These early efforts were principally aimed at limiting child labour. From the mid-19th century, attention was first paid to the plight of working conditions for the workforce in general. In 1850, systematic reporting of fatal accidents was made compulsory, and basic safeguards for health, life and limb in the mines were put in place from 1855. Further regulations, relating to ventilation, fencing of disused shafts, signalling standards, and proper gauges and valves for steam-boilers and related machinery were also set down. A series of further Acts, in 1860 and 1872 extended the legal provisions and strengthened safety provisions. The steady development of the coal industry, an increasing association among miners, and increased scientific knowledge paved the way for the Coal Mines Act of 1872, which extended the legislation to similar industries. The same Act included the first comprehensive code of regulation to govern legal safeguards for health, life and limb. The presence of more certified and competent management and increased levels of inspection were also provided for. By the end of the century, a comprehensive set of regulations was in place in England that affected all industries. A similar system (with certain national differences) was implemented in other industrializing countries in the latter part of the 19th century and the early 20th century.. Individual labour law Employment terms Main articles: Employment contract, At-will employment, and Intellectual capital The basic feature of labour law in almost every country is that the rights and obligations of the worker and the employer are mediated through a contract of employment between the two. This has been the case since the collapse of feudalism. Many contract terms and conditions are covered by legislation or common law. In the US for example, the majority of state laws allow for employment to be "at-will", meaning the employer can terminate an employee from a position for any reason so long as the reason is not explicitly prohibited, and, conversely, an employee may quit at any time, for any reason (or for no reason), and is not required to give notice. A major issue for any business is to understand the relationship between the worker and the master. There are two types of workers, independent contractors and employees. They are differentiated based on the level of control the master has on them. Workers provided tools and resources, closely supervised, paid regularly, etc., are considered employees of the company. Employees must act in the best interest of the employer. One example of employment terms in many countries is the duty to provide written particulars of employment with the essentialia negotii (Latin for "essential terms") to an employee. This aims to allow the employee to know concretely what to expect and what is expected. It covers items including compensation, holiday and illness rights, notice in the event of dismissal and job description. The contract is subject to various legal provisions. An employer may not legally offer a contract that pays the worker less than a minimum wage. An employee may not agree to a contract that allows an employer to dismiss them for illegal reasons. Intellectual property is the vital asset of the business, employees add value to the company by creating Intellectual Property. As per Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), Intellectual Property is personal property. Intellectual property is used as competitive advantage by big companies to protect themselves from rivalry. Given the conditions, if the worker is in the agent-principal relationship, he is the employee of the company, and if the employee's invention is in the scope of employment i.e. if the employee creates a new product or process to increase the productivity and create organizations' wealth by utilizing the resources of the company, then the Intellectual property solely belongs to the company. New business products or processes are protected under Patents. There are differing opinions on what constitutes a patentable invention. One area of disagreement is with respect to software inventions, but there have been court cases that have established some precedents. For example, in the case Diamond v. Diehr the US Supreme Court decided that Diehr is patent- eligible because they improved the existing technological process, not because they were implemented on a computer. Minimum wage Main article: Minimum wage Many jurisdictions define the minimum amount that a worker can be paid per hour. Algeria, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Greece, Hungary, India, Ireland, Japan, South Korea, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Paraguay, Portugal, Poland, Romania, Spain, Taiwan, the UK, the US, Vietnam, Germany (in 2015) and others have laws of this kind. The minimum wage is set usually higher than the lowest wage as determined by the forces of supply and demand in a free market and therefore acts as a price floor. Each country sets its own minimum wage laws and regulations, and while a majority of industrialized countries has a minimum wage, many developing countries do not. Minimum wages are regulated and stipulated in some countries that lack explicit laws. The US is regulated by the Fair Labor Standards Act and has explicit laws, whereas other countries such as Sweden might lack explicit laws. In Sweden minimum wages are negotiated between the labour market parties (unions and employer organizations) through collective agreements that also cover non-union workers at workplaces with collective agreements. At workplaces without collective agreements there exist no minimum wages. Non-organized employers can sign substitute agreements directly with trade unions but far from all do. The Swedish case illustrates that in countries without statutory regulation part of the labour market may not have regulated minimum wages, as self-regulation only applies to workplaces and employees covered by collective agreements (in Sweden about 90 per cent of employees). National minimum wage laws were first introduced in the United States in 1938, Brazil in 1940 India in 1948, France in 1950 and in the UK in 1998. In the European Union, 18 out of 28 member states have national minimum wages as of 2011. Living wage Main article: Living wage The living wage is higher than the minimum wage and is designed so that a full-time worker should be able to support themselves and a small family at that wage. Hours See also: Eight-hour day The maximum number of hours worked per day or other time intervals are set by law in many countries. Such laws also control whether workers who work longer hours must be paid additional compensation. Before the Industrial Revolution, the workday varied between 11 and 14 hours. With the growth of industrialism and the introduction of machinery, longer hours became far more common, reaching as high as 16 hours per day. The eight-hour movement led to the first law on the length of a working day, passed in 1833 in England. It limited miners to 12 hours and children to 8 hours. The 10-hour day was established in 1848, and shorter hours with the same pay were gradually accepted thereafter. The 1802 Factory Act was the first labour law in the UK. Germany was the next European country to pass labour laws. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's main goal was to undermine the Social Democratic Party of Germany. In 1878, Bismarck instituted a variety of anti-socialist measures, but despite this, socialists continued gaining seats in the Reichstag. To appease the working class, he enacted a variety of paternalistic social reforms, which became the first type of social security. In 1883, the Health Insurance Act was passed, which entitled workers to health insurance. The worker paid two-thirds and the employer one-third of the premiums. Accident insurance was provided in 1884, while old-age pensions and disability insurance followed in 1889. Other laws restricted the employment of women and children. These efforts, however, were not entirely successful; the working class largely remained unreconciled with Bismarck's conservative government. In France, the first labour law was voted in 1841. It limited under-age miners' hours. In the Third Republic labour law was first effectively enforced, in particular after Waldeck-Rousseau 1884 law legalising trade unions. With the Matignon Accords, the Popular Front (1936–38) enacted the laws mandating 12 days each year of paid vacations for workers and the law limiting the standard workweek to 40 hours. Health and safety Main article: Occupational safety and health Other labour laws involve safety concerning workers. The earliest English factory law was passed in 1802 and dealt with the safety and health of child labourers in textile mills. Discrimination Main article: Anti-discrimination law Such laws prohibit discrimination against employees, in particular racial discrimination or gender discrimination. Dismissal Main articles: Unfair dismissal, Wrongful dismissal, and At-will employment Convention no. 158 of the International Labour Organization states that an employee "can't be fired without any legitimate motive" and "before offering him the possibility to defend himself". Thus, on April 28, 2006, after the unofficial repeal of the French First Employment Contract, the Longjumeau (Essonne) conseil des prud'hommes (labour law court) judged the New Employment Contract contrary to international law and therefore "illegitimate" and "without any juridical value". The court considered that the two-years period of "fire at will" (without any legal motive) was "unreasonable", and contrary to convention. Child labour Main article: Child labour Two girls wearing banners in Yiddish and English with the slogan "Abolish child slavery!!" at the 1909 International Workers' Day parade in New York City Child labour was not seen as a problem throughout most of history, only disputed with the beginning of universal schooling and the concepts of labourers' and children's rights. Use of child labour was commonplace, often in factories. In England and Scotland in 1788, about two-thirds of persons working in water-powered textile factories were children. Child labour can be factory work, mining or quarrying, agriculture, helping in the parents' business, operating a small business (such as selling food), or doing odd jobs. Children work as guides for tourists, sometimes combined with bringing in business for shops and restaurants (where they may also work). Other children do jobs such as assembling boxes or polishing shoes. However, rather than in factories and sweatshops, most child labour in the twenty-first century occurs in the informal sector, "selling on the street, at work in agriculture or hidden away in houses — far from the reach of official inspectors and from media scrutiny." Collective labour law Main article: Freedom of association Collective labour law concerns the relationship between employer, employee and trade unions. Trade unions (also "labour unions" in the US) are organizations which generally aim to promote the interests of their members. This law regulates the wages, benefits, and duties of the employees, and the dispute management between the company and the trade union. Such matters are often described in a collective labour agreement (CLA). Trade unions Main article: Trade union Trade unions are organized groups of workers who engage in collective bargaining with employers. Some countries require unions and/or employers to follow particular procedures in pursuit of their goals. For example, some countries require that unions poll the membership to approve a strike or to approve using members' dues for political projects. Laws may govern the circumstances and procedures under which unions are formed. They may guarantee the right to join a union (banning employer discrimination), or remain silent in this respect. Some legal codes allow unions to obligate their members, such as the requirement to comply with a majority decision in a strike vote. Some restrict this, such as "right to work" legislation in parts of the United States. In the different organization in the different countries trade union discuses with the employee on behalf of employer. At that time trade union discussed or talk with the manpower of the organization. At that time trade union perform his roles like a bridge between the employee and employer. Workplace participation Main articles: Co-determination and Industrial democracy A legally binding right for workers as a group to participate in workplace management is acknowledged in some form in most developed countries. In a majority of EU member states (for example, Germany, Sweden, and France), the workforce has a right to elect directors on the board of large corporations. This is usually called "codetermination" and currently most countries allow for the election of one-third of the board, though the workforce can have the right to elect anywhere from a single director, to just under a half in Germany. However, German company law uses a split board system, in which a "supervisory board" appoints an "executive board". Under the Mitbestimmungsgesetz 1976, shareholders and employees elect the supervisory board in equal numbers, but the head of the supervisory board with a casting vote is a shareholder representative. The first statutes to introduce board-level codetermination were in Britain, however, most of these measures, except in universities, were removed in 1948 and 1979. The oldest surviving statute is found in the United States, in the Massachusetts Laws on manufacturing corporations, introduced in 1919, however, this was always voluntary. In the United Kingdom, similar proposals were drawn up, and a command paper produced named the Bullock Report (Industrial Democracy) was released in 1977 by the James Callaghan Labour Party government. Unions would have directly elected half of the board. An "independent" element would also be added. However, the proposal was not enacted. The European Commission offered proposals for worker participation in the "fifth company law directive", which was also not implemented. In Sweden, participation is regulated through the "Law on board representation". The law covers all private companies with 25 or more employees. In these companies, workers (usually through unions) have a right to appoint two board members and two substitutes. If the company has more than 1,000 employees, this rises to three members and three substitutes. It is common practice to allocate them among the major union coalitions. Information and consultation Workplace statutes in many countries require that employers consult their workers on various issues. Collective bargaining Main article: Collective bargaining Collective action Main articles: Strike action and Picketing (protest) Strikers gathering in Tyldesley, Greater Manchester in the 1926 United Kingdom general strike Strike action is the worker tactic most associated with industrial disputes. In most countries, strikes are legal under a circumscribed set of conditions. Among them may be that: The strike is decided on by a prescribed democratic process (wildcat strikes are illegal). Sympathy strikes, against a company by which workers are not directly employed, may be prohibited. General strikes may be forbidden for example, among public safety workers, to maintain public order. A boycott is a refusal to buy, sell, or otherwise trade with an individual or business. Other tactics include go-slow, sabotage, work-to-rule, sit-in or en-masse not reporting to work. Some labour law explicitly bans such activity, none explicitly allows it. Picketing is often used by workers during strikes. They may congregate near the business they are striking against to make their presence felt, increase worker participation and dissuade (or prevent) strike breakers from entering the workplace. In many countries, this activity is restricted by law, by more general law restricting demonstrations, or by injunctions on particular pickets. For example, labour law may restrict secondary picketing (picketing a business connected with the company not directly with the dispute, such as a supplier), or flying pickets (mobile strikers who travel to join a picket). Laws may prohibit obstructing others from conducting lawful business; outlaw obstructive pickets allow court orders to restrict picketing locations or behaving in particular ways (shouting abuse, for example). International labour law vteInternational labour casesILO Declaration of Fundamental Rights of 1998Singapore Ministerial Declaration (13 December 1996)Procurement Regulation (EC) No 732/2008 arts 7-8, 15 and 27Brussels I Regulation (EC) 44/2001, recital 13, arts 18-20Rome I Regulation (EC) 593/2008, recitals 34-5, art 8Lawson v Serco Ltd UKHL 3Duncombe v Secretary for Children UKSC 14Ravat v Halliburton Ltd UKSC 1Posted Workers Directive 96/71/EC art 3Laval Ltd v Swedish Builders Union (2008) C-319/05The Rosella (2008) C-438/05see Labour law See also: International Labour Organization, World Trade Organization, and Private international law The labour movement has long been concerned that economic globalization would weaken worker bargaining power, as their employers could hire workers abroad to avoid domestic labour standards. Karl Marx said: The extension of the principle of free trade, which induces between nations such a competition that the interest of the workman is liable to be lost sight of and sacrificed in the fierce international race between capitalists, demands that such organizations should be still further extended and made international. The International Labour Organization and the World Trade Organization have been a primary focus among international bodies for regulating labour markets. Conflicts arise when people work in more than one country. EU law has a growing body of workplace rules. International Labour Organization Main articles: International Labour Organization and ILO Conventions Following World War I, the Treaty of Versailles contained the first constitution of a new International Labour Organization (ILO) founded on the principle that "labour is not a commodity", and for the reason that "peace can be established only if it is based upon social justice". ILO's primary role has been to coordinate international labour law by issuing Conventions. ILO members can voluntarily adopt and ratify the Conventions. For instance, the first Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, 1919 required a maximum of a 48-hour week, and has been ratified by 52 out of 185 member states. The UK ultimately refused to ratify the Convention, as did many current EU members, although the Working Time Directive adopts its principles, subject to individual opt-out. ILO's constitution comes from the 1944 Declaration of Philadelphia and under the 1998 Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work classified eight conventions as core. These require freedom to join a union, bargain collectively and take action (Conventions No. 87 and 98), abolition of forced labour (29 and 105), abolition of labour by children before the end of compulsory school (138 and 182), and no discrimination at work (No. 100 and 111). Member compliance with the core Conventions is obligatory, even if the country has not ratified the Convention in question. To ensure compliance, the ILO is limited to gathering evidence and reporting on member states' progress, relying on publicity to create pressure to reform. Global reports on core standards are produced yearly, while individual reports on countries who have ratified other Conventions are compiled on a bi-annual or less frequent basis. As one of the only international organizations with real enforcement power through trade sanctions, the WTO has been the target for calls by labour lawyers to incorporate global standards of the International Labour Organization. Because the ILO's enforcement mechanisms are weak, incorporating labour standards in the World Trade Organization's (WTO) operation has been proposed. WTO oversees, primarily, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade treaty aimed at reducing customs, tariffs and other barriers to import and export of goods, services and capital between its 157 member countries. Unlike for the ILO, contravening WTO rules as recognized by the dispute settlement procedures opens a country to retaliation through trade sanctions. This could include reinstatement of targeted tariffs against the offender. Proponents have called for a "social clause" to be inserted into the GATT agreements, for example, by amending Article XX, which provides an exception that allows imposition of sanctions for breaches of human rights. An explicit reference to core labour standards could allow comparable action where a WTO member state breaches ILO standards. Opponents argue that such an approach could undermine labour rights, because industries, and therefore workforces could be harmed with no guarantee of reform. Furthermore, it was argued in the 1996 Singapore Ministerial Declaration 1996 that "the comparative advantage of countries, particularly low-age developing countries, must in no way be put into question." Some countries want to take advantage of low wages and fewer rules as a comparative advantage to boost their economies. Another contested point is whether business moves production from high wage to low wage countries, given potential differences in worker productivity. Since GATT, most trade agreements have been bilateral. Some of these protect core labour standards. Moreover, in domestic tariff regulations, some countries give preference to countries that respect core labour rights, for example under the EC Tariff Preference Regulation, articles 7 and 8. Work in multiple countries Main article: Conflict of laws Conflicts of laws (or private international law) issues arise where workers work in multiple jurisdictions. If a US worker performs part of her job in Brazil, China and Denmark (a "peripatetic" worker) an employer may seek to characterize the employment contract as governed by the law of the country where labour rights are least favourable to the worker, or seek to argue that the most favourable system of labour rights does not apply. For example, in a UK labour law case, Ravat v Halliburton Manufacturing and Services Ltd Ravat was from the UK but was employed in Libya by a German company that was part of Halliburton. He was dismissed by a supervisor based in Egypt. He was told he would be hired under UK law terms and conditions, and this was arranged by a staffing department in Aberdeen. Under the UK Employment Rights Act 1996 he would have a right to claim unfair dismissal, but the Act left open the question of the statute's territorial scope. The UK Supreme Court held that the principle would be that an expatriate worker, would be subject to UK rules if the worker could show a "close connection" to the UK, which was found in Rabat's case. This fits within the general framework in the EU. Under EU Rome I Regulation article 8, workers have employment rights of the country where they habitually work. They may have a claim in another country if they can establish a close connection to it. The Regulation emphasises that the rules should be applied with the purpose of protecting the worker. It is also necessary that a court has jurisdiction to hear a claim. Under the Brussels I Regulation article 19, this requires the worker habitually works in the place where the claim is brought or is engaged there. EU law This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Labour law" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Main articles: EU law, European labour law, and Directive on services in the internal market The European Union has extensive labour laws that officially exclude, according to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, matters around direct wage regulation (e.g. setting a minimum wage), the fairness of dismissals and collective bargaining. A series of Directives regulate almost all other issues, for instance the Working Time Directive guarantees 28 days of paid holiday, the Equality Framework Directive prohibits all forms of discrimination and the Collective Redundancies Directive requires that proper notice is given and consultation takes place on decisions about economic dismissals. The European Court of Justice has recently extended the Treaties provisions via case law. Trade unions have sought to organize across borders in the same way that multinational corporations have organized production globally. Unions have sought to take collective action and strikes internationally. This coordination was challenged in the European Union in two controversial decisions. In Laval Ltd v Swedish Builders Union a group of Latvian workers were sent to a construction site in Sweden. The local union took industrial action to make Laval Ltd sign up to the local collective bargaining agreement. Under the Posted Workers Directive, article 3 lays down minimum standards for foreign workers so that workers receive at least the minimum rights that they would have in their home country in case their place of work has lower minimum rights. Article 3(7) says that this "shall not prevent application of terms and conditions of employment which are more favourable to workers". Most people thought this meant that more favourable conditions could be given than the minimum (e.g., in Latvian law) by the host state's legislation or a collective agreement. The European Court of Justice (ECJ) said that only the local state could raise standards beyond its minimum for foreign workers. Any attempt by the host state, or a collective agreement (unless the collective agreement is declared universal under article 3(8)) would infringe the business' freedom under TFEU article 56. This decision was implicitly reversed by the European Union legislature in the Rome I Regulation, which makes clear in recital 34 that the host state may allow more favourable standards. In The Rosella, the ECJ held that a blockade by the International Transport Workers Federation against a business that was using an Estonian flag of convenience (i.e., saying it was operating under Estonian law to avoid labour standards of Finland) infringed the business' right of free establishment under TFEU article 49. The ECJ said that it recognized the workers' "right to strike" in accordance with ILO Convention 87, but said that its use must be proportionately to the right of the business' establishment. National labour laws Angola This section is an excerpt from Human rights in Angola § Employees' rights. Workers may join unions. All non-government workers may strike, though there are strict rules governing this. The ruling party is traditionally tied to labor, and some unions are government-run. Collective bargaining is technically permitted but is subject in practice to restrictions. Forced labor is illegal, but occurs, with many men and boys being trafficked into Angola for forced labor in construction and other sectors. Children under 14 are not allowed to work, but many children work on family farms, as street vendors, and in homes. Some children are forced to work as prostitutes, in the drug transport or sales, and as international couriers. There are many street children who beg, perform such jobs as shoeshining and carwashing, commit small crimes, or are sexually exploited. There is a low minimum wage, with most people relying on multiple jobs to earn a living. Most workers are employed in agricultural jobs or other sectors in which there is little or no government control of working conditions. There are laws that regulate working conditions but they are not well enforced even in the formal sector. Workers' rights are routinely violated with impunity. The occupational health and safety standards are poorly enforced, as are rulings on labor violations. Australia Main article: Australian Labour LawThe Fair Work Act of 2009 provides the regulations governing Australian workplaces and employers. Australia has a minimum wage and workplace conditions overseen by the Fair Work Commission. Benin This section is an excerpt from Human rights in Benin § Employees' rights. Workers are allowed to unionize and to strike, although they are required to provide three days' notice of strikes and the government can prohibit them for a variety of reasons. Workers, except for those in merchant shipping, are also entitled to bargain collectively. There is a National Consultation and Collective Bargaining Commission that takes part in such negotiations. Forced labor is illegal, although it exists in a number of sectors, with children often involved. Children under 12 may not work at any job; those between 12 and 14 may do light work or hold domestic jobs. But these restrictions are not fully enforced, and in reality children as young as seven work in farms, businesses, construction, markets, and other settings, with some being indentured to "agents" and put to work in other countries. Owing to a shortage of inspectors, the labor code is enforced poorly and only in the so-called formal sector. There is a minimum wage but it is very low, and there are various restrictions on working hours and the like but these are generally only enforced in the "formal sector". Health and safety standards are not enforced effectively either. Belgium This section is an excerpt from Human rights in Belgium § Employees' rights. Belgian law guarantees workers the right to unionize and bargain collectively, and all workers except those in the military have the right to strike. Although compulsory labor is illegal, individuals from Eastern Europe, sub-Saharan Africa, and Asia are trafficked to Belgium for prostitution and other kinds of forced labor. A United Nations human-rights report that was issued in 2010 proposed that Belgium provide more assistance to victims of human trafficking and that it change its laws to ensure that residency permits are issued to such persons whether or not they choose to cooperate with court authorities. Children under 15 are not permitted to work in Belgium; those between 15 and 18 are allowed to do part-time work and to work full-time during school vacations; waivers can be granted for children working in, for example, entertainment. In larger cities some children are exploited by organized gangs of beggars. There is a minimum wage; the work day is eight hours, and the work week is 38 hours. These and other rules regulating work hours, safety, and other issues are enforced by the Employment and Labor Relations Federal Public Service. Canada The interior of one of the Eaton's factories in Toronto, Canada Main article: Canadian labour and employment law This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2013) In Canadian law, "labour law" refers to matters connected with unionized workplaces, while "employment law" deals with non-unionized employees. In 2017, Premier Brad Wall announced that Saskatchewan's government is to cut 3.5 per cent from its workers and officers' wages in 2018. This salary cut includes MLA ministers and the Premier's office staff along with all people employed by the government. Unpaid days off will also be implemented as well as limiting overtime to assist the wage cut. China Further information: Labour Law of the People's Republic of China and Labour Contract Law of the People's Republic of China In China the basic labour laws are the Labour Law of People's Republic of China (1994) and the Labour Contract Law of the People's Republic of China (adopted at the 10th National People's Congress, effective 2008). The administrative regulations enacted by the State Council, the ministerial rules and the judicial explanations of the Supreme People's Court stipulate detailed rules concerning various aspects of employment. The government-controlled All China Federation of Trade Unions is the sole legal labour union. Strikes are formally legal, but in practice are discouraged. Czech Republic In Czech Republic, the relevant regulation is called the Labour Code (Czech: Zákoník práce). The new labour code of the Czech Republic No.262/2006 Sb. effective from 1 January 2007, superseded the Code of 65/1965. France Main article: French labour law In France, the first labour laws were Waldeck Rousseau's laws passed in 1884. Between 1936 and 1938 the Popular Front enacted a law mandating 12 days (2 weeks) each year of paid vacation for workers, and a law limited the work week to 40 hours, excluding overtime. The Grenelle accords negotiated on May 25 and 26th in the middle of the May 1968 crisis, reduced the working week to 44 hours and created trade union sections in each enterprise. The minimum wage was increased by 25%. In 2000, Lionel Jospin's government enacted the 35-hour workweek, reduced from 39 hours. Five years later, conservative prime minister Dominique de Villepin enacted the New Employment Contract (CNE). Addressing the demands of employers asking for more flexibility in French labour laws, the CNE sparked criticism from trade unions and opponents claiming it favoured contingent work. In 2006, he then attempted to pass the First Employment Contract (CPE) through a vote by emergency procedure, but that was met by students and unions' protests. President Jacques Chirac finally had no choice but to repeal it. Poland In Poland, the main act on the Labour Law is the Polish Labour Code from 1974. Since its introduction into the legal system the act is constantly being adapted and updated to the current reality of the labour market in Poland. The basic form of employment in Poland is an employment contract, which can be concluded for a probation period, a definite period of time or an indefinite period of time. The Polish Labour Code provides regulations on employee benefits, annual leave, termination of the employment contract, discrimination in the workplace, disciplinary liability and many other employment-related issues. Polish employment contracts can be terminated in many ways, e.g. in a disciplinary mode, by a termination with a notice period or by a mutual agreement of both parts. India Main article: Indian labour law Over fifty national and many more state-level laws govern work in India. So for instance, a permanent worker can be terminated only for proven misconduct or habitual absence. In the Uttam Nakate case, the Bombay High Court held that dismissing an employee for repeated sleeping on the factory floor was illegal – the decision was overturned by the Supreme Court of India two decades later. In 2008, the World Bank criticized the complexity, lack of modernization and flexibility in Indian regulations. In the Constitution of India from 1950, articles 14–16, 19(1)(c), 23–24, 38, and 41-43A directly concern labour rights. Article 14 states everyone should be equal before the law, article 15 specifically says the state should not discriminate against citizens, and article 16 extends a right of "equality of opportunity" for employment or appointment under the state. Article 19(1)(c) gives everyone a specific right "to form associations or unions". Article 23 prohibits all trafficking and forced labour, while article 24 prohibits child labour under 14 years old in a factory, mine or "any other hazardous employment". Articles 38–39, and 41-43A, like all rights listed in Part IV of the Constitution are not enforceable by courts, rather than creating an aspirational "duty of the State to apply these principles in making laws". The original justification for leaving such principles unenforceable by the courts was that democratically accountable institutions ought to be left with discretion, given the demands they could create on the state for funding from general taxation, although such views have since become controversial. Article 38(1) says that in general the state should "strive to promote the welfare of the people" with a "social order in which justice, social, economic and political, shall inform all the institutions of national life. Article 38(2) says the state should "minimise the inequalities in income" and based on all other statuses. Article 41 creates a "right to work", which the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 attempts to put into practice. Article 42 requires the state to "make provision for securing just and human conditions of work and for maternity relief". Article 43 says workers should have the right to a living wage and "conditions of work ensuring a decent standard of life". Article 43A, inserted by the Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India in 1976, creates a constitutional right to codetermination by requiring the state to legislate to "secure the participation of workers in the management of undertakings". The recently released New Labour Codes 2022 mentions that organizations can convert 9-hour shifts to 12-hour shifts and provide three days of leave every week. The 4-day workweek policy will be effective from 1 July 2022. Also read: Labour Reforms by Government of India Ministry of Labour & Employment (https://labour.gov.in/labour-reforms Archived 2021-06-21 at the Wayback Machine) Indonesia Indonesia essentially rebuilt its labour law system in the early 2000s following regime change and with support of the ILO. These three statutes constituted a new legislative framework for industrial relations: 1. Law No. 21 of 2000 on Trade Unions, which allowed free unionization; and 2. Law No. 13 of 2003 on Manpower, which legislated other minimum labour rights; and 3. Law No. 2 of 2004 on Industrial Relations Disputes Settlement, established a new industrial relations dispute resolution system. Iran Main article: Iranian labour law This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2008) Iran has not ratified the two basic Conventions of the International Labour Organization on freedom of association and collective bargaining and one abolishing child labour. Israel Main article: Israeli labor lawThis section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2022) Japan Main article: Japanese labor lawThis section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2022) Lithuania Lithuania began the work of rewriting the employment laws in 1996 and the Labour Code (Lithuanian: Darbo Kodeksas) bill was completed in 2001. It was heavily inspired by the Hungarian, Czech as well Polish laws and incorporated the vast majority of the European Union regulations. The new labour code was formally enacted in 2002. Another major reform of the labour code was implemented in 2016, bringing more flexibility, yet balancing it with protection for employees. The Labour Code 2016 formally entered force on 1 July 2017. Mexico Main article: Mexican labor law Mexican labour law reflects the historic interrelation between the state and the Confederation of Mexican Workers. The confederation is officially aligned with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (the Institutional Revolutionary Party, or PRI). While the law promises workers the right to strike and to organize, in practice it is difficult or impossible for independent unions to organize. Singapore Singapore has a "minimum legal obligation" rule which applies to employment contracts and in other fields of contracting, and limits damages payments for breach of contract. The rule applies in wrongful dismissal cases: generally, its effect would be to limit an employee's damages to the minimum notice period under which the employer could properly have dismissed the employee. Various "general principles" have been identified which apply to the summary dismissal of employees on grounds of misconduct. South Africa Main article: South African labour law South African labour law is regulated by the Department of Employment and Labour and is based on the Labour Relations Act (LRA) 66 of 1995, which regulates the relationship between and rights of employers, employees and trade unions. The LRA also gives effect to Section 23 of the Constitution. The LRA lays out the procedures for dispute resolution via the Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration (CCMA) and establishes the Labour Court and Labour Appeal Court as superior courts with exclusive jurisdiction to decide matters arising from the Act. The Labour Relations Act also regulates the issue of fairness, not only in termination but during employment. In 1998, most of the laws on unfair labour practices were removed from the Labour Relations Act and placed into the newly formed Employment Equity Act (EEA). The EEA also deals with issues such as fairness regarding a worker's human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) status or disability, as well as the issue of affirmative action. Prior to 1995, an employee could be dismissed in terms of the contract of employment, which could permit any reason for dismissal. Since 1995, an employee may be dismissed only for misconduct, operational reasons and incapacity, given that procedural fairness is maintained. The Labour Relations Act 1995 is a pivotal piece of legislation, as it recognises the need for fast and easy access to justice in labour disputes. The Industrial Court had the status of a High Court, and therefore was not accessible to all labourers. The Basic Conditions of Employment Act (BCEA), the Health and Safety Act and the Skills Development Act, must be read with the EEA. The Skills Development Act provides that a small percentage of a labourer's salary must be contributed to the Department of Labour, enabling certain workshops to be run which are designed to develop skills. Sweden See also: Swedish labour movement In Sweden many workplace issues such as working hours, minimum wage and right to overtime compensation are regulated through collective bargaining agreements in accordance with the Swedish model of self-regulation, i.e. regulation by the labour market parties themselves in contrast to state regulation (labour laws). A notable exception is the Employment Protection act which regulates employment contracts and extensive employees' rights to employment under certain conditions. Switzerland Main article: Swiss labour law The labour law of Switzerland covers all standards governing the employment of some kind. The regulation of the employment by private employers is largely harmonized at the federal level, while public-sector employment still prevails a variety of cantonal laws. In particular, the civil standardization is distributed to a variety of laws. Of greater importance, particularly the new Federal Constitution of 1999, the Code of Obligations, the Labour Code as well as in the public sector, the Federal Personnel Act. United Kingdom Main article: UK labour law The Factory Acts (first one in 1802, then 1833) and the 1823 Master and Servant Act were the first laws regulating labour relations in the United Kingdom. Most employment law before 1960 was based upon contract law. Since then there has been a significant expansion primarily due to movements for equality and the legal requirements imposed by the UK's former membership of the European Union. UK employment law comes from Acts of Parliament, secondary legislation (made by a Secretary of State under an Act of Parliament), case law (developed by various courts), and retained Community law following the UK's departure from the EU. The first significant expansion was the Equal Pay Act 1970, brought in to try to ensure pay equality for women in the workplace. Since 1997, changes in UK employment law include enhanced maternity and paternity rights, the introduction of a National Minimum Wage and the Working Time Regulations, which covers working time, rest breaks and the right to paid annual leave. Discrimination law has been tightened, with protection from discrimination now available on the grounds of age, religion or belief and sexual orientation as well as gender, race and disability. United States Main article: United States labor law An American builder The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 set the maximum standard work week to 44 hours. In 1950 this was reduced to 40 hours. A green card entitles immigrants to work, without requirement a separate work permit. Despite the 40-hour standard maximum work week, some lines of work require more than 40 hours. For example, farm workers may work over 72 hours a week, followed by at least 24 hours off. Exceptions to the break period exist for certain harvesting employees, such as those involved in harvesting grapes, tree fruits and cotton. Professionals, clerical (administrative assistants), technical, and mechanical employees cannot be terminated for refusing to work more than 72 hours in a work week. These ceilings, combined with a competitive job market, often motivate American workers to work more hours. American workers on average take the fewest days off of any developed country. The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution limit the power of the federal and state governments to discriminate. The private sector is not directly constrained by the Constitution, but several laws, particularly the Civil Rights Act of 1964, limit the private sector discrimination against certain groups. The Fifth Amendment has an explicit requirement that the Federal Government not deprive individuals of "life, liberty, or property", without due process of law and an implicit guarantee that each person receive equal protection of the law. The Fourteenth Amendment explicitly prohibits states from violating an individual's rights of due process and equal protection. Equal protection limits the State and Federal governments' power to discriminate in their employment practices by treating employees, former employees, or job applicants unequally because of membership in a group, like a race, religion or sex. Due process protection requires that employees have a fair procedural process before they are terminated if the termination is related to a "liberty", like the right to free speech, or a property interest. The National Labor Relations Act, enacted in 1935 as part of the New Deal legislation, guarantees workers the right to form unions and engage in collective bargaining. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 prohibits employment discrimination based on age with respect to employees 40 years of age or older. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act is the principal federal statute with regard to employment discrimination, prohibiting unlawful employment discrimination by public and private employers, labour organizations, training programmes and employment agencies based on race or colour, religion, sex and national origin. Retaliation is also prohibited by Title VII against any person for opposing any practice forbidden by statute, or for making a charge, testifying, assisting, or participating in a proceeding under the statute. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 expanded the damages available to Title VII cases and granted Title VII plaintiffs the right to jury trial. Halakhah (Jewish religious law) The beginnings of halakhic labour law are in the Bible, in which two commandments refer to this subject: the law against delayed wages (Lev. 19:13; Deut. 24:14–15) and the worker's right to eat the employer's crops (Deut. 23:25–26). The Talmudic law—in which labour law is called "laws of worker hiring"—elaborates on many more aspects of employment relations, mainly in Tractate Baba Metzi'a. In some issues the Talamud, following the Tosefta, refers the parties to the customary law: "All is as the custom of the region ". Modern halakhic labour law developed very slowly. Rabbi Israel Meir Hacohen (the Hafetz Hayim) interprets the worker's right for timely payment in a tendency that clearly favours the employee over the employer, but does not refer to new questions of employment relations. Only in the 1920s we find the first halakhic authority to tackle the questions of trade unions (that could easily be anchored in Talmudic law) and the right of strike (which is quite problematic in terms of Talmudic law). Rabbis A.I Kook and B.M.H. Uziel tend to corporatist settling of labour conflicts, while Rabbi Moshe Feinstein adopts the liberal democratic collective bargaining model. Since the 1940s the halakhic literature on labour law was enriched by books and articles that referred to growing range of questions and basically adopted the liberal democratic approach. See also Organized labour portal Decent work Distributism Economic democracy Employee benefits Employment contract Family economics Family wage Industrial relations Job guarantee Journal of Individual Employment Rights Labour inspectorate Labour market flexibility Labour movement Legal working age Living wage Labor market Labor rights Maximum wage Minimum wage Occupational burnout Occupational safety and health Occupational licensing Protective laws (on gender) Positive rights Precarious work Profit sharing Right-to-work law Ship's articles Trade Boards Act 1909 Union organizer Vicarious liability Weekends WorkChoices Working poor Workplace Fairness Notes ^ For example, an employee's refusal to violate law or an employee's assertion of rights. ^ In the US, under the National Labor Relations Act, a worker has no right to organize where he is considered a manager, see NLRB v. Kentucky River Community Care, 532 U.S. 706 (2001) ^ Two further general working time conventions are the Forty-Hour Week Convention (No. 51) and the Holidays with Pay Convention (No. 52). For general information, see Ewing, Keith (1994). Britain and the ILO (2nd ed.). London: Institute of Employment Rights. p. 16. ISBN 9781873271339. ^ There are 189 Conventions, however some have been superseded by others. For instance, Conventions No. 2, 34, 96, and 181 all concern private employment agencies, but only Convention 181 is in force. ^ e.g. European Union–South Korea Free Trade Agreement (14 May 2011) OJ 2011 L127, Article 13. ^ See also Lawson v Serco Ltd (2006 UKHL 3) and Duncombe v Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families (2011 UKSC 36) References ^ Powell, Marvin A. (1995). "Metrology and Mathematics in Ancient Mesopotamia". In Sasson, Jack M. (ed.). Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. Vol. III. New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 1955. 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Further reading Stephen F. Befort and John W. Budd, Invisible Hands, Invisible Objectives: Bringing Workplace Law and Public Policy Into Focus (2009) Stanford University Press Blanpain, R. (ed.). The International Encyclopaedia for Labour Law and Industrial Relations. Archived from the original on June 9, 2014. Retrieved June 26, 2014. E McGaughey, A Casebook on Labour Law (Hart 2019 Archived 2021-02-19 at the Wayback Machine) E McGaughey, 'Behavioural Economics and Labour Law' (2014) LSE Legal Studies Working Paper No. 20/2014 Archived 2020-08-02 at the Wayback Machine Keith Ewing, Aileen McColgan and Hugh Collins, Labour Law, Cases, Texts and Materials (2005) Hart Publishing S Deakin, C Barnard, Z Adams and S Fraser-Butlin, Labour Law (2021) Hart Publishing ISBN 978-1-84113-560-1 Keshawn Walker and Arn Morell, "Labor and Employment: Workplace Warzone", Georgetown University Thesis (2005) P. L. Malik's Industrial Law (Covering Labour Law in India) (2 Volumes with Free CD-ROM) (2015 ed.). Eastern Book Company. pp. 1–3656. ISBN 9789351451808. Labour Laws – A Primer (2011 ed.). Eastern Book Company. 2011. pp. 1–224. ISBN 9789350281437. External links Look up labour law in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. "Labor Legislation" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. vteEmploymentClassifications Academic tenure Casual Contingent work Full-time job Gig worker Job sharing Part-time job Self-employment Side job Skilled worker Journeyman Technician Independent contractor Labour hire Temporary work Laborer Wage labour Hiring Application Background check Business networking Cover letter Curriculum vitae Drug testing Employment contract Employment counsellor Executive search list Induction programme Job fair Job fraud Job hunting Job interview Letter of recommendation Onboarding Overqualification Person–environment fit Personality–job fit theory Personality hire Probation Recruitment Résumé Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates Underemployment Work-at-home scheme Roles Cooperative Employee Employer Internship Job Labour hire Permanent employment Supervisor Volunteering Working class Blue-collar Green-collar Grey-collar Pink-collar Precariat White-collar Red-collar New-collar No-collar Orange-collar Scarlet-collar Black-collar Gold-collar Career and training Apprenticeship Artisan Master craftsman Avocation Career assessment Career counseling Career development Coaching Creative class Education Continuing education E-learning Employability Further education Graduate school Induction training Knowledge worker Licensure Lifelong learning Overspecialization Practice-based professional learning Professional association Professional certification Professional development Professional school Reflective practice Retraining Vocational education Vocational school Vocational university Mentorship Occupational Outlook Handbook Practice firm Profession Operator Professional Tradesman Vocation Attendance Break Career break Furlough Gap year Leave of absence Long service leave No call, no show Sabbatical Sick leave Time clock Schedules 35-hour workweek Four-day week Eight-hour day 996 working hour system Flextime On-call Overtime Remote work Retroactive overtime Six-hour day Shift work Working time Workweek and weekend Wages and salaries Income bracket Income tax Living wage Maximum wage National average salary World Europe Minimum wage Canada Hong Kong Europe United States Progressive wage Singapore Overtime rate Paid time off Performance-related pay Salary cap Wage compression Working poor Benefits Annual leave Casual Friday Child care Disability insurance Health insurance Life insurance Marriage leave Parental leave Pension Sick leave Take-home vehicle Safety and health Crunch Epilepsy and employment Human factors and ergonomics Karoshi List of countries by rate of fatal workplace accidents Occupational burnout Occupational disease Occupational exposure limit Occupational health psychology Occupational injury Occupational noise Occupational stress Personal protective equipment Repetitive strain injury Right to sit Sick building syndrome Work accident Occupational fatality Workers' compensation Workplace health promotion Workplace phobia Workplace wellness Equal opportunity Affirmative action Equal pay for equal work Gender pay gap Glass ceiling Infractions Corporate collapses and scandals Accounting scandals Control fraud Corporate behaviour Corporate crime Discrimination Exploitation of labour Dress code Employee handbook Employee monitoring Evaluation Labour law Sexual harassment Sleeping while on duty Wage theft Whistleblower Workplace bullying Workplace harassment Workplace incivility Willingness Boreout Careerism Civil conscription Conscription Critique of work Dead-end job Job satisfaction McJob Organizational commitment Refusal of work Slavery Bonded labour Human trafficking Labour camp Penal labour Peonage Truck wages Unfree labour Wage slavery Work ethic Work–life interface Downshifting Slow living Workaholic Termination At-will employment Dismissal Banishment room Constructive dismissal Wrongful dismissal Employee offboarding Exit interview Layoff Notice period Pink slip Resignation Letter of resignation Restructuring Retirement Mandatory retirement Retirement age Retirement planning Severance package Golden handshake Golden parachute Turnover Unemployment Barriers to entry Discouraged worker Economic depression Great Depression Long Depression Frictional unemployment Full employment Graduate unemployment Involuntary unemployment Jobless recovery Phillips curve Recession Great Recession Job losses caused by the Great Recession Lists of recessions Recession-proof job Reserve army of labour Structural unemployment Technological unemployment Types of unemployment Unemployment benefits Unemployment Convention, 1919 Unemployment extension List of countries by unemployment rate Employment rates Employment-to-population ratio Wage curve Youth unemployment Public programs Workfare Unemployment insurance Make-work job Job creation program Job creation index Job guarantee Employer of last resort Guaranteed minimum income Right to work Historical: U.S.A: Civil Works Administration Works Progress Administration Comprehensive Employment and Training Act See also Bullshit job Busy work Credentialism and educational inflation Emotional labor Evil corporation Going postal Kiss up kick down Labor rights Make-work job Narcissism in the workplace Post-work society Presenteeism Psychopathy in the workplace Sunday scaries Slow movement (culture) Toxic leader Toxic workplace Workhouse See also templates Aspects of corporations Aspects of jobs Aspects of occupations Aspects of organizations Aspects of workplaces Corporate titles Organized labor vteLawCore subjects Administrative law Civil law Constitutional law Contract Criminal law Crime Deed Equity Evidence International law Law of obligations Private law Procedure Civil Criminal Property law Public law Restitution and unjust enrichment Statutory law Tort Disciplines Abortion law Agricultural law Aviation law Amnesty law Banking law Bankruptcy Commercial law Competition law Conflict of laws Construction law Consumer protection Corporate law Cyberlaw Drugs law Election law Energy 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Bureaucracy The bar The bench Civil society Court Court of equity Election commission Executive Judiciary Law enforcement Legal education Law school Legislature Military Police Political party Tribunal History History of the legal profession History of the American legal profession Law portal Category Index Outline vteOrganized labour Labour history Labour rights Labour movement Trade union (public sector) FormationStructure Labour council Union organizer National trade union centre Global union federation Unionization Union representative Clerk of the chapel Father of the chapel Local union Union dues Vigilance committee Union label Salt Trades hall Duty of fair representation Worker centre Models Organizing model Service model Social movement unionism Community unionism Members-only unionism One Big Union Open-source unionism Business unionism Dual unionism Solidarity unionism Syndicalism Types Company union Independent union General union Craft unionism Industrial unionism Police union IndustrialrelationsShops and hiring Closed shop Open shop Agency shop Union shop Hiring hall Bump Scope clause Union co-op model Actions Bossnapping Contingent work Diversity training Gherao Grievance Labour revolt Occupation of factories Precarious work Precarity Picketing Salting Slowdown Stay-away Strike notice Organizational dissent Industrial action Unfair list Work-to-rule Strike actions Hartal General strike Bandh newspapers Green bans Overtime bans Pen-down strikes Recognition Sitdown strike Solidarity actions Walkout Whipsaw Wildcat strikes Bargaining Bargaining unit Collaborative bargaining Collective bargaining Enterprise bargaining agreement Global Framework Agreement Master contract Mutual gains bargaining Pattern bargaining Union security agreement Compensation Strike pay Union wage premium Workers' compensation Reactions Labour spies in the United States Union busting Givebacks Churn and burn Paper local Anti-union violence United States Union violence Demarcation dispute Strikebreaking Goon squads Featherbedding Union raids Other topics 35-hour workweek Eight-hour day Six-hour day Four-day workweek Conflict theories Critique of work Decent work Diversity, equity, and inclusion Equal pay for equal work Exploitation of labour Forced labour Hunger strikes International comparisons of labour unions Job strain Labour code Labour law Minimum wage Maximum wage Prison strikes Professional abuse Protection Occupational safety and health Occupational stress Overwork Social support Wage slavery Workload vteInsuranceTypes of insuranceHealth Accident Accidental death and dismemberment Dental Disability Total permanent disability Business overhead expense Income protection Long-term care National health Payment protection Life Longevity insurance Mortgage life Term life Unitised fund Universal life Variable universal life Whole life Business Bond Business interruption Business owner Collateral protection Directors and officers liability Fidelity Over-redemption Payment protection Pollution Professional liability Protection and indemnity Surety Trade credit Umbrella Residential Boiler Builder's risk Contents Earthquake Flood Home Landlords' Lenders mortgage Mortgage Property Renters' Title Transport/Communication Aviation GAP insurance Inland marine Public auto Marine Satellite Shipping Travel Vehicle Other Reinsurance Catastrophe bond Insurance-linked securities Casualty Climate risk Crime Crop Catastrophic Multi-peril Cyber Deposit Expatriate Extended warranty Group Index-based Interest rate Kidnap and ransom Legal expenses Liability No-fault Pet Political risk Prize indemnity Takaful Terrorism Tuition War risk Weather Workers' compensation Insurance policy and law Act of God Actuarial science Actuary Adverse selection Risk Risk assessment Risk management Uncertainty/Knightian Value of life Actual cash value Cash value Broker Cancellation Pro rata Short rate table Claim Claims adjuster Deductible Co-insurance Copayment Out-of-pocket expense Explanation of benefits Force majeure General average Indemnity Insurability Insurable interest Insurance fraud Proximate cause Replacement value Risk pool Self-insurance Total loss Underinsurance Underwriting Profit Insurance by country Australia China India Pakistan Serbia United Kingdom United States Climate change Health insurance Health insurance costs Health insurance coverage Vehicle insurance History Mesopotamian banker Code of Hammurabi §100–105; §126; §234; §235–238; §240; §275–277 Collegium Burial society Guild Corpus Juris Civilis Digesta Syndicate Benefit/Friendly society Cooperative Cooperative banking Credit union Fraternal order Mutual organization Mutual savings bank Rochdale Principles Savings and loan association Social insurance Trade union Insurance cycle Category List of topics Authority control databases National Spain France BnF data Germany Israel United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland 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standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_units_of_measurement"},{"link_name":"length","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Length"},{"link_name":"area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area"},{"link_name":"volume","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume"},{"link_name":"weight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight"},{"link_name":"time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time"},{"link_name":"artisan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artisan"},{"link_name":"guilds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild"},{"link_name":"Naram-Sin of Akkad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Akkad"},{"link_name":"shekels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shekel"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Powell_1995,_p.1955-1"},{"link_name":"Code of Hammurabi Law 234","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi#Laws"},{"link_name":"prevailing wage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevailing_wage"},{"link_name":"gur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_units_of_measurement#Capacity_or_volume"},{"link_name":"bushel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushel"},{"link_name":"vessel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merchant_vessel"},{"link_name":"employment contract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment_contract"},{"link_name":"shipbuilder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipbuilding"},{"link_name":"ship-owner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship-owner"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sommer_1903_p._85-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harper_1904_p._85-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-King_1910-4"},{"link_name":"ferry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferry"},{"link_name":"rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price"},{"link_name":"gerah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerah"},{"link_name":"charterparty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charterparty"},{"link_name":"ship charterer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartering_(shipping)"},{"link_name":"shipmaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_captain"},{"link_name":"freight rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freight_rate"},{"link_name":"contract of affreightment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affreightment"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sommer_1903_p._88-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harper_1904_p._95-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-King_1910-4"},{"link_name":"Minya, Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minya,_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Eyalet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt_Eyalet"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Nerva–Antonine dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerva%E2%80%93Antonine_dynasty"},{"link_name":"tablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_tablet"},{"link_name":"Temple of Antinous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antinous#Deification_and_the_cult_of_Antinous"},{"link_name":"Antinoöpolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antino%C3%B6polis"},{"link_name":"Aegyptus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Egypt"},{"link_name":"prescribed the rules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articles_of_association"},{"link_name":"membership dues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benefit_society"},{"link_name":"burial society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burial_society"},{"link_name":"collegium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collegium_(ancient_Rome)"},{"link_name":"Lanuvium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanuvium"},{"link_name":"Italia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Italy"},{"link_name":"Hadrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrian"},{"link_name":"Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"ancient Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome"},{"link_name":"acted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporation"},{"link_name":"legal entity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_person"},{"link_name":"Lex Julia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lex_Julia"},{"link_name":"Julius Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar"},{"link_name":"Consul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_consul"},{"link_name":"Dictator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_dictator"},{"link_name":"Roman Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"Caesar Augustus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus"},{"link_name":"Princeps senatus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps_senatus"},{"link_name":"Imperator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator"},{"link_name":"Roman Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Roman_army"},{"link_name":"Roman Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Senate"},{"link_name":"Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_emperor"},{"link_name":"authorized as legal bodies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-de_Ligt_2001-8"},{"link_name":"Lambaesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambaesis"},{"link_name":"Roman Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_navy"},{"link_name":"mariners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailor"},{"link_name":"Septimius Severus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severus"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"artificial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dredging"},{"link_name":"harbour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbour"},{"link_name":"Portus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portus"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"shipyard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipyard"},{"link_name":"Trajan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"La Ostia port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostia_Antica"},{"link_name":"guildhall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guildhall"},{"link_name":"merchant mariners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merchant_navy"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"fraternities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraternity"},{"link_name":"Roman priests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome"},{"link_name":"ritual sacrifices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome#Sacrifice"},{"link_name":"augury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augury"},{"link_name":"scriptures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_text"},{"link_name":"festivals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_festivals"},{"link_name":"religious cults","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_cult_of_ancient_Rome"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Industrial Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution"},{"link_name":"labour union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_union"},{"link_name":"social reformers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_reform"},{"link_name":"Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_7th_Earl_of_Shaftesbury"}],"text":"Following the unification of the city-states in Assyria and Sumer by Sargon of Akkad into a single empire ruled from his home city circa 2334 BC, common Mesopotamian standards for length, area, volume, weight, and time used by artisan guilds in each city was promulgated by Naram-Sin of Akkad (c. 2254–2218 BC), Sargon's grandson, including for shekels.[1] Code of Hammurabi Law 234 (c. 1755–1750 BC) stipulated a 2-shekel prevailing wage for each 60-gur (300-bushel) vessel constructed in an employment contract between a shipbuilder and a ship-owner.[2][3][4]Law 275 stipulated a ferry rate of 3-gerah per day on a charterparty between a ship charterer and a shipmaster. Law 276 stipulated a 21⁄2-gerah per day freight rate on a contract of affreightment between a charterer and shipmaster, while Law 277 stipulated a 1⁄6-shekel per day freight rate for a 60-gur vessel.[5][6][4]In 1816, an archeological excavation in Minya, Egypt (under an Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire) produced a Nerva–Antonine dynasty-era tablet from the ruins of the Temple of Antinous in Antinoöpolis, Aegyptus that prescribed the rules and membership dues of a burial society collegium established in Lanuvium, Italia in approximately 133 AD during the reign of Hadrian (117–138) of the Roman Empire.[7]A collegium was any association in ancient Rome that acted as a legal entity. Following the passage of the Lex Julia during the reign of Julius Caesar as Consul and Dictator of the Roman Republic (49–44 BC), and their reaffirmation during the reign of Caesar Augustus as Princeps senatus and Imperator of the Roman Army (27 BC–14 AD), collegia required the approval of the Roman Senate or the Emperor in order to be authorized as legal bodies.[8] Ruins at Lambaesis date the formation of burial societies among Roman Army soldiers and Roman Navy mariners to the reign of Septimius Severus (193–211) in 198 AD.[9]In September 2011, archeological investigations done at the site of the artificial harbour Portus in Rome revealed inscriptions in a shipyard constructed during the reign of Trajan (98–117) indicating the existence of a shipbuilders guild.[10] Rome's La Ostia port was home to a guildhall for a corpus naviculariorum, a collegium of merchant mariners.[11] Collegium also included fraternities of Roman priests overseeing ritual sacrifices, practicing augury, keeping scriptures, arranging festivals, and maintaining specific religious cults.[12]Labour law arose in parallel with the Industrial Revolution as the relationship between worker and employer changed from small-scale production studios to large-scale factories. Workers sought better conditions and the right to join a labour union, while employers sought a more predictable, flexible and less costly workforce. The state of labour law at any one time is therefore both the product of and a component of struggles between various social forces.As England was the first country to industrialize, it was also the first to face the often appalling consequences of the industrial revolution in a less regulated economic framework. Over the course of the late 18th and early to the mid-19th century the foundation for modern labour law was slowly laid, as some of the more egregious aspects of working conditions were steadily ameliorated through legislation. This was largely achieved through the concerted pressure from social reformers, notably Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, and others.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cotton mills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_mills"},{"link_name":"Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester"},{"link_name":"Thomas Percival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Percival"},{"link_name":"justices of the peace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace"},{"link_name":"Lancashire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancashire"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Health and Morals of Apprentices Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_and_Morals_of_Apprentices_Act_1802"},{"link_name":"Cotton Mills and Factories Act 1819","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Mills_and_Factories_Act_1819"},{"link_name":"Robert Owen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Owen"},{"link_name":"child labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_labour"},{"link_name":"Factories Act 1833","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factories_Act_1833"},{"link_name":"Michael Sadler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Thomas_Sadler"},{"link_name":"Earl of Shaftesbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_7th_Earl_of_Shaftesbury"},{"link_name":"Anglican Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Church"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Factory Act 1847","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_Act_1847"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Child labour","text":"A serious outbreak of fever in 1784 in cotton mills near Manchester drew widespread public opinion against the use of children in dangerous conditions. A local inquiry presided over by Dr Thomas Percival, was instituted by the justices of the peace for Lancashire, and the resulting report recommended the limitation of children's working hours.[13] In 1802, the first major piece of labour legislation was passed − the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act. This was the first, albeit modest, step towards the protection of labour. The act limited working hours to twelve a day and abolished night work. It required the provision of a basic level of education for all apprentices, as well as adequate sleeping accommodation and clothing.The rapid industrialisation of manufacturing at the turn of the 19th century led to a rapid increase in child employment, and public opinion was steadily made aware of the terrible conditions these children were forced to endure. The Cotton Mills and Factories Act 1819 was the outcome of the efforts of the industrialist Robert Owen and prohibited child labour under nine years of age and limited the working hours to twelve. A great milestone in labour law was reached with the Factories Act 1833, which limited the employment of children under eighteen years of age, prohibited all night work, and, crucially, provided for inspectors to enforce the law. Pivotal in the campaigning for and the securing of this legislation were Michael Sadler and the Earl of Shaftesbury. This act was an important step forward, in that it mandated skilled inspection of workplaces and rigorous enforcement of the law by an independent governmental body.A lengthy campaign to limit the working day to ten hours was led by Shaftesbury and included support from the Anglican Church.[14] Many committees were formed in support of the cause and some previously established groups lent their support as well.[15] The campaign finally led to the passage of the Factory Act 1847, which restricted the working hours of women and children in British factories to effectively 10 hours per day.[16]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"working conditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_conditions"}],"sub_title":"Working conditions","text":"These early efforts were principally aimed at limiting child labour. From the mid-19th century, attention was first paid to the plight of working conditions for the workforce in general. In 1850, systematic reporting of fatal accidents was made compulsory, and basic safeguards for health, life and limb in the mines were put in place from 1855. Further regulations, relating to ventilation, fencing of disused shafts, signalling standards, and proper gauges and valves for steam-boilers and related machinery were also set down.A series of further Acts, in 1860 and 1872 extended the legal provisions and strengthened safety provisions. The steady development of the coal industry, an increasing association among miners, and increased scientific knowledge paved the way for the Coal Mines Act of 1872, which extended the legislation to similar industries. The same Act included the first comprehensive code of regulation to govern legal safeguards for health, life and limb. The presence of more certified and competent management and increased levels of inspection were also provided for.By the end of the century, a comprehensive set of regulations was in place in England that affected all industries. A similar system (with certain national differences) was implemented in other industrializing countries in the latter part of the 19th century and the early 20th century..","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Individual labour law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"contract of employment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract_of_employment"},{"link_name":"feudalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalism"},{"link_name":"legislation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislation"},{"link_name":"common law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_law"},{"link_name":"state laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_law_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"employment to be \"at-will\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/At-will_employment"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"essentialia negotii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialia_negotii"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"compensation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compensation_and_benefits"},{"link_name":"holiday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_leave"},{"link_name":"illness rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sick_leave"},{"link_name":"event of dismissal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termination_of_employment"},{"link_name":"job description","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_description"},{"link_name":"dismiss them for illegal reasons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrongful_dismissal"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Diamond v. Diehr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_v._Diehr"},{"link_name":"US Supreme Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Supreme_Court"}],"sub_title":"Employment terms","text":"The basic feature of labour law in almost every country is that the rights and obligations of the worker and the employer are mediated through a contract of employment between the two. This has been the case since the collapse of feudalism. Many contract terms and conditions are covered by legislation or common law. In the US for example, the majority of state laws allow for employment to be \"at-will\", meaning the employer can terminate an employee from a position for any reason so long as the reason is not explicitly prohibited,[a] and, conversely, an employee may quit at any time, for any reason (or for no reason), and is not required to give notice.A major issue for any business is to understand the relationship between the worker and the master. There are two types of workers, independent contractors and employees.[17] They are differentiated based on the level of control the master has on them. Workers provided tools and resources, closely supervised, paid regularly, etc., are considered employees of the company. Employees must act in the best interest of the employer.One example of employment terms in many countries[18] is the duty to provide written particulars of employment with the essentialia negotii (Latin for \"essential terms\") to an employee. This aims to allow the employee to know concretely what to expect and what is expected. It covers items including compensation, holiday and illness rights, notice in the event of dismissal and job description.The contract is subject to various legal provisions. An employer may not legally offer a contract that pays the worker less than a minimum wage. An employee may not agree to a contract that allows an employer to dismiss them for illegal reasons.[b]Intellectual property is the vital asset[19] of the business, employees add value to the company[20] by creating Intellectual Property. As per Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), Intellectual Property is personal property.[21] Intellectual property is used as competitive advantage[22] by big companies to protect themselves from rivalry. Given the conditions,[23] if the worker is in the agent-principal relationship, he is the employee of the company, and if the employee's invention is in the scope of employment i.e. if the employee creates a new product or process to increase the productivity and create organizations' wealth by utilizing the resources of the company, then the Intellectual property solely belongs to the company. New business products or processes are protected under Patents.[24]There are differing opinions on what constitutes a patentable invention. One area of disagreement is with respect to software inventions, but there have been court cases that have established some precedents. For example, in the case Diamond v. Diehr the US Supreme Court decided that Diehr is patent- eligible because they improved the existing technological process, not because they were implemented on a computer.","title":"Individual labour law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"supply and demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_and_demand"},{"link_name":"free market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_market"},{"link_name":"price floor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_floor"},{"link_name":"minimum wage laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_wage_law"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"labour market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_economics"},{"link_name":"collective agreements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_agreements"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-portal.research.lu.se-30"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-portal.research.lu.se-30"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"United States in 1938","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dol-33"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-France-36"},{"link_name":"UK in 1998","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Minimum_Wage_Act_1998"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uk-37"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eurostat_2005-38"}],"sub_title":"Minimum wage","text":"Many jurisdictions define the minimum amount that a worker can be paid per hour. Algeria, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Greece, Hungary, India, Ireland, Japan, South Korea, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Paraguay, Portugal, Poland, Romania, Spain, Taiwan, the UK, the US, Vietnam, Germany (in 2015[25]) and others have laws of this kind.[26] The minimum wage is set usually higher than the lowest wage as determined by the forces of supply and demand in a free market and therefore acts as a price floor. Each country sets its own minimum wage laws and regulations, and while a majority of industrialized countries has a minimum wage, many developing countries do not.Minimum wages are regulated and stipulated in some countries that lack explicit laws. The US is regulated by the Fair Labor Standards Act[27] and has explicit laws, whereas other countries such as Sweden might lack explicit laws. In Sweden minimum wages are negotiated between the labour market parties (unions and employer organizations) through collective agreements that also cover non-union workers at workplaces with collective agreements.[28][29]At workplaces without collective agreements there exist no minimum wages. Non-organized employers can sign substitute agreements directly with trade unions but far from all do. The Swedish case illustrates that in countries without statutory regulation part of the labour market may not have regulated minimum wages, as self-regulation only applies to workplaces and employees covered by collective agreements (in Sweden about 90 per cent of employees).[28][30]National minimum wage laws were first introduced in the United States in 1938,[31] Brazil in 1940[32] India in 1948,[33] France in 1950[34] and in the UK in 1998.[35] In the European Union, 18 out of 28 member states have national minimum wages as of 2011.[36]","title":"Individual labour law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"Living wage","text":"The living wage is higher than the minimum wage and is designed so that a full-time worker should be able to support themselves and a small family at that wage.[37]","title":"Individual labour law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eight-hour day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight-hour_day"},{"link_name":"industrialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrialism"},{"link_name":"eight-hour movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight-hour_day"},{"link_name":"Factory Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_Act"},{"link_name":"Otto von Bismarck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party of Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany"},{"link_name":"Reichstag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichstag_(German_Empire)"},{"link_name":"paternalistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paternalistic"},{"link_name":"social security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_security"},{"link_name":"Third Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic"},{"link_name":"Waldeck-Rousseau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldeck-Rousseau"},{"link_name":"trade unions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_unions"},{"link_name":"Matignon Accords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matignon_Accords_(1936)"},{"link_name":"Popular Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Front_(France)"},{"link_name":"paid vacations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_leave"}],"sub_title":"Hours","text":"See also: Eight-hour dayThe maximum number of hours worked per day or other time intervals are set by law in many countries. Such laws also control whether workers who work longer hours must be paid additional compensation.Before the Industrial Revolution, the workday varied between 11 and 14 hours. With the growth of industrialism and the introduction of machinery, longer hours became far more common, reaching as high as 16 hours per day. The eight-hour movement led to the first law on the length of a working day, passed in 1833 in England. It limited miners to 12 hours and children to 8 hours. The 10-hour day was established in 1848, and shorter hours with the same pay were gradually accepted thereafter. The 1802 Factory Act was the first labour law in the UK.Germany was the next European country to pass labour laws. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's main goal was to undermine the Social Democratic Party of Germany. In 1878, Bismarck instituted a variety of anti-socialist measures, but despite this, socialists continued gaining seats in the Reichstag. To appease the working class, he enacted a variety of paternalistic social reforms, which became the first type of social security.In 1883, the Health Insurance Act was passed, which entitled workers to health insurance. The worker paid two-thirds and the employer one-third of the premiums. Accident insurance was provided in 1884, while old-age pensions and disability insurance followed in 1889. Other laws restricted the employment of women and children. These efforts, however, were not entirely successful; the working class largely remained unreconciled with Bismarck's conservative government.In France, the first labour law was voted in 1841. It limited under-age miners' hours. In the Third Republic labour law was first effectively enforced, in particular after Waldeck-Rousseau 1884 law legalising trade unions. With the Matignon Accords, the Popular Front (1936–38) enacted the laws mandating 12 days each year of paid vacations for workers and the law limiting the standard workweek to 40 hours.","title":"Individual labour law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"factory law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_Acts#Health_and_Morals_of_Apprentices_Act_1802"},{"link_name":"child labourers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_labour"},{"link_name":"textile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile"}],"sub_title":"Health and safety","text":"Other labour laws involve safety concerning workers. The earliest English factory law was passed in 1802 and dealt with the safety and health of child labourers in textile mills.","title":"Individual labour law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"discrimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination"},{"link_name":"racial discrimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_discrimination"},{"link_name":"gender discrimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexism"}],"sub_title":"Discrimination","text":"Such laws prohibit discrimination against employees, in particular racial discrimination or gender discrimination.","title":"Individual labour law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Convention no. 158","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termination_of_Employment_Convention,_1982"},{"link_name":"International Labour Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Labour_Organization"},{"link_name":"First Employment Contract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Employment_Contract"},{"link_name":"Longjumeau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longjumeau"},{"link_name":"Essonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essonne"},{"link_name":"New Employment Contract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Employment_Contract"},{"link_name":"international law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_law"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reuters-40"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"sub_title":"Dismissal","text":"Convention no. 158 of the International Labour Organization states that an employee \"can't be fired without any legitimate motive\" and \"before offering him the possibility to defend himself\". Thus, on April 28, 2006, after the unofficial repeal of the French First Employment Contract, the Longjumeau (Essonne) conseil des prud'hommes (labour law court) judged the New Employment Contract contrary to international law and therefore \"illegitimate\" and \"without any juridical value\". The court considered that the two-years period of \"fire at will\" (without any legal motive) was \"unreasonable\", and contrary to convention.[38][39]","title":"Individual labour law"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abolish_child_slavery.jpg"},{"link_name":"International Workers' Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day"},{"link_name":"schooling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education"},{"link_name":"labourers'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_rights"},{"link_name":"children's rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children%27s_rights"},{"link_name":"child labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_labour"},{"link_name":"textile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"small business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_business"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Unicef-43"},{"link_name":"tourists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism"},{"link_name":"restaurants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restaurant"},{"link_name":"sweatshops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweatshop"},{"link_name":"agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture"},{"link_name":"hidden away in houses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_domestic_work"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Unicef-43"}],"sub_title":"Child labour","text":"Two girls wearing banners in Yiddish and English with the slogan \"Abolish child slavery!!\" at the 1909 International Workers' Day parade in New York CityChild labour was not seen as a problem throughout most of history, only disputed with the beginning of universal schooling and the concepts of labourers' and children's rights. Use of child labour was commonplace, often in factories. In England and Scotland in 1788, about two-thirds of persons working in water-powered textile factories were children.[40] Child labour can be factory work, mining or quarrying, agriculture, helping in the parents' business, operating a small business (such as selling food), or doing odd jobs.[41]Children work as guides for tourists, sometimes combined with bringing in business for shops and restaurants (where they may also work). Other children do jobs such as assembling boxes or polishing shoes. However, rather than in factories and sweatshops, most child labour in the twenty-first century occurs in the informal sector, \"selling on the street, at work in agriculture or hidden away in houses — far from the reach of official inspectors and from media scrutiny.\"[41]","title":"Individual labour law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"trade unions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_unions"}],"text":"Collective labour law concerns the relationship between employer, employee and trade unions. Trade unions (also \"labour unions\" in the US) are organizations which generally aim to promote the interests of their members. This law regulates the wages, benefits, and duties of the employees, and the dispute management between the company and the trade union. Such matters are often described in a collective labour agreement (CLA).","title":"Collective labour law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"collective bargaining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_bargaining"},{"link_name":"right to work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_work"}],"sub_title":"Trade unions","text":"Trade unions are organized groups of workers who engage in collective bargaining with employers. Some countries require unions and/or employers to follow particular procedures in pursuit of their goals. For example, some countries require that unions poll the membership to approve a strike or to approve using members' dues for political projects. Laws may govern the circumstances and procedures under which unions are formed. They may guarantee the right to join a union (banning employer discrimination), or remain silent in this respect. Some legal codes allow unions to obligate their members, such as the requirement to comply with a majority decision in a strike vote. Some restrict this, such as \"right to work\" legislation in parts of the United States.In the different organization in the different countries trade union discuses with the employee on behalf of employer. At that time trade union discussed or talk with the manpower of the organization. At that time trade union perform his roles like a bridge between the employee and employer.","title":"Collective labour law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"German company law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_company_law"},{"link_name":"Mitbestimmungsgesetz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitbestimmungsgesetz"},{"link_name":"James Callaghan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Callaghan"},{"link_name":"Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"European Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commission"}],"sub_title":"Workplace participation","text":"A legally binding right for workers as a group to participate in workplace management is acknowledged in some form in most developed countries. In a majority of EU member states (for example, Germany, Sweden, and France), the workforce has a right to elect directors on the board of large corporations. This is usually called \"codetermination\" and currently most countries allow for the election of one-third of the board, though the workforce can have the right to elect anywhere from a single director, to just under a half in Germany. However, German company law uses a split board system, in which a \"supervisory board\" appoints an \"executive board\".Under the Mitbestimmungsgesetz 1976, shareholders and employees elect the supervisory board in equal numbers, but the head of the supervisory board with a casting vote is a shareholder representative. The first statutes to introduce board-level codetermination were in Britain, however, most of these measures, except in universities, were removed in 1948 and 1979. The oldest surviving statute is found in the United States, in the Massachusetts Laws on manufacturing corporations, introduced in 1919, however, this was always voluntary.In the United Kingdom, similar proposals were drawn up, and a command paper produced named the Bullock Report (Industrial Democracy) was released in 1977 by the James Callaghan Labour Party government. Unions would have directly elected half of the board. An \"independent\" element would also be added. However, the proposal was not enacted. The European Commission offered proposals for worker participation in the \"fifth company law directive\", which was also not implemented.In Sweden, participation is regulated through the \"Law on board representation\". The law covers all private companies with 25 or more employees. In these companies, workers (usually through unions) have a right to appoint two board members and two substitutes. If the company has more than 1,000 employees, this rises to three members and three substitutes. It is common practice to allocate them among the major union coalitions.","title":"Collective labour law"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Information and consultation","text":"Workplace statutes in many countries require that employers consult their workers on various issues.","title":"Collective labour law"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Collective bargaining","title":"Collective labour law"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tyldesley_miners_outside_the_Miners_Hall_during_the_1926_General_Strike.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tyldesley, Greater Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyldesley,_Greater_Manchester"},{"link_name":"1926 United Kingdom general strike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1926_United_Kingdom_general_strike"},{"link_name":"Strike action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strike_action"},{"link_name":"wildcat strikes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildcat_strikes"},{"link_name":"Sympathy strikes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy_strike"},{"link_name":"General strikes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_strike"},{"link_name":"public order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_order"},{"link_name":"boycott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boycott"},{"link_name":"go-slow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go-slow"},{"link_name":"sabotage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabotage"},{"link_name":"work-to-rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work-to-rule"},{"link_name":"sit-in","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sit-in"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Picketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picketing_(protest)"},{"link_name":"strike breakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strikebreaker"},{"link_name":"secondary picketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picketing_(protest)"},{"link_name":"flying pickets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_picket"}],"sub_title":"Collective action","text":"Strikers gathering in Tyldesley, Greater Manchester in the 1926 United Kingdom general strikeStrike action is the worker tactic most associated with industrial disputes. In most countries, strikes are legal under a circumscribed set of conditions. Among them may be that:The strike is decided on by a prescribed democratic process (wildcat strikes are illegal).\nSympathy strikes, against a company by which workers are not directly employed, may be prohibited.\nGeneral strikes may be forbidden for example, among public safety workers, to maintain public order.A boycott is a refusal to buy, sell, or otherwise trade with an individual or business. Other tactics include go-slow, sabotage, work-to-rule, sit-in or en-masse not reporting to work.[42] Some labour law explicitly bans such activity, none explicitly allows it.Picketing is often used by workers during strikes. They may congregate near the business they are striking against to make their presence felt, increase worker participation and dissuade (or prevent) strike breakers from entering the workplace. In many countries, this activity is restricted by law, by more general law restricting demonstrations, or by injunctions on particular pickets.For example, labour law may restrict secondary picketing (picketing a business connected with the company not directly with the dispute, such as a supplier), or flying pickets (mobile strikers who travel to join a picket). Laws may prohibit obstructing others from conducting lawful business; outlaw obstructive pickets allow court orders to restrict picketing locations or behaving in particular ways (shouting abuse, for example).","title":"Collective labour law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Clist_global_labour"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Clist_global_labour"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Clist_global_labour"},{"link_name":"ILO Declaration of Fundamental Rights of 1998","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ILO_Declaration_of_Fundamental_Rights_of_1998"},{"link_name":"Singapore Ministerial Declaration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Singapore_Ministerial_Declaration&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Procurement Regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Procurement_Regulation&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Brussels I Regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels_I_Regulation"},{"link_name":"44/2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32001R0044:EN:HTML"},{"link_name":"Rome I Regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_I_Regulation"},{"link_name":"593/2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:177:0006:01:EN:HTML"},{"link_name":"Lawson v Serco Ltd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawson_v_Serco_Ltd"},{"link_name":"UKHL 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2006/3.html"},{"link_name":"Duncombe v Secretary for Children","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duncombe_v_Secretary_for_Children"},{"link_name":"UKSC 14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2011/36.html"},{"link_name":"Ravat v Halliburton Ltd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravat_v_Halliburton_Ltd"},{"link_name":"UKSC 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2012/1.html"},{"link_name":"Posted Workers Directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posted_Workers_Directive"},{"link_name":"96/71/EC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31996L0071:EN:HTML"},{"link_name":"Laval Ltd v Swedish Builders Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laval_Ltd_v_Swedish_Builders_Union"},{"link_name":"C-319/05","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:62005J0341:EN:HTML"},{"link_name":"The Rosella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rosella"},{"link_name":"C-438/05","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:62005J0438:EN:HTML"},{"link_name":"Labour law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"International Labour Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Labour_Organization"},{"link_name":"World Trade Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Organization"},{"link_name":"Private international law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_international_law"},{"link_name":"globalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization"},{"link_name":"Karl Marx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"text":"vteInternational labour casesILO Declaration of Fundamental Rights of 1998Singapore Ministerial Declaration (13 December 1996)Procurement Regulation (EC) No 732/2008 arts 7-8, 15 and 27Brussels I Regulation (EC) 44/2001, recital 13, arts 18-20Rome I Regulation (EC) 593/2008, recitals 34-5, art 8Lawson v Serco Ltd [2006] UKHL 3Duncombe v Secretary for Children [2011] UKSC 14Ravat v Halliburton Ltd [2012] UKSC 1Posted Workers Directive 96/71/EC art 3Laval Ltd v Swedish Builders Union (2008) C-319/05The Rosella (2008) C-438/05see Labour lawSee also: International Labour Organization, World Trade Organization, and Private international lawThe labour movement has long been concerned that economic globalization would weaken worker bargaining power, as their employers could hire workers abroad to avoid domestic labour standards. Karl Marx said:The extension of the principle of free trade, which induces between nations such a competition that the interest of the workman is liable to be lost sight of and sacrificed in the fierce international race between capitalists, demands that such organizations [unions] should be still further extended and made international.[43]The International Labour Organization and the World Trade Organization have been a primary focus among international bodies for regulating labour markets. Conflicts arise when people work in more than one country. EU law has a growing body of workplace rules.","title":"International labour law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Versailles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles"},{"link_name":"International Labour Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Labour_Organization"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, 1919","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hours_of_Work_(Industry)_Convention,_1919"},{"link_name":"Working Time Directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_Time_Directive"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Declaration of Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_Philadelphia"},{"link_name":"Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_on_Fundamental_Principles_and_Rights_at_Work"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"87","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_Association_and_Protection_of_the_Right_to_Organise_Convention"},{"link_name":"98","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_Organise_and_Collective_Bargaining_Convention"},{"link_name":"29","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_Labour_Convention"},{"link_name":"105","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abolition_of_Forced_Labour_Convention"},{"link_name":"138","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_Age_Convention,_1973"},{"link_name":"182","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worst_Forms_of_Child_Labour_Convention"},{"link_name":"100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal_Remuneration_Convention"},{"link_name":"111","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_(Employment_and_Occupation)_Convention"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_Trade_Organization_(logo_and_wordmark).svg"},{"link_name":"international organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_organizations"},{"link_name":"WTO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WTO"},{"link_name":"International Labour Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Labour_Organization"},{"link_name":"labour standards in the World Trade Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_standards_in_the_World_Trade_Organization"},{"link_name":"General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Agreement_on_Tariffs_and_Trade"},{"link_name":"customs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customs"},{"link_name":"tariffs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariff"},{"link_name":"dispute settlement procedures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispute_settlement_in_the_World_Trade_Organization"},{"link_name":"trade sanctions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_sanctions"},{"link_name":"social clause","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_clause"},{"link_name":"human rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights"},{"link_name":"comparative advantage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_advantage"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"sub_title":"International Labour Organization","text":"Following World War I, the Treaty of Versailles contained the first constitution of a new International Labour Organization (ILO) founded on the principle that \"labour is not a commodity\", and for the reason that \"peace can be established only if it is based upon social justice\".[44] ILO's primary role has been to coordinate international labour law by issuing Conventions. ILO members can voluntarily adopt and ratify the Conventions. For instance, the first Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, 1919 required a maximum of a 48-hour week, and has been ratified by 52 out of 185 member states. The UK ultimately refused to ratify the Convention, as did many current EU members, although the Working Time Directive adopts its principles, subject to individual opt-out.[c] ILO's constitution comes from the 1944 Declaration of Philadelphia and under the 1998 Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work classified eight conventions[d] as core.These require freedom to join a union, bargain collectively and take action (Conventions No. 87 and 98), abolition of forced labour (29 and 105), abolition of labour by children before the end of compulsory school (138 and 182), and no discrimination at work (No. 100 and 111). Member compliance with the core Conventions is obligatory, even if the country has not ratified the Convention in question. To ensure compliance, the ILO is limited to gathering evidence and reporting on member states' progress, relying on publicity to create pressure to reform. Global reports on core standards are produced yearly, while individual reports on countries who have ratified other Conventions are compiled on a bi-annual or less frequent basis.As one of the only international organizations with real enforcement power through trade sanctions, the WTO has been the target for calls by labour lawyers to incorporate global standards of the International Labour Organization.Because the ILO's enforcement mechanisms are weak, incorporating labour standards in the World Trade Organization's (WTO) operation has been proposed. WTO oversees, primarily, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade treaty aimed at reducing customs, tariffs and other barriers to import and export of goods, services and capital between its 157 member countries. Unlike for the ILO, contravening WTO rules as recognized by the dispute settlement procedures opens a country to retaliation through trade sanctions. This could include reinstatement of targeted tariffs against the offender.Proponents have called for a \"social clause\" to be inserted into the GATT agreements, for example, by amending Article XX, which provides an exception that allows imposition of sanctions for breaches of human rights. An explicit reference to core labour standards could allow comparable action where a WTO member state breaches ILO standards. Opponents argue that such an approach could undermine labour rights, because industries, and therefore workforces could be harmed with no guarantee of reform. Furthermore, it was argued in the 1996 Singapore Ministerial Declaration 1996 that \"the comparative advantage of countries, particularly low-age developing countries, must in no way be put into question.\"[45]Some countries want to take advantage of low wages and fewer rules as a comparative advantage to boost their economies. Another contested point is whether business moves production from high wage to low wage countries, given potential differences in worker productivity.[46] Since GATT, most trade agreements have been bilateral. Some of these protect core labour standards.[citation needed][e] Moreover, in domestic tariff regulations, some countries give preference to countries that respect core labour rights, for example under the EC Tariff Preference Regulation, articles 7 and 8.[47]","title":"International labour law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Conflicts of laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_laws"},{"link_name":"private international law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_international_law"},{"link_name":"UK labour law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_labour_law"},{"link_name":"Ravat v Halliburton Manufacturing and Services Ltd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravat_v_Halliburton_Manufacturing_and_Services_Ltd"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Halliburton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halliburton"},{"link_name":"Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt"},{"link_name":"Employment Rights Act 1996","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment_Rights_Act_1996"},{"link_name":"[f]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Rome I Regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_I_Regulation"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Brussels I Regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels_I_Regulation"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"}],"sub_title":"Work in multiple countries","text":"Conflicts of laws (or private international law) issues arise where workers work in multiple jurisdictions. If a US worker performs part of her job in Brazil, China and Denmark (a \"peripatetic\" worker) an employer may seek to characterize the employment contract as governed by the law of the country where labour rights are least favourable to the worker, or seek to argue that the most favourable system of labour rights does not apply. For example, in a UK labour law case, Ravat v Halliburton Manufacturing and Services Ltd[48] Ravat was from the UK but was employed in Libya by a German company that was part of Halliburton. He was dismissed by a supervisor based in Egypt. He was told he would be hired under UK law terms and conditions, and this was arranged by a staffing department in Aberdeen. Under the UK Employment Rights Act 1996 he would have a right to claim unfair dismissal, but the Act left open the question of the statute's territorial scope. The UK Supreme Court held that the principle would be that an expatriate worker, would be subject to UK rules if the worker could show a \"close connection\" to the UK, which was found in Rabat's case.[f]This fits within the general framework in the EU. Under EU Rome I Regulation article 8,[49] workers have employment rights of the country where they habitually work. They may have a claim in another country if they can establish a close connection to it. The Regulation emphasises that the rules should be applied with the purpose of protecting the worker.[50]It is also necessary that a court has jurisdiction to hear a claim. Under the Brussels I Regulation article 19,[51] this requires the worker habitually works in the place where the claim is brought or is engaged there.","title":"International labour law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Functioning_of_the_European_Union"},{"link_name":"Working Time Directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_Time_Directive"},{"link_name":"Equality Framework Directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equality_Framework_Directive"},{"link_name":"Collective Redundancies Directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_Redundancies_Directive"},{"link_name":"European Court of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice"},{"link_name":"case law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_law"},{"link_name":"multinational corporations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_corporations"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"Laval Ltd v Swedish Builders Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laval_Ltd_v_Swedish_Builders_Union"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Posted Workers Directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posted_Workers_Directive"},{"link_name":"European Court of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice"},{"link_name":"TFEU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TFEU"},{"link_name":"Rome I Regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_I_Regulation"},{"link_name":"The Rosella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rosella"},{"link_name":"International Transport Workers Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Transport_Workers_Federation"},{"link_name":"Estonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia"},{"link_name":"flag of convenience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_convenience"},{"link_name":"TFEU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TFEU"}],"sub_title":"EU law","text":"The European Union has extensive labour laws that officially exclude, according to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, matters around direct wage regulation (e.g. setting a minimum wage), the fairness of dismissals and collective bargaining. A series of Directives regulate almost all other issues, for instance the Working Time Directive guarantees 28 days of paid holiday, the Equality Framework Directive prohibits all forms of discrimination and the Collective Redundancies Directive requires that proper notice is given and consultation takes place on decisions about economic dismissals.The European Court of Justice has recently extended the Treaties provisions via case law. Trade unions have sought to organize across borders in the same way that multinational corporations have organized production globally. Unions have sought to take collective action and strikes internationally. This coordination was challenged in the European Union in two controversial decisions. In Laval Ltd v Swedish Builders Union[52] a group of Latvian workers were sent to a construction site in Sweden. The local union took industrial action to make Laval Ltd sign up to the local collective bargaining agreement.Under the Posted Workers Directive, article 3 lays down minimum standards for foreign workers so that workers receive at least the minimum rights that they would have in their home country in case their place of work has lower minimum rights. Article 3(7) says that this \"shall not prevent application of terms and conditions of employment which are more favourable to workers\". Most people thought this meant that more favourable conditions could be given than the minimum (e.g., in Latvian law) by the host state's legislation or a collective agreement.The European Court of Justice (ECJ) said that only the local state could raise standards beyond its minimum for foreign workers. Any attempt by the host state, or a collective agreement (unless the collective agreement is declared universal under article 3(8)) would infringe the business' freedom under TFEU article 56. This decision was implicitly reversed by the European Union legislature in the Rome I Regulation, which makes clear in recital 34 that the host state may allow more favourable standards.In The Rosella, the ECJ held that a blockade by the International Transport Workers Federation against a business that was using an Estonian flag of convenience (i.e., saying it was operating under Estonian law to avoid labour standards of Finland) infringed the business' right of free establishment under TFEU article 49. The ECJ said that it recognized the workers' \"right to strike\" in accordance with ILO Convention 87, but said that its use must be proportionately to the right of the business' establishment.","title":"International labour law"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Human rights in Angola § Employees' rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_Angola#Employees'_rights"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_Angola&action=edit"},{"link_name":"unions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_unions_in_Angola"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Human_rights_in_Angola_state.gov-59"}],"sub_title":"Angola","text":"This section is an excerpt from Human rights in Angola § Employees' rights.[edit]\nWorkers may join unions. All non-government workers may strike, though there are strict rules governing this. The ruling party is traditionally tied to labor, and some unions are government-run. Collective bargaining is technically permitted but is subject in practice to restrictions. Forced labor is illegal, but occurs, with many men and boys being trafficked into Angola for forced labor in construction and other sectors. Children under 14 are not allowed to work, but many children work on family farms, as street vendors, and in homes. Some children are forced to work as prostitutes, in the drug transport or sales, and as international couriers. There are many street children who beg, perform such jobs as shoeshining and carwashing, commit small crimes, or are sexually exploited. There is a low minimum wage, with most people relying on multiple jobs to earn a living. Most workers are employed in agricultural jobs or other sectors in which there is little or no government control of working conditions. There are laws that regulate working conditions but they are not well enforced even in the formal sector. Workers' rights are routinely violated with impunity. The occupational health and safety standards are poorly enforced, as are rulings on labor violations.[53]","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fair Work Act of 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_Work_Act_2009"},{"link_name":"Fair Work Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_Work_Commission"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"}],"sub_title":"Australia","text":"The Fair Work Act of 2009 provides the regulations governing Australian workplaces and employers. Australia has a minimum wage and workplace conditions overseen by the Fair Work Commission.[54]","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Human rights in Benin § Employees' rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_Benin#Employees'_rights"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_Benin&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Human_rights_in_Benin_2010_Human_Rights_Report:_Benin-61"}],"sub_title":"Benin","text":"This section is an excerpt from Human rights in Benin § Employees' rights.[edit]\nWorkers are allowed to unionize and to strike, although they are required to provide three days' notice of strikes and the government can prohibit them for a variety of reasons. Workers, except for those in merchant shipping, are also entitled to bargain collectively. There is a National Consultation and Collective Bargaining Commission that takes part in such negotiations. Forced labor is illegal, although it exists in a number of sectors, with children often involved. Children under 12 may not work at any job; those between 12 and 14 may do light work or hold domestic jobs. But these restrictions are not fully enforced, and in reality children as young as seven work in farms, businesses, construction, markets, and other settings, with some being indentured to \"agents\" and put to work in other countries.\n\nOwing to a shortage of inspectors, the labor code is enforced poorly and only in the so-called formal sector. There is a minimum wage but it is very low, and there are various restrictions on working hours and the like but these are generally only enforced in the \"formal sector\". Health and safety standards are not enforced effectively either.[55]","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Human rights in Belgium § Employees' rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_Belgium#Employees'_rights"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_Belgium&action=edit"},{"link_name":"trafficked to Belgium for prostitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Belgium"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Human_rights_in_Belgium_United_States_Department_of_State-62"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Human_rights_in_Belgium_United_States_Department_of_State-62"}],"sub_title":"Belgium","text":"This section is an excerpt from Human rights in Belgium § Employees' rights.[edit]\nBelgian law guarantees workers the right to unionize and bargain collectively, and all workers except those in the military have the right to strike. Although compulsory labor is illegal, individuals from Eastern Europe, sub-Saharan Africa, and Asia are trafficked to Belgium for prostitution and other kinds of forced labor.[56] A United Nations human-rights report that was issued in 2010 proposed that Belgium provide more assistance to victims of human trafficking and that it change its laws to ensure that residency permits are issued to such persons whether or not they choose to cooperate with court authorities.[57] \nChildren under 15 are not permitted to work in Belgium; those between 15 and 18 are allowed to do part-time work and to work full-time during school vacations; waivers can be granted for children working in, for example, entertainment. In larger cities some children are exploited by organized gangs of beggars.\n\nThere is a minimum wage; the work day is eight hours, and the work week is 38 hours. These and other rules regulating work hours, safety, and other issues are enforced by the Employment and Labor Relations Federal Public Service.[56]","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eatons_Factory_Interior.jpg"},{"link_name":"Brad Wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_Wall"},{"link_name":"MLA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_Saskatchewan"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"}],"sub_title":"Canada","text":"The interior of one of the Eaton's factories in Toronto, CanadaIn Canadian law, \"labour law\" refers to matters connected with unionized workplaces, while \"employment law\" deals with non-unionized employees.In 2017, Premier Brad Wall announced that Saskatchewan's government is to cut 3.5 per cent from its workers and officers' wages in 2018. This salary cut includes MLA ministers and the Premier's office staff along with all people employed by the government. Unpaid days off will also be implemented as well as limiting overtime to assist the wage cut.[58][59]","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Labour Law of the People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Labour Contract Law of the People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Contract_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Labour Law of People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Law_of_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Labour Contract Law of the People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Contract_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"National People's Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress"},{"link_name":"Supreme People's Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_People%27s_Court"},{"link_name":"All China Federation of Trade Unions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_China_Federation_of_Trade_Unions"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"}],"sub_title":"China","text":"Further information: Labour Law of the People's Republic of China and Labour Contract Law of the People's Republic of ChinaIn China the basic labour laws are the Labour Law of People's Republic of China (1994) and the Labour Contract Law of the People's Republic of China (adopted at the 10th National People's Congress, effective 2008). The administrative regulations enacted by the State Council, the ministerial rules and the judicial explanations of the Supreme People's Court stipulate detailed rules concerning various aspects of employment. The government-controlled All China Federation of Trade Unions is the sole legal labour union. Strikes are formally legal, but in practice are discouraged.\n[60]","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Czech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_language"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"}],"sub_title":"Czech Republic","text":"In Czech Republic, the relevant regulation is called the Labour Code (Czech: Zákoník práce). The new labour code of the Czech Republic No.262/2006 Sb. effective from 1 January 2007, superseded the Code of 65/1965.[61][62]","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Waldeck Rousseau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldeck_Rousseau"},{"link_name":"Popular Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Front_(France)"},{"link_name":"vacation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_leave"},{"link_name":"law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matignon_Accords_(1936)"},{"link_name":"Grenelle accords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accords_de_Grenelle"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Lionel Jospin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel_Jospin"},{"link_name":"35-hour workweek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/35-hour_workweek"},{"link_name":"Dominique de Villepin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_de_Villepin"},{"link_name":"New Employment Contract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Employment_Contract"},{"link_name":"flexibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_market_flexibility"},{"link_name":"contingent work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contingent_work"},{"link_name":"First Employment Contract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Employment_Contract"},{"link_name":"students and unions' protests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_labour_protests_in_France"},{"link_name":"Jacques Chirac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Chirac"}],"sub_title":"France","text":"In France, the first labour laws were Waldeck Rousseau's laws passed in 1884. Between 1936 and 1938 the Popular Front enacted a law mandating 12 days (2 weeks) each year of paid vacation for workers, and a law limited the work week to 40 hours, excluding overtime. The Grenelle accords negotiated on May 25 and 26th in the middle of the May 1968 crisis, reduced the working week to 44 hours and created trade union sections in each enterprise.[63] The minimum wage was increased by 25%.[64]In 2000, Lionel Jospin's government enacted the 35-hour workweek, reduced from 39 hours. Five years later, conservative prime minister Dominique de Villepin enacted the New Employment Contract (CNE). Addressing the demands of employers asking for more flexibility in French labour laws, the CNE sparked criticism from trade unions and opponents claiming it favoured contingent work. In 2006, he then attempted to pass the First Employment Contract (CPE) through a vote by emergency procedure, but that was met by students and unions' protests. President Jacques Chirac finally had no choice but to repeal it.","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"}],"sub_title":"Poland","text":"In Poland, the main act on the Labour Law is the Polish Labour Code from 1974.[65] Since its introduction into the legal system the act is constantly being adapted and updated to the current reality of the labour market in Poland. The basic form of employment in Poland is an employment contract, which can be concluded for a probation period, a definite period of time or an indefinite period of time. The Polish Labour Code provides regulations on employee benefits, annual leave, termination of the employment contract, discrimination in the workplace, disciplinary liability and many other employment-related issues.[66] Polish employment contracts can be terminated in many ways, e.g. in a disciplinary mode, by a termination with a notice period or by a mutual agreement of both parts.","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sharma-73"},{"link_name":"Uttam Nakate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttam_Nakate"},{"link_name":"Bombay High Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombay_High_Court"},{"link_name":"Supreme Court of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India"},{"link_name":"World Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Bank"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wboverview-74"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wboverview-74"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"https://labour.gov.in/labour-reforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//labour.gov.in/labour-reforms"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210621014605/https://labour.gov.in/labour-reforms"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"}],"sub_title":"India","text":"Over fifty national and many more state-level laws govern work in India. So for instance, a permanent worker can be terminated only for proven misconduct or habitual absence.[67] In the Uttam Nakate case, the Bombay High Court held that dismissing an employee for repeated sleeping on the factory floor was illegal – the decision was overturned by the Supreme Court of India two decades later. In 2008, the World Bank criticized the complexity, lack of modernization and flexibility in Indian regulations.In the Constitution of India from 1950, articles 14–16, 19(1)(c), 23–24, 38, and 41-43A directly concern labour rights. Article 14 states everyone should be equal before the law, article 15 specifically says the state should not discriminate against citizens, and article 16 extends a right of \"equality of opportunity\" for employment or appointment under the state. Article 19(1)(c) gives everyone a specific right \"to form associations or unions\". Article 23 prohibits all trafficking and forced labour, while article 24 prohibits child labour under 14 years old in a factory, mine or \"any other hazardous employment\".Articles 38–39, and 41-43A, like all rights listed in Part IV of the Constitution are not enforceable by courts, rather than creating an aspirational \"duty of the State to apply these principles in making laws\".[3] The original justification for leaving such principles unenforceable by the courts was that democratically accountable institutions ought to be left with discretion, given the demands they could create on the state for funding from general taxation, although such views have since become controversial. Article 38(1) says that in general the state should \"strive to promote the welfare of the people\" with a \"social order in which justice, social, economic and political, shall inform all the institutions of national life.[68]Article 38(2) says the state should \"minimise the inequalities in income\" and based on all other statuses. Article 41 creates a \"right to work\", which the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 attempts to put into practice. Article 42 requires the state to \"make provision for securing just and human conditions of work and for maternity relief\". Article 43 says workers should have the right to a living wage and \"conditions of work ensuring a decent standard of life\". Article 43A, inserted by the Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India in 1976,[4] creates a constitutional right to codetermination by requiring the state to legislate to \"secure the participation of workers in the management of undertakings\".[68] The recently released New Labour Codes 2022 mentions that organizations can convert 9-hour shifts to 12-hour shifts and provide three days of leave every week. The 4-day workweek policy will be effective from 1 July 2022.[69]Also read: Labour Reforms by Government of India Ministry of Labour & Employment (https://labour.gov.in/labour-reforms Archived 2021-06-21 at the Wayback Machine)","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"}],"sub_title":"Indonesia","text":"Indonesia essentially rebuilt its labour law system in the early 2000s following regime change and with support of the ILO.[70] These three statutes constituted a new legislative framework for industrial relations:[71]1. Law No. 21 of 2000 on Trade Unions, which allowed free unionization; and2. Law No. 13 of 2003 on Manpower, which legislated other minimum labour rights; and3. Law No. 2 of 2004 on Industrial Relations Disputes Settlement, established a new industrial relations dispute resolution system.","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International Labour Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Labour_Organization"},{"link_name":"freedom of association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_association"},{"link_name":"collective bargaining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_bargaining"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"}],"sub_title":"Iran","text":"Iran has not ratified the two basic Conventions of the International Labour Organization on freedom of association and collective bargaining and one abolishing child labour.[72]","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Israel","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Japan","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lithuanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_language"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lt-labour-code-2001-79"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lt-labour-code-2001-79"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lt-labour-code-2001-79"},{"link_name":"flexibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_market_flexibility"},{"link_name":"protection for employees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment_protection_legislation"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"}],"sub_title":"Lithuania","text":"Lithuania began the work of rewriting the employment laws in 1996 and the Labour Code (Lithuanian: Darbo Kodeksas) bill was completed in 2001.[73] It was heavily inspired by the Hungarian, Czech as well Polish laws and incorporated the vast majority of the European Union regulations.[73] The new labour code was formally enacted in 2002.[73] Another major reform of the labour code was implemented in 2016, bringing more flexibility, yet balancing it with protection for employees.[74] The Labour Code 2016 formally entered force on 1 July 2017.","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Confederation of Mexican Workers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation_of_Mexican_Workers"},{"link_name":"Institutional Revolutionary Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutional_Revolutionary_Party"}],"sub_title":"Mexico","text":"Mexican labour law reflects the historic interrelation between the state and the Confederation of Mexican Workers. The confederation is officially aligned with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (the Institutional Revolutionary Party, or PRI). While the law promises workers the right to strike and to organize, in practice it is difficult or impossible for independent unions to organize.","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"notice period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notice_period"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"}],"sub_title":"Singapore","text":"Singapore has a \"minimum legal obligation\" rule which applies to employment contracts and in other fields of contracting, and limits damages payments for breach of contract. The rule applies in wrongful dismissal cases: generally, its effect would be to limit an employee's damages to the minimum notice period under which the employer could properly have dismissed the employee.[75] Various \"general principles\" have been identified which apply to the summary dismissal of employees on grounds of misconduct.[76]","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Department of Employment and Labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Employment_and_Labour"},{"link_name":"Constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_South_Africa"},{"link_name":"Labour Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Court_of_South_Africa"},{"link_name":"Labour Appeal Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Appeal_Court_of_South_Africa"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"Skills Development Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skills_Development_Act,_1998"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"}],"sub_title":"South Africa","text":"South African labour law is regulated by the Department of Employment and Labour and is based on the Labour Relations Act (LRA) 66 of 1995, which regulates the relationship between and rights of employers, employees and trade unions. The LRA also gives effect to Section 23 of the Constitution. The LRA lays out the procedures for dispute resolution via the Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration (CCMA) and establishes the Labour Court and Labour Appeal Court as superior courts with exclusive jurisdiction to decide matters arising from the Act.[77]The Labour Relations Act also regulates the issue of fairness, not only in termination but during employment. In 1998, most of the laws on unfair labour practices were removed from the Labour Relations Act and placed into the newly formed Employment Equity Act (EEA). The EEA also deals with issues such as fairness regarding a worker's human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) status or disability, as well as the issue of affirmative action.Prior to 1995, an employee could be dismissed in terms of the contract of employment, which could permit any reason for dismissal. Since 1995, an employee may be dismissed only for misconduct, operational reasons and incapacity, given that procedural fairness is maintained. The Labour Relations Act 1995 is a pivotal piece of legislation, as it recognises the need for fast and easy access to justice in labour disputes. The Industrial Court had the status of a High Court, and therefore was not accessible to all labourers.The Basic Conditions of Employment Act (BCEA), the Health and Safety Act and the Skills Development Act, must be read with the EEA. The Skills Development Act provides that a small percentage of a labourer's salary must be contributed to the Department of Labour, enabling certain workshops to be run which are designed to develop skills.[78][79][80]","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Swedish labour movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_labour_movement"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-portal.research.lu.se-30"},{"link_name":"Employment Protection act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment_Protection_Act_(of_Sweden)"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"}],"sub_title":"Sweden","text":"See also: Swedish labour movementIn Sweden many workplace issues such as working hours, minimum wage and right to overtime compensation are regulated through collective bargaining agreements in accordance with the Swedish model of self-regulation, i.e. regulation by the labour market parties themselves in contrast to state regulation (labour laws).[81][28] A notable exception is the Employment Protection act which regulates employment contracts and extensive employees' rights to employment under certain conditions.[82]","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"employment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment"},{"link_name":"federal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_government"},{"link_name":"cantonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantonal"},{"link_name":"Federal Constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Federal_Constitution"},{"link_name":"Code of Obligations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_Obligations"},{"link_name":"Labour Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Code"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"}],"sub_title":"Switzerland","text":"The labour law of Switzerland covers all standards governing the employment of some kind. The regulation of the employment by private employers is largely harmonized at the federal level, while public-sector employment still prevails a variety of cantonal laws. In particular, the civil standardization is distributed to a variety of laws. Of greater importance, particularly the new Federal Constitution of 1999, the Code of Obligations, the Labour Code as well as in the public sector, the Federal Personnel Act.[83]","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Factory Acts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_Act"},{"link_name":"Master and Servant Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_and_Servant_Act"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lockton-91"},{"link_name":"Equal Pay Act 1970","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal_Pay_Act_1970"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"}],"sub_title":"United Kingdom","text":"The Factory Acts (first one in 1802, then 1833) and the 1823 Master and Servant Act were the first laws regulating labour relations in the United Kingdom. Most employment law before 1960 was based upon contract law. Since then there has been a significant expansion primarily due to movements for equality[84] and the legal requirements imposed by the UK's former membership of the European Union.[85] UK employment law comes from Acts of Parliament, secondary legislation (made by a Secretary of State under an Act of Parliament), case law (developed by various courts), and retained Community law following the UK's departure from the EU.The first significant expansion was the Equal Pay Act 1970, brought in to try to ensure pay equality for women in the workplace. Since 1997, changes in UK employment law include enhanced maternity and paternity rights,[86] the introduction of a National Minimum Wage[87] and the Working Time Regulations,[88] which covers working time, rest breaks and the right to paid annual leave. Discrimination law has been tightened, with protection from discrimination now available on the grounds of age, religion or belief and sexual orientation as well as gender, race and disability.","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PalmercarpenterA.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fair Labor Standards Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act"},{"link_name":"green card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Permanent_Resident_Card"},{"link_name":"work permit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_permit"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"United States Constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Constitution"},{"link_name":"federal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state"},{"link_name":"discriminate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discriminate"},{"link_name":"Civil Rights Act of 1964","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964"},{"link_name":"Fifth Amendment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-us-amendments-99"},{"link_name":"Fourteenth Amendment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-us-amendments-99"},{"link_name":"due process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Due_process"},{"link_name":"equal protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal_protection"},{"link_name":"discriminate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discriminate"},{"link_name":"Due process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Due_process"},{"link_name":"free speech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_speech"},{"link_name":"National Labor Relations Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act"},{"link_name":"New Deal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal"},{"link_name":"Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_Discrimination_in_Employment_Act_of_1967"},{"link_name":"employment discrimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment_discrimination"},{"link_name":"labour organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_union"},{"link_name":"Civil Rights Act of 1991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1991"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finduslaw.com-100"}],"sub_title":"United States","text":"An American builderThe Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 set the maximum standard work week to 44 hours. In 1950 this was reduced to 40 hours. A green card entitles immigrants to work, without requirement a separate work permit. Despite the 40-hour standard maximum work week,[89] some lines of work require more than 40 hours. For example, farm workers may work over 72 hours a week, followed by at least 24 hours off.[90] Exceptions to the break period exist for certain harvesting employees, such as those involved in harvesting grapes, tree fruits and cotton.Professionals, clerical (administrative assistants), technical, and mechanical employees cannot be terminated for refusing to work more than 72 hours in a work week.[91]\nThese ceilings, combined with a competitive job market, often motivate American workers to work more hours. American workers on average take the fewest days off of any developed country.[92]The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution limit the power of the federal and state governments to discriminate. The private sector is not directly constrained by the Constitution, but several laws, particularly the Civil Rights Act of 1964, limit the private sector discrimination against certain groups. The Fifth Amendment[93] has an explicit requirement that the Federal Government not deprive individuals of \"life, liberty, or property\", without due process of law and an implicit guarantee that each person receive equal protection of the law.The Fourteenth Amendment[93] explicitly prohibits states from violating an individual's rights of due process and equal protection. Equal protection limits the State and Federal governments' power to discriminate in their employment practices by treating employees, former employees, or job applicants unequally because of membership in a group, like a race, religion or sex. Due process protection requires that employees have a fair procedural process before they are terminated if the termination is related to a \"liberty\", like the right to free speech, or a property interest.The National Labor Relations Act, enacted in 1935 as part of the New Deal legislation, guarantees workers the right to form unions and engage in collective bargaining.The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 prohibits employment discrimination based on age with respect to employees 40 years of age or older.Title VII of the Civil Rights Act is the principal federal statute with regard to employment discrimination, prohibiting unlawful employment discrimination by public and private employers, labour organizations, training programmes and employment agencies based on race or colour, religion, sex and national origin. Retaliation is also prohibited by Title VII against any person for opposing any practice forbidden by statute, or for making a charge, testifying, assisting, or participating in a proceeding under the statute. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 expanded the damages available to Title VII cases and granted Title VII plaintiffs the right to jury trial.[94]","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"halakhic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halakha"},{"link_name":"A.I Kook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Isaac_Kook"},{"link_name":"B.M.H. Uziel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben-Zion_Meir_Hai_Uziel"},{"link_name":"corporatist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporatism"},{"link_name":"conflicts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_(process)"},{"link_name":"Moshe Feinstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshe_Feinstein"},{"link_name":"collective bargaining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_bargaining"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Halakhah (Jewish religious law)","text":"The beginnings of halakhic labour law are in the Bible, in which two commandments refer to this subject: the law against delayed wages (Lev. 19:13; Deut. 24:14–15) and the worker's right to eat the employer's crops (Deut. 23:25–26). The Talmudic law—in which labour law is called \"laws of worker hiring\"—elaborates on many more aspects of employment relations, mainly in Tractate Baba Metzi'a. In some issues the Talamud, following the Tosefta, refers the parties to the customary law: \"All is as the custom of the region [postulates]\".Modern halakhic labour law developed very slowly. Rabbi Israel Meir Hacohen (the Hafetz Hayim) interprets the worker's right for timely payment in a tendency that clearly favours the employee over the employer, but does not refer to new questions of employment relations. Only in the 1920s we find the first halakhic authority to tackle the questions of trade unions (that could easily be anchored in Talmudic law) and the right of strike (which is quite problematic in terms of Talmudic law).Rabbis A.I Kook and B.M.H. Uziel tend to corporatist settling of labour conflicts, while Rabbi Moshe Feinstein adopts the liberal democratic collective bargaining model. Since the 1940s the halakhic literature on labour law was enriched by books and articles that referred to growing range of questions and basically adopted the liberal democratic approach.[citation needed]","title":"National labour laws"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"National Labor Relations Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act"},{"link_name":"532 U.S. 706","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.lawmemo.com/nlrb/kyrivercases.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-47"},{"link_name":"Forty-Hour Week Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forty-Hour_Week_Convention,_1935"},{"link_name":"Holidays with Pay Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holidays_with_Pay_Convention,_1936"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781873271339","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781873271339"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-48"},{"link_name":"private employment agencies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_employment_agencies"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-51"},{"link_name":"European Union–South Korea Free Trade Agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union%E2%80%93South_Korea_Free_Trade_Agreement"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-54"},{"link_name":"Lawson v Serco Ltd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawson_v_Serco_Ltd"},{"link_name":"2006 UKHL 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2006/3.html"},{"link_name":"Duncombe v Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duncombe_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Children,_Schools_and_Families"},{"link_name":"2011 UKSC 36","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2011/36.html"}],"text":"^ For example, an employee's refusal to violate law or an employee's assertion of rights.\n\n^ In the US, under the National Labor Relations Act, a worker has no right to organize where he is considered a manager, see NLRB v. Kentucky River Community Care, 532 U.S. 706 (2001)\n\n^ Two further general working time conventions are the Forty-Hour Week Convention (No. 51) and the Holidays with Pay Convention (No. 52). For general information, see Ewing, Keith (1994). Britain and the ILO (2nd ed.). London: Institute of Employment Rights. p. 16. ISBN 9781873271339. \n\n^ There are 189 Conventions, however some have been superseded by others. For instance, Conventions No. 2, 34, 96, and 181 all concern private employment agencies, but only Convention 181 is in force.\n\n^ e.g. European Union–South Korea Free Trade Agreement (14 May 2011) OJ 2011 L127, Article 13. \n\n^ See also Lawson v Serco Ltd (2006 UKHL 3) and Duncombe v Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families (2011 UKSC 36)","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The International Encyclopaedia for Labour Law and Industrial Relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140609130515/http://www.peacepalacelibrary.nl/research-guides/special-topics/international-labour-law/"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.peacepalacelibrary.nl/research-guides/special-topics/international-labour-law/"},{"link_name":"Hart 2019","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.bloomsburyprofessional.com/uk/a-casebook-on-labour-law-9781849469319/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210219200959/https://www.bloomsburyprofessional.com/uk/a-casebook-on-labour-law-9781849469319/"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"LSE Legal Studies Working Paper No. 20/2014","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2460685"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20200802225547/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2460685"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-84113-560-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84113-560-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9789351451808","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789351451808"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9789350281437","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789350281437"}],"text":"Stephen F. Befort and John W. Budd, Invisible Hands, Invisible Objectives: Bringing Workplace Law and Public Policy Into Focus (2009) Stanford University Press\nBlanpain, R. (ed.). The International Encyclopaedia for Labour Law and Industrial Relations. Archived from the original on June 9, 2014. Retrieved June 26, 2014.\nE McGaughey, A Casebook on Labour Law (Hart 2019 Archived 2021-02-19 at the Wayback Machine)\nE McGaughey, 'Behavioural Economics and Labour Law' (2014) LSE Legal Studies Working Paper No. 20/2014 Archived 2020-08-02 at the Wayback Machine\nKeith Ewing, Aileen McColgan and Hugh Collins, Labour Law, Cases, Texts and Materials (2005) Hart Publishing\nS Deakin, C Barnard, Z Adams and S Fraser-Butlin, Labour Law (2021) Hart Publishing ISBN 978-1-84113-560-1\nKeshawn Walker and Arn Morell, \"Labor and Employment: Workplace Warzone\", Georgetown University Thesis (2005)\nP. L. Malik's Industrial Law (Covering Labour Law in India) (2 Volumes with Free CD-ROM) (2015 ed.). Eastern Book Company. pp. 1–3656. ISBN 9789351451808.\nLabour Laws – A Primer (2011 ed.). Eastern Book Company. 2011. pp. 1–224. ISBN 9789350281437.","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"Two girls wearing banners in Yiddish and English with the slogan \"Abolish child slavery!!\" at the 1909 International Workers' Day parade in New York City","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Abolish_child_slavery.jpg/220px-Abolish_child_slavery.jpg"},{"image_text":"Strikers gathering in Tyldesley, Greater Manchester in the 1926 United Kingdom general strike","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Tyldesley_miners_outside_the_Miners_Hall_during_the_1926_General_Strike.jpg/220px-Tyldesley_miners_outside_the_Miners_Hall_during_the_1926_General_Strike.jpg"},{"image_text":"As one of the only international organizations with real enforcement power through trade sanctions, the WTO has been the target for calls by labour lawyers to incorporate global standards of the International Labour Organization.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/World_Trade_Organization_%28logo_and_wordmark%29.svg/220px-World_Trade_Organization_%28logo_and_wordmark%29.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The interior of one of the Eaton's factories in Toronto, Canada","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Eatons_Factory_Interior.jpg/220px-Eatons_Factory_Interior.jpg"},{"image_text":"An American builder","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/PalmercarpenterA.jpg/220px-PalmercarpenterA.jpg"}]	[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syndicalism.svg"},{"title":"Organized labour portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Organized_labour"},{"title":"Decent work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decent_work"},{"title":"Distributism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributism"},{"title":"Economic democracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_democracy"},{"title":"Employee benefits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employee_benefits"},{"title":"Employment contract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment_contract"},{"title":"Family economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_economics"},{"title":"Family wage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_wage"},{"title":"Industrial relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_relations"},{"title":"Job guarantee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_guarantee"},{"title":"Journal of Individual Employment Rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Individual_Employment_Rights"},{"title":"Labour inspectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_inspectorate"},{"title":"Labour market flexibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_market_flexibility"},{"title":"Labour movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_movement"},{"title":"Legal working age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_working_age"},{"title":"Living wage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Living_wage"},{"title":"Labor market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_market"},{"title":"Labor rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_rights"},{"title":"Maximum wage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_wage"},{"title":"Minimum wage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_wage"},{"title":"Occupational burnout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_burnout"},{"title":"Occupational safety and health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health"},{"title":"Occupational licensing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_licensing"},{"title":"Protective laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protective_laws"},{"title":"Positive rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_rights"},{"title":"Precarious work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precarious_work"},{"title":"Profit sharing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profit_sharing"},{"title":"Right-to-work law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-to-work_law"},{"title":"Ship's articles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship%27s_articles"},{"title":"Trade Boards Act 1909","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_Boards_Act_1909"},{"title":"Union organizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_organizer"},{"title":"Vicarious liability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarious_liability"},{"title":"Weekends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekends"},{"title":"WorkChoices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WorkChoices"},{"title":"Working poor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_poor"},{"title":"Workplace Fairness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_Fairness"}]	[{"reference":"Ewing, Keith (1994). Britain and the ILO (2nd ed.). London: Institute of Employment Rights. p. 16. ISBN 9781873271339.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781873271339","url_text":"9781873271339"}]},{"reference":"Powell, Marvin A. (1995). \"Metrology and Mathematics in Ancient Mesopotamia\". In Sasson, Jack M. (ed.). Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. Vol. III. New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 1955. ISBN 0-684-19279-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780684192796/page/1955","url_text":"Civilizations of the Ancient Near East"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780684192796/page/1955","url_text":"1955"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-19279-9","url_text":"0-684-19279-9"}]},{"reference":"Hammurabi (1903). \"Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon\". Records of the Past. 2 (3). Translated by Sommer, Otto. Washington, DC: Records of the Past Exploration Society: 85. Retrieved June 20, 2021. 234. If a shipbuilder builds ... as a present [compensation].","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammurabi","url_text":"Hammurabi"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/cu31924060109703/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C.","url_text":"Washington, DC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Records_of_the_Past_Exploration_Society","url_text":"Records of the Past Exploration Society"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/cu31924060109703/page/n25/mode/2up","url_text":"85"}]},{"reference":"Hammurabi (1904). \"Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon\" (PDF). Liberty Fund. Translated by Harper, Robert Francis (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 83. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 13, 2021. Retrieved June 20, 2021. §234. If a boatman build ... silver as his wage.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammurabi","url_text":"Hammurabi"},{"url":"https://oll-resources.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/oll3/store/titles/1276/0762_Bk.pdf","url_text":"\"Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberty_Fund","url_text":"Liberty Fund"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago","url_text":"Chicago"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press","url_text":"University of Chicago Press"},{"url":"https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/hammurabi-the-code-of-hammurabi#lf0762_label_457","url_text":"83"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210613091052/https://oll-resources.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/oll3/store/titles/1276/0762_Bk.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hammurabi (1910). \"Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon\". Avalon Project. Translated by King, Leonard William. New Haven, CT: Yale Law School. Archived from the original on May 10, 2021. Retrieved June 20, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammurabi","url_text":"Hammurabi"},{"url":"https://avalon.law.yale.edu/ancient/hamframe.asp","url_text":"\"Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalon_Project","url_text":"Avalon Project"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Haven,_Connecticut","url_text":"New Haven, CT"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_Law_School","url_text":"Yale Law School"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210510072841/https://avalon.law.yale.edu/ancient/hamframe.asp","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hammurabi (1903). \"Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon\". Records of the Past. 2 (3). Translated by Sommer, Otto. Washington, DC: Records of the Past Exploration Society: 88. Retrieved June 20, 2021. 275. If anyone hires a ... day as rent therefor.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammurabi","url_text":"Hammurabi"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/cu31924060109703/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C.","url_text":"Washington, DC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Records_of_the_Past_Exploration_Society","url_text":"Records of the Past Exploration Society"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/cu31924060109703/page/n29/mode/2up","url_text":"88"}]},{"reference":"Hammurabi (1904). \"Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon\" (PDF). Liberty Fund. Translated by Harper, Robert Francis (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 95. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 13, 2021. Retrieved June 20, 2021. §275. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher-Order_and_Symbolic_Computation	Higher-Order and Symbolic Computation	["1 Editors","2 Abstracting and indexing","3 See also","4 External links"]	Computer science journal (1988–2013) Academic journalHigher-Order and Symbolic ComputationDisciplineComputer scienceLanguageEnglishPublication detailsFormer name(s)LISP and Symbolic ComputationPublisherSpringer Science+Business MediaStandard abbreviationsISO 4 (alt) · Bluebook (alt1 · alt2)NLM (alt) · MathSciNet (alt )ISO 4High.-Order Symb. Comput.IndexingCODEN (alt · alt2) · JSTOR (alt) · LCCN (alt)MIAR · NLM (alt) · ScopusISSN1388-3690Links Journal homepage Higher-Order and Symbolic Computation (formerly LISP and Symbolic Computation) was a computer science journal published by Springer Science+Business Media. It focuses on programming concepts and abstractions and programming language theory. The final issue appeared in 2013. Editors Former editors-in-chief of the journal have been: Richard P. Gabriel, Sun Microsystems, Inc., USA (1988 – 1991) Guy L. Steele Jr., Sun Microsystems, Inc., USA (1988 – 1991) Robert R. Kessler, University of Utah, USA (1991 – 1998) The last editors-in-chief were Olivier Danvy (Aarhus University) and Carolyn Talcott (SRI International). Abstracting and indexing The journal is abstracted and indexed in Academic OneFile, ACM Computing Reviews, ACM Digital Library, Computer Abstracts International Database, Computer Science Index, Current Abstracts, EBSCO, EI-Compendex, INSPEC, io-port.net, PASCAL, Scopus, Summon by Serial Solutions, VINITI Database RAS, and Zentralblatt MATH. See also Journal of Functional Programming Journal of Functional and Logic Programming Journal of Symbolic Computation External links Official website Journal page at Aarhus University Online access Higher-Order and Symbolic Computation at DBLP The Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_journal"},{"link_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media"},{"link_name":"programming language theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language_theory"}],"text":"Academic journalHigher-Order and Symbolic Computation (formerly LISP and Symbolic Computation) was a computer science journal published by Springer Science+Business Media. It focuses on programming concepts and abstractions and programming language theory. The final issue appeared in 2013.","title":"Higher-Order and Symbolic Computation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"editors-in-chief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Editor-in-chief"},{"link_name":"Richard P. Gabriel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_P._Gabriel"},{"link_name":"Sun Microsystems, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Microsystems,_Inc."},{"link_name":"Guy L. Steele Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_L._Steele,_Jr."},{"link_name":"Robert R. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accretion_disk	Accretion disk	["1 Manifestations","2 Accretion disk physics","2.1 α-Disk model","2.2 Magnetorotational instability","2.3 Magnetic fields and jets","3 Analytic models of sub-Eddington accretion disks (thin disks, ADAFs)","4 Analytic models of super-Eddington accretion disks (slim disks, Polish doughnuts)","5 Excretion disk","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","9 External links"]	Structure formed by diffuse material in orbital motion around a massive central body The hot accretion disc of a black hole, showing the relativistic effects imposed on light when it is emitted in regions subject to extreme gravitation. This image is the result of NASA simulations and shows a view from outside the horizon of a Schwarzschild black hole. An accretion disk is a structure (often a circumstellar disk) formed by diffuse material in orbital motion around a massive central body. The central body is most frequently a star. Friction, uneven irradiance, magnetohydrodynamic effects, and other forces induce instabilities causing orbiting material in the disk to spiral inward toward the central body. Gravitational and frictional forces compress and raise the temperature of the material, causing the emission of electromagnetic radiation. The frequency range of that radiation depends on the central object's mass. Accretion disks of young stars and protostars radiate in the infrared; those around neutron stars and black holes in the X-ray part of the spectrum. The study of oscillation modes in accretion disks is referred to as diskoseismology. Manifestations Unsolved problem in physics: Accretion disk jets: Why do the disks surrounding certain objects, such as the nuclei of active galaxies, emit jets along their polar axes? These jets are invoked by astronomers to do everything from getting rid of angular momentum in a forming star to reionizing the universe (in active galactic nuclei), but their origin is still not well understood. (more unsolved problems in physics) Accretion disks are a ubiquitous phenomenon in astrophysics; active galactic nuclei, protoplanetary disks, and gamma ray bursts all involve accretion disks. These disks very often give rise to astrophysical jets coming from the vicinity of the central object. Jets are an efficient way for the star-disk system to shed angular momentum without losing too much mass. The most spectacular accretion disks found in nature are those of active galactic nuclei and of quasars, which are thought to be massive black holes at the center of galaxies. As matter enters the accretion disc, it follows a trajectory called a tendex line, which describes an inward spiral. This is because particles rub and bounce against each other in a turbulent flow, causing frictional heating which radiates energy away, reducing the particles' angular momentum, allowing the particle to drift inward, driving the inward spiral. The loss of angular momentum manifests as a reduction in velocity; at a slower velocity, the particle must adopt a lower orbit. As the particle falls to this lower orbit, a portion of its gravitational potential energy is converted to increased velocity and the particle gains speed. Thus, the particle has lost energy even though it is now travelling faster than before; however, it has lost angular momentum. As a particle orbits closer and closer, its velocity increases; as velocity increases frictional heating increases as more and more of the particle's potential energy (relative to the black hole) is radiated away; the accretion disk of a black hole is hot enough to emit X-rays just outside the event horizon. The large luminosity of quasars is believed to be a result of gas being accreted by supermassive black holes. Elliptical accretion disks formed at tidal disruption of stars can be typical in galactic nuclei and quasars. The accretion process can convert about 10 percent to over 40 percent of the mass of an object into energy as compared to around 0.7 percent for nuclear fusion processes. In close binary systems the more massive primary component evolves faster and has already become a white dwarf, a neutron star, or a black hole, when the less massive companion reaches the giant state and exceeds its Roche lobe. A gas flow then develops from the companion star to the primary. Angular momentum conservation prevents a straight flow from one star to the other and an accretion disk forms instead. Accretion disks surrounding T Tauri stars or Herbig stars are called protoplanetary disks because they are thought to be the progenitors of planetary systems. The accreted gas in this case comes from the molecular cloud out of which the star has formed rather than a companion star. Artist's view of a star with accretion disk Animations of black hole accretionThis animation of supercomputer data takes the viewer to the inner zone of the accretion disk of a stellar-mass black hole.This video shows an artist’s impression of the dusty wind emanating from the black hole at the centre of galaxy NGC 3783. Accretion disk physics Artist's conception of a black hole drawing matter from a nearby star, forming an accretion disk In the 1940s, models were first derived from basic physical principles. In order to agree with observations, those models had to invoke a yet unknown mechanism for angular momentum redistribution. If matter is to fall inward it must lose not only gravitational energy but also lose angular momentum. Since the total angular momentum of the disk is conserved, the angular momentum loss of the mass falling into the center has to be compensated by an angular momentum gain of the mass far from the center. In other words, angular momentum should be transported outward for matter to accrete. According to the Rayleigh stability criterion, ∂ ( R 2 Ω ) ∂ R > 0 , {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial (R^{2}\Omega )}{\partial R}}>0,} where Ω {\displaystyle \Omega } represents the angular velocity of a fluid element and R {\displaystyle R} its distance to the rotation center, an accretion disk is expected to be a laminar flow. This prevents the existence of a hydrodynamic mechanism for angular momentum transport. On one hand, it was clear that viscous stresses would eventually cause the matter toward the center to heat up and radiate away some of its gravitational energy. On the other hand, viscosity itself was not enough to explain the transport of angular momentum to the exterior parts of the disk. Turbulence-enhanced viscosity was the mechanism thought to be responsible for such angular-momentum redistribution, although the origin of the turbulence itself was not well understood. The conventional α {\displaystyle \alpha } -model (discussed below) introduces an adjustable parameter α {\displaystyle \alpha } describing the effective increase of viscosity due to turbulent eddies within the disk. In 1991, with the rediscovery of the magnetorotational instability (MRI), S. A. Balbus, and J. F. Hawley established that a weakly magnetized disk accreting around a heavy, compact central object would be highly unstable, providing a direct mechanism for angular-momentum redistribution. α-Disk model Shakura and Sunyaev (1973) proposed turbulence in the gas as the source of an increased viscosity. Assuming subsonic turbulence and the disk height as an upper limit for the size of the eddies, the disk viscosity can be estimated as ν = α c s H {\displaystyle \nu =\alpha c_{\rm {s}}H} where c s {\displaystyle c_{\rm {s}}} is the sound speed, H {\displaystyle H} is the scale height of the disk, and α {\displaystyle \alpha } is a free parameter between zero (no accretion) and approximately one. In a turbulent medium ν ≈ v t u r b l t u r b {\displaystyle \nu \approx v_{\rm {turb}}l_{\rm {turb}}} , where v t u r b {\displaystyle v_{\rm {turb}}} is the velocity of turbulent cells relative to the mean gas motion, and l t u r b {\displaystyle l_{\rm {turb}}} is the size of the largest turbulent cells, which is estimated as l t u r b ≈ H = c s / Ω {\displaystyle l_{\rm {turb}}\approx H=c_{\rm {s}}/\Omega } and v t u r b ≈ c s {\displaystyle v_{\rm {turb}}\approx c_{\rm {s}}} , where Ω = ( G M ) 1 / 2 r − 3 / 2 {\displaystyle \Omega =(GM)^{1/2}r^{-3/2}} is the Keplerian orbital angular velocity, r {\displaystyle r} is the radial distance from the central object of mass M {\displaystyle M} . By using the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium, combined with conservation of angular momentum and assuming that the disk is thin, the equations of disk structure may be solved in terms of the α {\displaystyle \alpha } parameter. Many of the observables depend only weakly on α {\displaystyle \alpha } , so this theory is predictive even though it has a free parameter. Using Kramers' opacity law it is found that H = 1.7 × 10 8 α − 1 / 10 M ˙ 16 3 / 20 m 1 − 3 / 8 R 10 9 / 8 f 3 / 5 c m {\displaystyle H=1.7\times 10^{8}\alpha ^{-1/10}{\dot {M}}_{16}^{3/20}m_{1}^{-3/8}R_{10}^{9/8}f^{3/5}{\rm {cm}}} T c = 1.4 × 10 4 α − 1 / 5 M ˙ 16 3 / 10 m 1 1 / 4 R 10 − 3 / 4 f 6 / 5 K {\displaystyle T_{c}=1.4\times 10^{4}\alpha ^{-1/5}{\dot {M}}_{16}^{3/10}m_{1}^{1/4}R_{10}^{-3/4}f^{6/5}{\rm {K}}} ρ = 3.1 × 10 − 8 α − 7 / 10 M ˙ 16 11 / 20 m 1 5 / 8 R 10 − 15 / 8 f 11 / 5 g c m − 3 {\displaystyle \rho =3.1\times 10^{-8}\alpha ^{-7/10}{\dot {M}}_{16}^{11/20}m_{1}^{5/8}R_{10}^{-15/8}f^{11/5}{\rm {g\ cm}}^{-3}} where T c {\displaystyle T_{c}} and ρ {\displaystyle \rho } are the mid-plane temperature and density respectively. M ˙ 16 {\displaystyle {\dot {M}}_{16}} is the accretion rate, in units of 10 16 g s − 1 {\displaystyle 10^{16}{\rm {g\ s}}^{-1}} , m 1 {\displaystyle m_{1}} is the mass of the central accreting object in units of a solar mass, M ⨀ {\displaystyle M_{\bigodot }} , R 10 {\displaystyle R_{10}} is the radius of a point in the disk, in units of 10 10 c m {\displaystyle 10^{10}{\rm {cm}}} , and f = [ 1 − ( R ⋆ R ) 1 / 2 ] 1 / 4 {\displaystyle f=\left^{1/4}} , where R ⋆ {\displaystyle R_{\star }} is the radius where angular momentum stops being transported inward. The Shakura–Sunyaev α-disk model is both thermally and viscously unstable. An alternative model, known as the β {\displaystyle \beta } -disk, which is stable in both senses assumes that the viscosity is proportional to the gas pressure ν ∝ α p g a s {\displaystyle \nu \propto \alpha p_{\mathrm {gas} }} . In the standard Shakura–Sunyaev model, viscosity is assumed to be proportional to the total pressure p t o t = p r a d + p g a s = ρ c s 2 {\displaystyle p_{\mathrm {tot} }=p_{\mathrm {rad} }+p_{\mathrm {gas} }=\rho c_{\rm {s}}^{2}} since ν = α c s H = α c s 2 / Ω = α p t o t / ( ρ Ω ) {\displaystyle \nu =\alpha c_{\rm {s}}H=\alpha c_{s}^{2}/\Omega =\alpha p_{\mathrm {tot} }/(\rho \Omega )} . The Shakura–Sunyaev model assumes that the disk is in local thermal equilibrium, and can radiate its heat efficiently. In this case, the disk radiates away the viscous heat, cools, and becomes geometrically thin. However, this assumption may break down. In the radiatively inefficient case, the disk may "puff up" into a torus or some other three-dimensional solution like an Advection Dominated Accretion Flow (ADAF). The ADAF solutions usually require that the accretion rate is smaller than a few percent of the Eddington limit. Another extreme is the case of Saturn's rings, where the disk is so gas-poor that its angular momentum transport is dominated by solid body collisions and disk-moon gravitational interactions. The model is in agreement with recent astrophysical measurements using gravitational lensing. Magnetorotational instability Main article: Magnetorotational instability HH-30, a Herbig–Haro object surrounded by an accretion disk Balbus and Hawley (1991) proposed a mechanism which involves magnetic fields to generate the angular momentum transport. A simple system displaying this mechanism is a gas disk in the presence of a weak axial magnetic field. Two radially neighboring fluid elements will behave as two mass points connected by a massless spring, the spring tension playing the role of the magnetic tension. In a Keplerian disk the inner fluid element would be orbiting more rapidly than the outer, causing the spring to stretch. The inner fluid element is then forced by the spring to slow down, reduce correspondingly its angular momentum causing it to move to a lower orbit. The outer fluid element being pulled forward will speed up, increasing its angular momentum and move to a larger radius orbit. The spring tension will increase as the two fluid elements move further apart and the process runs away. It can be shown that in the presence of such a spring-like tension the Rayleigh stability criterion is replaced by d Ω 2 d ln ⁡ R > 0. {\displaystyle {\frac {d\Omega ^{2}}{d\ln R}}>0.} Most astrophysical disks do not meet this criterion and are therefore prone to this magnetorotational instability. The magnetic fields present in astrophysical objects (required for the instability to occur) are believed to be generated via dynamo action. Magnetic fields and jets Accretion disks are usually assumed to be threaded by the external magnetic fields present in the interstellar medium. These fields are typically weak (about few micro-Gauss), but they can get anchored to the matter in the disk, because of its high electrical conductivity, and carried inward toward the central star. This process can concentrate the magnetic flux around the centre of the disk giving rise to very strong magnetic fields. Formation of powerful astrophysical jets along the rotation axis of accretion disks requires a large scale poloidal magnetic field in the inner regions of the disk. Such magnetic fields may be advected inward from the interstellar medium or generated by a magnetic dynamo within the disk. Magnetic fields strengths at least of order 100 Gauss seem necessary for the magneto-centrifugal mechanism to launch powerful jets. There are problems, however, in carrying external magnetic flux inward toward the central star of the disk. High electric conductivity dictates that the magnetic field is frozen into the matter which is being accreted onto the central object with a slow velocity. However, the plasma is not a perfect electric conductor, so there is always some degree of dissipation. The magnetic field diffuses away faster than the rate at which it is being carried inward by accretion of matter. A simple solution is assuming a viscosity much larger than the magnetic diffusivity in the disk. However, numerical simulations and theoretical models show that the viscosity and magnetic diffusivity have almost the same order of magnitude in magneto-rotationally turbulent disks. Some other factors may possibly affect the advection/diffusion rate: reduced turbulent magnetic diffusion on the surface layers; reduction of the Shakura–Sunyaev viscosity by magnetic fields; and the generation of large scale fields by small scale MHD turbulence –a large scale dynamo. In fact, a combination of different mechanisms might be responsible for efficiently carrying the external field inward toward the central parts of the disk where the jet is launched. Magnetic buoyancy, turbulent pumping and turbulent diamagnetism exemplify such physical phenomena invoked to explain such efficient concentration of external fields. Analytic models of sub-Eddington accretion disks (thin disks, ADAFs) When the accretion rate is sub-Eddington and the opacity very high, the standard thin accretion disk is formed. It is geometrically thin in the vertical direction (has a disk-like shape), and is made of a relatively cold gas, with a negligible radiation pressure. The gas goes down on very tight spirals, resembling almost circular, almost free (Keplerian) orbits. Thin disks are relatively luminous and they have thermal electromagnetic spectra, i.e. not much different from that of a sum of black bodies. Radiative cooling is very efficient in thin disks. The classic 1974 work by Shakura and Sunyaev on thin accretion disks is one of the most often quoted papers in modern astrophysics. Thin disks were independently worked out by Lynden-Bell, Pringle, and Rees. Pringle contributed in the past thirty years many key results to accretion disk theory, and wrote the classic 1981 review that for many years was the main source of information about accretion disks, and is still very useful today. Simulation by J.A. Marck of optical appearance of Schwarzschild black hole with thin (Keplerian) disk A fully general relativistic treatment, as needed for the inner part of the disk when the central object is a black hole, has been provided by Page and Thorne, and used for producing simulated optical images by Luminet and Marck, in which, although such a system is intrinsically symmetric its image is not, because the relativistic rotation speed needed for centrifugal equilibrium in the very strong gravitational field near the black hole produces a strong Doppler redshift on the receding side (taken here to be on the right) whereas there will be a strong blueshift on the approaching side. Due to light bending, the disk appears distorted but is nowhere hidden by the black hole. When the accretion rate is sub-Eddington and the opacity very low, an ADAF (advection dominated accretion flow) is formed. This type of accretion disk was predicted in 1977 by Ichimaru. Although Ichimaru's paper was largely ignored, some elements of the ADAF model were present in the influential 1982 ion-tori paper by Rees, Phinney, Begelman, and Blandford. ADAFs started to be intensely studied by many authors only after their rediscovery in the early 1990s by Popham and Narayan in numerical models of accretion disk boundary layers. Self-similar solutions for advection-dominated accretion were found by Narayan and Yi, and independently by Abramowicz, Chen, Kato, Lasota (who coined the name ADAF), and Regev. Most important contributions to astrophysical applications of ADAFs have been made by Narayan and his collaborators. ADAFs are cooled by advection (heat captured in matter) rather than by radiation. They are very radiatively inefficient, geometrically extended, similar in shape to a sphere (or a "corona") rather than a disk, and very hot (close to the virial temperature). Because of their low efficiency, ADAFs are much less luminous than the Shakura–Sunyaev thin disks. ADAFs emit a power-law, non-thermal radiation, often with a strong Compton component. Blurring of an X-ray source (corona) near a black hole.Black hole with corona, an X-ray source (artist's concept).Blurring of X-rays near black hole (NuSTAR; 12 August 2014).Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech Analytic models of super-Eddington accretion disks (slim disks, Polish doughnuts) Unsolved problem in physics: Accretion disk QPOs: Quasi-periodic oscillations happen in many accretion disks, with their periods appearing to scale as the inverse of the mass of the central object. Why do these oscillations exist? Why are there sometimes overtones, and why do these appear at different frequency ratios in different objects? (more unsolved problems in physics) The theory of highly super-Eddington black hole accretion, M≫MEdd, was developed in the 1980s by Abramowicz, Jaroszynski, Paczyński, Sikora, and others in terms of "Polish doughnuts" (the name was coined by Rees). Polish doughnuts are low viscosity, optically thick, radiation pressure supported accretion disks cooled by advection. They are radiatively very inefficient. Polish doughnuts resemble in shape a fat torus (a doughnut) with two narrow funnels along the rotation axis. The funnels collimate the radiation into beams with highly super-Eddington luminosities. Slim disks (name coined by Kolakowska) have only moderately super-Eddington accretion rates, M≥MEdd, rather disk-like shapes, and almost thermal spectra. They are cooled by advection, and are radiatively ineffective. They were introduced by Abramowicz, Lasota, Czerny, and Szuszkiewicz in 1988. Excretion disk The opposite of an accretion disk is an excretion disk where instead of material accreting from a disk on to a central object, material is excreted from the center outward onto the disk. Excretion disks are formed when stars merge. See also Accretion Astrophysical jet Blandford–Znajek process Circumstellar disc Circumplanetary disk Dynamo theory Exoasteroid Gravitational singularity Quasi-star Reverberation mapping Ring system Solar nebula Spin-flip Notes ^ In astrophysics, diffuse material refers to interstellar or intergalactic matter that is spread out and not concentrated in a specific location. This material can include gas, dust, and other particles that are not organized into distinct structures like stars or galaxies. References ^ Nowak, Michael A.; Wagoner, Robert V. (1991). "Diskoseismology: Probing accretion disks. I - Trapped adiabatic oscillations". Astrophysical Journal. 378: 656–664. Bibcode:1991ApJ...378..656N. doi:10.1086/170465. ^ Wagoner, Robert V. (2008). "Relativistic and Newtonian diskoseismology". New Astronomy Reviews. 51 (10–12): 828–834. Bibcode:2008NewAR..51..828W. doi:10.1016/j.newar.2008.03.012. ^ Lynden-Bell, D. (1969). "Galactic Nuclei as Collapsed Old Quasars". Nature. 280 (5207): 690–694. Bibcode:1969Natur.223..690L. doi:10.1038/223690a0. S2CID 4164497. ^ Gurzadyan, V. G.; Ozernoy, L. M. (1979). "Accretion on massive black holes in galactic nuclei". Nature. 280 (5719): 214–215. Bibcode:1979Natur.280..214G. doi:10.1038/280214a0. S2CID 4306883. ^ Massi, Maria. "Accretion" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-12-02. Retrieved 2018-07-22. ^ Weizsäcker, C. F. (1948). "Die Rotation Kosmischer Gasmassen" . Zeitschrift für Naturforschung A (in German). 3 (8–11): 524–539. Bibcode:1948ZNatA...3..524W. doi:10.1515/zna-1948-8-1118. ^ a b Shakura, N. I.; Sunyaev, R. A. (1973). "Black Holes in Binary Systems. Observational Appearance". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 24: 337–355. Bibcode:1973A&A....24..337S. ^ Lynden-Bell, D.; Pringle, J. E. (1974). "The evolution of viscous discs and the origin of the nebular variables". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 168 (3): 603–637. Bibcode:1974MNRAS.168..603L. doi:10.1093/mnras/168.3.603. ^ a b Balbus, Steven A.; Hawley, John F. (1991). "A powerful local shear instability in weakly magnetized disks. I – Linear analysis". Astrophysical Journal. 376: 214–233. Bibcode:1991ApJ...376..214B. doi:10.1086/170270. ^ Landau, L. D.; Lishitz, E. M. (1959). Fluid Mechanics. Vol. 6 (Reprint 1st ed.). Pergamon Press. ISBN 978-0-08-009104-4. ^ Lightman, Alan P.; Eardley, Douglas M. (1974). "Black Holes in Binary Systems: Instability of Disk Accretion". The Astrophysical Journal. 187: L1. Bibcode:1974ApJ...187L...1L. doi:10.1086/181377. ^ Piran, T. (1978). "The role of viscosity and cooling mechanisms in the stability of accretion disks". The Astrophysical Journal. 221: 652. Bibcode:1978ApJ...221..652P. doi:10.1086/156069. ^ Poindexter, Shawn; Morgan, Nicholas; Kochanek, Christopher S. (2008). "The Spatial Structure of An Accretion Disk". The Astrophysical Journal. 673 (1): 34–38. arXiv:0707.0003. Bibcode:2008ApJ...673...34P. doi:10.1086/524190. S2CID 7699211. ^ Eigenbrod, A.; Courbin, F.; Meylan, G.; Agol, E.; Anguita, T.; Schmidt, R. W.; Wambsganss, J. (2008). "Microlensing variability in the gravitationally lensed quasar QSO 2237+0305=the Einstein Cross. II. Energy profile of the accretion disk". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 490 (3): 933–943. arXiv:0810.0011. Bibcode:2008A&A...490..933E. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200810729. S2CID 14230245. ^ Mosquera, A. M.; Muñoz, J. A.; Mediavilla, E. (2009). "Detection of chromatic microlensing in Q 2237+0305 A". The Astrophysical Journal. 691 (2): 1292–1299. arXiv:0810.1626. Bibcode:2009ApJ...691.1292M. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/691/2/1292. S2CID 15724872. ^ Floyd, David J. E.; Bate, N. F.; Webster, R. L. (2009). "The accretion disc in the quasar SDSS J0924+0219". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 398 (1): 233–239. arXiv:0905.2651. Bibcode:2009MNRAS.398..233F. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15045.x. S2CID 18381541. ^ Balbus, Steven A. (2003), "Enhanced Angular Momentum Transport in Accretion Disks", Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. (Submitted manuscript), 41 (1): 555–597, arXiv:astro-ph/0306208, Bibcode:2003ARA&A..41..555B, doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.41.081401.155207, S2CID 45836806, archived from the original on 2018-11-06, retrieved 2018-09-02 ^ Rüdiger, Günther; Hollerbach, Rainer (2004), The Magnetic Universe: Geophysical and Astrophysical Dynamo Theory, Wiley-VCH, ISBN 978-3-527-40409-4 ^ Blandford, Roger; Payne, David (1982). "Hydromagnetic flows from accretion discs and the production of radio jets". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 199 (4): 883–903. Bibcode:1982MNRAS.199..883B. doi:10.1093/mnras/199.4.883. ^ Beckwith, Kris; Hawley, John F.; Krolik, Julian H. (2009). "Transport of large-scale poloidal flux in black hole accretion". Astrophysical Journal. 707 (1): 428–445. arXiv:0906.2784. Bibcode:2009ApJ...707..428B. doi:10.1088/0004-637x/707/1/428. S2CID 18517137. ^ Park, Seok Jae; Vishniac, Ethan (1996). "The Variability of Active Galactic Nuclei and the Radial Transport of Vertical Magnetic Flux". Astrophysical Journal. 471: 158–163. arXiv:astro-ph/9602133. Bibcode:1996ApJ...471..158P. doi:10.1086/177959. S2CID 18002375. ^ Guan, Xiaoyue; Gammie, Charles F. (2009). "The turbulent magnetic Prandtl number of MHD turbulence in disks". Astrophysical Journal. 697 (2): 1901–1906. arXiv:0903.3757. Bibcode:2009ApJ...697.1901G. doi:10.1088/0004-637x/697/2/1901. S2CID 18040227. ^ Shakura, N. I.; Sunyaev, R. A (1973). "Black holes in binary systems. Observational appearance". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 24: 337–355. Bibcode:1973A&A....24..337S. ^ Jafari, Amir; Vishniac, Ethan (2018). "Magnetic field transport in accretion disks". The Astrophysical Journal. 854 (1): 2. Bibcode:2018ApJ...854....2J. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aaa75b. ^ Page, D. N.; Thorne, K. S. (1974). "Disk-Accretion onto a Black Hole. Time-Averaged Structure of Accretion Disk". Astrophys. J. 191 (2): 499–506. Bibcode:1974ApJ...191..499P. doi:10.1086/152990. ^ Luminet, J. P. (1979). "Image of a spherical black hole with thin accretion disk". Astron. Astrophys. 75 (1–2): 228–235. Bibcode:1979A&A....75..228L. ^ Marck, J. A. (1996). "Short-cut method of solution of geodesic equations for Schwarzchild black hole". Class. Quantum Grav. 13 (3): 393–. arXiv:gr-qc/9505010. Bibcode:1996CQGra..13..393M. doi:10.1088/0264-9381/13/3/007. S2CID 119508131. ^ Narayan, Ramesh; Popham, Robert (1993). "Hard X-rays from Accretion Disk Boundary Layers". Nature. 362 (6423): 820–822. Bibcode:1993Natur.362..820N. doi:10.1038/362820a0. ^ Popham, Robert; Narayan, Ramesh (1993). "Boundary Layers in Pre-Main Sequence Accretion Disks". Astrophysical Journal Letters. 415: L127–L130. Bibcode:1993ApJ...415L.127P. doi:10.1086/187049. ^ Narayan, Ramesh; Yi, Insu (1994). "Advection-dominated Accretion: A Self-Similar Solution". Astrophysical Journal Letters. 428: L13–L16. arXiv:astro-ph/9403052. Bibcode:1994ApJ...428L..13N. doi:10.1086/187381. ^ Abramowicz, Marek; Chen, Xingming; Kato, Shoji; Lasota, Jean-Pierre; Regev, Oded (1995). "Thermal Equilibria of Accretion Disks". Astrophysical Journal Letters. 438: L37–L39. arXiv:astro-ph/9409018. Bibcode:1995ApJ...438L..37A. doi:10.1086/187709. ^ a b Clavin, Whitney; Harrington, J.D. (12 August 2014). "NASA's NuSTAR Sees Rare Blurring of Black Hole Light". NASA. Archived from the original on 13 August 2014. Retrieved 12 August 2014. ^ Poindexter, Shawn; Morgan, Nicholas; Kochanek, Christopher S (2011). "A binary merger origin for inflated hot Jupiter planets". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 535: A50. arXiv:1102.3336. Bibcode:2011A&A...535A..50M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201116907. S2CID 118473108. Frank, Juhan; Andrew King; Derek Raine (2002), Accretion power in astrophysics (Third ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-62957-7 Krolik, Julian H. (1999), Active Galactic Nuclei, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01151-6 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Accretion disks. Professor John F. Hawley homepage, University of Virginia (archived 2015) The Dynamical Structure of Nonradiative Black Hole Accretion Flows, John F. Hawley and Steven A. Balbus, 2002 March 19, The Astrophysical Journal, 573:738-748, 2002 July 10 Accretion discs, Scholarpedia Merali, Zeeya (21 June 2006). "Magnetic fields snare black holes' food". New Scientist. vteStars List Formation Accretion Molecular cloud Bok globule Young stellar object Protostar Pre-main-sequence Herbig Ae/Be T Tauri Herbig–Haro object Hayashi track Henyey track Evolution Main sequence Red-giant branch Horizontal branch Red clump Asymptotic giant branch post-AGB super-AGB Blue loop Planetary nebula Protoplanetary Wolf-Rayet nebula PG1159 Dredge-up OH/IR Instability strip Luminous blue variable Stellar population Supernova Superluminous Hypernova Classification Early Late Main sequence O B A F G K M Subdwarf O B WR OB Subgiant Giant Blue Red Yellow Bright giant Supergiant Blue Red Yellow Hypergiant Yellow Carbon S CN CH White dwarf Chemically peculiar Am Ap/Bp CEMP HgMn He-weak Barium Lambda Boötis Lead Technetium Be Shell B Helium Extreme Blue straggler Remnants Compact star Parker's star White dwarf Helium planet Neutron Radio-quiet Pulsar Binary X-ray Magnetar Stellar black hole X-ray binary Burster SGR Hypothetical Blue dwarf Black dwarf Exotic Boson 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diagram Color–color diagram Strömgren sphere Kraft break Star systems Binary Contact Common envelope Eclipsing Symbiotic Multiple Cluster Open Globular Super Planetary system Earth-centricobservations Sun Solar eclipse Solar radio emission Solar System Sunlight Pole star Circumpolar Constellation Asterism Magnitude Apparent Extinction Photographic Radial velocity Proper motion Parallax Photometric-standard Lists Proper names Arabic Chinese Extremes Most massive Highest temperature Lowest temperature Largest volume Smallest volume Brightest Historical brightest Most luminous Nearest bright Most distant With resolved images With multiple exoplanets Brown dwarfs Red dwarfs White dwarfs Milky Way novae Supernovae Candidates Remnants Planetary nebulae Timeline of stellar astronomy Related Substellar object Brown dwarf Desert Sub Planet Galactic year Galaxy Guest Gravity Intergalactic Planet-hosting stars Tidal disruption event Category Stars portal Authority control databases: National Germany Japan	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Black_hole%27s_accretion_disk.jpg"},{"link_name":"black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole"},{"link_name":"relativistic effects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_beaming"},{"link_name":"regions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_singularity"},{"link_name":"gravitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_field"},{"link_name":"horizon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_horizon"},{"link_name":"Schwarzschild black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwarzschild_Black_Hole"},{"link_name":"circumstellar disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_disk"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-first-1"},{"link_name":"orbital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit"},{"link_name":"central body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_(astronomy)"},{"link_name":"star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star"},{"link_name":"Friction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction"},{"link_name":"magnetohydrodynamic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamics"},{"link_name":"electromagnetic radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation"},{"link_name":"protostars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protostar"},{"link_name":"infrared","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared"},{"link_name":"neutron stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_star"},{"link_name":"black holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole"},{"link_name":"X-ray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray"},{"link_name":"spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The hot accretion disc of a black hole, showing the relativistic effects imposed on light when it is emitted in regions subject to extreme gravitation. This image is the result of NASA simulations and shows a view from outside the horizon of a Schwarzschild black hole.An accretion disk is a structure (often a circumstellar disk) formed by diffuse material[a] in orbital motion around a massive central body. The central body is most frequently a star. Friction, uneven irradiance, magnetohydrodynamic effects, and other forces induce instabilities causing orbiting material in the disk to spiral inward toward the central body. Gravitational and frictional forces compress and raise the temperature of the material, causing the emission of electromagnetic radiation. The frequency range of that radiation depends on the central object's mass. Accretion disks of young stars and protostars radiate in the infrared; those around neutron stars and black holes in the X-ray part of the spectrum. The study of oscillation modes in accretion disks is referred to as diskoseismology.[1][2]","title":"Accretion disk"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"nuclei of active galaxies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_galactic_nucleus"},{"link_name":"jets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_jet"},{"link_name":"(more unsolved problems in physics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics"},{"link_name":"active galactic nuclei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_galactic_nucleus"},{"link_name":"protoplanetary disks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk"},{"link_name":"gamma ray bursts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray_burst"},{"link_name":"astrophysical jets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysical_jet"},{"link_name":"angular momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum"},{"link_name":"mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass"},{"link_name":"active galactic nuclei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_galactic_nucleus"},{"link_name":"quasars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar"},{"link_name":"tendex line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendex_line"},{"link_name":"gravitational potential energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_potential_energy"},{"link_name":"X-rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray"},{"link_name":"event horizon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_horizon"},{"link_name":"luminosity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminosity"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"nuclear fusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"binary systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_system"},{"link_name":"white dwarf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_dwarf"},{"link_name":"Roche lobe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roche_lobe"},{"link_name":"T Tauri stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_Tauri_star"},{"link_name":"Herbig stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbig_Ae/Be_stars"},{"link_name":"protoplanetary disks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk"},{"link_name":"planetary systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_system"},{"link_name":"molecular cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_cloud"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Star_with_accretion_disk.jpg"},{"link_name":"NGC 3783","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC_3783"}],"text":"Unsolved problem in physics:\nAccretion disk jets: Why do the disks surrounding certain objects, such as the nuclei of active galaxies, emit jets along their polar axes? These jets are invoked by astronomers to do everything from getting rid of angular momentum in a forming star to reionizing the universe (in active galactic nuclei), but their origin is still not well understood.\n(more unsolved problems in physics)Accretion disks are a ubiquitous phenomenon in astrophysics; active galactic nuclei, protoplanetary disks, and gamma ray bursts all involve accretion disks. These disks very often give rise to astrophysical jets coming from the vicinity of the central object. Jets are an efficient way for the star-disk system to shed angular momentum without losing too much mass.The most spectacular accretion disks found in nature are those of active galactic nuclei and of quasars, which are thought to be massive black holes at the center of galaxies. As matter enters the accretion disc, it follows a trajectory called a tendex line, which describes an inward spiral. This is because particles rub and bounce against each other in a turbulent flow, causing frictional heating which radiates energy away, reducing the particles' angular momentum, allowing the particle to drift inward, driving the inward spiral. The loss of angular momentum manifests as a reduction in velocity; at a slower velocity, the particle must adopt a lower orbit. As the particle falls to this lower orbit, a portion of its gravitational potential energy is converted to increased velocity and the particle gains speed. Thus, the particle has lost energy even though it is now travelling faster than before; however, it has lost angular momentum. As a particle orbits closer and closer, its velocity increases; as velocity increases frictional heating increases as more and more of the particle's potential energy (relative to the black hole) is radiated away; the accretion disk of a black hole is hot enough to emit X-rays just outside the event horizon. The large luminosity of quasars is believed to be a result of gas being accreted by supermassive black holes.[3] Elliptical accretion disks formed at tidal disruption of stars can be typical in galactic nuclei and quasars.[4] The accretion process can convert about 10 percent to over 40 percent of the mass of an object into energy as compared to around 0.7 percent for nuclear fusion processes.[5] In close binary systems the more massive primary component evolves faster and has already become a white dwarf, a neutron star, or a black hole, when the less massive companion reaches the giant state and exceeds its Roche lobe. A gas flow then develops from the companion star to the primary. Angular momentum conservation prevents a straight flow from one star to the other and an accretion disk forms instead.Accretion disks surrounding T Tauri stars or Herbig stars are called protoplanetary disks because they are thought to be the progenitors of planetary systems. The accreted gas in this case comes from the molecular cloud out of which the star has formed rather than a companion star.Artist's view of a star with accretion diskAnimations of black hole accretionThis animation of supercomputer data takes the viewer to the inner zone of the accretion disk of a stellar-mass black hole.This video shows an artist’s impression of the dusty wind emanating from the black hole at the centre of galaxy NGC 3783.","title":"Manifestations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Accretion_disk.jpg"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-W1948-7"},{"link_name":"angular momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum"},{"link_name":"Rayleigh stability criterion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetorotational_instability"},{"link_name":"angular velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_velocity"},{"link_name":"laminar flow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminar_flow"},{"link_name":"hydrodynamic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_dynamics"},{"link_name":"viscosity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity"},{"link_name":"Turbulence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbulence"},{"link_name":"eddies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SS1973-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LBP1974-9"},{"link_name":"magnetorotational instability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetorotational_instability"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BH1991-10"}],"text":"Artist's conception of a black hole drawing matter from a nearby star, forming an accretion diskIn the 1940s, models were first derived from basic physical principles.[6] In order to agree with observations, those models had to invoke a yet unknown mechanism for angular momentum redistribution. If matter is to fall inward it must lose not only gravitational energy but also lose angular momentum. Since the total angular momentum of the disk is conserved, the angular momentum loss of the mass falling into the center has to be compensated by an angular momentum gain of the mass far from the center. In other words, angular momentum should be transported outward for matter to accrete. According to the Rayleigh stability criterion,∂\n (\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n Ω\n )\n \n \n ∂\n R\n \n \n \n >\n 0\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {\\partial (R^{2}\\Omega )}{\\partial R}}>0,}where \n \n \n \n Ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Omega }\n \n represents the angular velocity of a fluid element and \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R}\n \n its distance to the rotation center,\nan accretion disk is expected to be a laminar flow. This prevents the existence of a hydrodynamic mechanism for angular momentum transport.On one hand, it was clear that viscous stresses would eventually cause the matter toward the center to heat up and radiate away some of its gravitational energy. On the other hand, viscosity itself was not enough to explain the transport of angular momentum to the exterior parts of the disk. Turbulence-enhanced viscosity was the mechanism thought to be responsible for such angular-momentum redistribution, although the origin of the turbulence itself was not well understood. The conventional \n \n \n \n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha }\n \n-model (discussed below) introduces an adjustable parameter \n \n \n \n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha }\n \n describing the effective increase of viscosity due to turbulent eddies within the disk.[7][8] In 1991, with the rediscovery of the magnetorotational instability (MRI), S. A. Balbus, and J. F. Hawley established that a weakly magnetized disk accreting around a heavy, compact central object would be highly unstable, providing a direct mechanism for angular-momentum redistribution.[9]","title":"Accretion disk physics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shakura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Shakura"},{"link_name":"Sunyaev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashid_Sunyaev"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SS1973-8"},{"link_name":"sound speed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_speed"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"hydrostatic equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrostatic_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"angular momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum"},{"link_name":"Kramers' opacity law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kramers%27_opacity_law"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"torus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torus"},{"link_name":"Eddington limit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_limit"},{"link_name":"Saturn's rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn"},{"link_name":"gravitational lensing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_lensing"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"α-Disk model","text":"Shakura and Sunyaev (1973)[7] proposed turbulence in the gas as the source of an increased viscosity. Assuming subsonic turbulence and the disk height as an upper limit for the size of the eddies, the disk viscosity can be estimated as \n \n \n \n ν\n =\n α\n \n c\n \n \n s\n \n \n \n H\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu =\\alpha c_{\\rm {s}}H}\n \n where \n \n \n \n \n c\n \n \n s\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle c_{\\rm {s}}}\n \n is the sound speed, \n \n \n \n H\n \n \n {\\displaystyle H}\n \n is the scale height of the disk, and \n \n \n \n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha }\n \n is a free parameter between zero (no accretion) and approximately one. In a turbulent medium \n \n \n \n ν\n ≈\n \n v\n \n \n t\n u\n r\n b\n \n \n \n \n l\n \n \n t\n u\n r\n b\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu \\approx v_{\\rm {turb}}l_{\\rm {turb}}}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n t\n u\n r\n b\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle v_{\\rm {turb}}}\n \n is the velocity of turbulent cells relative to the mean gas motion, and \n \n \n \n \n l\n \n \n t\n u\n r\n b\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle l_{\\rm {turb}}}\n \n is the size of the largest turbulent cells, which is estimated as \n \n \n \n \n l\n \n \n t\n u\n r\n b\n \n \n \n ≈\n H\n =\n \n c\n \n \n s\n \n \n \n \n /\n \n Ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle l_{\\rm {turb}}\\approx H=c_{\\rm {s}}/\\Omega }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n t\n u\n r\n b\n \n \n \n ≈\n \n c\n \n \n s\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle v_{\\rm {turb}}\\approx c_{\\rm {s}}}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n Ω\n =\n (\n G\n M\n \n )\n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n r\n \n −\n 3\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Omega =(GM)^{1/2}r^{-3/2}}\n \n is the Keplerian orbital angular velocity, \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n is the radial distance from the central object of mass \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M}\n \n.[10] By using the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium, combined with conservation of angular momentum and assuming that the disk is thin, the equations of disk structure may be solved in terms of the \n \n \n \n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha }\n \n parameter. Many of the observables depend only weakly on \n \n \n \n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha }\n \n, so this theory is predictive even though it has a free parameter.Using Kramers' opacity law it is found thatH\n =\n 1.7\n ×\n \n 10\n \n 8\n \n \n \n α\n \n −\n 1\n \n /\n \n 10\n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n 16\n \n \n 3\n \n /\n \n 20\n \n \n \n m\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n 3\n \n /\n \n 8\n \n \n \n R\n \n 10\n \n \n 9\n \n /\n \n 8\n \n \n \n f\n \n 3\n \n /\n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n c\n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H=1.7\\times 10^{8}\\alpha ^{-1/10}{\\dot {M}}_{16}^{3/20}m_{1}^{-3/8}R_{10}^{9/8}f^{3/5}{\\rm {cm}}}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n T\n \n c\n \n \n =\n 1.4\n ×\n \n 10\n \n 4\n \n \n \n α\n \n −\n 1\n \n /\n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n 16\n \n \n 3\n \n /\n \n 10\n \n \n \n m\n \n 1\n \n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 4\n \n \n \n R\n \n 10\n \n \n −\n 3\n \n /\n \n 4\n \n \n \n f\n \n 6\n \n /\n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n K\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T_{c}=1.4\\times 10^{4}\\alpha ^{-1/5}{\\dot {M}}_{16}^{3/10}m_{1}^{1/4}R_{10}^{-3/4}f^{6/5}{\\rm {K}}}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n ρ\n =\n 3.1\n ×\n \n 10\n \n −\n 8\n \n \n \n α\n \n −\n 7\n \n /\n \n 10\n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n 16\n \n \n 11\n \n /\n \n 20\n \n \n \n m\n \n 1\n \n \n 5\n \n /\n \n 8\n \n \n \n R\n \n 10\n \n \n −\n 15\n \n /\n \n 8\n \n \n \n f\n \n 11\n \n /\n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n g\n \n c\n m\n \n \n \n −\n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho =3.1\\times 10^{-8}\\alpha ^{-7/10}{\\dot {M}}_{16}^{11/20}m_{1}^{5/8}R_{10}^{-15/8}f^{11/5}{\\rm {g\\ cm}}^{-3}}where \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n c\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T_{c}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho }\n \n are the mid-plane temperature and density respectively. \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n 16\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {M}}_{16}}\n \n is the accretion rate, in units of \n \n \n \n \n 10\n \n 16\n \n \n \n \n \n g\n \n s\n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 10^{16}{\\rm {g\\ s}}^{-1}}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n m\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle m_{1}}\n \n is the mass of the central accreting object in units of a solar mass, \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ⨀\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{\\bigodot }}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n 10\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{10}}\n \n is the radius of a point in the disk, in units of \n \n \n \n \n 10\n \n 10\n \n \n \n \n c\n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 10^{10}{\\rm {cm}}}\n \n, and \n \n \n \n f\n =\n \n \n [\n \n 1\n −\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n R\n \n ⋆\n \n \n R\n \n \n )\n \n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f=\\left[1-\\left({\\frac {R_{\\star }}{R}}\\right)^{1/2}\\right]^{1/4}}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n ⋆\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{\\star }}\n \n is the radius where angular momentum stops being transported inward.The Shakura–Sunyaev α-disk model is both thermally and viscously unstable. An alternative model, known as the \n \n \n \n β\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\beta }\n \n-disk, which is stable in both senses assumes that the viscosity is proportional to the gas pressure \n \n \n \n ν\n ∝\n α\n \n p\n \n \n g\n a\n s\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu \\propto \\alpha p_{\\mathrm {gas} }}\n \n.[11][12] In the standard Shakura–Sunyaev model, viscosity is assumed to be proportional to the total pressure \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n t\n o\n t\n \n \n \n =\n \n p\n \n \n r\n a\n d\n \n \n \n +\n \n p\n \n \n g\n a\n s\n \n \n \n =\n ρ\n \n c\n \n \n s\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{\\mathrm {tot} }=p_{\\mathrm {rad} }+p_{\\mathrm {gas} }=\\rho c_{\\rm {s}}^{2}}\n \n since\n\n \n \n \n ν\n =\n α\n \n c\n \n \n s\n \n \n \n H\n =\n α\n \n c\n \n s\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n /\n \n Ω\n =\n α\n \n p\n \n \n t\n o\n t\n \n \n \n \n /\n \n (\n ρ\n Ω\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu =\\alpha c_{\\rm {s}}H=\\alpha c_{s}^{2}/\\Omega =\\alpha p_{\\mathrm {tot} }/(\\rho \\Omega )}\n \n.The Shakura–Sunyaev model assumes that the disk is in local thermal equilibrium, and can radiate its heat efficiently. In this case, the disk radiates away the viscous heat, cools, and becomes geometrically thin. However, this assumption may break down. In the radiatively inefficient case, the disk may \"puff up\" into a torus or some other three-dimensional solution like an Advection Dominated Accretion Flow (ADAF). The ADAF solutions usually require that the accretion rate is smaller than a few percent of the Eddington limit. Another extreme is the case of Saturn's rings, where the disk is so gas-poor that its angular momentum transport is dominated by solid body collisions and disk-moon gravitational interactions. The model is in agreement with recent astrophysical measurements using gravitational lensing.[13][14][15][16]","title":"Accretion disk physics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Protoplanetary_disk_HH-30.jpg"},{"link_name":"HH-30","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HH-30"},{"link_name":"Herbig–Haro object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbig%E2%80%93Haro_object"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BH1991-10"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-B2003-18"},{"link_name":"dynamo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamo_theory"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RH2004-19"}],"sub_title":"Magnetorotational instability","text":"HH-30, a Herbig–Haro object surrounded by an accretion diskBalbus and Hawley (1991)[9] proposed a mechanism which involves magnetic fields to generate the angular momentum transport. A simple system displaying this mechanism is a gas disk in the presence of a weak axial magnetic field. Two radially neighboring fluid elements will behave as two mass points connected by a massless spring, the spring tension playing the role of the magnetic tension. In a Keplerian disk the inner fluid element would be orbiting more rapidly than the outer, causing the spring to stretch. The inner fluid element is then forced by the spring to slow down, reduce correspondingly its angular momentum causing it to move to a lower orbit. The outer fluid element being pulled forward will speed up, increasing its angular momentum and move to a larger radius orbit. The spring tension will increase as the two fluid elements move further apart and the process runs away.[17]It can be shown that in the presence of such a spring-like tension the Rayleigh stability criterion is replaced byd\n \n Ω\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n d\n ln\n ⁡\n R\n \n \n \n >\n 0.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {d\\Omega ^{2}}{d\\ln R}}>0.}Most astrophysical disks do not meet this criterion and are therefore prone to this magnetorotational instability. The magnetic fields present in astrophysical objects (required for the instability to occur) are believed to be generated via dynamo action.[18]","title":"Accretion disk physics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"interstellar medium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar_medium"},{"link_name":"electrical conductivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductivity"},{"link_name":"star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star"},{"link_name":"magnetic flux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_flux"},{"link_name":"astrophysical jets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysical_jet"},{"link_name":"poloidal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poloidal"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BP1982-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"viscosity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity"},{"link_name":"magnetic diffusivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_diffusivity"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Shakura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakura"},{"link_name":"Sunyaev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunyaev"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JV2018-25"}],"sub_title":"Magnetic fields and jets","text":"Accretion disks are usually assumed to be threaded by the external magnetic fields present in the interstellar medium. These fields are typically weak (about few micro-Gauss), but they can get anchored to the matter in the disk, because of its high electrical conductivity, and carried inward toward the central star. This process can concentrate the magnetic flux around the centre of the disk giving rise to very strong magnetic fields. Formation of powerful astrophysical jets along the rotation axis of accretion disks requires a large scale poloidal magnetic field in the inner regions of the disk.[19]Such magnetic fields may be advected inward from the interstellar medium or generated by a magnetic dynamo within the disk. Magnetic fields strengths at least of order 100 Gauss seem necessary for the magneto-centrifugal mechanism to launch powerful jets. There are problems, however, in carrying external magnetic flux inward toward the central star of the disk.[20] High electric conductivity dictates that the magnetic field is frozen into the matter which is being accreted onto the central object with a slow velocity. However, the plasma is not a perfect electric conductor, so there is always some degree of dissipation. The magnetic field diffuses away faster than the rate at which it is being carried inward by accretion of matter.[21] A simple solution is assuming a viscosity much larger than the magnetic diffusivity in the disk. However, numerical simulations and theoretical models show that the viscosity and magnetic diffusivity have almost the same order of magnitude in magneto-rotationally turbulent disks.[22] Some other factors may possibly affect the advection/diffusion rate: reduced turbulent magnetic diffusion on the surface layers; reduction of the Shakura–Sunyaev viscosity by magnetic fields;[23] and the generation of large scale fields by small scale MHD turbulence –a large scale dynamo. In fact, a combination of different mechanisms might be responsible for efficiently carrying the external field inward toward the central parts of the disk where the jet is launched. Magnetic buoyancy, turbulent pumping and turbulent diamagnetism exemplify such physical phenomena invoked to explain such efficient concentration of external fields.[24]","title":"Accretion disk physics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sub-Eddington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_limit"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CNRSblackhole.jpg"},{"link_name":"black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Black_Holes_-_Monsters_in_Space.jpg"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASA-20140812-33"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PIA18467-NuSTAR-Plot-BlackHole-BlursLight-20140812.png"},{"link_name":"NuSTAR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NuSTAR"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASA-20140812-33"}],"text":"When the accretion rate is sub-Eddington and the opacity very high, the standard thin accretion disk is formed. It is geometrically thin in the vertical direction (has a disk-like shape), and is made of a relatively cold gas, with a negligible radiation pressure. The gas goes down on very tight spirals, resembling almost circular, almost free (Keplerian) orbits. Thin disks are relatively luminous and they have thermal electromagnetic spectra, i.e. not much different from that of a sum of black bodies. Radiative cooling is very efficient in thin disks. The classic 1974 work by Shakura and Sunyaev on thin accretion disks is one of the most often quoted papers in modern astrophysics. Thin disks were independently worked out by Lynden-Bell, Pringle, and Rees. Pringle contributed in the past thirty years many key results to accretion disk theory, and wrote the classic 1981 review that for many years was the main source of information about accretion disks, and is still very useful today.Simulation by J.A. Marck of optical appearance of Schwarzschild black hole with thin (Keplerian) diskA fully general relativistic treatment, as needed for the inner part of the disk when the central object is a black hole, has been provided by Page and Thorne,[25] and used for producing simulated optical images by Luminet[26] and Marck,[27] in which, although such a system is intrinsically symmetric its image is not, because the relativistic rotation speed needed for centrifugal equilibrium in the very strong gravitational field near the black hole produces a strong Doppler redshift on the receding side (taken here to be on the right) whereas there will be a strong blueshift on the approaching side. Due to light bending, the disk appears distorted but is nowhere hidden by the black hole.When the accretion rate is sub-Eddington and the opacity very low, an ADAF (advection dominated accretion flow) is formed. This type of accretion disk was predicted in 1977 by Ichimaru. Although Ichimaru's paper was largely ignored, some elements of the ADAF model were present in the influential 1982 ion-tori paper by Rees, Phinney, Begelman, and Blandford.\nADAFs started to be intensely studied by many authors only after their rediscovery in the early 1990s by Popham and Narayan in numerical models of accretion disk boundary layers.[28][29]\nSelf-similar solutions for advection-dominated accretion were found by Narayan and Yi, and independently by Abramowicz, Chen, Kato, Lasota (who coined the name ADAF), and Regev.\n[30][31] Most important contributions to astrophysical applications of ADAFs have been made by Narayan and his collaborators. ADAFs are cooled by advection (heat captured in matter) rather than by radiation. They are very radiatively inefficient, geometrically extended, similar in shape to a sphere (or a \"corona\") rather than a disk, and very hot (close to the virial temperature). Because of their low efficiency, ADAFs are much less luminous than the Shakura–Sunyaev thin disks. ADAFs emit a power-law, non-thermal radiation, often with a strong Compton component.Blurring of an X-ray source (corona) near a black hole.Black hole with corona, an X-ray source (artist's concept).[32]Blurring of X-rays near black hole (NuSTAR; 12 August 2014).[32]Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech","title":"Analytic models of sub-Eddington accretion disks (thin disks, ADAFs)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Quasi-periodic oscillations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-periodic_oscillation"},{"link_name":"(more unsolved problems in physics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics"},{"link_name":"super-Eddington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_limit"},{"link_name":"Paczyński","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohdan_Paczy%C5%84ski"},{"link_name":"advection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advection"}],"text":"Unsolved problem in physics:\nAccretion disk QPOs: Quasi-periodic oscillations happen in many accretion disks, with their periods appearing to scale as the inverse of the mass of the central object. Why do these oscillations exist? Why are there sometimes overtones, and why do these appear at different frequency ratios in different objects?\n(more unsolved problems in physics)The theory of highly super-Eddington black hole accretion, M≫MEdd, was developed in the 1980s by Abramowicz, Jaroszynski, Paczyński, Sikora, and others in terms of \"Polish doughnuts\" (the name was coined by Rees). Polish doughnuts are low viscosity, optically thick, radiation pressure supported accretion disks cooled by advection. They are radiatively very inefficient. Polish doughnuts resemble in shape a fat torus (a doughnut) with two narrow funnels along the rotation axis. The funnels collimate the radiation into beams with highly super-Eddington luminosities.Slim disks (name coined by Kolakowska) have only moderately super-Eddington accretion rates, M≥MEdd, rather disk-like shapes, and almost thermal spectra. They are cooled by advection, and are radiatively ineffective. They were introduced by Abramowicz, Lasota, Czerny, and Szuszkiewicz in 1988.","title":"Analytic models of super-Eddington accretion disks (slim disks, Polish doughnuts)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"The opposite of an accretion disk is an excretion disk where instead of material accreting from a disk on to a central object, material is excreted from the center outward onto the disk. Excretion disks are formed when stars merge.[33]","title":"Excretion disk"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-first_1-0"}],"text":"^ In astrophysics, diffuse material refers to interstellar or intergalactic matter that is spread out and not concentrated in a specific location. This material can include gas, dust, and other particles that are not organized into distinct structures like stars or galaxies.","title":"Notes"}]	[{"image_text":"The hot accretion disc of a black hole, showing the relativistic effects imposed on light when it is emitted in regions subject to extreme gravitation. This image is the result of NASA simulations and shows a view from outside the horizon of a Schwarzschild black hole.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Black_hole%27s_accretion_disk.jpg/220px-Black_hole%27s_accretion_disk.jpg"},{"image_text":"Artist's view of a star with accretion disk","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Star_with_accretion_disk.jpg/220px-Star_with_accretion_disk.jpg"},{"image_text":"Artist's conception of a black hole drawing matter from a nearby star, forming an accretion disk","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Accretion_disk.jpg/250px-Accretion_disk.jpg"},{"image_text":"HH-30, a Herbig–Haro object surrounded by an accretion disk","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Protoplanetary_disk_HH-30.jpg/200px-Protoplanetary_disk_HH-30.jpg"},{"image_text":"Simulation by J.A. Marck of optical appearance of Schwarzschild black hole with thin (Keplerian) disk","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/CNRSblackhole.jpg/300px-CNRSblackhole.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Accretion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accretion_(astrophysics)"},{"title":"Astrophysical jet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysical_jet"},{"title":"Blandford–Znajek process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blandford%E2%80%93Znajek_process"},{"title":"Circumstellar disc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_disc"},{"title":"Circumplanetary disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumplanetary_disk"},{"title":"Dynamo theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamo_theory"},{"title":"Exoasteroid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoasteroid"},{"title":"Gravitational singularity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_singularity"},{"title":"Quasi-star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-star"},{"title":"Reverberation mapping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverberation_mapping"},{"title":"Ring system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_system"},{"title":"Solar nebula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_nebula"},{"title":"Spin-flip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin-flip"}]	[{"reference":"Nowak, Michael A.; Wagoner, Robert V. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SK_Broadband	SK Broadband	["1 History","2 Stock market listings","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]	Seoul-based telecommunications company SK Broadband, Inc.FormerlyHanaro Telecom, Inc.Company typeSubsidiaryTraded asKRX: 033630IndustryTelecommunicationsFoundedSeptember 23, 1997 (1997-09-23) as Hanaro Telecom September 22, 1997 (1997-09-22) as SK BroadbandHeadquartersSeoul, South KoreaKey peopleJin-Hwan Choi (CEO)ServicesVoice (Fixed-line/VoIP)Broadband InternetCable TVLeased linesIPTVRevenue KRW 1,314,981 million (Q2 2015)ParentSK GroupASN9318 Websiteskbroadband.com SK BroadbandHangulSK브로드밴드Revised RomanizationSK BeurodeubaendeuMcCune–ReischauerSK Pŭrodŭbaendŭ SK Broadband, Inc. KRX: 033630, formerly known as Hanaro Telecom, is a Seoul-based telecommunications company and a wholly owned subsidiary of SK Telecom. It is one of the largest broadband Internet access providers in South Korea. Until its takeover in 2008, Hanaro controlled nearly half of the Korean landline market, as it was the only last mile-competitive local exchange carrier (CLEC) other than the state-owned KT Corp. SK Broadband also has a division known as "Broad &" that controls a large portion of the South Korean calling card market. In October 2014, SK Broadband unveiled the world's first 10 Gbit/s Internet service at the ITU Plenipotentiary Conference. The new Internet service is 100 times faster than existing LAN services in South Korea, which deliver download speeds of 100 Mbit/s. History Originally a domestic fixed-line carrier, Hanaro Telecom entered the broadband market in 1999 and grew from there to become a ‘Triple-Play’ provider with VoIP service, broadband Internet and an IPTV service branded as B.TV. In addition, Hanaro Telecom provides leased line services and IDC services to its corporate clients. Since 2000, Hanaro has participated in the Cisco Powered Network Program, a joint marketing program between Cisco and network service providers which offers public services over a network powered by Cisco Systems equipment. Hanaro Telecom and Korea Thrunet shared about 45 percent of the broadband market, with Korea Telecom, South Korea's incumbent telecommunications operator, commanding around 50 percent as of 2002. To consolidate its position in the broadband market, Hanaro acquired its second largest rival, Korea Thrunet, in March 2005 for 471.4 billion won ($460 million); the final price was five percent less than Hanaro's original offer to outbid Dacom. In February 2008, Hanaro Telecom was acquired by local wireless giant SK Telecom for 1.09 trillion won ($1.2 billion). Its new name, SK Broadband, was adopted in September 2008. In 2015, SK Telecom bought all of SK Broadband's stocks in a stock swap deal, the deal was finalized on July 1, 2015, and SK Broadband became a wholly owned subsidiary of SK Telecom. In November 2015, SK Telecom agreed to acquire a 30% stake in competitor CJ HelloVision for KRW 500 billion. The acquisition will make SK Broadband the No. 2 paid cable broadcaster in South Korea, following KT. In September 2021, SK Broadband sued American pay television service Netflix to pay for the increased network costs and bandwidth which it blames on popular shows such as Squid Game. SK Broadband claims that Netflix’s traffic on the ISP network has exponentially increased about 24 times, from 50 Gigabits per second in May 2018 to 1,200 Gigabits in September 2021. Stock market listings KOSDAQ NASDAQ (ADR) as Hanaro Telecom (ticker symbol HANA) See also SK Telecom IPTV Internet in South Korea References ^ "Hanaro Telecom and Cisco Systems Form Strategic Alliance" (Press release). Seoul, South Korea: Hanaro Telecom/Cisco Systems. PRNewswire. June 14, 2000. Retrieved 2015-12-31. ^ "Hanaro renamed SK Broadband". Telecompaper. September 22, 2008. ^ "SK Broadband to Offer 10 Gbps Internet". BusinessKorea Co., Ltd. October 14, 2014. ^ Smith, Greg (October 14, 2015). "Cisco Blog: South Korea's SK Broadband Improving the User Experience with Cisco cBR-8". Cisco Systems. ^ Kim, Yongsoo; Kelly, Tim; Raja, Siddhartha (2010). Building Broadband: Strategies and Policies for the Developing World. GICT. p. 45. ^ "Hanaro Telecom Selects CommVerge Solutions and Force10 Networks for 10GbE Deployment" (Press release). SEOUL, South Korea: CommVerge. PRNewswire. October 14, 2003. Retrieved 2016-01-01. ^ "Hanaro Telecom and Thrunet of Korea plan joint bid for cable operator Powercomm". Optical Newsletter. January 9, 2002. ^ Galbraith, Michael (March 1, 2005). "Thrunet takeover to stabilize Korean broadband market by Hanaro Telecom". Telecom Asia. Archived from the original on May 3, 2016. ^ "SK Telecom Acquiring Control Of Hanaro For $1.2B". Forbes. December 3, 2007. ^ "SK Telecom Plans To Acquire Further Stake In CJ Hellovision". Bloomberg L.P. November 3, 2015. ^ "Netflix might have to pay millions in bandwidth usage fees in South Korea - The Verge". October 2021. ^ "South Korean ISP SK Broadband counterclaims against Netflix for bandwidth usage fees – TechCrunch". 30 September 2021. External links Official website vteSKOwnership SK Inc. Chey Tae-won SubsidiariesCurrent SK Hynix SK Inc. C&C SK Innovation SK Telecom SK Broadband SK Communications Nate SK Shieldus SK Planet Dreamus Former and defunct Loen Entertainment SK Wyverns Sports Jeju United Seoul SK Knights T1 SK Sugar Gliders Category Commons	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"KRX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_Exchange"},{"link_name":"033630","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//finance.naver.com/item/main.nhn?code=033630"},{"link_name":"Seoul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seoul"},{"link_name":"telecommunications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications"},{"link_name":"subsidiary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsidiary"},{"link_name":"SK Telecom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SK_Telecom"},{"link_name":"broadband Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadband_Internet"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"},{"link_name":"landline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landline"},{"link_name":"last mile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_mile_(telecommunications)"},{"link_name":"CLEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitive_local_exchange_carrier"},{"link_name":"KT Corp.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KT_Corporation"},{"link_name":"calling card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_card"},{"link_name":"ITU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TenGbps-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cBR-8-4"}],"text":"SK Broadband, Inc. KRX: 033630, formerly known as Hanaro Telecom, is a Seoul-based telecommunications company and a wholly owned subsidiary of SK Telecom. It is one of the largest broadband Internet access providers in South Korea. Until its takeover in 2008, Hanaro controlled nearly half of the Korean landline market, as it was the only last mile-competitive local exchange carrier (CLEC) other than the state-owned KT Corp. SK Broadband also has a division known as \"Broad &\" that controls a large portion of the South Korean calling card market.In October 2014, SK Broadband unveiled the world's first 10 Gbit/s Internet service at the ITU Plenipotentiary Conference. The new Internet service is 100 times faster than existing LAN services in South Korea, which deliver download speeds of 100 Mbit/s.[3][4]","title":"SK Broadband"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Triple-Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_play_(telecommunications)"},{"link_name":"VoIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VoIP"},{"link_name":"broadband Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadband_Internet"},{"link_name":"IPTV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPTV"},{"link_name":"B.TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HanaTV"},{"link_name":"leased line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leased_line"},{"link_name":"IDC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_data_center"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CommVerge-6"},{"link_name":"Cisco Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco_Systems"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"SK Telecom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SK_Telecom"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"SK Telecom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SK_Telecom"},{"link_name":"wholly owned subsidiary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wholly_owned_subsidiary"},{"link_name":"SK Telecom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SK_Telecom"},{"link_name":"CJ HelloVision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CJ_Group#Former_subsidiaries"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"KT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KT_Corporation"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Netflix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netflix"},{"link_name":"Squid Game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squid_Game"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Originally a domestic fixed-line carrier, Hanaro Telecom entered the broadband market in 1999[5] and grew from there to become a ‘Triple-Play’ provider with VoIP service, broadband Internet and an IPTV service branded as B.TV. In addition, Hanaro Telecom provides leased line services and IDC services to its corporate clients.[6]Since 2000, Hanaro has participated in the Cisco Powered Network Program, a joint marketing program between Cisco and network service providers which offers public services over a network powered by Cisco Systems equipment. Hanaro Telecom and Korea Thrunet shared about 45 percent of the broadband market, with Korea Telecom, South Korea's incumbent telecommunications operator, commanding around 50 percent as of 2002.[7] To consolidate its position in the broadband market, Hanaro acquired its second largest rival, Korea Thrunet, in March 2005 for 471.4 billion won ($460 million); the final price was five percent less than Hanaro's original offer to outbid Dacom.[8]In February 2008, Hanaro Telecom was acquired by local wireless giant SK Telecom for 1.09 trillion won ($1.2 billion).[9] Its new name, SK Broadband, was adopted in September 2008. In 2015, SK Telecom bought all of SK Broadband's stocks in a stock swap deal, the deal was finalized on July 1, 2015, and SK Broadband became a wholly owned subsidiary of SK Telecom.In November 2015, SK Telecom agreed to acquire a 30% stake in competitor CJ HelloVision for KRW 500 billion.[10] The acquisition will make SK Broadband the No. 2 paid cable broadcaster in South Korea, following KT.[citation needed]In September 2021, SK Broadband sued American pay television service Netflix to pay for the increased network costs and bandwidth which it blames on popular shows such as Squid Game.[11] SK Broadband claims that Netflix’s traffic on the ISP network has exponentially increased about 24 times, from 50 Gigabits per second in May 2018 to 1,200 Gigabits in September 2021.[12]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"KOSDAQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KOSDAQ"},{"link_name":"NASDAQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASDAQ"},{"link_name":"ADR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_depository_receipt"}],"text":"KOSDAQ\nNASDAQ (ADR) as Hanaro Telecom (ticker symbol HANA)","title":"Stock market listings"}]	[]	[{"title":"SK Telecom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SK_Telecom"},{"title":"IPTV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPTV"},{"title":"Internet in South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_in_South_Korea"}]	[{"reference":"\"Hanaro Telecom and Cisco Systems Form Strategic Alliance\" (Press release). Seoul, South Korea: Hanaro Telecom/Cisco Systems. PRNewswire. June 14, 2000. Retrieved 2015-12-31.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/hanaro-telecom-and-cisco-systems-form-strategic-alliance-in-korean-internet-market-73563337.html","url_text":"\"Hanaro Telecom and Cisco Systems Form Strategic Alliance\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hanaro renamed SK Broadband\". Telecompaper. September 22, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.telecompaper.com/news/hanaro-renamed-sk-broadband--637237","url_text":"\"Hanaro renamed SK Broadband\""}]},{"reference":"\"SK Broadband to Offer 10 Gbps Internet\". BusinessKorea Co., Ltd. October 14, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.businesskorea.co.kr/english/news/ict/6789-100x-faster-internet-sk-broadband-offer-10-gbps-internet","url_text":"\"SK Broadband to Offer 10 Gbps Internet\""}]},{"reference":"Smith, Greg (October 14, 2015). \"Cisco Blog: South Korea's SK Broadband Improving the User Experience with Cisco cBR-8\". Cisco Systems.","urls":[{"url":"http://blogs.cisco.com/sp/south-koreas-sk-broadband-improving-the-user-experience-with-cisco-cbr-8","url_text":"\"Cisco Blog: South Korea's SK Broadband Improving the User Experience with Cisco cBR-8\""}]},{"reference":"Kim, Yongsoo; Kelly, Tim; Raja, Siddhartha (2010). Building Broadband: Strategies and Policies for the Developing World. GICT. p. 45.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Hanaro Telecom Selects CommVerge Solutions and Force10 Networks for 10GbE Deployment\" (Press release). SEOUL, South Korea: CommVerge. PRNewswire. October 14, 2003. Retrieved 2016-01-01.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/hanaro-telecom-selects-commverge-solutions-and-force10-networks-for-10gbe-deployment-72488777.html","url_text":"\"Hanaro Telecom Selects CommVerge Solutions and Force10 Networks for 10GbE Deployment\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hanaro Telecom and Thrunet of Korea plan joint bid for cable operator Powercomm\". Optical Newsletter. January 9, 2002.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.opticalkeyhole.com/issuesearch.asp?idate=1/9/2002&itext=1&bhcp=1","url_text":"\"Hanaro Telecom and Thrunet of Korea plan joint bid for cable operator Powercomm\""}]},{"reference":"Galbraith, Michael (March 1, 2005). \"Thrunet takeover to stabilize Korean broadband market by Hanaro Telecom\". Telecom Asia. Archived from the original on May 3, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160503112327/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-131362584.html","url_text":"\"Thrunet takeover to stabilize Korean broadband market by Hanaro Telecom\""},{"url":"https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-131362584.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"SK Telecom Acquiring Control Of Hanaro For $1.2B\". Forbes. December 3, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/2007/12/03/sk-hanaro-telecom-markets-equity-cx_vk_1203markets2.html?partner=msn","url_text":"\"SK Telecom Acquiring Control Of Hanaro For $1.2B\""}]},{"reference":"\"SK Telecom Plans To Acquire Further Stake In CJ Hellovision\". Bloomberg L.P. November 3, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=99861541","url_text":"\"SK Telecom Plans To Acquire Further Stake In CJ Hellovision\""}]},{"reference":"\"Netflix might have to pay millions in bandwidth usage fees in South Korea - The Verge\". October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theverge.com/2021/10/1/22704313/sk-broadband-netflix-suing-for-payment-squid-game","url_text":"\"Netflix might have to pay millions in bandwidth usage fees in South Korea - The Verge\""}]},{"reference":"\"South Korean ISP SK Broadband counterclaims against Netflix for bandwidth usage fees – TechCrunch\". 30 September 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2021/09/30/south-korean-isp-sk-broadband-counterclaims-against-netflix-for-bandwidth-usage-fees/?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cudGhldmVyZ2UuY29tLw&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAGAenzIeBVMOIlzVT2TM9RtM05nhyDQg_ZVwchVE8tb_qlM4qcgs4uwYbEQLyPZo8lGyP1kT_ytIFaw_EmK3TVyRnwo3X-cBXAkQQpuFVpE6EcnMeljpOSLlsW6bFBKLmJT84j3LADTD1n5-gglJYSHsszN5KjObCXv8VXLyd488","url_text":"\"South Korean ISP SK Broadband counterclaims against Netflix for bandwidth usage fees – TechCrunch\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://finance.naver.com/item/main.nhn?code=033630","external_links_name":"033630"},{"Link":"https://bgp.tools/as/9318","external_links_name":"9318"},{"Link":"http://skbroadband.com/","external_links_name":"skbroadband.com"},{"Link":"https://finance.naver.com/item/main.nhn?code=033630","external_links_name":"033630"},{"Link":"http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/hanaro-telecom-and-cisco-systems-form-strategic-alliance-in-korean-internet-market-73563337.html","external_links_name":"\"Hanaro Telecom and Cisco Systems Form Strategic Alliance\""},{"Link":"http://www.telecompaper.com/news/hanaro-renamed-sk-broadband--637237","external_links_name":"\"Hanaro renamed SK Broadband\""},{"Link":"http://www.businesskorea.co.kr/english/news/ict/6789-100x-faster-internet-sk-broadband-offer-10-gbps-internet","external_links_name":"\"SK Broadband to Offer 10 Gbps Internet\""},{"Link":"http://blogs.cisco.com/sp/south-koreas-sk-broadband-improving-the-user-experience-with-cisco-cbr-8","external_links_name":"\"Cisco Blog: South Korea's SK Broadband Improving the User Experience with Cisco cBR-8\""},{"Link":"http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/hanaro-telecom-selects-commverge-solutions-and-force10-networks-for-10gbe-deployment-72488777.html","external_links_name":"\"Hanaro Telecom Selects CommVerge Solutions and Force10 Networks for 10GbE Deployment\""},{"Link":"http://www.opticalkeyhole.com/issuesearch.asp?idate=1/9/2002&itext=1&bhcp=1","external_links_name":"\"Hanaro Telecom and Thrunet of Korea plan joint bid for cable operator Powercomm\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160503112327/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-131362584.html","external_links_name":"\"Thrunet takeover to stabilize Korean broadband market by Hanaro Telecom\""},{"Link":"https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-131362584.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.forbes.com/2007/12/03/sk-hanaro-telecom-markets-equity-cx_vk_1203markets2.html?partner=msn","external_links_name":"\"SK Telecom Acquiring Control Of Hanaro For $1.2B\""},{"Link":"https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=99861541","external_links_name":"\"SK Telecom Plans To Acquire Further Stake In CJ Hellovision\""},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/2021/10/1/22704313/sk-broadband-netflix-suing-for-payment-squid-game","external_links_name":"\"Netflix might have to pay millions in bandwidth usage fees in South Korea - The Verge\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2021/09/30/south-korean-isp-sk-broadband-counterclaims-against-netflix-for-bandwidth-usage-fees/?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cudGhldmVyZ2UuY29tLw&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAGAenzIeBVMOIlzVT2TM9RtM05nhyDQg_ZVwchVE8tb_qlM4qcgs4uwYbEQLyPZo8lGyP1kT_ytIFaw_EmK3TVyRnwo3X-cBXAkQQpuFVpE6EcnMeljpOSLlsW6bFBKLmJT84j3LADTD1n5-gglJYSHsszN5KjObCXv8VXLyd488","external_links_name":"\"South Korean ISP SK Broadband counterclaims against Netflix for bandwidth usage fees – TechCrunch\""},{"Link":"http://www.skbroadband.com/","external_links_name":"Official website"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_million	1,000,000	["1 Visualizing one million","2 Selected 7-digit numbers (1,000,001–9,999,999)","2.1 1,000,001 to 1,999,999","2.2 2,000,000 to 2,999,999","2.3 3,000,000 to 3,999,999","2.4 4,000,000 to 4,999,999","2.5 5,000,000 to 5,999,999","2.6 6,000,000 to 6,999,999","2.7 7,000,000 to 7,999,999","2.8 8,000,000 to 8,999,999","2.9 9,000,000 to 9,999,999","3 See also","4 Notes","5 References"]	"One million", "1 million", and "Million" redirect here. For other uses, see One million (disambiguation). Natural number ← 999999 1000000 1000001 → List of numbersIntegers← 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109Cardinalone millionOrdinal1000000th(one millionth)Factorization26 × 56Greek numeral M ρ {\displaystyle {\stackrel {\rho }{\mathrm {M} }}} Roman numeralMBinary111101000010010000002Ternary12122102020013Senary332333446Octal36411008Duodecimal40285412HexadecimalF424016Egyptian hieroglyph𓁨 Look up million in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 1,000,000 (one million), or one thousand thousand, is the natural number following 999,999 and preceding 1,000,001. The word is derived from the early Italian millione (milione in modern Italian), from mille, "thousand", plus the augmentative suffix -one. It is commonly abbreviated: in British English as m (not to be confused with the metric prefix "m" milli, for 10−3, or with metre), M, MM ("thousand thousands", from Latin "Mille"; not to be confused with the Roman numeral MM = 2,000), mm (not to be confused with millimetre), or mn, mln, or mio can be found in financial contexts. In scientific notation, it is written as 1×106 or 106. Physical quantities can also be expressed using the SI prefix mega (M), when dealing with SI units; for example, 1 megawatt (1 MW) equals 1,000,000 watts. The meaning of the word "million" is common to the short scale and long scale numbering systems, unlike the larger numbers, which have different names in the two systems. The million is sometimes used in the English language as a metaphor for a very large number, as in "Not in a million years" and "You're one in a million", or a hyperbole, as in "I've walked a million miles" and "You've asked a million-dollar question". 1,000,000 is also the square of 1000 and also the cube of 100. Visualisation of powers of ten from 1 to 1 million Visualizing one million Even though it is often stressed that counting to precisely a million would be an exceedingly tedious task due to the time and concentration required, there are many ways to bring the number "down to size" in approximate quantities, ignoring irregularities or packing effects. Information: Not counting spaces, the text printed on 136 pages of an Encyclopædia Britannica, or 600 pages of pulp paperback fiction contains approximately one million characters. Length: There are one million millimetres in a kilometre, and roughly a million sixteenths of an inch in a mile (1 sixteenth = 0.0625). A typical car tire might rotate a million times in a 1,900-kilometre (1,200 mi) trip, while the engine would do several times that number of revolutions. Fingers: If the width of a human finger is 22 mm (7⁄8 in), then a million fingers lined up would cover a distance of 22 km (14 mi). If a person walks at a speed of 4 km/h (2.5 mph), it would take them approximately five and a half hours to reach the end of the fingers. Area: A square a thousand objects or units on a side contains a million such objects or square units, so a million holes might be found in less than three square yards of window screen, or similarly, in about one half square foot (400–500 cm2) of bed sheet cloth. A city lot 70 by 100 feet is about a million square inches. Volume: The cube root of one million is one hundred, so a million objects or cubic units is contained in a cube a hundred objects or linear units on a side. A million grains of table salt or granulated sugar occupies about 64 mL (2.3 imp fl oz; 2.2 US fl oz), the volume of a cube one hundred grains on a side. One million cubic inches would be the volume of a small room 8+1⁄3 feet long by 8+1⁄3 feet wide by 8+1⁄3 feet high. Mass: A million cubic millimetres (small droplets) of water would have a volume of one litre and a mass of one kilogram. A million millilitres or cubic centimetres (one cubic metre) of water has a mass of a million grams or one tonne. Weight: A million 80-milligram (1.2 gr) honey bees would weigh the same as an 80 kg (180 lb) person. Landscape: A pyramidal hill 600 feet (180 m) wide at the base and 100 feet (30 m) high would weigh about a million short tons. Computer: A display resolution of 1,280 by 800 pixels contains 1,024,000 pixels. Money: A USD bill of any denomination weighs 1 gram (0.035 oz). There are 454 grams in a pound. One million USD bills would weigh 1 megagram (1,000 kg; 2,200 lb) or 1 tonne (just over 1 short ton). Time: A million seconds, 1 megasecond, is 11.57 days. In Indian English and Pakistani English, it is also expressed as 10 lakh. Lakh is derived from lakṣa for 100,000 in Sanskrit. One million black dots (pixels) – each tile with white or grey background contains 1000 dots (full image) Selected 7-digit numbers (1,000,001–9,999,999) 1,000,001 to 1,999,999 1,000,003 = Smallest 7-digit prime number 1,000,405 = Smallest triangular number with 7 digits and the 1,414th triangular number 1,002,001 = 10012, palindromic square 1,006,301 = First number of the first pair of prime quadruplets occurring thirty apart ({1006301, 1006303, 1006307, 1006309} and {1006331, 1006333, 1006337, 1006339}) 1,024,000 = Sometimes, the number of bytes in a megabyte 1,030,301 = 1013, palindromic cube 1,037,718 = Large Schröder number 1,048,576 = 10242 = 324 = 165 = 410 = 220, the number of bytes in a mebibyte (previously called a megabyte) 1,048,976 = smallest 7 digit Leyland number 1,058,576 = Leyland number 1,058,841 = 76 x 32 1,077,871 = the amount of prime numbers between 0 and 16777216(2^24) 1,084,051 = fifth Keith prime 1,089,270 = harmonic divisor number 1,111,111 = repunit 1,112,083 = logarithmic number 1,129,30832 + 1 is prime 1,136,689 = Pell number, Markov number 1,174,281 = Fine number 1,185,921 = 10892 = 334 1,200,304 = 17 + 27 + 37 + 47 + 57 + 67 + 77 1,203,623 = smallest unprimeable number ending in 3 1,234,321 = 11112, palindromic square 1,246,863 = Number of 27-bead necklaces (turning over is allowed) where complements are equivalent 1,256,070 = number of reduced trees with 29 nodes 1,262,180 = number of triangle-free graphs on 12 vertices 1,278,818 = Markov number 1,290,872 = number of 26-bead binary necklaces with beads of 2 colors where the colors may be swapped but turning over is not allowed 1,296,000 = number of primitive polynomials of degree 25 over GF(2) 1,299,709 = 100,000th prime number 1,336,336 = 11562 = 344 1,346,269 = Fibonacci number, Markov number 1,367,631 = 1113, palindromic cube 1,413,721 = square triangular number 1,419,857 = 175 1,421,280 = harmonic divisor number 1,441,440 = colossally abundant number, superior highly composite number 1,441,889 = Markov number 1,500,625 = 12252 = 354 1,539,720 = harmonic divisor number 1,563,372 = Wedderburn-Etherington number 1,594,323 = 313 1,596,520 = Leyland number 1,606,137 = number of ways to partition {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} and then partition each cell (block) into subcells. 1,607,521/1,136,689 ≈ √2 1,647,086 = Leyland number 1,671,800 = Initial number of first century xx00 to xx99 consisting entirely of composite numbers 1,679,616 = 12962 = 364 = 68 1,686,049 = Markov prime 1,687,989 = number of square (0,1)-matrices without zero rows and with exactly 7 entries equal to 1 1,719,900 = number of primitive polynomials of degree 26 over GF(2) 1,730,787 = Riordan number 1,741,725 = equal to the sum of the seventh power of its digits 1,771,561 = 13312 = 1213 = 116, also, Commander Spock's estimate for the tribble population in the Star Trek episode "The Trouble with Tribbles" 1,864,637 = k such that the sum of the squares of the first k primes is divisible by k. 1,874,161 = 13692 = 374 1,889,568 = 185 1,928,934 = 2 x 39 x 72 1,941,760 = Leyland number 1,953,125 = 1253 = 59 1,978,405 = 16 + 26 + 36 + 46 + 56 + 66 + 76 + 86 + 96 + 106 2,000,000 to 2,999,999 2,000,002 = number of surface-points of a tetrahedron with edge-length 1000 2,000,376 = 1263 2,012,174 = Leyland number 2,012,674 = Markov number 2,027,025 = double factorial of 15 2,085,136 = 14442 = 384 2,097,152 = 1283 = 87 = 221 2,097,593 = Leyland prime 2,124,679 = largest known Wolstenholme prime 2,144,505 = number of trees with 21 unlabeled nodes 2,177,399 = smallest pandigital number in base 8. 2,178,309 = Fibonacci number 2,222,222 = repdigit 2,266,502 = number of signed trees with 13 nodes 2,274,205 = the number of different ways of expressing 1,000,000,000 as the sum of two prime numbers 2,313,441 = 15212 = 394 2,356,779 = Motzkin number 2,405,236 = Number of 28-bead necklaces (turning over is allowed) where complements are equivalent 2,423,525 = Markov number 2,476,099 = 195 2,485,534 = number of 27-bead binary necklaces with beads of 2 colors where the colors may be swapped but turning over is not allowed 2,515,169 = number of reduced trees with 30 nodes 2,560,000 = 16002 = 404 2,567,284 = number of partially ordered set with 10 unlabelled elements 2,646,723 = little Schroeder number 2,674,440 = Catalan number 2,692,537 = Leonardo prime 2,704,900 = initial number of fourth century xx00 to xx99 containing seventeen prime numbers {2,704,901, 2,704,903, 2,704,907, 2,704,909, 2,704,927, 2,704,931, 2,704,937, 2,704,939, 2,704,943, 2,704,957, 2,704,963, 2,704,969, 2,704,979, 2,704,981, 2,704,987, 2,704,993, 2,704,997} 2,744,210 = Pell number 2,796,203 = Wagstaff prime, Jacobsthal prime 2,825,761 = 16812 = 414 2,890,625 = 1-automorphic number 2,922,509 = Markov prime 2,985,984 = 17282 = 1443 = 126 = 1,000,00012 AKA a great-great-gross 3,000,000 to 3,999,999 3,111,696 = 17642 = 424 3,200,000 = 205 3,263,442 = product of the first five terms of Sylvester's sequence 3,263,443 = sixth term of Sylvester's sequence 3,276,509 = Markov prime 3,294,172 = 22×77 3,301,819 = alternating factorial 3,333,333 = repdigit 3,360,633 = palindromic in 3 consecutive bases: 62818269 = 336063310 = 199599111 3,418,801 = 18492 = 434 3,426,576 = number of free 15-ominoes 3,524,578 = Fibonacci number, Markov number 3,554,688 = 2-automorphic number 3,626,149 = Wedderburn–Etherington prime 3,628,800 = 10! 3,748,096 = 19362 = 444 3,880,899/2,744,210 ≈ √2 4,000,000 to 4,999,999 4,008,004 = 20022, palindromic square 4,037,913 = sum of the first ten factorials 4,084,101 = 215 4,100,625 = 20252 = 454 4,194,304 = 20482 = 411 = 222 4,194,788 = Leyland number 4,202,496 = number of primitive polynomials of degree 27 over GF(2) 4,208,945 = Leyland number 4,210,818 = equal to the sum of the seventh powers of its digits 4,213,597 = Bell number 4,260,282 = Fine number 4,297,512 = 12-th derivative of xx at x=1 4,324,320 = colossally abundant number, superior highly composite number, pronic number 4,400,489 = Markov number 4,444,444 = repdigit 4,477,456 = 21162 = 464 4,636,390 = Number of 29-bead necklaces (turning over is allowed) where complements are equivalent 4,741,632 = number of primitive polynomials of degree 28 over GF(2) 4,782,969 = 21872 = 97 = 314 4,782,974 = n such that n \| (3n + 5) 4,785,713 = Leyland number 4,794,088 = number of 28-bead binary necklaces with beads of 2 colors where the colors may be swapped but turning over is not allowed 4,805,595 = Riordan number 4,826,809 = 21972 = 1693 = 136 4,879,681 = 22092 = 474 4,913,000 = 1703 4,937,284 = 22222 5,000,000 to 5,999,999 5,049,816 = number of reduced trees with 31 nodes 5,096,876 = number of prime numbers having eight digits 5,134,240 = the largest number that cannot be expressed as the sum of distinct fourth powers 5,153,632 = 225 5,221,225 = 22852, palindromic square 5,293,446 = Large Schröder number 5,308,416 = 23042 = 484 5,496,925 = first cyclic number in base 6 5,555,555 = repdigit 5,623,756 = number of trees with 22 unlabeled nodes 5,702,887 = Fibonacci number 5,761,455 = The number of primes under 100,000,000 5,764,801 = 24012 = 494 = 78 5,882,353 = 5882 + 23532 6,000,000 to 6,999,999 6,250,000 = 25002 = 504 6,436,343 = 235 6,536,382 = Motzkin number 6,625,109 = Pell number, Markov number 6,666,666 = repdigit 6,765,201 = 26012 = 514 6,948,496 = 26362, palindromic square 7,000,000 to 7,999,999 7,109,376 = 1-automorphic number 7,311,616 = 27042 = 524 7,453,378 = Markov number 7,529,536 = 27442 = 1963 = 146 7,652,413 = Largest n-digit pandigital prime 7,777,777 = repdigit 7,779,311 = A hit song written by Prince and released in 1982 by The Time 7,861,953 = Leyland number 7,890,481 = 28092 = 534 7,906,276 = pentagonal triangular number 7,913,837 = Keith number 7,962,624 = 245 8,000,000 to 8,999,999 8,000,000 = Used to represent infinity in Japanese mythology 8,108,731 = repunit prime in base 14 8,388,607 = second composite Mersenne number with a prime exponent 8,388,608 = 223 8,389,137 = Leyland number 8,399,329 = Markov number 8,436,379 = Wedderburn-Etherington number 8,503,056 = 29162 = 544 8,675,309 = A hit song for Tommy Tutone (also a twin prime with 8,675,311) 8,675,311 = Twin prime with 8,675,309 8,877,691 = number of nonnegative integers with distinct decimal digits 8,888,888 = repdigit 8,946,176 = self-descriptive number in base 8 8,964,800 = Number of 30-bead necklaces (turning over is allowed) where complements are equivalent 9,000,000 to 9,999,999 9,000,000 = 30002 9,150,625 = 30252 = 554 9,227,465 = Fibonacci number, Markov number 9,256,396 = number of 29-bead binary necklaces with beads of 2 colors where the colors may be swapped but turning over is not allowed 9,261,000 = 2103 9,369,319 = Newman–Shanks–Williams prime 9,647,009 = Markov number 9,653,449 = square Stella octangula number 9,581,014 = n such that n \| (3n + 5) 9,663,500 = Initial number of first century xx00 to xx99 that possesses an identical prime pattern to any century with four or fewer digits: its prime pattern of {9663503, 9663523, 9663527, 9663539, 9663553, 9663581, 9663587} is identical to {5903, 5923, 5927, 5939, 5953, 5981, 5987} 9,694,845 = Catalan number 9,699,690 = eighth primorial 9,765,625 = 31252 = 255 = 510 9,800,817 = equal to the sum of the seventh powers of its digits 9,834,496 = 31362 = 564 9,865,625 = Leyland number 9,926,315 = equal to the sum of the seventh powers of its digits 9,938,375 = 2153, the largest 7-digit cube 9,997,156 = largest triangular number with 7 digits and the 4,471st triangular number 9,998,244 = 31622, the largest 7-digit square 9,999,991 = Largest 7-digit prime number 9,999,999 = repdigit See also Huh (god), depictions of whom were also used in hieroglyphs to represent 1,000,000 Megagon Millionaire Names of large numbers Orders of magnitude (numbers) to help compare dimensionless numbers between 1,000,000 and 10,000,000 (106 and 107) Notes ^ There are no centuries containing more than seventeen primes between 200 and 122,853,771,370,899 inclusive, and none containing more than fifteen between 2,705,000 and 839,296,299 inclusive. References ^ "million". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. Retrieved 4 October 2010. ^ "m". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on July 6, 2012. Retrieved 2015-06-30. ^ "figures". The Economist Style Guide (11th ed.). The Economist. 2015. ISBN 9781782830917. ^ "6.7 Abbreviating 'million' and 'billion'". English Style Guide. A handbook for authors and translators in the European Commission (PDF) (2019 ed.). 26 February 2019. p. 37. ^ "m". Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster Inc. Retrieved 2015-06-30. ^ "Definition of 'M'". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins Publishers. Retrieved 2015-06-30. ^ Averkamp, Harold. "Q&A: What Does M and MM Stand For?". AccountingCoach.com. AccountingCoach, LLC. Retrieved 25 June 2015. ^ "FT makes change to style guide to benefit text-to-speech software". Financial Times. The Financial Times Ltd. 4 February 2022. Retrieved 2024-03-13. The abbreviation of millions is now 'mn' instead of 'm'. One of the main reasons is to benefit text-to-speech software, which reads out the 'm' as metres instead of millions, confusing visually impaired readers. It also comes into line with our style for billion (bn) and trillion (tn). ^ David Wells (1987). The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers. London: Penguin Group. p. 185. 1,000,000 = 106 ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A059925 (Initial members of two prime quadruples (A007530) with the smallest possible difference of 30)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Tracing the History of the Computer - History of the Floppy Disk ^ a b Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A007629 (Repfigit (REPetitive FIbonacci-like diGIT) numbers (or Keith numbers))". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ a b c Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A001599 (Harmonic or Ore numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A002104 (Logarithmic numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A006315 (Numbers n such that n^32 + 1 is prime)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ a b c Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000129 (Pell numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A002559 (Markoff (or Markov) numbers: union of positive integers x, y, z satisfying x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = 3xyz)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ a b Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000957 (Fine's sequence (or Fine numbers): number of relations of valence > 0 on an n-set; also number of ordered rooted trees with n edges having root of even degree)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A031971 (Sum_{1..n} k^n)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Collins, Julia (2019). Numbers in Minutes. United Kingdom: Quercus. p. 140. ISBN 978-1635061772. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A143641 (Odd prime-proof numbers not ending in 5)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ a b c d Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000011 (Number of n-bead necklaces (turning over is allowed) where complements are equivalent)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ a b c Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000014 (Number of series-reduced trees with n nodes)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A006785 (Number of triangle-free graphs on n vertices)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ a b c d Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000013 (Definition (1): Number of n-bead binary necklaces with beads of 2 colors where the colors may be swapped but turning over is not allowed)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ a b c d Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A011260 (Number of primitive polynomials of degree n over GF(2))". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ a b c d e Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000045 (Fibonacci numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A001110 (Square triangular numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ a b Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A004490 (Colossally abundant numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ a b Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A002201 (Superior highly composite numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ a b c Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A001190 (Wedderburn-Etherington numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000258 (Expansion of e.g.f. exp(exp(exp(x)-1)-1))". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A181098 (Primefree centuries)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A122400 (Number of square (0,1)-matrices without zero rows and with exactly n entries equal to 1)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A111441 (Numbers k such that the sum of the squares of the first k primes is divisible by k)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000540 (Sum of 6th powers: 0^6 + 1^6 + 2^6 + ... + n^6.)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A005893 (Number of points on surface of tetrahedron)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A094133 (Leyland primes)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A088164 (Wolstenholme primes)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000055 (Number of trees with n unlabeled nodes)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A049363 (a(1) = 1; for n > 1, smallest digitally balanced number in base n)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000060 (Number of signed trees with n nodes)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A065577 (Number of Goldbach partitions of 10^n)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ a b Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A001006 (Motzkin numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000112 (Number of partially ordered sets (posets) with n unlabeled elements)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ a b Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000108 (Catalan numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A186509 (Centuries containing 17 primes)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A186311 (Least century 100k to 100k+99 with exactly n primes)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A186408 (Centuries containing 16 primes)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000979 (Wagstaff primes)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ a b Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A003226 (Automorphic numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000058 (Sylvester's sequence)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A048102 (Numbers k such that if k equals Product p_i^e_i then p_i equals e_i for all i)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A005165 (Alternating factorials)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A030984 (2-automorphic numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000110 (Bell or exponential numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A005727 (n-th derivative of x^x at 1. Also called Lehmer-Comtet numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ a b Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A277288 (Positive integers n such that n divides (3^n + 5))". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A006879 (Number of primes with n digits.)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000055 (Number of trees with n unlabeled nodes)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A344389 (a(n) is the number of nonnegative numbers < 10^n with all digits distinct.)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A088165 (NSW primes)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A164987 (First pair of primes (p1, p2) that begin centuries of primes having the same prime configuration, ordered by increasing p2. Each configuration is allowed only once.)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A258275 (Smallest number k > n such that the interval k100 to k100+99 has exactly the same prime pattern as the interval n100 to n*100+99)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. vteLarge numbersExamples innumerical order Thousand Ten thousand Hundred thousand Million Ten million Hundred million Billion Trillion Quadrillion Quintillion Sextillion Septillion Octillion Nonillion Decillion Eddington number Googol Shannon number Googolplex Skewes's number Moser's number Graham's number TREE(3) SSCG(3) BH(3) Rayo's number Infinity ExpressionmethodsNotations Scientific notation Knuth's up-arrow notation Conway chained arrow notation Steinhaus–Moser notation Operators Hyperoperation Tetration Pentation Ackermann function Grzegorczyk hierarchy Fast-growing hierarchy Related articles(alphabetical order) Busy beaver Extended real number line Indefinite and fictitious numbers Infinitesimal Largest known prime number List of numbers Long and short scales Number systems Number names Orders of magnitude Power of two Power of three Power of 10 Sagan Unit Names History vteIntegers0s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100s 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200s 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300s 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400s 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500s 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592 593 594 595 596 597 598 599 600s 600 601 602 603 604 605 606 607 608 609 610 611 612 613 614 615 616 617 618 619 620 621 622 623 624 625 626 627 628 629 630 631 632 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 646 647 648 649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 670 671 672 673 674 675 676 677 678 679 680 681 682 683 684 685 686 687 688 689 690 691 692 693 694 695 696 697 698 699 700s 700 701 702 703 704 705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732 733 734 735 736 737 738 739 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 747 748 749 750 751 752 753 754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 773 774 775 776 777 778 779 780 781 782 783 784 785 786 787 788 789 790 791 792 793 794 795 796 797 798 799 800s 800 801 802 803 804 805 806 807 808 809 810 811 812 813 814 815 816 817 818 819 820 821 822 823 824 825 826 827 828 829 830 831 832 833 834 835 836 837 838 839 840 841 842 843 844 845 846 847 848 849 850 851 852 853 854 855 856 857 858 859 860 861 862 863 864 865 866 867 868 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876 877 878 879 880 881 882 883 884 885 886 887 888 889 890 891 892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 900s 900 901 902 903 904 905 906 907 908 909 910 911 912 913 914 915 916 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 924 925 926 927 928 929 930 931 932 933 934 935 936 937 938 939 940 941 942 943 944 945 946 947 948 949 950 951 952 953 954 955 956 957 958 959 960 961 962 963 964 965 966 967 968 969 970 971 972 973 974 975 976 977 978 979 980 981 982 983 984 985 986 987 988 989 990 991 992 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 ≥1000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000 100,000,000 1,000,000,000 Authority control databases: National Israel United States Czech Republic	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"One million (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_million_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"million","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/million"},{"link_name":"thousand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000_(number)"},{"link_name":"natural number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_number"},{"link_name":"999,999","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100,000#900,000_to_999,999"},{"link_name":"augmentative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augmentative"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EUStyleGuide-4"},{"link_name":"metric 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redirect here. For other uses, see One million (disambiguation).Natural numberLook up million in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.1,000,000 (one million), or one thousand thousand, is the natural number following 999,999 and preceding 1,000,001. The word is derived from the early Italian millione (milione in modern Italian), from mille, \"thousand\", plus the augmentative suffix -one.[1]It is commonly abbreviated:in British English as m[2][3][4] (not to be confused with the metric prefix \"m\" milli, for 10−3, or with metre),\nM,[5][6]\nMM (\"thousand thousands\", from Latin \"Mille\"; not to be confused with the Roman numeral MM = 2,000),\nmm (not to be confused with millimetre), or\nmn, mln, or mio can be found in financial contexts.[7][8]In scientific notation, it is written as 1×106 or 106.[9] Physical quantities can also be expressed using the SI prefix mega (M), when dealing with SI units; for example, 1 megawatt (1 MW) equals 1,000,000 watts.The meaning of the word \"million\" is common to the short scale and long scale numbering systems, unlike the larger numbers, which have different names in the two systems.The million is sometimes used in the English language as a metaphor for a very large number, as in \"Not in a million years\" and \"You're one in a million\", or a hyperbole, as in \"I've walked a million miles\" and \"You've asked a million-dollar question\".1,000,000 is also the square of 1000 and also the cube of 100.Visualisation of powers of ten from 1 to 1 million","title":"1,000,000"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"counting to precisely a million","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Harper"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica"},{"link_name":"pulp paperback fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulp_magazine"},{"link_name":"millimetres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millimetre"},{"link_name":"kilometre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilometre"},{"link_name":"inch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inch"},{"link_name":"mile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mile"},{"link_name":"car","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car"},{"link_name":"tire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tire"},{"link_name":"revolutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute"},{"link_name":"width of a human finger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finger_(unit)"},{"link_name":"table salt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_salt"},{"link_name":"sugar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar"},{"link_name":"litre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litre"},{"link_name":"kilogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilogram"},{"link_name":"cubic centimetres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_centimetre"},{"link_name":"cubic metre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_metre"},{"link_name":"grams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram"},{"link_name":"tonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonne"},{"link_name":"honey bees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey_bee"},{"link_name":"pyramidal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid"},{"link_name":"display resolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Display_resolution"},{"link_name":"pixels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel"},{"link_name":"USD bill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Note"},{"link_name":"megagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonne"},{"link_name":"short ton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_ton"},{"link_name":"seconds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second"},{"link_name":"days","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day"},{"link_name":"Indian English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_English"},{"link_name":"Pakistani English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_English"},{"link_name":"lakh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakh"},{"link_name":"Sanskrit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:One_million_dots_1080p.png"},{"link_name":"(full image)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/One_million_dots_1080p.png"}],"text":"Even though it is often stressed that counting to precisely a million would be an exceedingly tedious task due to the time and concentration required, there are many ways to bring the number \"down to size\" in approximate quantities, ignoring irregularities or packing effects.Information: Not counting spaces, the text printed on 136 pages of an Encyclopædia Britannica, or 600 pages of pulp paperback fiction contains approximately one million characters.\nLength: There are one million millimetres in a kilometre, and roughly a million sixteenths of an inch in a mile (1 sixteenth = 0.0625). A typical car tire might rotate a million times in a 1,900-kilometre (1,200 mi) trip, while the engine would do several times that number of revolutions.\nFingers: If the width of a human finger is 22 mm (7⁄8 in), then a million fingers lined up would cover a distance of 22 km (14 mi). If a person walks at a speed of 4 km/h (2.5 mph), it would take them approximately five and a half hours to reach the end of the fingers.\nArea: A square a thousand objects or units on a side contains a million such objects or square units, so a million holes might be found in less than three square yards of window screen, or similarly, in about one half square foot (400–500 cm2) of bed sheet cloth. A city lot 70 by 100 feet is about a million square inches.\nVolume: The cube root of one million is one hundred, so a million objects or cubic units is contained in a cube a hundred objects or linear units on a side. A million grains of table salt or granulated sugar occupies about 64 mL (2.3 imp fl oz; 2.2 US fl oz), the volume of a cube one hundred grains on a side. One million cubic inches would be the volume of a small room 8+1⁄3 feet long by 8+1⁄3 feet wide by 8+1⁄3 feet high.\nMass: A million cubic millimetres (small droplets) of water would have a volume of one litre and a mass of one kilogram. A million millilitres or cubic centimetres (one cubic metre) of water has a mass of a million grams or one tonne.\nWeight: A million 80-milligram (1.2 gr) honey bees would weigh the same as an 80 kg (180 lb) person.\nLandscape: A pyramidal hill 600 feet (180 m) wide at the base and 100 feet (30 m) high would weigh about a million short tons.\nComputer: A display resolution of 1,280 by 800 pixels contains 1,024,000 pixels.\nMoney: A USD bill of any denomination weighs 1 gram (0.035 oz). There are 454 grams in a pound. One million USD bills would weigh 1 megagram (1,000 kg; 2,200 lb) or 1 tonne (just over 1 short ton).\nTime: A million seconds, 1 megasecond, is 11.57 days.In Indian English and Pakistani English, it is also expressed as 10 lakh. Lakh is derived from lakṣa for 100,000 in Sanskrit.One million black dots (pixels) – each tile with white or grey background contains 1000 dots (full image)","title":"Visualizing one million"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Selected 7-digit numbers (1,000,001–9,999,999)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"digit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_digit"},{"link_name":"prime number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_number"},{"link_name":"triangular number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangular_number"},{"link_name":"prime quadruplets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_quadruplet"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"megabyte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megabyte#Definitions"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Large Schröder number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//oeis.org/A006318"},{"link_name":"bytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte"},{"link_name":"mebibyte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mebibyte"},{"link_name":"Leyland number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyland_number"},{"link_name":"prime numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_number"},{"link_name":"Keith prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_prime"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A007629-12"},{"link_name":"harmonic divisor number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_divisor_number"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A001599-13"},{"link_name":"repunit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repunit"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Pell number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pell_number"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000129-16"},{"link_name":"Markov number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markov_number"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A002559-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000957-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000011-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000014-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A002559-17"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000013-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A011260-26"},{"link_name":"prime number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_number"},{"link_name":"Fibonacci number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000045-27"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A002559-17"},{"link_name":"square triangular number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_triangular_number"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A001599-13"},{"link_name":"colossally abundant number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossally_abundant_number"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A004490-29"},{"link_name":"superior highly composite number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superior_highly_composite_number"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A002201-30"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A002559-17"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A001599-13"},{"link_name":"Wedderburn-Etherington number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedderburn-Etherington_number"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A001190-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"√2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root_of_2"},{"link_name":"composite numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_number"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A011260-26"},{"link_name":"Riordan number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//oeis.org/A005043"},{"link_name":"tribble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribble_(Star_Trek)"},{"link_name":"Star Trek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Trek:_The_Original_Series"},{"link_name":"The Trouble with Tribbles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Trouble_with_Tribbles"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Leyland number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyland_number"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"1,000,001 to 1,999,999","text":"1,000,003 = Smallest 7-digit prime number\n1,000,405 = Smallest triangular number with 7 digits and the 1,414th triangular number\n1,002,001 = 10012, palindromic square\n1,006,301 = First number of the first pair of prime quadruplets occurring thirty apart ({1006301, 1006303, 1006307, 1006309} and {1006331, 1006333, 1006337, 1006339})[10]\n1,024,000 = Sometimes, the number of bytes in a megabyte[11]\n1,030,301 = 1013, palindromic cube\n1,037,718 = Large Schröder number\n1,048,576 = 10242 = 324 = 165 = 410 = 220, the number of bytes in a mebibyte (previously called a megabyte)\n1,048,976 = smallest 7 digit Leyland number\n1,058,576 = Leyland number\n1,058,841 = 76 x 32\n1,077,871 = the amount of prime numbers between 0 and 16777216(2^24)\n1,084,051 = fifth Keith prime[12]\n1,089,270 = harmonic divisor number[13]\n1,111,111 = repunit\n1,112,083 = logarithmic number[14]\n1,129,30832 + 1 is prime[15]\n1,136,689 = Pell number,[16] Markov number[17]\n1,174,281 = Fine number[18]\n1,185,921 = 10892 = 334\n1,200,304 = 17 + 27 + 37 + 47 + 57 + 67 + 77 [19]\n1,203,623 = smallest unprimeable number ending in 3[20][21]\n1,234,321 = 11112, palindromic square\n1,246,863 = Number of 27-bead necklaces (turning over is allowed) where complements are equivalent[22]\n1,256,070 = number of reduced trees with 29 nodes[23]\n1,262,180 = number of triangle-free graphs on 12 vertices[24]\n1,278,818 = Markov number[17]\n1,290,872 = number of 26-bead binary necklaces with beads of 2 colors where the colors may be swapped but turning over is not allowed[25]\n1,296,000 = number of primitive polynomials of degree 25 over GF(2)[26]\n1,299,709 = 100,000th prime number\n1,336,336 = 11562 = 344\n1,346,269 = Fibonacci number,[27] Markov number[17]\n1,367,631 = 1113, palindromic cube\n1,413,721 = square triangular number[28]\n1,419,857 = 175\n1,421,280 = harmonic divisor number[13]\n1,441,440 = colossally abundant number,[29] superior highly composite number[30]\n1,441,889 = Markov number[17]\n1,500,625 = 12252 = 354\n1,539,720 = harmonic divisor number[13]\n1,563,372 = Wedderburn-Etherington number[31]\n1,594,323 = 313\n1,596,520 = Leyland number\n1,606,137 = number of ways to partition {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} and then partition each cell (block) into subcells.[32]\n1,607,521/1,136,689 ≈ √2\n1,647,086 = Leyland number\n1,671,800 = Initial number of first century xx00 to xx99 consisting entirely of composite numbers[33]\n1,679,616 = 12962 = 364 = 68\n1,686,049 = Markov prime\n1,687,989 = number of square (0,1)-matrices without zero rows and with exactly 7 entries equal to 1[34]\n1,719,900 = number of primitive polynomials of degree 26 over GF(2)[26]\n1,730,787 = Riordan number\n1,741,725 = equal to the sum of the seventh power of its digits\n1,771,561 = 13312 = 1213 = 116, also, Commander Spock's estimate for the tribble population in the Star Trek episode \"The Trouble with Tribbles\"\n1,864,637 = k such that the sum of the squares of the first k primes is divisible by k.[35]\n1,874,161 = 13692 = 374\n1,889,568 = 185\n1,928,934 = 2 x 39 x 72\n1,941,760 = Leyland number\n1,953,125 = 1253 = 59\n1,978,405 = 16 + 26 + 36 + 46 + 56 + 66 + 76 + 86 + 96 + 106 [36]","title":"Selected 7-digit numbers (1,000,001–9,999,999)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A002559-17"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Wolstenholme prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolstenholme_prime"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Fibonacci number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000045-27"},{"link_name":"repdigit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repdigit"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Motzkin number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motzkin_number"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A001006-44"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000011-22"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A002559-17"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000013-25"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000014-23"},{"link_name":"partially ordered set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_ordered_set"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"little Schroeder number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//oeis.org/A0001003"},{"link_name":"Catalan number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_number"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000108-46"},{"link_name":"prime numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_number"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000129-16"},{"link_name":"Wagstaff prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagstaff_prime"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"automorphic number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automorphic_number"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-automorphic-52"}],"sub_title":"2,000,000 to 2,999,999","text":"2,000,002 = number of surface-points of a tetrahedron with edge-length 1000[37]\n2,000,376 = 1263\n2,012,174 = Leyland number\n2,012,674 = Markov number[17]\n2,027,025 = double factorial of 15\n2,085,136 = 14442 = 384\n2,097,152 = 1283 = 87 = 221\n2,097,593 = Leyland prime[38]\n2,124,679 = largest known Wolstenholme prime[39]\n2,144,505 = number of trees with 21 unlabeled nodes[40]\n2,177,399 = smallest pandigital number in base 8.[41]\n2,178,309 = Fibonacci number[27]\n2,222,222 = repdigit\n2,266,502 = number of signed trees with 13 nodes[42]\n2,274,205 = the number of different ways of expressing 1,000,000,000 as the sum of two prime numbers[43]\n2,313,441 = 15212 = 394\n2,356,779 = Motzkin number[44]\n2,405,236 = Number of 28-bead necklaces (turning over is allowed) where complements are equivalent[22]\n2,423,525 = Markov number[17]\n2,476,099 = 195\n2,485,534 = number of 27-bead binary necklaces with beads of 2 colors where the colors may be swapped but turning over is not allowed[25]\n2,515,169 = number of reduced trees with 30 nodes[23]\n2,560,000 = 16002 = 404\n2,567,284 = number of partially ordered set with 10 unlabelled elements[45]\n2,646,723 = little Schroeder number\n2,674,440 = Catalan number[46]\n2,692,537 = Leonardo prime\n2,704,900 = initial number of fourth century xx00 to xx99 containing seventeen prime numbers[47][a] {2,704,901, 2,704,903, 2,704,907, 2,704,909, 2,704,927, 2,704,931, 2,704,937, 2,704,939, 2,704,943, 2,704,957, 2,704,963, 2,704,969, 2,704,979, 2,704,981, 2,704,987, 2,704,993, 2,704,997}\n2,744,210 = Pell number[16]\n2,796,203 = Wagstaff prime,[50] Jacobsthal prime\n2,825,761 = 16812 = 414\n2,890,625 = 1-automorphic number[51]\n2,922,509 = Markov prime\n2,985,984 = 17282 = 1443 = 126 = 1,000,00012 AKA a great-great-gross","title":"Selected 7-digit numbers (1,000,001–9,999,999)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sylvester's sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvester%27s_sequence"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"alternating factorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_factorial"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"repdigit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repdigit"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000045-27"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A002559-17"},{"link_name":"automorphic number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automorphic_number"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A001190-31"},{"link_name":"√2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root_of_2"}],"sub_title":"3,000,000 to 3,999,999","text":"3,111,696 = 17642 = 424\n3,200,000 = 205\n3,263,442 = product of the first five terms of Sylvester's sequence\n3,263,443 = sixth term of Sylvester's sequence[52]\n3,276,509 = Markov prime\n3,294,172 = 22×77[53]\n3,301,819 = alternating factorial[54]\n3,333,333 = repdigit\n3,360,633 = palindromic in 3 consecutive bases: 62818269 = 336063310 = 199599111\n3,418,801 = 18492 = 434\n3,426,576 = number of free 15-ominoes\n3,524,578 = Fibonacci number,[27] Markov number[17]\n3,554,688 = 2-automorphic number[55]\n3,626,149 = Wedderburn–Etherington prime[31]\n3,628,800 = 10!\n3,748,096 = 19362 = 444\n3,880,899/2,744,210 ≈ √2","title":"Selected 7-digit numbers (1,000,001–9,999,999)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A011260-26"},{"link_name":"Bell number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_number"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000957-18"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A004490-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A002201-30"},{"link_name":"pronic number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronic_number"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A002559-17"},{"link_name":"repdigit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repdigit"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000011-22"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A011260-26"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A277288-59"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000013-25"},{"link_name":"Riordan number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//oeis.org/A005043"}],"sub_title":"4,000,000 to 4,999,999","text":"4,008,004 = 20022, palindromic square\n4,037,913 = sum of the first ten factorials\n4,084,101 = 215\n4,100,625 = 20252 = 454\n4,194,304 = 20482 = 411 = 222\n4,194,788 = Leyland number\n4,202,496 = number of primitive polynomials of degree 27 over GF(2)[26]\n4,208,945 = Leyland number\n4,210,818 = equal to the sum of the seventh powers of its digits\n4,213,597 = Bell number[56]\n4,260,282 = Fine number[18]\n4,297,512 = 12-th derivative of xx at x=1[57]\n4,324,320 = colossally abundant number,[29] superior highly composite number,[30] pronic number\n4,400,489 = Markov number[17]\n4,444,444 = repdigit\n4,477,456 = 21162 = 464\n4,636,390 = Number of 29-bead necklaces (turning over is allowed) where complements are equivalent[22]\n4,741,632 = number of primitive polynomials of degree 28 over GF(2)[26]\n4,782,969 = 21872 = 97 = 314\n4,782,974 = n such that n \| (3n + 5)[58]\n4,785,713 = Leyland number\n4,794,088 = number of 28-bead binary necklaces with beads of 2 colors where the colors may be swapped but turning over is not allowed[25]\n4,805,595 = Riordan number\n4,826,809 = 21972 = 1693 = 136\n4,879,681 = 22092 = 474\n4,913,000 = 1703\n4,937,284 = 22222","title":"Selected 7-digit numbers (1,000,001–9,999,999)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000014-23"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Large Schröder number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//oeis.org/A006318"},{"link_name":"cyclic number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_number"},{"link_name":"base 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senary"},{"link_name":"repdigit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repdigit"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000045-27"}],"sub_title":"5,000,000 to 5,999,999","text":"5,049,816 = number of reduced trees with 31 nodes[23]\n5,096,876 = number of prime numbers having eight digits[59]\n5,134,240 = the largest number that cannot be expressed as the sum of distinct fourth powers\n5,153,632 = 225\n5,221,225 = 22852, palindromic square\n5,293,446 = Large Schröder number\n5,308,416 = 23042 = 484\n5,496,925 = first cyclic number in base 6\n5,555,555 = repdigit\n5,623,756 = number of trees with 22 unlabeled nodes[60]\n5,702,887 = Fibonacci number[27]\n5,761,455 = The number of primes under 100,000,000\n5,764,801 = 24012 = 494 = 78\n5,882,353 = 5882 + 23532","title":"Selected 7-digit numbers (1,000,001–9,999,999)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A001006-44"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000129-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A002559-17"},{"link_name":"repdigit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repdigit"}],"sub_title":"6,000,000 to 6,999,999","text":"6,250,000 = 25002 = 504\n6,436,343 = 235\n6,536,382 = Motzkin number[44]\n6,625,109 = Pell number,[16] Markov number[17]\n6,666,666 = repdigit\n6,765,201 = 26012 = 514\n6,948,496 = 26362, palindromic square","title":"Selected 7-digit numbers (1,000,001–9,999,999)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"automorphic number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automorphic_number"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-automorphic-52"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A002559-17"},{"link_name":"pandigital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandigital_number"},{"link_name":"prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_number"},{"link_name":"repdigit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repdigit"},{"link_name":"hit song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/777-9311"},{"link_name":"Prince","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_(musician)"},{"link_name":"The Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Time_(band)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A007629-12"}],"sub_title":"7,000,000 to 7,999,999","text":"7,109,376 = 1-automorphic number[51]\n7,311,616 = 27042 = 524\n7,453,378 = Markov number[17]\n7,529,536 = 27442 = 1963 = 146\n7,652,413 = Largest n-digit pandigital prime\n7,777,777 = repdigit\n7,779,311 = A hit song written by Prince and released in 1982 by The Time\n7,861,953 = Leyland number\n7,890,481 = 28092 = 534\n7,906,276 = pentagonal triangular number\n7,913,837 = Keith number[12]\n7,962,624 = 245","title":"Selected 7-digit numbers (1,000,001–9,999,999)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"repunit prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repunit_prime"},{"link_name":"base 14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_14"},{"link_name":"Mersenne number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersenne_number"},{"link_name":"Leyland number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyland_number"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A002559-17"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A001190-31"},{"link_name":"hit song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/867-5309/Jenny"},{"link_name":"Tommy Tutone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_Tutone"},{"link_name":"twin prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_prime"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"repdigit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repdigit"},{"link_name":"self-descriptive number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-descriptive_number"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000011-22"}],"sub_title":"8,000,000 to 8,999,999","text":"8,000,000 = Used to represent infinity in Japanese mythology\n8,108,731 = repunit prime in base 14\n8,388,607 = second composite Mersenne number with a prime exponent\n8,388,608 = 223\n8,389,137 = Leyland number\n8,399,329 = Markov number[17]\n8,436,379 = Wedderburn-Etherington number[31]\n8,503,056 = 29162 = 544\n8,675,309 = A hit song for Tommy Tutone (also a twin prime with 8,675,311)\n8,675,311 = Twin prime with 8,675,309\n8,877,691 = number of nonnegative integers with distinct decimal digits[61]\n8,888,888 = repdigit\n8,946,176 = self-descriptive number in base 8\n8,964,800 = Number of 30-bead necklaces (turning over is allowed) where complements are equivalent[22]","title":"Selected 7-digit numbers (1,000,001–9,999,999)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000045-27"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A002559-17"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000013-25"},{"link_name":"Newman–Shanks–Williams prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newman%E2%80%93Shanks%E2%80%93Williams_prime"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A002559-17"},{"link_name":"Stella octangula number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stella_octangula_number"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A277288-59"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A000108-46"},{"link_name":"primorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primorial"},{"link_name":"Leyland number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyland_number"},{"link_name":"triangular number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangular_number"},{"link_name":"repdigit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repdigit"}],"sub_title":"9,000,000 to 9,999,999","text":"9,000,000 = 30002\n9,150,625 = 30252 = 554\n9,227,465 = Fibonacci number,[27] Markov number[17]\n9,256,396 = number of 29-bead binary necklaces with beads of 2 colors where the colors may be swapped but turning over is not allowed[25]\n9,261,000 = 2103\n9,369,319 = Newman–Shanks–Williams prime[62]\n9,647,009 = Markov number[17]\n9,653,449 = square Stella octangula number\n9,581,014 = n such that n \| (3n + 5)[58]\n9,663,500 = Initial number of first century xx00 to xx99 that possesses an identical prime pattern to any century with four or fewer digits: its prime pattern of {9663503, 9663523, 9663527, 9663539, 9663553, 9663581, 9663587} is identical to {5903, 5923, 5927, 5939, 5953, 5981, 5987}[63][64]\n9,694,845 = Catalan number[46]\n9,699,690 = eighth primorial\n9,765,625 = 31252 = 255 = 510\n9,800,817 = equal to the sum of the seventh powers of its digits\n9,834,496 = 31362 = 564\n9,865,625 = Leyland number\n9,926,315 = equal to the sum of the seventh powers of its digits\n9,938,375 = 2153, the largest 7-digit cube\n9,997,156 = largest triangular number with 7 digits and the 4,471st triangular number\n9,998,244 = 31622, the largest 7-digit square\n9,999,991 = Largest 7-digit prime number\n9,999,999 = repdigit","title":"Selected 7-digit numbers (1,000,001–9,999,999)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-50"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"}],"text":"^ There are no centuries containing more than seventeen primes between 200 and 122,853,771,370,899 inclusive,[48] and none containing more than fifteen between 2,705,000 and 839,296,299 inclusive.[49]","title":"Notes"}]	[{"image_text":"Visualisation of powers of ten from 1 to 1 million","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Visualisation_1_million.svg/240px-Visualisation_1_million.svg.png"},{"image_text":"One million black dots (pixels) – each tile with white or grey background contains 1000 dots (full image)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/One_million_dots_1080p.png/240px-One_million_dots_1080p.png"}]	[{"title":"Huh (god)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huh_(god)"},{"title":"Megagon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megagon"},{"title":"Millionaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millionaire"},{"title":"Names of large numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_large_numbers"},{"title":"Orders of magnitude (numbers)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)"},{"title":"dimensionless numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensionless_number"}]	[{"reference":"\"million\". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. Retrieved 4 October 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/million","url_text":"\"million\""}]},{"reference":"\"m\". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on July 6, 2012. Retrieved 2015-06-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120706075722/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/m","url_text":"\"m\""},{"url":"http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/m","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"figures\". The Economist Style Guide (11th ed.). The Economist. 2015. ISBN 9781782830917.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=enIZBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT70","url_text":"\"figures\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781782830917","url_text":"9781782830917"}]},{"reference":"\"6.7 Abbreviating 'million' and 'billion'\". English Style Guide. A handbook for authors and translators in the European Commission (PDF) (2019 ed.). 26 February 2019. p. 37.","urls":[{"url":"https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/styleguide_english_dgt_en.pdf","url_text":"English Style Guide. A handbook for authors and translators in the European Commission"}]},{"reference":"\"m\". Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster Inc. Retrieved 2015-06-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/m","url_text":"\"m\""}]},{"reference":"\"Definition of 'M'\". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins Publishers. Retrieved 2015-06-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/m","url_text":"\"Definition of 'M'\""}]},{"reference":"Averkamp, Harold. \"Q&A: What Does M and MM Stand For?\". AccountingCoach.com. AccountingCoach, LLC. Retrieved 25 June 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.accountingcoach.com/blog/what-does-m-and-mm-stand-for","url_text":"\"Q&A: What Does M and MM Stand For?\""}]},{"reference":"\"FT makes change to style guide to benefit text-to-speech software\". Financial Times. The Financial Times Ltd. 4 February 2022. Retrieved 2024-03-13. The abbreviation of millions is now 'mn' instead of 'm'. One of the main reasons is to benefit text-to-speech software, which reads out the 'm' as metres instead of millions, confusing visually impaired readers. It also comes into line with our style for billion (bn) and trillion (tn).","urls":[{"url":"https://aboutus.ft.com/press_release/ft-makes-change-to-style-guide","url_text":"\"FT makes change to style guide to benefit text-to-speech software\""}]},{"reference":"David Wells (1987). The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers. London: Penguin Group. p. 185. 1,000,000 = 106","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Penguin_Dictionary_of_Curious_and_Interesting_Numbers","url_text":"The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A059925 (Initial members of two prime quadruples (A007530) with the smallest possible difference of 30)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A059925","url_text":"\"Sequence A059925 (Initial members of two prime quadruples (A007530) with the smallest possible difference of 30)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A007629 (Repfigit (REPetitive FIbonacci-like diGIT) numbers (or Keith numbers))\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A007629","url_text":"\"Sequence A007629 (Repfigit (REPetitive FIbonacci-like diGIT) numbers (or Keith numbers))\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A001599 (Harmonic or Ore numbers)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A001599","url_text":"\"Sequence A001599 (Harmonic or Ore numbers)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A002104 (Logarithmic numbers)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A002104","url_text":"\"Sequence A002104 (Logarithmic numbers)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A006315 (Numbers n such that n^32 + 1 is prime)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A006315","url_text":"\"Sequence A006315 (Numbers n such that n^32 + 1 is prime)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A000129 (Pell numbers)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000129","url_text":"\"Sequence A000129 (Pell numbers)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A002559 (Markoff (or Markov) numbers: union of positive integers x, y, z satisfying x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = 3xyz)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A002559","url_text":"\"Sequence A002559 (Markoff (or Markov) numbers: union of positive integers x, y, z satisfying x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = 3xyz)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A000957 (Fine's sequence (or Fine numbers): number of relations of valence > 0 on an n-set; also number of ordered rooted trees with n edges having root of even degree)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000957","url_text":"\"Sequence A000957 (Fine's sequence (or Fine numbers): number of relations of valence > 0 on an n-set; also number of ordered rooted trees with n edges having root of even degree)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A031971 (Sum_{1..n} k^n)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A031971","url_text":"\"Sequence A031971 (Sum_{1..n} k^n)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Collins, Julia (2019). Numbers in Minutes. United Kingdom: Quercus. p. 140. ISBN 978-1635061772.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1635061772","url_text":"978-1635061772"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A143641 (Odd prime-proof numbers not ending in 5)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A143641","url_text":"\"Sequence A143641 (Odd prime-proof numbers not ending in 5)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A000011 (Number of n-bead necklaces (turning over is allowed) where complements are equivalent)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000011","url_text":"\"Sequence A000011 (Number of n-bead necklaces (turning over is allowed) where complements are equivalent)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A000014 (Number of series-reduced trees with n nodes)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000014","url_text":"\"Sequence A000014 (Number of series-reduced trees with n nodes)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A006785 (Number of triangle-free graphs on n vertices)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A006785","url_text":"\"Sequence A006785 (Number of triangle-free graphs on n vertices)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A000013 (Definition (1): Number of n-bead binary necklaces with beads of 2 colors where the colors may be swapped but turning over is not allowed)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000013","url_text":"\"Sequence A000013 (Definition (1): Number of n-bead binary necklaces with beads of 2 colors where the colors may be swapped but turning over is not allowed)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A011260 (Number of primitive polynomials of degree n over GF(2))\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A011260","url_text":"\"Sequence A011260 (Number of primitive polynomials of degree n over GF(2))\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A000045 (Fibonacci numbers)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000045","url_text":"\"Sequence A000045 (Fibonacci numbers)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A001110 (Square triangular numbers)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A001110","url_text":"\"Sequence A001110 (Square triangular numbers)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A004490 (Colossally abundant numbers)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A004490","url_text":"\"Sequence A004490 (Colossally abundant numbers)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A002201 (Superior highly composite numbers)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A002201","url_text":"\"Sequence A002201 (Superior highly composite numbers)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A001190 (Wedderburn-Etherington numbers)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A001190","url_text":"\"Sequence A001190 (Wedderburn-Etherington numbers)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A000258 (Expansion of e.g.f. exp(exp(exp(x)-1)-1))\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000258","url_text":"\"Sequence A000258 (Expansion of e.g.f. exp(exp(exp(x)-1)-1))\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A181098 (Primefree centuries)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A181098","url_text":"\"Sequence A181098 (Primefree centuries)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A122400 (Number of square (0,1)-matrices without zero rows and with exactly n entries equal to 1)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A122400","url_text":"\"Sequence A122400 (Number of square (0,1)-matrices without zero rows and with exactly n entries equal to 1)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A111441 (Numbers k such that the sum of the squares of the first k primes is divisible by k)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A111441","url_text":"\"Sequence A111441 (Numbers k such that the sum of the squares of the first k primes is divisible by k)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A000540 (Sum of 6th powers: 0^6 + 1^6 + 2^6 + ... + n^6.)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000540","url_text":"\"Sequence A000540 (Sum of 6th powers: 0^6 + 1^6 + 2^6 + ... + n^6.)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A005893 (Number of points on surface of tetrahedron)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A005893","url_text":"\"Sequence A005893 (Number of points on surface of tetrahedron)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A094133 (Leyland primes)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A094133","url_text":"\"Sequence A094133 (Leyland primes)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A088164 (Wolstenholme primes)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A088164","url_text":"\"Sequence A088164 (Wolstenholme primes)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A000055 (Number of trees with n unlabeled nodes)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000055","url_text":"\"Sequence A000055 (Number of trees with n unlabeled nodes)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A049363 (a(1) = 1; for n > 1, smallest digitally balanced number in base n)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A049363","url_text":"\"Sequence A049363 (a(1) = 1; for n > 1, smallest digitally balanced number in base n)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A000060 (Number of signed trees with n nodes)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000060","url_text":"\"Sequence A000060 (Number of signed trees with n nodes)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A065577 (Number of Goldbach partitions of 10^n)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A065577","url_text":"\"Sequence A065577 (Number of Goldbach partitions of 10^n)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A001006 (Motzkin numbers)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A001006","url_text":"\"Sequence A001006 (Motzkin numbers)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A000112 (Number of partially ordered sets (posets) with n unlabeled elements)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000112","url_text":"\"Sequence A000112 (Number of partially ordered sets (posets) with n unlabeled elements)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A000108 (Catalan numbers)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000108","url_text":"\"Sequence A000108 (Catalan numbers)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A186509 (Centuries containing 17 primes)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A186509","url_text":"\"Sequence A186509 (Centuries containing 17 primes)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A186311 (Least century 100k to 100k+99 with exactly n primes)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A186311","url_text":"\"Sequence A186311 (Least century 100k to 100k+99 with exactly n primes)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A186408 (Centuries containing 16 primes)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A186408","url_text":"\"Sequence A186408 (Centuries containing 16 primes)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A000979 (Wagstaff primes)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000979","url_text":"\"Sequence A000979 (Wagstaff primes)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A003226 (Automorphic numbers)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A003226","url_text":"\"Sequence A003226 (Automorphic numbers)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A000058 (Sylvester's sequence)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000058","url_text":"\"Sequence A000058 (Sylvester's sequence)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A048102 (Numbers k such that if k equals Product p_i^e_i then p_i equals e_i for all i)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A048102","url_text":"\"Sequence A048102 (Numbers k such that if k equals Product p_i^e_i then p_i equals e_i for all i)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A005165 (Alternating factorials)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A005165","url_text":"\"Sequence A005165 (Alternating factorials)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A030984 (2-automorphic numbers)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A030984","url_text":"\"Sequence A030984 (2-automorphic numbers)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A000110 (Bell or exponential numbers)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000110","url_text":"\"Sequence A000110 (Bell or exponential numbers)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A005727 (n-th derivative of x^x at 1. Also called Lehmer-Comtet numbers)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A005727","url_text":"\"Sequence A005727 (n-th derivative of x^x at 1. Also called Lehmer-Comtet numbers)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A277288 (Positive integers n such that n divides (3^n + 5))\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A277288","url_text":"\"Sequence A277288 (Positive integers n such that n divides (3^n + 5))\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A006879 (Number of primes with n digits.)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A006879","url_text":"\"Sequence A006879 (Number of primes with n digits.)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A000055 (Number of trees with n unlabeled nodes)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000055","url_text":"\"Sequence A000055 (Number of trees with n unlabeled nodes)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A344389 (a(n) is the number of nonnegative numbers < 10^n with all digits distinct.)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A344389","url_text":"\"Sequence A344389 (a(n) is the number of nonnegative numbers < 10^n with all digits distinct.)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A088165 (NSW primes)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A088165","url_text":"\"Sequence A088165 (NSW primes)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A164987 (First pair of primes (p1, p2) that begin centuries of primes having the same prime configuration, ordered by increasing p2. Each configuration is allowed only once.)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A164987","url_text":"\"Sequence A164987 (First pair of primes (p1, p2) that begin centuries of primes having the same prime configuration, ordered by increasing p2. Each configuration is allowed only once.)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A258275 (Smallest number k > n such that the interval k100 to k100+99 has exactly the same prime pattern as the interval n100 to n100+99)\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A258275","url_text":"\"Sequence A258275 (Smallest number k > n such that the interval k100 to k100+99 has exactly the same prime pattern as the interval n100 to n100+99)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/One_million_dots_1080p.png","external_links_name":"(full image)"},{"Link":"http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/million","external_links_name":"\"million\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120706075722/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/m","external_links_name":"\"m\""},{"Link":"http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/m","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=enIZBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT70","external_links_name":"\"figures\""},{"Link":"https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/styleguide_english_dgt_en.pdf","external_links_name":"English Style Guide. A handbook for authors and translators in the European Commission"},{"Link":"http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/m","external_links_name":"\"m\""},{"Link":"https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/m","external_links_name":"\"Definition of 'M'\""},{"Link":"http://www.accountingcoach.com/blog/what-does-m-and-mm-stand-for","external_links_name":"\"Q&A: What Does M and MM Stand For?\""},{"Link":"https://aboutus.ft.com/press_release/ft-makes-change-to-style-guide","external_links_name":"\"FT makes change to style guide to benefit text-to-speech software\""},{"Link":"https://oeis.org/A059925","external_links_name":"\"Sequence A059925 (Initial members of two prime quadruples (A007530) with the smallest possible difference of 30)\""},{"Link":"http://www.computernostalgia.net/articles/HistoryoftheFloppyDisk.htm","external_links_name":"Tracing the History of the Computer - History of the Floppy Disk"},{"Link":"https://oeis.org/A007629","external_links_name":"\"Sequence A007629 (Repfigit (REPetitive FIbonacci-like diGIT) numbers (or Keith numbers))\""},{"Link":"https://oeis.org/A001599","external_links_name":"\"Sequence A001599 (Harmonic or Ore numbers)\""},{"Link":"https://oeis.org/A002104","external_links_name":"\"Sequence A002104 (Logarithmic numbers)\""},{"Link":"https://oeis.org/A006315","external_links_name":"\"Sequence A006315 (Numbers n such that n^32 + 1 is prime)\""},{"Link":"https://oeis.org/A000129","external_links_name":"\"Sequence A000129 (Pell numbers)\""},{"Link":"https://oeis.org/A002559","external_links_name":"\"Sequence A002559 (Markoff (or Markov) numbers: union of positive integers x, y, z satisfying x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = 3xyz)\""},{"Link":"https://oeis.org/A000957","external_links_name":"\"Sequence A000957 (Fine's sequence (or Fine numbers): number of relations of valence > 0 on an n-set; 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomopter	Entomopter	["1 Terrestrial entomopter","2 Mars entomopter","3 Funding and international recognition","4 See also","5 References","6 Selected reports and publications","7 External links"]	A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view. Please discuss further on the talk page. (March 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Terrestrial Entomopter model. An Entomopter is an aircraft that flies using the wing-flapping aerodynamics of an insect. The word is derived from entomo (meaning insect: as in entomology) + pteron (meaning wing). Entomopters are type of ornithopter, which is the broader term for any device intended to fly by flapping wings. Terrestrial entomopter The terrestrial Entomopter is a multimode (flying/crawling) insect-like robot developed by Robert C. Michelson and his design team from the Georgia Tech Research Institute (GTRI), University of Cambridge, ETS Labs and others. The Earth-bound entomopter has a 15 to 18 cm wing span. A twin set of wings situated fore and aft of the RCM provide balanced resonant flapping to create not only lift and thrust, but full vehicle control. Wing flapping occurs a 35 Hz constant rate. This biologically inspired aerial robot is classified as a micro air vehicle (MAV) because of its size. Mission payloads are around 10 grams with a full gross takeoff weight (GTOW) of 50 grams. Intended use is for covert indoor reconnaissance or operation in confined human-inaccessible spaces. Mars entomopter Visualization of entomopter flying on Mars (NASA) Flight in the atmosphere of Mars is difficult. Aerial Mars rovers using a conventional fixed wing would have to fly at over 250 mph just to stay aloft in the rarefied Mars atmosphere. This makes landing on the rocky surface almost impossible, thereby precluding sample inspection/gathering. Also, the high speed flight means that dwell time on any particular area will be difficult—a negative feature that is compounded by the fact that turns in the thin atmosphere will require enormous radii. An entomopter, on the other hand, can achieve abnormally high lift with rapidly flapping wings (in part due to the "leading edge vortex" phenomenon), and therefore allows the fuselage to move slowly in relation to the ground. An entomopter team led by Anthony Colozza of the Ohio Aerospace Institute received NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC) funding to study an entomopter concept for a potential future robotic Mars missions. They note that the Reynolds number for flight on Mars is equivalent to that found at over 100,000 feet (30 km) on Earth. Nothing currently flies with any regularity at this altitude. However, the Reynolds number regime for the tiny entomopter operating in Earth’s atmosphere is equivalent to a larger version (one-meter wing span) operating in the rarefied Mars atmosphere. In addition, the surface gravity of Mars is only 37% that of Earth, so an entomopter-based Mars Flyer would benefit by proportionately reduced weight, even at its increased size on Mars. An Entomopter-based Mars Flyer holds promise of not only flying slowly over the Martian landscape, but also of serving as a multimode vehicle which could land, take samples, recharge, or communicate, and then take off to continue the survey mission. It even has the potential of returning to its launch point for refueling, downloading of data, or transferring of samples. More recently, a new NIAC project, "Marsbee," was awarded to continue study of the concept of insect-like flight on Mars. Funding and international recognition The Entomopter project received initial internal research and development (IRAD) funding from the Georgia Institute of Technology beginning in 1996, and follow-on funding from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency DARPA, the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) and the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts. For endeavors related to the Entomopter, Michelson is the recipient of the 2001 Pirelli Award for the diffusion of scientific culture given by an international Jury for the “best multimedia project coming from any educational institution in the world.” He was also awarded the first Top Pirelli Prize (€25,000) for the work deemed best from an international field of over 1000 considered. See also Insect flight Ornithopter Bionics References ^ Michelson, R.C., The Entomopter, Neurotechnology for Biomimetic Robots, ISBN 0-262-01193-X, The MIT Press, September 2002, pp. 481 – 509, (chapter author). ^ a b c d Anthony Colozza, Planetary Exploration Using Biomimetics – An Entomopter for Flight on Mars, Phase I (abstract), NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts, 2000. See: Phase I study, Phase II study. Retrieved April 4, 2018. ^ a b Michelson, R.C., Naqvi, M.A., Extraterrestrial Flight (Entomopter-based Mars Surveyor), von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics RTO/AVT Lecture Series on Low Reynolds Number Aerodynamics on Aircraft Including Applications in Emerging UAV Technology, Brussels Belgium, 24–28 November 2003 ^ Space Daily, "Nature's Flight System Could Be Key To Exploring Mars," Dec 3, 2001 (accessed May 5, 2011) ^ Colozza, A., Michelson, R.C., et al., Planetary Exploration Using Biomimetics – An Entomopter for Flight on Mars, Phase II Final Report, NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts Project NAS5-98051, October 2002. abstract ^ Chang-kwon Kang, Marsbee - Swarm of Flapping Wing Flyers for Enhanced Mars Exploration, NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts, March 30, 2018. Retrieved April 4, 2018. Selected reports and publications Michelson, R.C., Novel Approaches to Miniature Flight Platforms, Proceedings of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 218 Part G: Journal of Aerospace Engineering, Special Issue Paper 2004, pp. 363–373 Michelson, R.C., Naqvi, M.A., Beyond Biologically-Inspired Insect Flight, von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics RTO/AVT Lecture Series on Low Reynolds Number Aerodynamics on Aircraft Including Applications in Emerging UAV Technology, Brussels Belgium, 24–28 November 2003 Colozza, A., Michelson, R.C., et al., Planetary Exploration Using Biomimetics – An Entomopter for Flight on Mars, Phase II Final Report, NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts Project NAS5-98051, October 2002 Michelson, R.C., Scaling of Biologically Inspired Aerial Robots, 5th International Workshop on Similarity Methods, Institut für Statik und Dynamik der Luft und Raumfahrtkonstruktionen, Universität Stuttgart, 4–5 November 2002, pp. 71 – 78 Michelson, R.C., Neurotechnology for Biomimetic Robots, ISBN 0-262-01193-X, The MIT Press, September 2002, pp. 481 – 509, (chapter author). External links Official Entomopter web site - The biologically inspired aerial robot conceived and developed by Prof. Michelson for terrestrial intelligence and planetary surveying applications. (Retrieved 26 August 2008) Online biosketch for Robert C. Michelson - Has many external links to Michelson's related work the Entomopter and with aerial robotics in general. (Retrieved 26 August 2008)	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yellow_SLA_Entomopter.jpg"},{"link_name":"entomology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomology"},{"link_name":"ornithopter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithopter"}],"text":"Terrestrial Entomopter model.An Entomopter is an aircraft that flies using the wing-flapping aerodynamics of an insect. The word is derived from entomo (meaning insect: as in entomology) + pteron (meaning wing). Entomopters are type of ornithopter, which is the broader term for any device intended to fly by flapping wings.","title":"Entomopter"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"robot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot"},{"link_name":"Robert C. Michelson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_C._Michelson"},{"link_name":"Georgia Tech Research Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_Tech_Research_Institute"},{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"biologically inspired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio-inspired_robotics"},{"link_name":"micro air vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_air_vehicle"}],"text":"The terrestrial Entomopter is a multimode (flying/crawling) insect-like robot developed by Robert C. Michelson and his design team from the Georgia Tech Research Institute (GTRI), University of Cambridge, ETS Labs and others.[1]The Earth-bound entomopter has a 15 to 18 cm wing span. A twin set of wings situated fore and aft of the RCM provide balanced resonant flapping to create not only lift and thrust, but full vehicle control. Wing flapping occurs a 35 Hz constant rate. This biologically inspired aerial robot is classified as a micro air vehicle (MAV) because of its size. Mission payloads are around 10 grams with a full gross takeoff weight (GTOW) of 50 grams. Intended use is for covert indoor reconnaissance or operation in confined human-inaccessible spaces.","title":"Terrestrial entomopter"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mars_entomopter.jpg"},{"link_name":"atmosphere of Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abstract-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VonKarmen-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Institute_for_Advanced_Concepts"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abstract-2"},{"link_name":"Reynolds number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reynolds_number"},{"link_name":"gravity of Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_of_Mars"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VonKarmen-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abstract-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NIAC-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Visualization of entomopter flying on Mars (NASA)Flight in the atmosphere of Mars is difficult. Aerial Mars rovers using a conventional fixed wing would have to fly at over 250 mph just to stay aloft in the rarefied Mars atmosphere. This makes landing on the rocky surface almost impossible, thereby precluding sample inspection/gathering. Also, the high speed flight means that dwell time on any particular area will be difficult—a negative feature that is compounded by the fact that turns in the thin atmosphere will require enormous radii. An entomopter, on the other hand, can achieve abnormally high lift with rapidly flapping wings (in part due to the \"leading edge vortex\" phenomenon), and therefore allows the fuselage to move slowly in relation to the ground.[2][3]An entomopter team led by Anthony Colozza of the Ohio Aerospace Institute[4] received NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC) funding to study an entomopter concept for a potential future robotic Mars missions.[2]\nThey note that the Reynolds number for flight on Mars is equivalent to that found at over 100,000 feet (30 km) on Earth. Nothing currently flies with any regularity at this altitude. However, the Reynolds number regime for the tiny entomopter operating in Earth’s atmosphere is equivalent to a larger version (one-meter wing span) operating in the rarefied Mars atmosphere. In addition, the surface gravity of Mars is only 37% that of Earth, so an entomopter-based Mars Flyer would benefit by proportionately reduced weight, even at its increased size on Mars.[3][2] An Entomopter-based Mars Flyer holds promise of not only flying slowly over the Martian landscape, but also of serving as a multimode vehicle which could land, take samples, recharge, or communicate, and then take off to continue the survey mission.[5] It even has the potential of returning to its launch point for refueling, downloading of data, or transferring of samples.More recently, a new NIAC project, \"Marsbee,\" was awarded to continue study of the concept of insect-like flight on Mars.[6]","title":"Mars entomopter"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Georgia Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"DARPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA"},{"link_name":"Air Force Research Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Research_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abstract-2"}],"text":"The Entomopter project received initial internal research and development (IRAD) funding from the Georgia Institute of Technology beginning in 1996, and follow-on funding from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency DARPA, the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) and the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts.[2] For endeavors related to the Entomopter, Michelson is the recipient of the 2001 Pirelli Award for the diffusion of scientific culture given by an international Jury for the “best multimedia project coming from any educational institution in the world.” He was also awarded the first Top Pirelli Prize (€25,000) for the work deemed best from an international field of over 1000 considered.","title":"Funding and international recognition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Karman_Institute_for_Fluid_Dynamics"},{"link_name":"NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Institute_for_Advanced_Concepts"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-262-01193-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-01193-X"}],"text":"Michelson, R.C., Novel Approaches to Miniature Flight Platforms, Proceedings of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 218 Part G: Journal of Aerospace Engineering, Special Issue Paper 2004, pp. 363–373\nMichelson, R.C., Naqvi, M.A., Beyond Biologically-Inspired Insect Flight, von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics RTO/AVT Lecture Series on Low Reynolds Number Aerodynamics on Aircraft Including Applications in Emerging UAV Technology, Brussels Belgium, 24–28 November 2003\nColozza, A., Michelson, R.C., et al., Planetary Exploration Using Biomimetics – An Entomopter for Flight on Mars, Phase II Final Report, NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts Project NAS5-98051, October 2002\nMichelson, R.C., Scaling of Biologically Inspired Aerial Robots, 5th International Workshop on Similarity Methods, Institut für Statik und Dynamik der Luft und Raumfahrtkonstruktionen, Universität Stuttgart, 4–5 November 2002, pp. 71 – 78\nMichelson, R.C., Neurotechnology for Biomimetic Robots, ISBN 0-262-01193-X, The MIT Press, September 2002, pp. 481 – 509, (chapter author).","title":"Selected reports and publications"}]	[{"image_text":"Terrestrial Entomopter model.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Yellow_SLA_Entomopter.jpg/300px-Yellow_SLA_Entomopter.jpg"},{"image_text":"Visualization of entomopter flying on Mars (NASA)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Mars_entomopter.jpg/220px-Mars_entomopter.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Insect flight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_flight"},{"title":"Ornithopter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithopter"},{"title":"Bionics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bionics"}]	[]	[{"Link":"http://www.niac.usra.edu/files/studies/abstracts/448Colozza.pdf","external_links_name":"abstract"},{"Link":"http://www.niac.usra.edu/studies/448Colozza.html","external_links_name":"Phase I study"},{"Link":"http://www.niac.usra.edu/studies/522Colozza.html","external_links_name":"Phase II study"},{"Link":"http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Natures_Flight_System_Could_Be_Key_To_Exploring_Mars.html","external_links_name":"Nature's Flight System Could Be Key To Exploring Mars"},{"Link":"http://angel-strike.com/entomopter/NIAC_Final_Report_10-31-02.pdf","external_links_name":"Phase II Final Report"},{"Link":"http://www.niac.usra.edu/files/studies/abstracts/448Colozza.pdf","external_links_name":"abstract"},{"Link":"https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/niac/2018_Phase_I_Phase_II/Marsbee_Swarm_of_Flapping_Wing_Flyers_for_Enhanced_Mars_Exploration","external_links_name":"Marsbee - Swarm of Flapping Wing Flyers for Enhanced Mars Exploration"},{"Link":"http://angel-strike.com/entomopter/EntomopterProject.html","external_links_name":"Official Entomopter web site"},{"Link":"http://angel-strike.com/rcmbio/RCM/MICHELSON.bio.html","external_links_name":"Online biosketch for Robert C. Michelson"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_first_artificial_satellites_by_country	List of first satellites by country	["1 Suborbital only","2 See also","3 References"]	First artificial satellites launched by country or territory As of 18 June 2024, over eighty countries have operated artificial satellites. Denotes international organisations Denotes countries formerly part of another country which already had a spacecraft in orbit Denotes countries with disputed sovereignty or recognition and autonomous dependent territories Country Satellite Operator Manufacturer Carrier rocket Launch site Date (UTC) Remarks Soviet Union Sputnik 1 OKB-1 OKB-1 Sputnik 8K71PS Baikonur 4 October 1957 First satellite launched United States Explorer 1 ABMA JPL Juno I RS-29 Cape Canaveral 1 February 1958 United Kingdom Ariel 1 RAE NASA / SERC Thor DM-19 Delta Cape Canaveral 26 April 1962 Canada Alouette 1 DRDC DRDC Thor DM-21 Agena-B Vandenberg 29 September 1962 Italy San Marco 1 CNR CRA Scout X-4 Wallops 15 December 1964 France Astérix CNES CNES Diamant A Hammaguir 26 November 1965 Australia WRESAT WRE WRE Sparta Woomera 29 November 1967 10 European countries Belgium Denmark France Germany Italy Netherlands Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom ESRO 2B ESRO Hawker Siddeley Scout B Vandenberg 17 May 1968 West Germany Azur DLR DLR / NASA Scout B Vandenberg 8 November 1969 Japan Ohsumi ISAS ISAS Lambda-4S Kagoshima 11 February 1970 People's Republic of China Dongfanghong I CAST CAST Chang Zheng 1 Jiuquan 24 April 1970 Netherlands ANS SRON / NASA Philips Scout D-1 Vandenberg 30 August 1974 Spain Intasat INTA Standard Electrica Delta 2310 Vandenberg 15 November 1974 India Aryabhata ISRO ISRO Kosmos-3M Kapustin Yar 19 April 1975 Indonesia Palapa A1 Perumtel Hughes Delta 2914 Cape Canaveral 8 July 1976 Czechoslovakia Magion 1 Kosmos-3M Plesetsk 24 October 1978 Bulgaria Bulgaria 1300 BSA Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Vostok-2M Plesetsk 7 August 1981 Saudi Arabia Arabsat-1A Arabsat Aérospatiale Ariane 3 Kourou 8 February 1985 Brazil Brasilsat A1 Embratel Hughes Mexico Morelos 1 SCT Hughes Space Shuttle Discovery Kennedy 17 June 1985 Deployed using PAM-D during STS-51-G Sweden Viking SSC Boeing/ Saab Ariane 1 Kourou 22 February 1986 Israel Ofek-1 IAI Shavit Palmachim 19 September 1988 Luxembourg Astra 1A SES Astra GE Astrospace Ariane 44LP Kourou 11 December 1988 Argentina Lusat AMSAT Argentina Ariane 40 Kourou 22 January 1990 Hong Kong AsiaSat 1 AsiaSat Hughes Chang Zheng 3 Xichang 7 April 1990 Hong Kong, a British Overseas Territory, became part of the People's Republic of China in July 1997 Pakistan Badr-1 SUPARCO SUPARCO Chang Zheng 2E Xichang 16 July 1990 Russia Kosmos 2175 Soyuz-U Plesetsk 21 January 1992 Successor state to the Soviet Union South Korea Kitsat-1 KAIST SSTL Ariane 42P Kourou 10 August 1992 Portugal PoSAT-1 PoSAT SSTL Ariane 40 Kourou 26 September 1993 Thailand Thaicom-1 Shin Satellite Hughes Ariane 44L Kourou 18 December 1993 Turkey Turksat 1B Türksat Aérospatiale Ariane 44LP Kourou 10 August 1994 Czech Republic Magion 4 Molniya-M Plesetsk 2 August 1995 Formerly part of Czechoslovakia Ukraine Sich-1 Tsyklon-3 Plesetsk 31 August 1995 Formerly part of the Soviet Union Chile FASat-Alfa SSTL Failed to separate Malaysia MEASAT-1 MEASAT Hughes Ariane 44L Kourou 13 January 1996 Norway Thor 2 Telenor Hughes Delta II 7925 Cape Canaveral 20 May 1997 Philippines Mabuhay (Agila 1) (former Palapa B2P) Mabuhay Delta-3920 Cape Canaveral 20 March 1987 Originally operated and launched for Indonesian company PT Pasifik Satelit Nusantara. Acquired while on orbit by Mabuhay in 1996 making it the first Philippine owned satellite. Mabuhay 1 (Agila 2) SS/Loral Chang Zheng 3B Xichang 19 August 1997 First Philippine satellite to be launched from space Egypt Nilesat 101 Nilesat Astrium Ariane 44P Kourou 28 April 1998 Singapore Taiwan ST-1 SingTelChunghwa Astrium Ariane 44P Kourou 25 August 1998 Taiwan Formosat-1 NSPO TRW Athena I Cape Canaveral 27 January 1999 South Africa SUNSAT Stellenbosch Stellenbosch Delta II 7920 Vandenberg 23 February 1999 Launched on same rocket as first Danish satellite Denmark Ørsted DMI CRI Launched on same rocket as first South African satellite Georgia Reflektor Energia-GPI Space Energia-GPI Space Soyuz-U Baikonur Site 1/5 17 July 1999 Formerly part of the Soviet Union United Arab Emirates Thuraya 1 Thuraya Boeing Zenit-3SL Odyssey 21 October 2000 Belgium PROBA-1 ESA Verhaert Space Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle Satish Dhawan 22 October 2001 Morocco Maroc-Tubsat TU Berlin Zenit-2 Baikonur 10 December 2001 Tonga Esiafi 1(formerly Comstar D4) TONGASAT SS/Loral Atlas SLV-3D Centaur-D1AR Cape Canaveral 21 February 1981 A private American satellite that transferred ownership to Tonga in April 2002 Algeria AlSAT-1 SSTL Kosmos-3M Plesetsk 28 November 2002 Greece Hellas-Sat 2 Hellas-Sat Astrium Atlas V 401 Cape Canaveral 13 May 2003 Nigeria NigeriaSat-1 SSTL Kosmos-3M Plesetsk 27 September 2003 Iran Sina-1 NPO Polyot Kosmos-3M Plesetsk 27 October 2005 Kazakhstan KazSat-1 Khrunichev Proton-M/DM3 Baikonur 17 June 2006 Formerly part of the Soviet Union Colombia Libertad-1 Dnepr Baikonur 17 April 2007 Mauritius Rascom-QAF 1 Rascom Alcatel Ariane 5GS Kourou 21 December 2007 Vietnam Vinasat-1 Vietnam Posts and Telecommunications Group Lockheed Martin Ariane 5ECA Kourou 18 April 2008 Venezuela Venesat-1 CAST Chang Zheng 3B/E Xichang 29 October 2008 Afghanistan Eutelsat 48D / Afghansat 1 Afghanistan Ministry of Communications and Information EADS Astrium Ariane 5ECA Kourou 20 December 2008 Satellite leased to the Afghanistan Ministry of Communications and Information in January 2014 Switzerland SwissCube-1 PSLV-CA Satish Dhawan 23 September 2009 Singapore X-Sat SATREC PSLV-C Satish Dhawan 20 April 2011 Isle of Man ViaSat-1 ViaSat-IOM, ManSat, Telesat-IOM SS/Loral Proton-M/Briz-M Baikonur 19 October 2011 Isle of Man is a Crown Dependency of the British sovereign Hungary MaSat-1 BME Vega Kourou 13 February 2012 Poland PW-Sat Warsaw University of Technology, Space Research Centre Deorbit on 28 October 2014 Romania Goliat Belarus BelKA-2 Soyuz-FG/Fregat Baikonur 22 July 2012 North Korea Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2 KCST Unha-3 Sohae 12 December 2012 Failed to operate in orbit Azerbaijan Azerspace-1/Africasat-1a Space Agency of the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azercosmos) Orbital Sciences Ariane 5ECA Kourou 7 February 2013 Independent since 1991 Austria TUGSAT-1/UniBRITE UTAIS PSLV-CA Satish Dhawan 25 February 2013 Austria's first two satellites were launched together Bermuda Bermudasat 1(former EchoStar VI) Bermudasat SS/Loral Atlas IIAS Cape Canaveral 14 July 2000 Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory; Bermudasat 1 (former private American EchoStar VI) satellite was transferred in April 2013 to Bermuda being at orbit Ecuador NEE-01 Pegaso EXA EXA Chang Zheng 2D Jiuquan 26 April 2013 Estonia ESTCube-1 Vega Kourou 7 May 2013 Estonia was formerly part of the Soviet Union. Jersey O3b-1/O3b-2/O3b-3/O3b-4 O3b Networks Thales Alenia Space Soyuz-STB/Fregat-MT Kourou 25 June 2013 Jersey's first four satellites were launched together. Jersey is a Crown Dependency of the British sovereign France Qatar Eutelsat 25B / Es'hail 1 EutelsatEs'hailSat SS/Loral Ariane 5ECA Kourou 29 August 2013 Qatar's first satellite flew as a joint project with the French corporation Eutelsat Qatar Es'hail 1 Es'hailSat SS/Loral Ariane 5ECA Kourou 29 August 2013 Full ownership of the joint France-Qatar satellite Eutelsat 25B / Es'hail 1 was sold to Es'hailsat in 2018 Peru PUCP-Sat 1 Dnepr Dombarovsky 21 November 2013 Pocket-PUCP Bolivia Túpac Katari 1 CAST Chang Zheng 3B/E Xichang 20 December 2013 Lithuania LitSat-1/Lituanica SAT-1 Antares 120 MARS LP-0A 9 January 2014 The first two Lithuanian satellites were launched together; both carried to the International Space Station and deployed later in the year. Lithuania was formerly part of the Soviet Union. Iraq Tigrisat MOST / La Sapienza La Sapienza Dnepr Dombarovsky 19 June 2014 Uruguay ANTELSAT ANTEL UdelaR Turkmenistan TurkmenAlem52E/MonacoSAT TNSA Alcatel Falcon 9 Cape Canaveral 27 April 2015 Formerly part of the Soviet Union. Laos Laosat-1 Laos National Authority for Science and Technology CAST Chang Zheng 3B/E Xichang 20 November 2015 Finland Aalto-2 Aalto University Aalto University Atlas V 401 Cape Canaveral 18 April 2017 Bangladesh BRAC ONNESHA BRACU KIT Falcon 9 Full Thrust Kennedy 3 June 2017 Launched on same rocket as first Ghanaian and Mongolian satellites Ghana GhanaSat-1 All Nations University Launched on same rocket as first Bangladeshi and Mongolian satellites Mongolia Mazaalai (satellite) National University of Mongolia Launched on same rocket as first Ghanaian and Bangladeshi satellites Latvia Venta 1 Ventspils University College Ventspils University College PSLV-CA Satish Dhawan 23 June 2017 Formerly part of the Soviet Union, Launched on same rocket as first Slovakian satellite Slovakia skCUBE SOSA SOSA Formerly part of Czechoslovakia, Launched on same rocket as first Latvian satellite Angola AngoSat 1 AngoSat RSC Energia Zenit-3F / Fregat-SB Baikonur 26 December 2017 Launch was successful but contact was lost quickly afterwards. On 28 December 2017, communication was restored and telemetry was received. New Zealand Humanity Star Rocket Lab Rocket Lab Electron Rocket Lab Launch Complex 1 21 January 2018 First satellite launched by New Zealand launcher. Costa Rica Proyecto Irazú Costa Rica Institute of Technology Costa Rica Institute of Technology Falcon 9 Cape Canaveral 2 April 2018 First satellite of Central America. Manufactured in Costa Rica. Kenya 1KUNS-PF University of Nairobi University of Nairobi Launched on same rocket as first Costa Rican satellite. Bhutan Bhutan 1 Bhutanese students under Kyutech-led second Joint Global Multination Birds Project (Birds-2) Kyushu Institute of Technology Falcon 9 Full Thrust Cape Canaveral 29 June 2018 Jordan JY1-SAT Jordanian students under the Crown Prince Foundation Falcon 9 Full Thrust Vandenberg 3 December 2018 Nepal NepaliSat-1 NASA for Nepal Academy of Science and Technology Kyushu Institute of Technology Antares 230 MARS LP0A 17 April 2019 Sri Lanka Raavana 1 Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Modern Technologies Kyushu Institute of Technology Rwanda RWASAT-1 Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Authority Rwandan engineers with support from the University of Tokyo H-IIB Tanegashima Space Center Yoshinobu Launch Complex 24 September 2019 Decay from orbit 27 April 2022 Sudan Sudan Remote Sensing Satellite 1 (SRSS-1) Sudan ISRA Long March 4B Taiyuan Satellite Launch Centre LC-9 3 November 2019 Ethiopia Ethiopian Remote Sensing Satellite 1 (ETRSS-1) Ethiopia Ethiopia Ethiopian Space Science and Technology Institute Long March 4B Taiyuan Satellite Launch Centre 20 December 2019 Guatemala Quetzal-1 Universidad del Valle de Guatemala Guatemala Students from the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala Falcon 9 Cape Canaveral SLC-40 7 March 2020 Slovenia TRISAT University of Maribor University of Maribor Vega Kourou 3 September 2020 Launched on same rocket as first Monégasque satellite. NEMO-HD Space-SI UTIAS / Space-SI Monaco OSM-1 Cicero Orbital Solutions Monaco Orbital Solutions Monaco Launched on same rocket as first two Slovenian satellites. Paraguay GuaraniSat-1 Paraguayan Space Agency and Kyutech-led fourth Joint Global Multination Birds Project Kyushu Institute of Technology Antares 230 MARS LP0A 20 February 2021 Launched on same rocket as first Myanma satellite. Myanmar Lawkanat-1 Myanmar Aerospace Engineering University Hokkaido University / Myanmar Aerospace Engineering University Launched on same rocket as first Paraguayan satellite. Tunisia Challenge-1 Telnet Tunisie Telnet Tunisie Soyuz-2.1a / Fregat Baikonur Site 31/6 22 March 2021 Kuwait QMR-KWT Orbital Space Kuwait Orbital Space Kuwait Falcon 9 CCSFS SLC-40 30 June 2021 Bahrain United Arab Emirates Light-1 New York University Abu Dhabi Engineers from Bahrain's space agency, NSSA, in collaboration with Khalifa University Falcon 9 CCSFS 21 December 2021 Bahrain's first satellite flew as a joint project with the UAE Space Agency Armenia Spain ARMSAT_1 Satlantis / Geocosmos Satlantis Falcon 9 Cape Canaveral SLC-40 25 May 2022 Joint satellite between Satlantis and Geocosmos Moldova TUMnanoSAT Technical University of Moldova Technical University of Moldova Falcon 9 Kennedy LC-39A 15 July 2022 Formerly part of the Soviet Union Uganda PearlAfricaSat-1 Ministry of Science, Technology and Inocation Ministry of Science, Technology and Inocation Antares MARS LP-0A 7 November 2022 Launched on the same rocket as the first Zimbabwean satellite Zimbabwe ZIMSAT-1 Zimbabwe National Geospatial and Space Agency Zimbabwe National Geospatial and Space Agency Launched on the same rocket as the first Ugandan satellite Albania Albania-1 State Authority for Geospatial Information Satellogic Falcon 9 Cape Canaveral SLC-40 3 January 2023 First Albanian satellites, launched as a pair Albania-2 Vatican City Italy SpeiSat Dicastery for Communication/ASI ASI Falcon 9 Vandenberg SLC-4E 12 June 2023 Joint satellite between the Italian Space Agency and the Vatican Dicastery for Communication Oman AMAN-1 ETCO SatRev Falcon 9 Vandenberg SLC-4E 11 November 2023 Launched on the same rocket as the first Djiboutian satellite Djibouti Djibouti-1A University of Djibouti University of Montpellier Launched on the same rocket as the first Omani satellite Armenia Hayasat-1 Bazoomq Space Research Laboratory Bazoomq Space Research Laboratory, Center of Scientific Innovation and Education Falcon 9 Vandenberg SLC-4E 1 December 2023 Ireland EIRSAT-1 University College Dublin University College Dublin Falcon 9 Vandenberg SLC-4E 1 December 2023 Suborbital only In addition, some countries have only attained a suborbital spaceflight, and have yet to launch a satellite into orbit. Country Payload Carrier rocket Launch site Date (UTC) Lebanon ARZ-3 Ceadar-3 Dbayeh 21 November 1962 Yemen Warhead Burkan-2 Sa'dah 4 November 2017 Croatia Postcard New Shepard Corn Ranch, Launch Site One 11 December 2019 Sealand Postcard New Shepard Corn Ranch, Launch Site One 13 October 2020 13:36 British Antarctic Territory Postcard New Shepard Corn Ranch, Launch Site One 14 January 2021 16:57 See also Timeline of first orbital launches by country Timeline of spaceflight References ^ a b c McDowell, Jonathan. "Launch Log". Jonathan's Space Page. Retrieved 1 May 2013. ^ Zak, Anatoly. "Sputnik's Mission". RussianSpaceWeb. Retrieved 4 March 2013. ^ "Explorer 1". Milestones of Flight. Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Retrieved 4 March 2013. ^ "Timeline: 1960s". Space Research: 50 Years and Beyond. University of Leicester. Retrieved 4 March 2013. ^ "Alouette I and II". Canadian Space Agency. Retrieved 4 March 2013. ^ a b Russo, Arturo (2002). The Century of Space Science. Vol. 1. Springer. p. 52. ISBN 0-7923-7196-8. ^ Kramer, Herbert J. (2002). Observation of the Earth and Its Environment: Survey of Missions and Sensors. Springer. p. 160. ISBN 3-5404-2388-5. ^ Williamson, Mark (2006). Spacecraft Technology: The Early Years. Institution of Engineering and Technology. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-86341-553-1. ^ a b "ESA Achievements" (PDF). European Space Agency. Retrieved 26 February 2013. ^ "ELDO/ESRO/ESA: Key Dates 1960-2013". European Space Agency. Retrieved 26 February 2013. ^ "When did the first German satellite go into space?". DLR. 23 November 2009. Retrieved 1 May 2013. ^ "Ohsumi". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 1 May 2013. ^ Long, Wei (25 April 2000). "China Celebrates 30th Anniversary Of First Satellite Launch". Space Daily. Retrieved 1 May 2013. ^ a b c d e f g h "First Time in History". The Satellite Encyclopedia. Retrieved 1 May 2013. ^ a b Ørsteds Resultater (PDF) (Technical report) (in Danish). Copenhagen: Danish Meteorological Institute. 1 March 2002. ISSN 0906-897X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2023. ^ "Reflektor". ^ a b c "Central and Eastern Europe Make History with Small Satellites". European Space Agency. 13 February 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2013. ^ Krebs, Gunter. "BKA (BelKa 2)". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 1 May 2013. ^ "Belarus' first satellite enters orbit". Xinhua. 24 July 2012. Archived from the original on 27 July 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2013. ^ Fisher, Max (12 December 2012). "Real-time satellite tracker shows precise location of North Korea's new satellite". Washington Post. Retrieved 1 May 2013. ^ Agayev, Zulfugar (8 February 2013). "First Azeri Satellite Launched, Two More Planned in 2015-2016". Bloomberg. Retrieved 1 May 2013. ^ "AUSTRIAN SATELLITES: BRITE-AUSTRIA & UniBRITE". BRITE-Constellation. Universität Wien. Archived from the original on 24 March 2013. Retrieved 1 May 2013. ^ Barbosa, Rui C. (26 April 2013). "China back in action with Long March 2D launch of Gaofen-1". NASASpaceflight.com. Retrieved 1 May 2013. ^ "Es'hailSat Makes Deal with Eutelsat to Fully Own Satellite - Via Satellite -". Via Satellite. 10 August 2018. ^ Krebs, Gunter. "AngoSat 1". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 1 May 2017. ^ "Источник: со спутником "Ангосат" восстановлена связь". ТАСС. ^ "Costa Rica Launches Its First Satellite Into Space with SpaceX". The Costa Rica Star. 2 April 2018. Retrieved 9 April 2018. ^ "Lawkanat 1, 2". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 20 July 2022. ^ "Cedre 3". astronautix. Archived from the original on 28 December 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2021. ^ "Burkan 2H". astronautix. Archived from the original on 16 July 2019. Retrieved 23 March 2021. ^ "SPACE-FLOWN POSTCARDS". Zagreb, HR ^ "Sealand stamps blasted into space". 13 November 2020. Retrieved 23 March 2021. ^ "NEW SHEPARD MISSION NS-14 CARRIES MORE THAN 50,000 POSTCARDS TO SPACE FROM 13 COUNTRIES". 14 January 2021. British research station in Antarctica vteSpaceflight lists and timelines Timeline of spaceflight General Space exploration outline timeline Spacecraft Spaceflight records Space Race Rocket and missile technology Human spaceflightGeneral Crewed spacecraft timeline by program Spaceflights 1961–1970 1971–1980 1981–1990 1991–2000 2001–2010 2011–2020 2021–present Soviet Russian Vostok and Voskhod Soyuz Mercury Gemini Apollo Skylab Shenzhou Gaganyaan Spacelab Artemis Civilian spaceflight Orbital Suborbital Salyut Expeditions Spaceflights crewed uncrewed Spacewalks Visitors Mir Expeditions ESA Spaceflights crewed uncrewed Spacewalks Visitors ISS Expeditions ESA Visiting Spaceflights crewed uncrewed Spacewalks Visitors Deployed Tiangong Expeditions Crewed Spaceflights Spacewalks Shuttle Crews Missions Rollbacks People Astronauts by name by year of selection Apollo Gemini Mercury Chinese Asian European Cosmonauts women Muslim Arab African American Ibero-America Space scientists Space travelers by name by first flight by nationality billionaires timeline by nationality Spaceflight-related human fatalities EVA 1965–1999 2000–2014 2015–present Cumulative spacewalk records Longest spacewalks Spacewalkers Solar Systemexploration Timeline Interplanetary voyages Landings on other planets rovers artificial objects Objects at Lagrange points Probes active orbiters leaving the Solar System lunar probes Missions to the Moon Timeline of satellites Sample-return mission Mars Earth-orbitingsatellites Communications satellite firsts CubeSats PocketQube Earth observation satellites Timeline of first Earth observation satellites Geosynchronous orbit GOES GPS Kosmos Magnetospheric NRO TDRS USA Vehicles Orbital launch systems Comparison Sounding rocket list Spacecraft uncrewed crewed heaviest Upper stages Sounding rocket Small-lift launch vehicle Medium-lift launch vehicle Heavy-lift launch vehicle Super heavy-lift launch vehicle Launchesby rocket type Ariane Antares Atlas Atlas LV3B Atlas LV3C Black Brant Electron Delta DM-19 Delta 1 Delta II Delta III Delta IV Heavy Delta IV Medium Delta IV Falcon 9 and Heavy 2010–2019 2020–2022 GSLV H-II and H3 Kosmos Long March Minotaur Proton PSLV R-7 (including Semyorka, Molniya, Vostok, Voskhod and Soyuz) Scout SLS Starship Thor and Delta Thor-Agena Thor DM-18 Able Thor DM-18 Agena-A Thor DM-18 Thor DM-21 Agena-B Titan Tsyklon V-2 tests Vega Vulcan Zenit Launches by spaceport Satish Dhawan Agencies, companiesand facilities Communications satellite companies comparison Private spaceflight companies Rocket launch sites Space agencies Spacecraft manufacturers Other mission listsand timelines First orbital launches by country First satellites by country NASA missions Constellation missions Timeline of first images of Earth from space Timeline of longest spaceflights Timeline of private spaceflight	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"artificial satellites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_satellites"}],"text":"As of 18 June 2024, over eighty countries have operated artificial satellites.","title":"List of first satellites by country"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"In addition, some countries have only attained a suborbital spaceflight, and have yet to launch a satellite into orbit.","title":"Suborbital only"}]	[]	[{"title":"Timeline of first orbital launches by country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_first_orbital_launches_by_country"},{"title":"Timeline of spaceflight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_spaceflight"}]	[{"reference":"McDowell, Jonathan. \"Launch Log\". Jonathan's Space Page. Retrieved 1 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://planet4589.org/space/log/launchlog.txt","url_text":"\"Launch Log\""}]},{"reference":"Zak, Anatoly. \"Sputnik's Mission\". RussianSpaceWeb. Retrieved 4 March 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.russianspaceweb.com/sputnik_mission.html","url_text":"\"Sputnik's Mission\""}]},{"reference":"\"Explorer 1\". Milestones of Flight. Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Retrieved 4 March 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://bairandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/gal100/exp1.html","url_text":"\"Explorer 1\""}]},{"reference":"\"Timeline: 1960s\". Space Research: 50 Years and Beyond. University of Leicester. Retrieved 4 March 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/physics/research/space/timeline/1960s","url_text":"\"Timeline: 1960s\""}]},{"reference":"\"Alouette I and II\". Canadian Space Agency. Retrieved 4 March 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/alouette.asp","url_text":"\"Alouette I and II\""}]},{"reference":"Russo, Arturo (2002). The Century of Space Science. Vol. 1. Springer. p. 52. ISBN 0-7923-7196-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7923-7196-8","url_text":"0-7923-7196-8"}]},{"reference":"Kramer, Herbert J. (2002). Observation of the Earth and Its Environment: Survey of Missions and Sensors. Springer. p. 160. ISBN 3-5404-2388-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-5404-2388-5","url_text":"3-5404-2388-5"}]},{"reference":"Williamson, Mark (2006). Spacecraft Technology: The Early Years. Institution of Engineering and Technology. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-86341-553-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=npI5NsFG8ngC","url_text":"Spacecraft Technology: The Early Years"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-553-1","url_text":"978-0-86341-553-1"}]},{"reference":"\"ESA Achievements\" (PDF). European Space Agency. Retrieved 26 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.esa.int/esapub/br/br250/br250.pdf","url_text":"\"ESA Achievements\""}]},{"reference":"\"ELDO/ESRO/ESA: Key Dates 1960-2013\". European Space Agency. Retrieved 26 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.esa.int/About_Us/Welcome_to_ESA/ESA_history/ELDO_ESRO_ESA_br_Key_dates_1960-2013","url_text":"\"ELDO/ESRO/ESA: Key Dates 1960-2013\""}]},{"reference":"\"When did the first German satellite go into space?\". DLR. 23 November 2009. Retrieved 1 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dlr.de/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-5170/8702_read-20724/","url_text":"\"When did the first German satellite go into space?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ohsumi\". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 1 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130511072752/http://www.isas.jaxa.jp/e/enterp/missions/ohsumi.shtml","url_text":"\"Ohsumi\""},{"url":"http://www.isas.jaxa.jp/e/enterp/missions/ohsumi.shtml","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Long, Wei (25 April 2000). \"China Celebrates 30th Anniversary Of First Satellite Launch\". Space Daily. Retrieved 1 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.spacedaily.com/news/china-00u.html","url_text":"\"China Celebrates 30th Anniversary Of First Satellite Launch\""}]},{"reference":"\"First Time in History\". The Satellite Encyclopedia. Retrieved 1 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tbs-satellite.com/tse/online/thema_first.html","url_text":"\"First Time in History\""}]},{"reference":"Ørsteds Resultater [Results of the Ørsted satellite] (PDF) (Technical report) (in Danish). Copenhagen: Danish Meteorological Institute. 1 March 2002. ISSN 0906-897X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dmi.dk/fileadmin/user_upload/Rapporter/TR/2002/tr02-11.pdf","url_text":"Ørsteds Resultater"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Meteorological_Institute","url_text":"Danish Meteorological Institute"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0906-897X","url_text":"0906-897X"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231004062344/https://www.dmi.dk/fileadmin/user_upload/Rapporter/TR/2002/tr02-11.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Reflektor\".","urls":[{"url":"https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/reflektor.htm","url_text":"\"Reflektor\""}]},{"reference":"\"Central and Eastern Europe Make History with Small Satellites\". European Space Agency. 13 February 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.esa.int/Education/Central_and_eastern_Europe_make_history_with_small_satellites","url_text":"\"Central and Eastern Europe Make History with Small Satellites\""}]},{"reference":"Krebs, Gunter. \"BKA (BelKa 2)\". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 1 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/belka-2.htm","url_text":"\"BKA (BelKa 2)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Belarus' first satellite enters orbit\". Xinhua. 24 July 2012. Archived from the original on 27 July 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120727184425/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/sci/2012-07/24/c_131733987.htm","url_text":"\"Belarus' first satellite enters orbit\""},{"url":"http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/sci/2012-07/24/c_131733987.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Fisher, Max (12 December 2012). \"Real-time satellite tracker shows precise location of North Korea's new satellite\". Washington Post. Retrieved 1 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2012/12/12/real-time-satellite-tracker-shows-precise-location-of-north-koreas-new-satellite/","url_text":"\"Real-time satellite tracker shows precise location of North Korea's new satellite\""}]},{"reference":"Agayev, Zulfugar (8 February 2013). \"First Azeri Satellite Launched, Two More Planned in 2015-2016\". Bloomberg. Retrieved 1 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-02-08/first-azeri-satellite-launched-two-more-planned-in-2015-2016.html","url_text":"\"First Azeri Satellite Launched, Two More Planned in 2015-2016\""}]},{"reference":"\"AUSTRIAN SATELLITES: BRITE-AUSTRIA & UniBRITE\". BRITE-Constellation. Universität Wien. Archived from the original on 24 March 2013. Retrieved 1 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130324122445/http://www.univie.ac.at/brite-constellation/html/brite-austria__unibrite.html","url_text":"\"AUSTRIAN SATELLITES: BRITE-AUSTRIA & UniBRITE\""},{"url":"http://www.univie.ac.at/brite-constellation/html/brite-austria__unibrite.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Barbosa, Rui C. (26 April 2013). \"China back in action with Long March 2D launch of Gaofen-1\". NASASpaceflight.com. Retrieved 1 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2013/04/china-back-in-action-long-march-2d-gaofen-1/","url_text":"\"China back in action with Long March 2D launch of Gaofen-1\""}]},{"reference":"\"Es'hailSat Makes Deal with Eutelsat to Fully Own Satellite - Via Satellite -\". Via Satellite. 10 August 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.satellitetoday.com/business/2018/08/10/eshailsat-makes-deal-with-eutelsat-to-fully-own-satellite/","url_text":"\"Es'hailSat Makes Deal with Eutelsat to Fully Own Satellite - Via Satellite -\""}]},{"reference":"Krebs, Gunter. \"AngoSat 1\". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 1 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/angosat-1.htm","url_text":"\"AngoSat 1\""}]},{"reference":"\"Источник: со спутником \"Ангосат\" восстановлена связь\". ТАСС.","urls":[{"url":"https://tass.ru/kosmos/4850396","url_text":"\"Источник: со спутником \"Ангосат\" восстановлена связь\""}]},{"reference":"\"Costa Rica Launches Its First Satellite Into Space with SpaceX\". The Costa Rica Star. 2 April 2018. 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Retrieved 23 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.astronautix.com/b/burkan2h.html","url_text":"\"Burkan 2H\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190716121521/http://www.astronautix.com/b/burkan2h.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"SPACE-FLOWN POSTCARDS\". Zagreb, HR","urls":[{"url":"https://www.clubforfuture.org/missions/mission-postcards/","url_text":"\"SPACE-FLOWN POSTCARDS\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sealand stamps blasted into space\". 13 November 2020. Retrieved 23 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://twitter.com/sealandgov/status/1327281317046857728?lang=en","url_text":"\"Sealand stamps blasted into space\""}]},{"reference":"\"NEW SHEPARD MISSION NS-14 CARRIES MORE THAN 50,000 POSTCARDS TO SPACE FROM 13 COUNTRIES\". 14 January 2021. British research station in Antarctica","urls":[{"url":"https://www.clubforfuture.org/news/new-shepard-mission-ns-14-carries-more-than-50-000-postcards-to-space-from-13-countries/","url_text":"\"NEW SHEPARD MISSION NS-14 CARRIES MORE THAN 50,000 POSTCARDS TO SPACE FROM 13 COUNTRIES\""}]}]	[{"Link":"http://planet4589.org/space/log/launchlog.txt","external_links_name":"\"Launch Log\""},{"Link":"http://www.russianspaceweb.com/sputnik_mission.html","external_links_name":"\"Sputnik's Mission\""},{"Link":"http://bairandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/gal100/exp1.html","external_links_name":"\"Explorer 1\""},{"Link":"http://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/physics/research/space/timeline/1960s","external_links_name":"\"Timeline: 1960s\""},{"Link":"http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/alouette.asp","external_links_name":"\"Alouette I and II\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=npI5NsFG8ngC","external_links_name":"Spacecraft Technology: The Early Years"},{"Link":"http://www.esa.int/esapub/br/br250/br250.pdf","external_links_name":"\"ESA Achievements\""},{"Link":"http://www.esa.int/About_Us/Welcome_to_ESA/ESA_history/ELDO_ESRO_ESA_br_Key_dates_1960-2013","external_links_name":"\"ELDO/ESRO/ESA: Key Dates 1960-2013\""},{"Link":"http://www.dlr.de/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-5170/8702_read-20724/","external_links_name":"\"When did the first German satellite go into space?\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130511072752/http://www.isas.jaxa.jp/e/enterp/missions/ohsumi.shtml","external_links_name":"\"Ohsumi\""},{"Link":"http://www.isas.jaxa.jp/e/enterp/missions/ohsumi.shtml","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.spacedaily.com/news/china-00u.html","external_links_name":"\"China Celebrates 30th Anniversary Of First Satellite Launch\""},{"Link":"http://www.tbs-satellite.com/tse/online/thema_first.html","external_links_name":"\"First Time in History\""},{"Link":"https://www.dmi.dk/fileadmin/user_upload/Rapporter/TR/2002/tr02-11.pdf","external_links_name":"Ørsteds Resultater"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0906-897X","external_links_name":"0906-897X"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231004062344/https://www.dmi.dk/fileadmin/user_upload/Rapporter/TR/2002/tr02-11.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/reflektor.htm","external_links_name":"\"Reflektor\""},{"Link":"http://www.esa.int/Education/Central_and_eastern_Europe_make_history_with_small_satellites","external_links_name":"\"Central and Eastern Europe Make History with Small Satellites\""},{"Link":"http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/belka-2.htm","external_links_name":"\"BKA (BelKa 2)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120727184425/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/sci/2012-07/24/c_131733987.htm","external_links_name":"\"Belarus' first satellite enters orbit\""},{"Link":"http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/sci/2012-07/24/c_131733987.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2012/12/12/real-time-satellite-tracker-shows-precise-location-of-north-koreas-new-satellite/","external_links_name":"\"Real-time satellite tracker shows precise location of North Korea's new satellite\""},{"Link":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-02-08/first-azeri-satellite-launched-two-more-planned-in-2015-2016.html","external_links_name":"\"First Azeri Satellite Launched, Two More Planned in 2015-2016\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130324122445/http://www.univie.ac.at/brite-constellation/html/brite-austria__unibrite.html","external_links_name":"\"AUSTRIAN SATELLITES: BRITE-AUSTRIA & UniBRITE\""},{"Link":"http://www.univie.ac.at/brite-constellation/html/brite-austria__unibrite.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2013/04/china-back-in-action-long-march-2d-gaofen-1/","external_links_name":"\"China back in action with Long March 2D launch of Gaofen-1\""},{"Link":"https://www.satellitetoday.com/business/2018/08/10/eshailsat-makes-deal-with-eutelsat-to-fully-own-satellite/","external_links_name":"\"Es'hailSat Makes Deal with Eutelsat to Fully Own Satellite - 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Clark_(historian)	Alice Clark (historian)	["1 Life","2 Suffragist activities","3 Selected works","4 References","5 Further reading","6 External links"]	British feminist and historian Alice Clark (1 August 1874 – 11 May 1934) was a British feminist and historian. Life Clark was a daughter of William Stephens Clark (1839-1925) and Helen Priestman Bright (1840–1927). The Clark family were Quakers, of shoe-making fame - C. and J. Clark Ltd. Manufacturer of boots, shoes & sheepskin rugs. One of Alice's sisters, Dr Hilda Clark, was an influential physician and specialist in the treatment of tuberculosis. Clark studied at the London School Economics (LSE) under the supervision of Lilian Knowles. Alice Clark argued that in 16th century England, women were engaged in many aspects of industry and agriculture. The home was a central unit of production and women played a central role in running farms, and some trades and landed estates. Their useful economic roles gave them a sort of equality with their husbands. Clark argued, however, that as capitalism expanded in the 17th century, there was increasingly more division of labour with the husband taking paid labour jobs outside the home, leaving the wife reduced to unpaid household work. Middle-class women were confined to an idle domestic existence, supervising servants; lower-class women were forced to take poorly paid jobs. Clark therefore contended that capitalism had a negative effect on powerful women. Suffragist activities The Clark family were involved in suffrage campaigning. Early in 1913, Alice Clark served on the executive committee of the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). They ran a six-week-long suffrage pilgrimage, ending in a large rally in Hyde Park. Alice carried a Street Women’s Suffrage banner made by her sister Esther. Selected works Working life of women in the seventeenth century, 1916 References ^ a b "Alice Clark and Alice Paul". London School of Economics and Political Science. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 20 September 2020. ^ Alice Clark, Working life of women in the seventeenth century (1919). Further reading Berg, Maxine. "The first women economic historians." Economic History Review 45.2 (1992): 308–329. in JSTOR Clark, Alice (1982). Working life of women in the seventeenth century. London: Routledge & K. Paul. ISBN 0-7100-9045-5. External links Alice Clark, working women’s historian. Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF National France BnF data Germany Italy Israel Belgium United States Netherlands People Deutsche Biographie Trove Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"feminist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism_in_the_United_Kingdom"}],"text":"Alice Clark (1 August 1874 – 11 May 1934) was a British feminist and historian.","title":"Alice Clark (historian)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Helen Priestman Bright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Bright_Clark"},{"link_name":"Quakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quakers"},{"link_name":"C. and J. Clark Ltd.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._%26_J._Clark"},{"link_name":"Dr Hilda Clark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr_Hilda_Clark"},{"link_name":"tuberculosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis"},{"link_name":"London School Economics (LSE)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_School_of_Economics"},{"link_name":"Lilian Knowles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilian_Knowles"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Clark was a daughter of William Stephens Clark (1839-1925) and Helen Priestman Bright (1840–1927). The Clark family were Quakers, of shoe-making fame - C. and J. Clark Ltd. Manufacturer of boots, shoes & sheepskin rugs. One of Alice's sisters, Dr Hilda Clark, was an influential physician and specialist in the treatment of tuberculosis.Clark studied at the London School Economics (LSE) under the supervision of Lilian Knowles.[1] Alice Clark argued that in 16th century England, women were engaged in many aspects of industry and agriculture. The home was a central unit of production and women played a central role in running farms, and some trades and landed estates. Their useful economic roles gave them a sort of equality with their husbands. Clark argued, however, that as capitalism expanded in the 17th century, there was increasingly more division of labour with the husband taking paid labour jobs outside the home, leaving the wife reduced to unpaid household work. Middle-class women were confined to an idle domestic existence, supervising servants; lower-class women were forced to take poorly paid jobs. Clark therefore contended that capitalism had a negative effect on powerful women.[2]","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Union_of_Women%27s_Suffrage_Societies"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"text":"The Clark family were involved in suffrage campaigning. Early in 1913, Alice Clark served on the executive committee of the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). They ran a six-week-long suffrage pilgrimage, ending in a large rally in Hyde Park. Alice carried a Street Women’s Suffrage banner made by her sister Esther.[1]","title":"Suffragist activities"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Working life of women in the seventeenth century, 1916","title":"Selected works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"in JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2597625?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents"},{"link_name":"Working life of women in the seventeenth century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/workinglifeofwom00clar"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7100-9045-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-9045-5"}],"text":"Berg, Maxine. \"The first women economic historians.\" Economic History Review 45.2 (1992): 308–329. in JSTOR\nClark, Alice (1982). Working life of women in the seventeenth century. London: Routledge & K. Paul. ISBN 0-7100-9045-5.","title":"Further reading"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"Alice Clark and Alice Paul\". London School of Economics and Political Science. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 20 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lse.ac.uk/about-lse/lse-leading-women/biographies/alice-clark-alice-paul.aspx","url_text":"\"Alice Clark and Alice Paul\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240318002707/https://www.lse.ac.uk/about-lse/lse-leading-women/biographies/alice-clark-alice-paul","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Clark, Alice (1982). Working life of women in the seventeenth century. London: Routledge & K. Paul. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide	Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide	["1 Physical and chemical properties","2 Concentration and state in cells","3 Biosynthesis","3.1 De novo production","3.2 Salvage pathways","4 Functions","4.1 Oxidoreductase binding of NAD","4.2 Role in redox metabolism","4.3 Non-redox roles","4.4 Extracellular actions of NAD+","5 Clinical significance","6 History","7 See also","8 References","9 Further reading","9.1 Function","9.2 History","10 External links"]	Chemical compound which is reduced and oxidized "NAD(P)+" and "NAD(P)H" redirect here. For the phosphates (NADP+/NADPH), see Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide Names Other names Diphosphopyridine nucleotide (DPN+), Coenzyme I Identifiers CAS Number 53-84-9 Y53-59-8 (phosphate) Y58-68-4 (NADH) Y 3D model (JSmol) NAD+: Interactive imageNADH: Interactive image ChEBI CHEBI:16908 N ChEMBL ChEMBL1628272 N ChemSpider 5681 Y DrugBank DB00157 Y ECHA InfoCard 100.000.169 IUPHAR/BPS 2451 KEGG C00003 N PubChem CID 925 RTECS number UU3450000 UNII 0U46U6E8UK YBY8P107XEP (phosphate) Y4J24DQ0916 (NADH) Y InChI InChI=1S/C21H27N7O14P2/c22-17-12-19(25-7-24-17)28(8-26-12)21-16(32)14(30)11(41-21)6-39-44(36,37)42-43(34,35)38-5-10-13(29)15(31)20(40-10)27-3-1-2-9(4-27)18(23)33/h1-4,7-8,10-11,13-16,20-21,29-32H,5-6H2,(H5-,22,23,24,25,33,34,35,36,37)/t10-,11-,13-,14-,15-,16-,20-,21-/m1/s1 YKey: BAWFJGJZGIEFAR-NNYOXOHSSA-N YInChI=1/C21H27N7O14P2/c22-17-12-19(25-7-24-17)28(8-26-12)21-16(32)14(30)11(41-21)6-39-44(36,37)42-43(34,35)38-5-10-13(29)15(31)20(40-10)27-3-1-2-9(4-27)18(23)33/h1-4,7-8,10-11,13-16,20-21,29-32H,5-6H2,(H5-,22,23,24,25,33,34,35,36,37)/t10-,11-,13-,14-,15-,16-,20-,21-/m1/s1Key: BAWFJGJZGIEFAR-NNYOXOHSBR SMILES NAD+: O=C(N)c1ccc(c1)2O((O)2O)COP()(=O)OP(=O)()OC5O(n4cnc3c(ncnc34)N)(O)5ONADH: O=C(N)C1CC=C(C=1)2O((O)2O)COP()(=O)OP(=O)()OC5O(n4cnc3c(ncnc34)N)(O)5O Properties Chemical formula C21H28N7O14P2 Molar mass 663.43 g/mol Appearance White powder Melting point 160 °C (320 °F; 433 K) Hazards Occupational safety and health (OHS/OSH): Main hazards Not hazardous NFPA 704 (fire diamond) 1 1 0 Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa). N verify (what is YN ?) Infobox references Chemical compound Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is a coenzyme central to metabolism. Found in all living cells, NAD is called a dinucleotide because it consists of two nucleotides joined through their phosphate groups. One nucleotide contains an adenine nucleobase and the other, nicotinamide. NAD exists in two forms: an oxidized and reduced form, abbreviated as NAD+ and NADH (H for hydrogen), respectively. In cellular metabolism, NAD is involved in redox reactions, carrying electrons from one reaction to another, so it is found in two forms: NAD+ is an oxidizing agent, accepting electrons from other molecules and becoming reduced; with H+, this reaction forms NADH, which can be used as a reducing agent to donate electrons. These electron transfer reactions are the main function of NAD. It is also used in other cellular processes, most notably as a substrate of enzymes in adding or removing chemical groups to or from proteins, in posttranslational modifications. Because of the importance of these functions, the enzymes involved in NAD metabolism are targets for drug discovery. In organisms, NAD can be synthesized from simple building-blocks (de novo) from either tryptophan or aspartic acid, each a case of an amino acid. Alternatively, more complex components of the coenzymes are taken up from nutritive compounds such as niacin; similar compounds are produced by reactions that break down the structure of NAD, providing a salvage pathway that recycles them back into their respective active form. Some NAD is converted into the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), whose chemistry largely parallels that of NAD, though its predominant role is as a coenzyme in anabolic metabolism. In the name NAD+, the superscripted plus sign indicates the positive formal charge on one of its nitrogen atoms. Physical and chemical properties Further information: Redox Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide consists of two nucleosides joined by pyrophosphate. The nucleosides each contain a ribose ring, one with adenine attached to the first carbon atom (the 1' position) (adenosine diphosphate ribose) and the other with nicotinamide at this position. The redox reactions of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide The compound accepts or donates the equivalent of H−. Such reactions (summarized in formula below) involve the removal of two hydrogen atoms from the reactant (R), in the form of a hydride ion (H−), and a proton (H+). The proton is released into solution, while the reductant RH2 is oxidized and NAD+ reduced to NADH by transfer of the hydride to the nicotinamide ring. RH2 + NAD+ → NADH + H+ + R; From the hydride electron pair, one electron is attracted to the slightly more electronegative atom of the nicotinamide ring of NAD+, becoming part of the nicotinamide moiety. The second electron and proton atom are transferred to the carbon atom adjacent to the N atom. The midpoint potential of the NAD+/NADH redox pair is −0.32 volts, which makes NADH a moderately strong reducing agent. The reaction is easily reversible, when NADH reduces another molecule and is re-oxidized to NAD+. This means the coenzyme can continuously cycle between the NAD+ and NADH forms without being consumed. In appearance, all forms of this coenzyme are white amorphous powders that are hygroscopic and highly water-soluble. The solids are stable if stored dry and in the dark. Solutions of NAD+ are colorless and stable for about a week at 4 °C and neutral pH, but decompose rapidly in acidic or alkaline solutions. Upon decomposition, they form products that are enzyme inhibitors. UV absorption spectra of NAD+ and NADH Both NAD+ and NADH strongly absorb ultraviolet light because of the adenine. For example, peak absorption of NAD+ is at a wavelength of 259 nanometers (nm), with an extinction coefficient of 16,900 M−1cm−1. NADH also absorbs at higher wavelengths, with a second peak in UV absorption at 339 nm with an extinction coefficient of 6,220 M−1cm−1. This difference in the ultraviolet absorption spectra between the oxidized and reduced forms of the coenzymes at higher wavelengths makes it simple to measure the conversion of one to another in enzyme assays – by measuring the amount of UV absorption at 340 nm using a spectrophotometer. NAD+ and NADH also differ in their fluorescence. Freely diffusing NADH in aqueous solution, when excited at the nicotinamide absorbance of ~335 nm (near-UV), fluoresces at 445–460 nm (violet to blue) with a fluorescence lifetime of 0.4 nanoseconds, while NAD+ does not fluoresce. The properties of the fluorescence signal changes when NADH binds to proteins, so these changes can be used to measure dissociation constants, which are useful in the study of enzyme kinetics. These changes in fluorescence are also used to measure changes in the redox state of living cells, through fluorescence microscopy. NADH can be converted to NAD+ in a reaction catalysed by copper, which requires hydrogen peroxide. Thus, the supply of NAD+ in cells requires mitochondrial copper(II). Concentration and state in cells In rat liver, the total amount of NAD+ and NADH is approximately 1 μmole per gram of wet weight, about 10 times the concentration of NADP+ and NADPH in the same cells. The actual concentration of NAD+ in cell cytosol is harder to measure, with recent estimates in animal cells ranging around 0.3 mM, and approximately 1.0 to 2.0 mM in yeast. However, more than 80% of NADH fluorescence in mitochondria is from bound form, so the concentration in solution is much lower. NAD+ concentrations are highest in the mitochondria, constituting 40% to 70% of the total cellular NAD+. NAD+ in the cytosol is carried into the mitochondrion by a specific membrane transport protein, since the coenzyme cannot diffuse across membranes. The intracellular half-life of NAD+ was claimed to be between 1–2 hours by one review, whereas another review gave varying estimates based on compartment: intracellular 1–4 hours, cytoplasmic 2 hours, and mitochondrial 4–6 hours. The balance between the oxidized and reduced forms of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide is called the NAD+/NADH ratio. This ratio is an important component of what is called the redox state of a cell, a measurement that reflects both the metabolic activities and the health of cells. The effects of the NAD+/NADH ratio are complex, controlling the activity of several key enzymes, including glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase and pyruvate dehydrogenase. In healthy mammalian tissues, estimates of the ratio of free NAD+ to NADH in the cytoplasm typically lie around 700:1; the ratio is thus favorable for oxidative reactions. The ratio of total NAD+/NADH is much lower, with estimates ranging from 3–10 in mammals. In contrast, the NADP+/NADPH ratio is normally about 0.005, so NADPH is the dominant form of this coenzyme. These different ratios are key to the different metabolic roles of NADH and NADPH. Biosynthesis NAD+ is synthesized through two metabolic pathways. It is produced either in a de novo pathway from amino acids or in salvage pathways by recycling preformed components such as nicotinamide back to NAD+. Although most tissues synthesize NAD+ by the salvage pathway in mammals, much more de novo synthesis occurs in the liver from tryptophan, and in the kidney and macrophages from nicotinic acid. De novo production Some metabolic pathways that synthesize and consume NAD+ in vertebrates. The abbreviations are defined in the text. Most organisms synthesize NAD+ from simple components. The specific set of reactions differs among organisms, but a common feature is the generation of quinolinic acid (QA) from an amino acid – either tryptophan (Trp) in animals and some bacteria, or aspartic acid (Asp) in some bacteria and plants. The quinolinic acid is converted to nicotinic acid mononucleotide (NaMN) by transfer of a phosphoribose moiety. An adenylate moiety is then transferred to form nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide (NaAD). Finally, the nicotinic acid moiety in NaAD is amidated to a nicotinamide (Nam) moiety, forming nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. In a further step, some NAD+ is converted into NADP+ by NAD+ kinase, which phosphorylates NAD+. In most organisms, this enzyme uses adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as the source of the phosphate group, although several bacteria such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis and a hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus horikoshii, use inorganic polyphosphate as an alternative phosphoryl donor. Salvage pathways use three precursors for NAD+. Salvage pathways Despite the presence of the de novo pathway, the salvage reactions are essential in humans; a lack of niacin in the diet causes the vitamin deficiency disease pellagra. This high requirement for NAD+ results from the constant consumption of the coenzyme in reactions such as posttranslational modifications, since the cycling of NAD+ between oxidized and reduced forms in redox reactions does not change the overall levels of the coenzyme. The major source of NAD+ in mammals is the salvage pathway which recycles the nicotinamide produced by enzymes utilizing NAD+. The first step, and the rate-limiting enzyme in the salvage pathway is nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT), which produces nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN). NMN is the immediate precursor to NAD+ in the salvage pathway. Besides assembling NAD+ de novo from simple amino acid precursors, cells also salvage preformed compounds containing a pyridine base. The three vitamin precursors used in these salvage metabolic pathways are nicotinic acid (NA), nicotinamide (Nam) and nicotinamide riboside (NR). These compounds can be taken up from the diet and are termed vitamin B3 or niacin. However, these compounds are also produced within cells and by digestion of cellular NAD+. Some of the enzymes involved in these salvage pathways appear to be concentrated in the cell nucleus, which may compensate for the high level of reactions that consume NAD+ in this organelle. There are some reports that mammalian cells can take up extracellular NAD+ from their surroundings, and both nicotinamide and nicotinamide riboside can be absorbed from the gut. The salvage pathways used in microorganisms differ from those of mammals. Some pathogens, such as the yeast Candida glabrata and the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae are NAD+ auxotrophs – they cannot synthesize NAD+ – but possess salvage pathways and thus are dependent on external sources of NAD+ or its precursors. Even more surprising is the intracellular pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis, which lacks recognizable candidates for any genes involved in the biosynthesis or salvage of both NAD+ and NADP+, and must acquire these coenzymes from its host. Functions Rossmann fold in part of the lactate dehydrogenase of Cryptosporidium parvum, showing NAD+ in red, beta sheets in yellow, and alpha helices in purple Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide has several essential roles in metabolism. It acts as a coenzyme in redox reactions, as a donor of ADP-ribose moieties in ADP-ribosylation reactions, as a precursor of the second messenger molecule cyclic ADP-ribose, as well as acting as a substrate for bacterial DNA ligases and a group of enzymes called sirtuins that use NAD+ to remove acetyl groups from proteins. In addition to these metabolic functions, NAD+ emerges as an adenine nucleotide that can be released from cells spontaneously and by regulated mechanisms, and can therefore have important extracellular roles. Oxidoreductase binding of NAD Further information: Protein structure and Oxidoreductase The main role of NAD+ in metabolism is the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another. Reactions of this type are catalyzed by a large group of enzymes called oxidoreductases. The correct names for these enzymes contain the names of both their substrates: for example NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase catalyzes the oxidation of NADH by coenzyme Q. However, these enzymes are also referred to as dehydrogenases or reductases, with NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase commonly being called NADH dehydrogenase or sometimes coenzyme Q reductase. There are many different superfamilies of enzymes that bind NAD+ / NADH. One of the most common superfamilies includes a structural motif known as the Rossmann fold. The motif is named after Michael Rossmann, who was the first scientist to notice how common this structure is within nucleotide-binding proteins. An example of a NAD-binding bacterial enzyme involved in amino acid metabolism that does not have the Rossmann fold is found in Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (PDB: 2CWH; InterPro: IPR003767). In this diagram, the hydride acceptor C4 carbon is shown at the top. When the nicotinamide ring lies in the plane of the page with the carboxy-amide to the right, as shown, the hydride donor lies either "above" or "below" the plane of the page. If "above" hydride transfer is class A, if "below" hydride transfer is class B. When bound in the active site of an oxidoreductase, the nicotinamide ring of the coenzyme is positioned so that it can accept a hydride from the other substrate. Depending on the enzyme, the hydride donor is positioned either "above" or "below" the plane of the planar C4 carbon, as defined in the figure. Class A oxidoreductases transfer the atom from above; class B enzymes transfer it from below. Since the C4 carbon that accepts the hydrogen is prochiral, this can be exploited in enzyme kinetics to give information about the enzyme's mechanism. This is done by mixing an enzyme with a substrate that has deuterium atoms substituted for the hydrogens, so the enzyme will reduce NAD+ by transferring deuterium rather than hydrogen. In this case, an enzyme can produce one of two stereoisomers of NADH. Despite the similarity in how proteins bind the two coenzymes, enzymes almost always show a high level of specificity for either NAD+ or NADP+. This specificity reflects the distinct metabolic roles of the respective coenzymes, and is the result of distinct sets of amino acid residues in the two types of coenzyme-binding pocket. For instance, in the active site of NADP-dependent enzymes, an ionic bond is formed between a basic amino acid side-chain and the acidic phosphate group of NADP+. On the converse, in NAD-dependent enzymes the charge in this pocket is reversed, preventing NADP+ from binding. However, there are a few exceptions to this general rule, and enzymes such as aldose reductase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase can use both coenzymes in some species. Role in redox metabolism A simplified outline of redox metabolism, showing how NAD+ and NADH link the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation Further information: Cellular respiration and Oxidative phosphorylation The redox reactions catalyzed by oxidoreductases are vital in all parts of metabolism, but one particularly important area where these reactions occur is in the release of energy from nutrients. Here, reduced compounds such as glucose and fatty acids are oxidized, thereby releasing energy. This energy is transferred to NAD+ by reduction to NADH, as part of beta oxidation, glycolysis, and the citric acid cycle. In eukaryotes the electrons carried by the NADH that is produced in the cytoplasm are transferred into the mitochondrion (to reduce mitochondrial NAD+) by mitochondrial shuttles, such as the malate-aspartate shuttle. The mitochondrial NADH is then oxidized in turn by the electron transport chain, which pumps protons across a membrane and generates ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. These shuttle systems also have the same transport function in chloroplasts. Since both the oxidized and reduced forms of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide are used in these linked sets of reactions, the cell maintains significant concentrations of both NAD+ and NADH, with the high NAD+/NADH ratio allowing this coenzyme to act as both an oxidizing and a reducing agent. In contrast, the main function of NADPH is as a reducing agent in anabolism, with this coenzyme being involved in pathways such as fatty acid synthesis and photosynthesis. Since NADPH is needed to drive redox reactions as a strong reducing agent, the NADP+/NADPH ratio is kept very low. Although it is important in catabolism, NADH is also used in anabolic reactions, such as gluconeogenesis. This need for NADH in anabolism poses a problem for prokaryotes growing on nutrients that release only a small amount of energy. For example, nitrifying bacteria such as Nitrobacter oxidize nitrite to nitrate, which releases sufficient energy to pump protons and generate ATP, but not enough to produce NADH directly. As NADH is still needed for anabolic reactions, these bacteria use a nitrite oxidoreductase to produce enough proton-motive force to run part of the electron transport chain in reverse, generating NADH. Non-redox roles The coenzyme NAD+ is also consumed in ADP-ribose transfer reactions. For example, enzymes called ADP-ribosyltransferases add the ADP-ribose moiety of this molecule to proteins, in a posttranslational modification called ADP-ribosylation. ADP-ribosylation involves either the addition of a single ADP-ribose moiety, in mono-ADP-ribosylation, or the transferral of ADP-ribose to proteins in long branched chains, which is called poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation. Mono-ADP-ribosylation was first identified as the mechanism of a group of bacterial toxins, notably cholera toxin, but it is also involved in normal cell signaling. Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is carried out by the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases. The poly(ADP-ribose) structure is involved in the regulation of several cellular events and is most important in the cell nucleus, in processes such as DNA repair and telomere maintenance. In addition to these functions within the cell, a group of extracellular ADP-ribosyltransferases has recently been discovered, but their functions remain obscure. NAD+ may also be added onto cellular RNA as a 5'-terminal modification. The structure of cyclic ADP-ribose Another function of this coenzyme in cell signaling is as a precursor of cyclic ADP-ribose, which is produced from NAD+ by ADP-ribosyl cyclases, as part of a second messenger system. This molecule acts in calcium signaling by releasing calcium from intracellular stores. It does this by binding to and opening a class of calcium channels called ryanodine receptors, which are located in the membranes of organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, and inducing the activation of the transcription factor NAFC3 NAD+ is also consumed by different NAD+-consuming enzymes, such as CD38, CD157, PARPs and the NAD-dependent deacetylases (sirtuins,such as Sir2.). These enzymes act by transferring an acetyl group from their substrate protein to the ADP-ribose moiety of NAD+; this cleaves the coenzyme and releases nicotinamide and O-acetyl-ADP-ribose. The sirtuins mainly seem to be involved in regulating transcription through deacetylating histones and altering nucleosome structure. However, non-histone proteins can be deacetylated by sirtuins as well. These activities of sirtuins are particularly interesting because of their importance in the regulation of aging. Other NAD-dependent enzymes include bacterial DNA ligases, which join two DNA ends by using NAD+ as a substrate to donate an adenosine monophosphate (AMP) moiety to the 5' phosphate of one DNA end. This intermediate is then attacked by the 3' hydroxyl group of the other DNA end, forming a new phosphodiester bond. This contrasts with eukaryotic DNA ligases, which use ATP to form the DNA-AMP intermediate. Li et al. have found that NAD+ directly regulates protein-protein interactions. They also show that one of the causes of age-related decline in DNA repair may be increased binding of the protein DBC1 (Deleted in Breast Cancer 1) to PARP1 (poly polymerase 1) as NAD+ levels decline during aging. The decline in cellular concentrations of NAD+ during aging likely contributes to the aging process and to the pathogenesis of the chronic diseases of aging. Thus, the modulation of NAD+ may protect against cancer, radiation, and aging. Extracellular actions of NAD+ In recent years, NAD+ has also been recognized as an extracellular signaling molecule involved in cell-to-cell communication. NAD+ is released from neurons in blood vessels, urinary bladder, large intestine, from neurosecretory cells, and from brain synaptosomes, and is proposed to be a novel neurotransmitter that transmits information from nerves to effector cells in smooth muscle organs. In plants, the extracellular nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide induces resistance to pathogen infection and the first extracellular NAD receptor has been identified. Further studies are needed to determine the underlying mechanisms of its extracellular actions and their importance for human health and life processes in other organisms. Clinical significance The enzymes that make and use NAD+ and NADH are important in both pharmacology and the research into future treatments for disease. Drug design and drug development exploits NAD+ in three ways: as a direct target of drugs, by designing enzyme inhibitors or activators based on its structure that change the activity of NAD-dependent enzymes, and by trying to inhibit NAD+ biosynthesis. Because cancer cells utilize increased glycolysis, and because NAD enhances glycolysis, nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAD salvage pathway) is often amplified in cancer cells. It has been studied for its potential use in the therapy of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease as well as multiple sclerosis. A placebo-controlled clinical trial of NADH (which excluded NADH precursors) in people with Parkinson's failed to show any effect. NAD+ is also a direct target of the drug isoniazid, which is used in the treatment of tuberculosis, an infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Isoniazid is a prodrug and once it has entered the bacteria, it is activated by a peroxidase enzyme, which oxidizes the compound into a free radical form. This radical then reacts with NADH, to produce adducts that are very potent inhibitors of the enzymes enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase, and dihydrofolate reductase. Since many oxidoreductases use NAD+ and NADH as substrates, and bind them using a highly conserved structural motif, the idea that inhibitors based on NAD+ could be specific to one enzyme is surprising. However, this can be possible: for example, inhibitors based on the compounds mycophenolic acid and tiazofurin inhibit IMP dehydrogenase at the NAD+ binding site. Because of the importance of this enzyme in purine metabolism, these compounds may be useful as anti-cancer, anti-viral, or immunosuppressive drugs. Other drugs are not enzyme inhibitors, but instead activate enzymes involved in NAD+ metabolism. Sirtuins are a particularly interesting target for such drugs, since activation of these NAD-dependent deacetylases extends lifespan in some animal models. Compounds such as resveratrol increase the activity of these enzymes, which may be important in their ability to delay aging in both vertebrate, and invertebrate model organisms. In one experiment, mice given NAD for one week had improved nuclear-mitochrondrial communication. Because of the differences in the metabolic pathways of NAD+ biosynthesis between organisms, such as between bacteria and humans, this area of metabolism is a promising area for the development of new antibiotics. For example, the enzyme nicotinamidase, which converts nicotinamide to nicotinic acid, is a target for drug design, as this enzyme is absent in humans but present in yeast and bacteria. In bacteriology, NAD, sometimes referred to factor V, is used as a supplement to culture media for some fastidious bacteria. History Arthur Harden, co-discoverer of NAD Further information: History of biochemistry The coenzyme NAD+ was first discovered by the British biochemists Arthur Harden and William John Young in 1906. They noticed that adding boiled and filtered yeast extract greatly accelerated alcoholic fermentation in unboiled yeast extracts. They called the unidentified factor responsible for this effect a coferment. Through a long and difficult purification from yeast extracts, this heat-stable factor was identified as a nucleotide sugar phosphate by Hans von Euler-Chelpin. In 1936, the German scientist Otto Heinrich Warburg showed the function of the nucleotide coenzyme in hydride transfer and identified the nicotinamide portion as the site of redox reactions. Vitamin precursors of NAD+ were first identified in 1938, when Conrad Elvehjem showed that liver has an "anti-black tongue" activity in the form of nicotinamide. Then, in 1939, he provided the first strong evidence that niacin is used to synthesize NAD+. In the early 1940s, Arthur Kornberg was the first to detect an enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway. In 1949, the American biochemists Morris Friedkin and Albert L. Lehninger proved that NADH linked metabolic pathways such as the citric acid cycle with the synthesis of ATP in oxidative phosphorylation. In 1958, Jack Preiss and Philip Handler discovered the intermediates and enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of NAD+; salvage synthesis from nicotinic acid is termed the Preiss-Handler pathway. In 2004, Charles Brenner and co-workers uncovered the nicotinamide riboside kinase pathway to NAD+. The non-redox roles of NAD(P) were discovered later. The first to be identified was the use of NAD+ as the ADP-ribose donor in ADP-ribosylation reactions, observed in the early 1960s. Studies in the 1980s and 1990s revealed the activities of NAD+ and NADP+ metabolites in cell signaling – such as the action of cyclic ADP-ribose, which was discovered in 1987. The metabolism of NAD+ remained an area of intense research into the 21st century, with interest heightened after the discovery of the NAD+-dependent protein deacetylases called sirtuins in 2000, by Shin-ichiro Imai and coworkers in the laboratory of Leonard P. Guarente. In 2009 Imai proposed the "NAD World" hypothesis that key regulators of aging and longevity in mammals are sirtuin 1 and the primary NAD+ synthesizing enzyme nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT). In 2016 Imai expanded his hypothesis to "NAD World 2.0", which postulates that extracellular NAMPT from adipose tissue maintains NAD+ in the hypothalamus (the control center) in conjunction with myokines from skeletal muscle cells. 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"Discoveries of Nicotinamide Riboside as a Nutrient and Conserved NRK Genes Establish a Preiss-Handler Independent Route to NAD+ in Fungi and Humans". Cell. 117 (4): 495–502. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(04)00416-7. PMID 15137942. S2CID 4642295. ^ Chambon P, Weill JD, Mandel P (1963). "Nicotinamide mononucleotide activation of new DNA-dependent polyadenylic acid synthesizing nuclear enzyme". Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 11: 39–43. doi:10.1016/0006-291X(63)90024-X. PMID 14019961. ^ Clapper DL, Walseth TF, Dargie PJ, Lee HC (15 July 1987). "Pyridine nucleotide metabolites stimulate calcium release from sea urchin egg microsomes desensitized to inositol trisphosphate". J. Biol. Chem. 262 (20): 9561–8. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)47970-7. PMID 3496336. ^ Imai S, Armstrong CM, Kaeberlein M, Guarente L (2000). "Transcriptional silencing and longevity protein Sir2 is an NAD-dependent histone deacetylase". Nature. 403 (6771): 795–800. Bibcode:2000Natur.403..795I. doi:10.1038/35001622. PMID 10693811. S2CID 2967911. ^ Imai S (2009). "The NAD World: a new systemic regulatory network for metabolism and aging--Sirt1, systemic NAD biosynthesis, and their importance". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 53 (2): 65–74. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9041-4. PMC 2734380. PMID 19130305. ^ Imai S (2016). "The NAD World 2.0: the importance of the inter-tissue communication mediated by NAMPT/NAD +/SIRT1 in mammalian aging and longevity control". npj Systems Biology and Applications. 2: 16018. doi:10.1038/npjsba.2016.18. PMC 5516857. PMID 28725474. ^ "Napa Therapeutics Formed to Develop Drugs to Influence NAD Metabolism". Fight Aging!. 17 August 2018. Retrieved 29 November 2023. Further reading Function Nelson DL; Cox MM (2004). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-4339-2. Bugg T (2004). Introduction to Enzyme and Coenzyme Chemistry (2nd ed.). Blackwell Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1-4051-1452-3. Lee HC (2002). Cyclic ADP-Ribose and NAADP: Structure, Metabolism and Functions. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4020-7281-9. Levine OS, Schuchat A, Schwartz B, Wenger JD, Elliott J (1997). "Generic protocol for population-based surveillance of Haemophilus influenzae type B" (PDF). World Health Organization. Centers for Disease Control. p. 13. WHO/VRD/GEN/95.05. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 July 2004. Kim, Jinhyun; Lee, Sahng Ha; Tieves, Florian; Paul, Caroline E.; Hollmann, Frank; Park, Chan Beum (5 July 2019). "Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide as a photocatalyst". Science Advances. 5 (7): eaax0501. Bibcode:2019SciA....5..501K. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aax0501. PMC 6641943. PMID 31334353. History Cornish-Bowden, Athel (1997). New Beer in an Old Bottle. Eduard Buchner and the Growth of Biochemical Knowledge. Valencia: Universitat de Valencia. ISBN 978-84-370-3328-0., A history of early enzymology. Williams, Henry Smith (1904). Modern Development of the Chemical and Biological Sciences. A History of Science: in Five Volumes. Vol. IV. New York: Harper and Brothers., a textbook from the 19th century. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. NAD bound to proteins in the Protein Data Bank NAD Animation (Flash Required) β-Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+, oxidized) and NADH (reduced) Chemical data sheet from Sigma-Aldrich NAD+, NADH and NAD synthesis pathway at the MetaCyc database List of oxidoreductases at the SWISS-PROT database NAD+ NAD+ The Molecule of Youth vteEnzyme cofactorsActive formsvitamins TPP / ThDP (B1) FMN, FAD (B2) NAD+, NADH, NADP+, NADPH (B3) Coenzyme A (B5) PLP / P5P (B6) Biotin (B7) THFA / H4FA, DHFA / H2FA, MTHF (B9) AdoCbl, MeCbl (B12) Ascorbic acid (C) Phylloquinone (K1), Menaquinone (K2) Coenzyme F420 non-vitamins ATP CTP SAMe PAPS GSH Coenzyme B Cofactor F430 Coenzyme M Coenzyme Q Heme / Haem (A, B, C, O) Lipoic Acid Methanofuran Molybdopterin Mycofactocin PQQ THB / BH4 THMPT / H4MPT metal ions Ca2+ Cu2+ Fe2+, Fe3+ Mg2+ Mn2+ Mo Ni2+ Zn2+ Base forms vitamins: see vitamins	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide_phosphate"},{"link_name":"coenzyme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cofactor_(biochemistry)"},{"link_name":"metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)"},{"link_name":"nucleotides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide"},{"link_name":"phosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphate"},{"link_name":"adenine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenine"},{"link_name":"nucleobase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleobase"},{"link_name":"nicotinamide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide"},{"link_name":"oxidized and reduced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox"},{"link_name":"hydrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"},{"link_name":"electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"oxidizing agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidizing_agent"},{"link_name":"reducing agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reducing_agent"},{"link_name":"electron transfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_transfer"},{"link_name":"substrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate_(biochemistry)"},{"link_name":"enzymes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme"},{"link_name":"chemical groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_group"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"posttranslational modifications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttranslational_modification"},{"link_name":"drug discovery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_discovery"},{"link_name":"de novo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_novo_synthesis"},{"link_name":"tryptophan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryptophan"},{"link_name":"aspartic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartic_acid"},{"link_name":"amino acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"niacin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacin"},{"link_name":"salvage pathway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvage_pathway"},{"link_name":"nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide_phosphate"},{"link_name":"anabolic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabolic"},{"link_name":"superscripted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subscript_and_superscript"},{"link_name":"formal charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_charge"}],"text":"Chemical compound which is reduced and oxidized\"NAD(P)+\" and \"NAD(P)H\" redirect here. For the phosphates (NADP+/NADPH), see Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate.Chemical compoundNicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is a coenzyme central to metabolism.[3] Found in all living cells, NAD is called a dinucleotide because it consists of two nucleotides joined through their phosphate groups. One nucleotide contains an adenine nucleobase and the other, nicotinamide. NAD exists in two forms: an oxidized and reduced form, abbreviated as NAD+ and NADH (H for hydrogen), respectively.In cellular metabolism, NAD is involved in redox reactions, carrying electrons from one reaction to another, so it is found in two forms: NAD+ is an oxidizing agent, accepting electrons from other molecules and becoming reduced; with H+, this reaction forms NADH, which can be used as a reducing agent to donate electrons. These electron transfer reactions are the main function of NAD. It is also used in other cellular processes, most notably as a substrate of enzymes in adding or removing chemical groups to or from proteins, in posttranslational modifications. Because of the importance of these functions, the enzymes involved in NAD metabolism are targets for drug discovery.In organisms, NAD can be synthesized from simple building-blocks (de novo) from either tryptophan or aspartic acid, each a case of an amino acid. Alternatively, more complex components of the coenzymes are taken up from nutritive compounds such as niacin; similar compounds are produced by reactions that break down the structure of NAD, providing a salvage pathway that recycles them back into their respective active form.Some NAD is converted into the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), whose chemistry largely parallels that of NAD, though its predominant role is as a coenzyme in anabolic metabolism.In the name NAD+, the superscripted plus sign indicates the positive formal charge on one of its nitrogen atoms.","title":"Nicotinamide adenine 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ribose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_diphosphate_ribose"},{"link_name":"nicotinamide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pollak-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NAD_oxidation_reduction.svg"},{"link_name":"redox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Belenky-6"},{"link_name":"hydride ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydride"},{"link_name":"proton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton"},{"link_name":"midpoint potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential#Non-standard_condition"},{"link_name":"volts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Unden-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pollak-5"},{"link_name":"amorphous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solid"},{"link_name":"hygroscopic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygroscopy"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"°C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celsius"},{"link_name":"pH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH"},{"link_name":"enzyme inhibitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NADNADH.svg"},{"link_name":"UV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet"},{"link_name":"image reference needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"ultraviolet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet"},{"link_name":"wavelength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength"},{"link_name":"nanometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanometer"},{"link_name":"extinction coefficient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_absorptivity"},{"link_name":"M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration#Molarity"},{"link_name":"cm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centimetre"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dawson-10"},{"link_name":"absorption spectra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_spectra"},{"link_name":"enzyme assays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_assay"},{"link_name":"spectrophotometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrophotometry"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dawson-10"},{"link_name":"fluorescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence"},{"link_name":"fluorescence lifetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence#Lifetime"},{"link_name":"nanoseconds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanosecond"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blacker_Mann_Gale_Ziegler_p.-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lakowicz-12"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"dissociation constants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociation_constant"},{"link_name":"enzyme kinetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_kinetics"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lakowicz-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"fluorescence microscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence_microscope"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kasimova-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"Further information: RedoxNicotinamide adenine dinucleotide consists of two nucleosides joined by pyrophosphate. The nucleosides each contain a ribose ring, one with adenine attached to the first carbon atom (the 1' position) (adenosine diphosphate ribose) and the other with nicotinamide at this position.[4][5]The redox reactions of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotideThe compound accepts or donates the equivalent of H−.[6] Such reactions (summarized in formula below) involve the removal of two hydrogen atoms from the reactant (R), in the form of a hydride ion (H−), and a proton (H+). The proton is released into solution, while the reductant RH2 is oxidized and NAD+ reduced to NADH by transfer of the hydride to the nicotinamide ring.RH2 + NAD+ → NADH + H+ + R;From the hydride electron pair, one electron is attracted to the slightly more electronegative atom of the nicotinamide ring of NAD+, becoming part of the nicotinamide moiety. The second electron and proton atom are transferred to the carbon atom adjacent to the N atom. The midpoint potential of the NAD+/NADH redox pair is −0.32 volts, which makes NADH a moderately strong reducing agent.[7] The reaction is easily reversible, when NADH reduces another molecule and is re-oxidized to NAD+. This means the coenzyme can continuously cycle between the NAD+ and NADH forms without being consumed.[5]In appearance, all forms of this coenzyme are white amorphous powders that are hygroscopic and highly water-soluble.[8] The solids are stable if stored dry and in the dark. Solutions of NAD+ are colorless and stable for about a week at 4 °C and neutral pH, but decompose rapidly in acidic or alkaline solutions. Upon decomposition, they form products that are enzyme inhibitors.[9]UV absorption spectra of NAD+ and NADH[image reference needed]Both NAD+ and NADH strongly absorb ultraviolet light because of the adenine. For example, peak absorption of NAD+ is at a wavelength of 259 nanometers (nm), with an extinction coefficient of 16,900 M−1cm−1. NADH also absorbs at higher wavelengths, with a second peak in UV absorption at 339 nm with an extinction coefficient of 6,220 M−1cm−1.[10] This difference in the ultraviolet absorption spectra between the oxidized and reduced forms of the coenzymes at higher wavelengths makes it simple to measure the conversion of one to another in enzyme assays – by measuring the amount of UV absorption at 340 nm using a spectrophotometer.[10]NAD+ and NADH also differ in their fluorescence. Freely diffusing NADH in aqueous solution, when excited at the nicotinamide absorbance of ~335 nm (near-UV), fluoresces at 445–460 nm (violet to blue) with a fluorescence lifetime of 0.4 nanoseconds, while NAD+ does not fluoresce.[11][12] The properties of the fluorescence signal changes when NADH binds to proteins, so these changes can be used to measure dissociation constants, which are useful in the study of enzyme kinetics.[12][13] These changes in fluorescence are also used to measure changes in the redox state of living cells, through fluorescence microscopy.[14]NADH can be converted to NAD+ in a reaction catalysed by copper, which requires hydrogen peroxide. Thus, the supply of NAD+ in cells requires mitochondrial copper(II).[15][16]","title":"Physical and chemical properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"μmole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micromole"},{"link_name":"gram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"cytosol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytosol"},{"link_name":"mM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_concentration"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yang-19"},{"link_name":"yeast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Belenky2-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid31412683-22"},{"link_name":"membrane transport protein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_transport_protein"},{"link_name":"diffuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"half-life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_half-life"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid27465020-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid29413178-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyceraldehyde_3-phosphate_dehydrogenase"},{"link_name":"pyruvate dehydrogenase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyruvate_dehydrogenase"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Williamson-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhang-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"NADP+/NADPH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide_phosphate"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"text":"In rat liver, the total amount of NAD+ and NADH is approximately 1 μmole per gram of wet weight, about 10 times the concentration of NADP+ and NADPH in the same cells.[17] The actual concentration of NAD+ in cell cytosol is harder to measure, with recent estimates in animal cells ranging around 0.3 mM,[18][19] and approximately 1.0 to 2.0 mM in yeast.[20] However, more than 80% of NADH fluorescence in mitochondria is from bound form, so the concentration in solution is much lower.[21]NAD+ concentrations are highest in the mitochondria, constituting 40% to 70% of the total cellular NAD+.[22] NAD+ in the cytosol is carried into the mitochondrion by a specific membrane transport protein, since the coenzyme cannot diffuse across membranes.[23] The intracellular half-life of NAD+ was claimed to be between 1–2 hours by one review,[24] whereas another review gave varying estimates based on compartment: intracellular 1–4 hours, cytoplasmic 2 hours, and mitochondrial 4–6 hours.[25]The balance between the oxidized and reduced forms of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide is called the NAD+/NADH ratio. This ratio is an important component of what is called the redox state of a cell, a measurement that reflects both the metabolic activities and the health of cells.[26] The effects of the NAD+/NADH ratio are complex, controlling the activity of several key enzymes, including glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase and pyruvate dehydrogenase. In healthy mammalian tissues, estimates of the ratio of free NAD+ to NADH in the cytoplasm typically lie around 700:1; the ratio is thus favorable for oxidative reactions.[27][28] The ratio of total NAD+/NADH is much lower, with estimates ranging from 3–10 in mammals.[29] In contrast, the NADP+/NADPH ratio is normally about 0.005, so NADPH is the dominant form of this coenzyme.[30] These different ratios are key to the different metabolic roles of NADH and NADPH.","title":"Concentration and state in cells"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"de novo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_novo_synthesis"},{"link_name":"nicotinamide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide"},{"link_name":"macrophages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage"},{"link_name":"nicotinic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinic_acid"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid32097708-31"}],"text":"NAD+ is synthesized through two metabolic pathways. It is produced either in a de novo pathway from amino acids or in salvage pathways by recycling preformed components such as nicotinamide back to NAD+. Although most tissues synthesize NAD+ by the salvage pathway in mammals, much more de novo synthesis occurs in the liver from tryptophan, and in the kidney and macrophages from nicotinic acid.[31]","title":"Biosynthesis"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NAD_metabolism.svg"},{"link_name":"metabolic pathways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_pathway"},{"link_name":"vertebrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate"},{"link_name":"image reference needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Belenky-6"},{"link_name":"quinolinic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinolinic_acid"},{"link_name":"tryptophan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryptophan"},{"link_name":"aspartic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartic_acid"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"amidated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amide"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Belenky-6"},{"link_name":"NAD+ kinase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAD%2B_kinase"},{"link_name":"phosphorylates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorylates"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"adenosine triphosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate"},{"link_name":"Mycobacterium tuberculosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis"},{"link_name":"archaeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeon"},{"link_name":"Pyrococcus horikoshii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrococcus"},{"link_name":"polyphosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphosphate"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NA,_N_and_NR.svg"}],"sub_title":"De novo production","text":"Some metabolic pathways that synthesize and consume NAD+ in vertebrates.[image reference needed] The abbreviations are defined in the text.Most organisms synthesize NAD+ from simple components.[6] The specific set of reactions differs among organisms, but a common feature is the generation of quinolinic acid (QA) from an amino acid – either tryptophan (Trp) in animals and some bacteria, or aspartic acid (Asp) in some bacteria and plants.[32][33] The quinolinic acid is converted to nicotinic acid mononucleotide (NaMN) by transfer of a phosphoribose moiety. An adenylate moiety is then transferred to form nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide (NaAD). Finally, the nicotinic acid moiety in NaAD is amidated to a nicotinamide (Nam) moiety, forming nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide.[6]In a further step, some NAD+ is converted into NADP+ by NAD+ kinase, which phosphorylates NAD+.[34] In most organisms, this enzyme uses adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as the source of the phosphate group, although several bacteria such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis and a hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus horikoshii, use inorganic polyphosphate as an alternative phosphoryl donor.[35][36]Salvage pathways use three precursors for NAD+.","title":"Biosynthesis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"niacin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacin"},{"link_name":"vitamin deficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_deficiency"},{"link_name":"pellagra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pellagra"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Belenky-6"},{"link_name":"nicotinamide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid29514064-38"},{"link_name":"nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_phosphoribosyltransferase"},{"link_name":"nicotinamide mononucleotide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_mononucleotide"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid29514064-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"nicotinamide riboside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_riboside"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Belenky-6"},{"link_name":"cell nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleus"},{"link_name":"organelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organelle"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"microorganisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganism"},{"link_name":"mammals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rongvaux-43"},{"link_name":"Candida glabrata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candida_glabrata"},{"link_name":"Haemophilus influenzae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae"},{"link_name":"auxotrophs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxotroph"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"pathogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen"},{"link_name":"Chlamydia trachomatis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydia_trachomatis"},{"link_name":"host","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_(biology)"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"sub_title":"Salvage pathways","text":"Despite the presence of the de novo pathway, the salvage reactions are essential in humans; a lack of niacin in the diet causes the vitamin deficiency disease pellagra.[37] This high requirement for NAD+ results from the constant consumption of the coenzyme in reactions such as posttranslational modifications, since the cycling of NAD+ between oxidized and reduced forms in redox reactions does not change the overall levels of the coenzyme.[6]\nThe major source of NAD+ in mammals is the salvage pathway which recycles the nicotinamide produced by enzymes utilizing NAD+.[38] The first step, and the rate-limiting enzyme in the salvage pathway is nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT), which produces nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN).[38] NMN is the immediate precursor to NAD+ in the salvage pathway.[39]Besides assembling NAD+ de novo from simple amino acid precursors, cells also salvage preformed compounds containing a pyridine base. The three vitamin precursors used in these salvage metabolic pathways are nicotinic acid (NA), nicotinamide (Nam) and nicotinamide riboside (NR).[6] These compounds can be taken up from the diet and are termed vitamin B3 or niacin. However, these compounds are also produced within cells and by digestion of cellular NAD+. Some of the enzymes involved in these salvage pathways appear to be concentrated in the cell nucleus, which may compensate for the high level of reactions that consume NAD+ in this organelle.[40] There are some reports that mammalian cells can take up extracellular NAD+ from their surroundings,[41] and both nicotinamide and nicotinamide riboside can be absorbed from the gut.[42]The salvage pathways used in microorganisms differ from those of mammals.[43] Some pathogens, such as the yeast Candida glabrata and the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae are NAD+ auxotrophs – they cannot synthesize NAD+ – but possess salvage pathways and thus are dependent on external sources of NAD+ or its precursors.[44][45] Even more surprising is the intracellular pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis, which lacks recognizable candidates for any genes involved in the biosynthesis or salvage of both NAD+ and NADP+, and must acquire these coenzymes from its host.[46]","title":"Biosynthesis"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rossman_fold.png"},{"link_name":"Rossmann fold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossmann_fold"},{"link_name":"lactate dehydrogenase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactate_dehydrogenase"},{"link_name":"Cryptosporidium parvum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptosporidium_parvum"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism"},{"link_name":"coenzyme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenzyme"},{"link_name":"redox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox"},{"link_name":"ADP-ribosylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADP-ribosylation"},{"link_name":"second messenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_messenger"},{"link_name":"cyclic ADP-ribose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_ADP-ribose"},{"link_name":"DNA ligases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_ligase"},{"link_name":"sirtuins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirtuin"},{"link_name":"acetyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetyl"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smyth-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Billington-49"},{"link_name":"extracellular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracellular"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Billington-49"}],"text":"Rossmann fold in part of the lactate dehydrogenase of Cryptosporidium parvum, showing NAD+ in red, beta sheets in yellow, and alpha helices in purple[47]Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide has several essential roles in metabolism. It acts as a coenzyme in redox reactions, as a donor of ADP-ribose moieties in ADP-ribosylation reactions, as a precursor of the second messenger molecule cyclic ADP-ribose, as well as acting as a substrate for bacterial DNA ligases and a group of enzymes called sirtuins that use NAD+ to remove acetyl groups from proteins. In addition to these metabolic functions, NAD+ emerges as an adenine nucleotide that can be released from cells spontaneously and by regulated mechanisms,[48][49] and can therefore have important extracellular roles.[49]","title":"Functions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Protein structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_structure"},{"link_name":"Oxidoreductase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidoreductase"},{"link_name":"oxidoreductases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidoreductase"},{"link_name":"NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NADH_dehydrogenase"},{"link_name":"coenzyme Q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenzyme_Q"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"structural motif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_motif"},{"link_name":"Rossmann fold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossmann_fold"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2015-Hanukoglu-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Michael Rossmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Rossmann"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rao-54"},{"link_name":"amino acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"Pseudomonas syringae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomonas_syringae"},{"link_name":"PDB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank"},{"link_name":"2CWH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.rcsb.org/structure/2CWH"},{"link_name":"InterPro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InterPro"},{"link_name":"IPR003767","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/entry/IPR003767"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NAD%2B_phys_alt.svg"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bellamacina-56"},{"link_name":"prochiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prochiral"},{"link_name":"enzyme kinetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_kinetics"},{"link_name":"deuterium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuterium"},{"link_name":"stereoisomers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereoisomerism"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bellamacina-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"amino acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"ionic bond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_bond"},{"link_name":"aldose reductase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldose_reductase"},{"link_name":"glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose-6-phosphate_dehydrogenase"},{"link_name":"methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylenetetrahydrofolate_reductase"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"}],"sub_title":"Oxidoreductase binding of NAD","text":"Further information: Protein structure and OxidoreductaseThe main role of NAD+ in metabolism is the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another. Reactions of this type are catalyzed by a large group of enzymes called oxidoreductases. The correct names for these enzymes contain the names of both their substrates: for example NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase catalyzes the oxidation of NADH by coenzyme Q.[50] However, these enzymes are also referred to as dehydrogenases or reductases, with NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase commonly being called NADH dehydrogenase or sometimes coenzyme Q reductase.[51]There are many different superfamilies of enzymes that bind NAD+ / NADH. One of the most common superfamilies includes a structural motif known as the Rossmann fold.[52][53] The motif is named after Michael Rossmann, who was the first scientist to notice how common this structure is within nucleotide-binding proteins.[54]An example of a NAD-binding bacterial enzyme involved in amino acid metabolism that does not have the Rossmann fold is found in Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (PDB: 2CWH; InterPro: IPR003767).[55]In this diagram, the hydride acceptor C4 carbon is shown at the top. When the nicotinamide ring lies in the plane of the page with the carboxy-amide to the right, as shown, the hydride donor lies either \"above\" or \"below\" the plane of the page. If \"above\" hydride transfer is class A, if \"below\" hydride transfer is class B.[56]When bound in the active site of an oxidoreductase, the nicotinamide ring of the coenzyme is positioned so that it can accept a hydride from the other substrate. Depending on the enzyme, the hydride donor is positioned either \"above\" or \"below\" the plane of the planar C4 carbon, as defined in the figure. Class A oxidoreductases transfer the atom from above; class B enzymes transfer it from below. Since the C4 carbon that accepts the hydrogen is prochiral, this can be exploited in enzyme kinetics to give information about the enzyme's mechanism. This is done by mixing an enzyme with a substrate that has deuterium atoms substituted for the hydrogens, so the enzyme will reduce NAD+ by transferring deuterium rather than hydrogen. In this case, an enzyme can produce one of two stereoisomers of NADH.[56]Despite the similarity in how proteins bind the two coenzymes, enzymes almost always show a high level of specificity for either NAD+ or NADP+.[57] This specificity reflects the distinct metabolic roles of the respective coenzymes, and is the result of distinct sets of amino acid residues in the two types of coenzyme-binding pocket. For instance, in the active site of NADP-dependent enzymes, an ionic bond is formed between a basic amino acid side-chain and the acidic phosphate group of NADP+. On the converse, in NAD-dependent enzymes the charge in this pocket is reversed, preventing NADP+ from binding. However, there are a few exceptions to this general rule, and enzymes such as aldose reductase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase can use both coenzymes in some species.[58]","title":"Functions"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Catabolism_schematic.svg"},{"link_name":"metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism"},{"link_name":"citric acid cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle"},{"link_name":"oxidative phosphorylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation"},{"link_name":"image reference needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Cellular respiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respiration"},{"link_name":"Oxidative phosphorylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation"},{"link_name":"glucose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose"},{"link_name":"fatty acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid"},{"link_name":"beta oxidation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_oxidation"},{"link_name":"glycolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis"},{"link_name":"citric acid cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle"},{"link_name":"eukaryotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote"},{"link_name":"cytoplasm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoplasm"},{"link_name":"mitochondrion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrion"},{"link_name":"mitochondrial shuttles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrial_shuttle"},{"link_name":"malate-aspartate shuttle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malate-aspartate_shuttle"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"electron transport chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_transport_chain"},{"link_name":"oxidative phosphorylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"chloroplasts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nicholls-62"},{"link_name":"anabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabolism"},{"link_name":"fatty acid synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid_synthesis"},{"link_name":"photosynthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nicholls-62"},{"link_name":"gluconeogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluconeogenesis"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"nitrifying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrification"},{"link_name":"Nitrobacter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrobacter"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"nitrite oxidoreductase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrite_oxidoreductase"},{"link_name":"proton-motive force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemiosmosis"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"}],"sub_title":"Role in redox metabolism","text":"A simplified outline of redox metabolism, showing how NAD+ and NADH link the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation[image reference needed]Further information: Cellular respiration and Oxidative phosphorylationThe redox reactions catalyzed by oxidoreductases are vital in all parts of metabolism, but one particularly important area where these reactions occur is in the release of energy from nutrients. Here, reduced compounds such as glucose and fatty acids are oxidized, thereby releasing energy. This energy is transferred to NAD+ by reduction to NADH, as part of beta oxidation, glycolysis, and the citric acid cycle. In eukaryotes the electrons carried by the NADH that is produced in the cytoplasm are transferred into the mitochondrion (to reduce mitochondrial NAD+) by mitochondrial shuttles, such as the malate-aspartate shuttle.[59] The mitochondrial NADH is then oxidized in turn by the electron transport chain, which pumps protons across a membrane and generates ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.[60] These shuttle systems also have the same transport function in chloroplasts.[61]Since both the oxidized and reduced forms of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide are used in these linked sets of reactions, the cell maintains significant concentrations of both NAD+ and NADH, with the high NAD+/NADH ratio allowing this coenzyme to act as both an oxidizing and a reducing agent.[62] In contrast, the main function of NADPH is as a reducing agent in anabolism, with this coenzyme being involved in pathways such as fatty acid synthesis and photosynthesis. Since NADPH is needed to drive redox reactions as a strong reducing agent, the NADP+/NADPH ratio is kept very low.[62]Although it is important in catabolism, NADH is also used in anabolic reactions, such as gluconeogenesis.[63] This need for NADH in anabolism poses a problem for prokaryotes growing on nutrients that release only a small amount of energy. For example, nitrifying bacteria such as Nitrobacter oxidize nitrite to nitrate, which releases sufficient energy to pump protons and generate ATP, but not enough to produce NADH directly.[64] As NADH is still needed for anabolic reactions, these bacteria use a nitrite oxidoreductase to produce enough proton-motive force to run part of the electron transport chain in reverse, generating NADH.[65]","title":"Functions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ADP-ribosyltransferases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycosyltransferase"},{"link_name":"posttranslational modification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttranslational_modification"},{"link_name":"ADP-ribosylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADP-ribosylation"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Diefenbach-67"},{"link_name":"toxins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxin"},{"link_name":"cholera toxin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera_toxin"},{"link_name":"cell signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_signaling"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly_ADP_ribose_polymerase"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Diefenbach-67"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Burkle-70"},{"link_name":"cell nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleus"},{"link_name":"DNA repair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_repair"},{"link_name":"telomere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telomere"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Burkle-70"},{"link_name":"extracellular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracellular"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cyclic_ADP_ribose.svg"},{"link_name":"cyclic ADP-ribose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_ADP-ribose"},{"link_name":"cyclic ADP-ribose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_ADP-ribose"},{"link_name":"second messenger system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_messenger_system"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"calcium signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_signaling"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"ryanodine receptors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryanodine_receptor"},{"link_name":"organelles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organelle"},{"link_name":"endoplasmic reticulum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum"},{"link_name":"transcription factor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_factor"},{"link_name":"NAFC3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NFATC3"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"CD38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD38"},{"link_name":"CD157","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BST1"},{"link_name":"PARPs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly_(ADP-ribose)_polymerase"},{"link_name":"deacetylases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone_deacetylase"},{"link_name":"sirtuins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirtuin"},{"link_name":"Sir2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir2"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-77"},{"link_name":"acetyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetyl"},{"link_name":"transcription","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"nucleosome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleosome"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"aging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aging"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-80"},{"link_name":"DNA ligases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_ligase"},{"link_name":"adenosine monophosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_monophosphate"},{"link_name":"phosphodiester bond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphodiester_bond"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"eukaryotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotic"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Li_2017-83"},{"link_name":"DBC1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIAA1967"},{"link_name":"PARP1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PARP1"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Li_2017-83"},{"link_name":"aging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ageing"},{"link_name":"pathogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenesis"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Li_2017-83"}],"sub_title":"Non-redox roles","text":"The coenzyme NAD+ is also consumed in ADP-ribose transfer reactions. For example, enzymes called ADP-ribosyltransferases add the ADP-ribose moiety of this molecule to proteins, in a posttranslational modification called ADP-ribosylation.[66] ADP-ribosylation involves either the addition of a single ADP-ribose moiety, in mono-ADP-ribosylation, or the transferral of ADP-ribose to proteins in long branched chains, which is called poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation.[67] Mono-ADP-ribosylation was first identified as the mechanism of a group of bacterial toxins, notably cholera toxin, but it is also involved in normal cell signaling.[68][69] Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is carried out by the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases.[67][70] The poly(ADP-ribose) structure is involved in the regulation of several cellular events and is most important in the cell nucleus, in processes such as DNA repair and telomere maintenance.[70] In addition to these functions within the cell, a group of extracellular ADP-ribosyltransferases has recently been discovered, but their functions remain obscure.[71]\nNAD+ may also be added onto cellular RNA as a 5'-terminal modification.[72]The structure of cyclic ADP-riboseAnother function of this coenzyme in cell signaling is as a precursor of cyclic ADP-ribose, which is produced from NAD+ by ADP-ribosyl cyclases, as part of a second messenger system.[73] This molecule acts in calcium signaling by releasing calcium from intracellular stores.[74] It does this by binding to and opening a class of calcium channels called ryanodine receptors, which are located in the membranes of organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, and inducing the activation of the transcription factor NAFC3[75]NAD+ is also consumed by different NAD+-consuming enzymes, such as CD38, CD157, PARPs and the NAD-dependent deacetylases (sirtuins,such as Sir2.[76]).[77] These enzymes act by transferring an acetyl group from their substrate protein to the ADP-ribose moiety of NAD+; this cleaves the coenzyme and releases nicotinamide and O-acetyl-ADP-ribose. The sirtuins mainly seem to be involved in regulating transcription through deacetylating histones and altering nucleosome structure.[78] However, non-histone proteins can be deacetylated by sirtuins as well. These activities of sirtuins are particularly interesting because of their importance in the regulation of aging.[79][80]Other NAD-dependent enzymes include bacterial DNA ligases, which join two DNA ends by using NAD+ as a substrate to donate an adenosine monophosphate (AMP) moiety to the 5' phosphate of one DNA end. This intermediate is then attacked by the 3' hydroxyl group of the other DNA end, forming a new phosphodiester bond.[81] This contrasts with eukaryotic DNA ligases, which use ATP to form the DNA-AMP intermediate.[82]Li et al. have found that NAD+ directly regulates protein-protein interactions.[83] They also show that one of the causes of age-related decline in DNA repair may be increased binding of the protein DBC1 (Deleted in Breast Cancer 1) to PARP1 (poly[ADP–ribose] polymerase 1) as NAD+ levels decline during aging.[83] The decline in cellular concentrations of NAD+ during aging likely contributes to the aging process and to the pathogenesis of the chronic diseases of aging.[84] Thus, the modulation of NAD+ may protect against cancer, radiation, and aging.[83]","title":"Functions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"extracellular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracellular"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Billington-49"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ziegler-85"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koch-Nolte-86"},{"link_name":"neurons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron"},{"link_name":"blood vessels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_vessel"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smyth-48"},{"link_name":"urinary bladder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urinary_bladder"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smyth-48"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Breen-87"},{"link_name":"large intestine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_intestine"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mutafova-Yambolieva-88"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hwang-89"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yamboliev-90"},{"link_name":"synaptosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptosome"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Durnin-91"},{"link_name":"neurotransmitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter"},{"link_name":"nerves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerve"},{"link_name":"smooth muscle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smooth_muscle"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mutafova-Yambolieva-88"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hwang-89"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhou&Wang-92"}],"sub_title":"Extracellular actions of NAD+","text":"In recent years, NAD+ has also been recognized as an extracellular signaling molecule involved in cell-to-cell communication.[49][85][86] NAD+ is released from neurons in blood vessels,[48] urinary bladder,[48][87] large intestine,[88][89] from neurosecretory cells,[90] and from brain synaptosomes,[91] and is proposed to be a novel neurotransmitter that transmits information from nerves to effector cells in smooth muscle organs.[88][89] In plants, the extracellular nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide induces resistance to pathogen infection and the first extracellular NAD receptor has been identified.[92] Further studies are needed to determine the underlying mechanisms of its extracellular actions and their importance for human health and life processes in other organisms.","title":"Functions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pharmacology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacology"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"Drug design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_design"},{"link_name":"enzyme inhibitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"glycolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid30631755-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid32111066-96"},{"link_name":"neurodegenerative diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurodegenerative_disease"},{"link_name":"Alzheimer's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s"},{"link_name":"Parkinson's disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease"},{"link_name":"multiple sclerosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Belenky-6"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-80"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-77"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"target","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_target"},{"link_name":"isoniazid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoniazid"},{"link_name":"tuberculosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis"},{"link_name":"Mycobacterium tuberculosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis"},{"link_name":"prodrug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodrug"},{"link_name":"peroxidase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peroxidase"},{"link_name":"free radical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_radical"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoyl-acyl_carrier_protein_reductase"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"dihydrofolate reductase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihydrofolate_reductase"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pankiewicz-102"},{"link_name":"mycophenolic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycophenolic_acid"},{"link_name":"tiazofurin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiazofurin"},{"link_name":"IMP dehydrogenase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMP_dehydrogenase"},{"link_name":"purine metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purine_metabolism"},{"link_name":"immunosuppressive drugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunosuppressive_drug"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pankiewicz-102"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"Sirtuins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirtuin"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kim-104"},{"link_name":"resveratrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resveratrol"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"model organisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"metabolic pathways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_pathway"},{"link_name":"antibiotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"nicotinamidase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamidase"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rongvaux-43"},{"link_name":"fastidious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fastidious_organism"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"}],"text":"The enzymes that make and use NAD+ and NADH are important in both pharmacology and the research into future treatments for disease.[93] Drug design and drug development exploits NAD+ in three ways: as a direct target of drugs, by designing enzyme inhibitors or activators based on its structure that change the activity of NAD-dependent enzymes, and by trying to inhibit NAD+ biosynthesis.[94]Because cancer cells utilize increased glycolysis, and because NAD enhances glycolysis, nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAD salvage pathway) is often amplified in cancer cells.[95][96]It has been studied for its potential use in the therapy of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease as well as multiple sclerosis.[6][80][97][77] A placebo-controlled clinical trial of NADH (which excluded NADH precursors) in people with Parkinson's failed to show any effect.[98]NAD+ is also a direct target of the drug isoniazid, which is used in the treatment of tuberculosis, an infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Isoniazid is a prodrug and once it has entered the bacteria, it is activated by a peroxidase enzyme, which oxidizes the compound into a free radical form.[99] This radical then reacts with NADH, to produce adducts that are very potent inhibitors of the enzymes enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase,[100] and dihydrofolate reductase.[101]Since many oxidoreductases use NAD+ and NADH as substrates, and bind them using a highly conserved structural motif, the idea that inhibitors based on NAD+ could be specific to one enzyme is surprising.[102] However, this can be possible: for example, inhibitors based on the compounds mycophenolic acid and tiazofurin inhibit IMP dehydrogenase at the NAD+ binding site. Because of the importance of this enzyme in purine metabolism, these compounds may be useful as anti-cancer, anti-viral, or immunosuppressive drugs.[102][103] Other drugs are not enzyme inhibitors, but instead activate enzymes involved in NAD+ metabolism. Sirtuins are a particularly interesting target for such drugs, since activation of these NAD-dependent deacetylases extends lifespan in some animal models.[104] Compounds such as resveratrol increase the activity of these enzymes, which may be important in their ability to delay aging in both vertebrate,[105] and invertebrate model organisms.[106][107] In one experiment, mice given NAD for one week had improved nuclear-mitochrondrial communication.[108]Because of the differences in the metabolic pathways of NAD+ biosynthesis between organisms, such as between bacteria and humans, this area of metabolism is a promising area for the development of new antibiotics.[109][110] For example, the enzyme nicotinamidase, which converts nicotinamide to nicotinic acid, is a target for drug design, as this enzyme is absent in humans but present in yeast and bacteria.[43]In bacteriology, NAD, sometimes referred to factor V, is used as a supplement to culture media for some fastidious bacteria.[111]","title":"Clinical significance"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ArthurHarden.jpg"},{"link_name":"Arthur Harden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Harden"},{"link_name":"History of biochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biochemistry"},{"link_name":"Arthur Harden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Harden"},{"link_name":"William John Young","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_John_Young_(biochemist)"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"yeast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast"},{"link_name":"alcoholic fermentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_fermentation"},{"link_name":"nucleotide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide"},{"link_name":"Hans von Euler-Chelpin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_von_Euler-Chelpin"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"Otto Heinrich Warburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Heinrich_Warburg"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"Conrad Elvehjem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conrad_Elvehjem"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"Arthur Kornberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Kornberg"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"Albert L. Lehninger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_L._Lehninger"},{"link_name":"citric acid cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"Charles Brenner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Brenner_(biochemist)"},{"link_name":"nicotinamide riboside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_riboside"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bieganowski,_P,_Brenner,_C_2004_495%E2%80%93502-121"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pollak-5"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"cyclic ADP-ribose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_ADP-ribose"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"sirtuins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirtuin"},{"link_name":"Leonard P. Guarente","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_P._Guarente"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"sirtuin 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirtuin_1"},{"link_name":"nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_phosphoribosyltransferase"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid19130305-125"},{"link_name":"adipose tissue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adipose_tissue"},{"link_name":"hypothalamus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus"},{"link_name":"myokines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myokine"},{"link_name":"skeletal muscle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_muscle"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid28725474-126"},{"link_name":"Eric Verdin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Verdin"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"}],"text":"Arthur Harden, co-discoverer of NADFurther information: History of biochemistryThe coenzyme NAD+ was first discovered by the British biochemists Arthur Harden and William John Young in 1906.[112] They noticed that adding boiled and filtered yeast extract greatly accelerated alcoholic fermentation in unboiled yeast extracts. They called the unidentified factor responsible for this effect a coferment. Through a long and difficult purification from yeast extracts, this heat-stable factor was identified as a nucleotide sugar phosphate by Hans von Euler-Chelpin.[113] In 1936, the German scientist Otto Heinrich Warburg showed the function of the nucleotide coenzyme in hydride transfer and identified the nicotinamide portion as the site of redox reactions.[114]Vitamin precursors of NAD+ were first identified in 1938, when Conrad Elvehjem showed that liver has an \"anti-black tongue\" activity in the form of nicotinamide.[115] Then, in 1939, he provided the first strong evidence that niacin is used to synthesize NAD+.[116] In the early 1940s, Arthur Kornberg was the first to detect an enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway.[117] In 1949, the American biochemists Morris Friedkin and Albert L. Lehninger proved that NADH linked metabolic pathways such as the citric acid cycle with the synthesis of ATP in oxidative phosphorylation.[118] In 1958, Jack Preiss and Philip Handler discovered the intermediates and enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of NAD+;[119][120] salvage synthesis from nicotinic acid is termed the Preiss-Handler pathway. In 2004, Charles Brenner and co-workers uncovered the nicotinamide riboside kinase pathway to NAD+.[121]The non-redox roles of NAD(P) were discovered later.[5] The first to be identified was the use of NAD+ as the ADP-ribose donor in ADP-ribosylation reactions, observed in the early 1960s.[122] Studies in the 1980s and 1990s revealed the activities of NAD+ and NADP+ metabolites in cell signaling – such as the action of cyclic ADP-ribose, which was discovered in 1987.[123]The metabolism of NAD+ remained an area of intense research into the 21st century, with interest heightened after the discovery of the NAD+-dependent protein deacetylases called sirtuins in 2000, by Shin-ichiro Imai and coworkers in the laboratory of Leonard P. Guarente.[124] In 2009 Imai proposed the \"NAD World\" hypothesis that key regulators of aging and longevity in mammals are sirtuin 1 and the primary NAD+ synthesizing enzyme nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT).[125] In 2016 Imai expanded his hypothesis to \"NAD World 2.0\", which postulates that extracellular NAMPT from adipose tissue maintains NAD+ in the hypothalamus (the control center) in conjunction with myokines from skeletal muscle cells.[126] In 2018, Napa Therapeutics was formed to develop drugs against a novel aging related target based on the research in NAD metabolism conducted in the lab of Eric Verdin.[127]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/lehningerprincip00lehn_0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7167-4339-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-4339-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4051-1452-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1452-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4020-7281-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-7281-9"},{"link_name":"\"Generic protocol for population-based surveillance of Haemophilus influenzae type B\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20040701215032/http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/documents/en/hinfluenzaeb_surveillance.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.who.int/vaccine_research/documents/en/hinfluenzaeb_surveillance.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide as a photocatalyst\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6641943"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2019SciA....5..501K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019SciA....5..501K"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1126/sciadv.aax0501","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.aax0501"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"6641943","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6641943"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"31334353","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31334353"}],"sub_title":"Function","text":"Nelson DL; Cox MM (2004). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-4339-2.\nBugg T (2004). Introduction to Enzyme and Coenzyme Chemistry (2nd ed.). Blackwell Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1-4051-1452-3.\nLee HC (2002). Cyclic ADP-Ribose and NAADP: Structure, Metabolism and Functions. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4020-7281-9.\nLevine OS, Schuchat A, Schwartz B, Wenger JD, Elliott J (1997). \"Generic protocol for population-based surveillance of Haemophilus influenzae type B\" (PDF). World Health Organization. Centers for Disease Control. p. 13. WHO/VRD/GEN/95.05. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 July 2004.\nKim, Jinhyun; Lee, Sahng Ha; Tieves, Florian; Paul, Caroline E.; Hollmann, Frank; Park, Chan Beum (5 July 2019). \"Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide as a photocatalyst\". Science Advances. 5 (7): eaax0501. Bibcode:2019SciA....5..501K. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aax0501. PMC 6641943. PMID 31334353.","title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cornish-Bowden, Athel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athel_Cornish-Bowden"},{"link_name":"New Beer in an Old Bottle. Eduard Buchner and the Growth of Biochemical Knowledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//bip.cnrs-mrs.fr/bip10/buchner.htm"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-84-370-3328-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-370-3328-0"},{"link_name":"Modern Development of the Chemical and Biological Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/Wil4Sci.html"}],"sub_title":"History","text":"Cornish-Bowden, Athel (1997). New Beer in an Old Bottle. Eduard Buchner and the Growth of Biochemical Knowledge. Valencia: Universitat de Valencia. ISBN 978-84-370-3328-0., A history of early enzymology.\nWilliams, Henry Smith (1904). Modern Development of the Chemical and Biological Sciences. A History of Science: in Five Volumes. Vol. IV. New York: Harper and Brothers., a textbook from the 19th century.","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg/80px-NFPA_704.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The redox reactions of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/NAD_oxidation_reduction.svg/220px-NAD_oxidation_reduction.svg.png"},{"image_text":"UV absorption spectra of NAD+ and NADH[image reference needed]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/NADNADH.svg/220px-NADNADH.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Some metabolic pathways that synthesize and consume NAD+ in vertebrates.[image reference needed] The abbreviations are defined in the text.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/NAD_metabolism.svg/330px-NAD_metabolism.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Salvage pathways use three precursors for NAD+.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/NA%2C_N_and_NR.svg/290px-NA%2C_N_and_NR.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Rossmann fold in part of the lactate dehydrogenase of Cryptosporidium parvum, showing NAD+ in red, beta sheets in yellow, and alpha helices in purple[47]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Rossman_fold.png/220px-Rossman_fold.png"},{"image_text":"In this diagram, the hydride acceptor C4 carbon is shown at the top. When the nicotinamide ring lies in the plane of the page with the carboxy-amide to the right, as shown, the hydride donor lies either \"above\" or \"below\" the plane of the page. If \"above\" hydride transfer is class A, if \"below\" hydride transfer is class B.[56]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/NAD%2B_phys_alt.svg/220px-NAD%2B_phys_alt.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A simplified outline of redox metabolism, showing how NAD+ and NADH link the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation[image reference needed]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Catabolism_schematic.svg/220px-Catabolism_schematic.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The structure of cyclic ADP-ribose","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Cyclic_ADP_ribose.svg/240px-Cyclic_ADP_ribose.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Arthur Harden, co-discoverer of NAD","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ArthurHarden.jpg/220px-ArthurHarden.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Enzyme catalysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis"},{"title":"List of oxidoreductases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)"}]	[{"reference":"\"NAD+ \| C21H28N7O14P2 \| ChemSpider\". www.chemspider.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.5682.html","url_text":"\"NAD+ \| C21H28N7O14P2 \| ChemSpider\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nicotinamide-Adenine-Dinucleotide\". pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.","urls":[{"url":"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Nicotinamide-Adenine-Dinucleotide","url_text":"\"Nicotinamide-Adenine-Dinucleotide\""}]},{"reference":"Nelson, David L.; Cox, Michael M. (2005). Principles of Biochemistry (4th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-4339-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-4339-6","url_text":"0-7167-4339-6"}]},{"reference":"Pollak N, Dölle C, Ziegler M (2007). \"The power to reduce: pyridine nucleotides – small molecules with a multitude of functions\". Biochem. J. 402 (2): 205–218. doi:10.1042/BJ20061638. PMC 1798440. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian_strategy	Fabian strategy	["1 Rome versus Carthage: The Second Punic War","1.1 Political opposition","2 Later examples","3 Fabian socialism","4 See also","5 References"]	Military strategy favoring a war of attrition For the 30 Rock episode, see The Fabian Strategy. The Fabian strategy is a military strategy where pitched battles and frontal assaults are avoided in favor of wearing down an opponent through a war of attrition and indirection. While avoiding decisive battles, the side employing this strategy harasses its enemy through skirmishes to cause attrition, disrupt supply and affect morale. Employment of this strategy implies that the side adopting this strategy believes time is on its side, usually because the side employing the strategy is fighting in, or close to, their homeland and the enemy is far from home and by necessity has long and costly supply lines. It may also be adopted when no feasible alternative strategy can be devised. By extension, the term is also applied to other situations in which a large, ambitious goal is seen as being out of reach, but may be accomplished in little steps. Rome versus Carthage: The Second Punic War Statue of Quintus Fabius Maximus, the strategy's namesake This strategy derives its name from Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, the dictator of the Roman Republic given the task of defeating the great Carthaginian general Hannibal in southern Italy during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC). At the start of the war, Hannibal boldly crossed the Alps and invaded Italy. Due to his skill as a general, Hannibal repeatedly inflicted devastating losses on the Romans—quickly achieving two crushing victories over Roman armies at Trebia in 218 BC and Lake Trasimene in 217 BC. After these disasters, the Romans gave full authority to Fabius Maximus as dictator. Fabius initiated a war of attrition, fought through constant skirmishes, limiting the ability of the Carthaginians to forage for food and denying them significant victories. Hannibal was handicapped by two weaknesses. First, he was commander of an invading foreign army (on Italian soil), and was effectively cut off from his home country in North Africa by difficulty of seaborne resupply over the Mediterranean Sea. As long as Rome's allies remained loyal, there was little he could do to win. Hannibal tried to convince the allies of Rome that it was more beneficial for them to side with Carthage (through a combination of victory and negotiation). Fabius calculated that, in order to defeat Hannibal, he had to avoid engaging him altogether (so as to deprive him of victories). He determined that Hannibal's largely extended supply lines (as well as the cost of maintaining the Carthaginian army in the field) meant that Rome had time on its side. Fabius avoided battle as a deliberate strategy. He sent out small military units to attack Hannibal's foraging parties while keeping the Roman army in hilly terrain to nullify Carthaginian cavalry superiority. Residents of small villages in the path of the Carthaginians were ordered by Fabius to burn their crops creating scorched earth and take refuge in fortified towns. Fabius used interior lines to ensure that Hannibal could not march directly on Rome without having to first abandon his Mediterranean ports (supply lines). At the same time, Fabius began to inflict constant, small, debilitating defeats on the Carthaginians. This, Fabius had concluded, would wear down the invaders' endurance and discourage Rome's allies from switching sides, without challenging the Carthaginians to major battles. Once the Carthaginians were sufficiently weakened and demoralized by lack of food and supplies, Fabius and his well-fed legions would then fight a decisive battle in the hope of crushing the Carthaginians once and for all. Hannibal's second weakness was much of his army being made up of Spanish mercenaries and Gaulish allies. Their loyalty to Hannibal was shallow; though they disliked Rome, they mainly desired quick battles and raids for plunder. They were unsuited for long sieges, and possessed neither the equipment nor the patience for such tactics. The tedium of countless small-skirmish defeats sapped their morale, and they began to desert. With no main Roman army to attack, Hannibal's army became virtually no threat to Rome, which was a walled city that required a long siege to take. Fabius's strategy struck at the heart of Hannibal's weakness. Time, not major battles, would cripple Hannibal. Political opposition Fabius's strategy, though a military success and tolerable to wiser minds in the Roman Senate, was unpopular; the Romans had been long accustomed to facing and besting their enemies directly on the field of battle. The Fabian strategy was, in part, ruined because of a lack of unity in the command of the Roman army. The magister equitum, Marcus Minucius Rufus, a political enemy of Fabius, famously exclaiming: Are we come here to see our allies butchered, and their property burned, as a spectacle to be enjoyed? And if we are not moved with shame on account of any others, are we not on account of these citizens... which now not the neighboring Samnite wastes with fire, but a Carthaginian foreigner, who has advanced even this far from the remotest limits of the world, through our dilatoriness and inactivity? As the memory of the shock of Hannibal's victories grew dimmer, the Roman populace gradually started to question the wisdom of the Fabian strategy, the very thing which had given them time to recover. It was especially frustrating to the mass of the people, who were eager to see a quick conclusion to the war. Moreover, it was widely believed that if Hannibal continued plundering Italy unopposed, the allies, believing that Rome was incapable of protecting them, might defect to the Carthaginians. Since Fabius won no large-scale victories, the Senate removed him from command in 216 BC. Their chosen replacement, Gaius Terentius Varro, led the Roman army into a debacle at the Battle of Cannae. The Romans, after experiencing this catastrophic defeat and losing countless other battles, had by this point learned their lesson. They utilized the strategies that Fabius had taught them, which, they finally realized, were the only feasible means of driving Hannibal from Italy. This strategy of attrition earned Fabius the cognomen "Cunctator" (The Delayer). Later examples During Antony's Atropatene campaign, the Parthians first destroyed the isolated baggage train and siege engines of the invaders. As Antony proceeded to lay siege on the Atropatenian capital, they began harassing the besiegers, forcing them to retreat. During the Hanzhong Campaign in 219 AD, one year before the fall of ancient China's Han Dynasty, the warlord Liu Xuande and his strategist Fa Xiaozhi utilized a Fabian strategy to target and capture strategic locations from the forces of the rival warlord Cao Mengde. One of these attacks would result in the death of one of Mengde's top generals, Xiahou Miaocai. During the Roman campaign against Persia prosecuted by Julian in 363 AD, the main Persian army under Shapur II let the numerically superior Romans advance deep into their territory, avoiding a full-scale battle at the expense of the destruction of their fortresses. As the fortified Persian capital seemed impregnable, Julian was lured into Persia's interior, where the Persians employed scorched earth tactics. Shapur II's army appeared later and engaged in continuous skirmishes only after the starving Romans were in retreat, resulting in a disastrous Roman defeat. It is the strategy used by King Robert the Bruce in combination with scorched earth in the First War of Scottish Independence against the English after the disastrous defeats at the Battle of Dunbar, Battle of Falkirk and Battle of Methven. Eventually King Robert was able to regain the entire kingdom of Scotland which had been conquered by the English. The strategy was used by the medieval French general Bertrand du Guesclin during the Hundred Years' War against the English following a series of disastrous defeats in pitched battles against Edward, the Black Prince. Eventually du Guesclin was able to recover most of the territory that had been lost. The most noted use of Fabian strategy in American history was by George Washington, sometimes called the "American Fabius" for his use of the strategy during the first year of the American Revolutionary War. While Washington had initially pushed for traditional direct engagements using battle lines, he was convinced of the merits of using his army to harass the British rather than engage them, both by the urging of his generals in his councils of war, and by the pitched-battle disasters of 1776, especially the Battle of Long Island. In addition, given his background as a colonial officer who had participated in asymmetric campaigns against Native Americans, Washington predicted that this style would aid in defeating the traditional tactics of the British Army. John Adams' dissatisfaction with Washington's conduct of the war led him to declare, "I am sick of Fabian systems in all quarters." Throughout history, the Fabian strategy has been employed all over the world. Used against Napoleon's Grande Armée in combination with scorched earth and guerrilla war, it proved decisive in defeating the French invasion of Russia. Sam Houston effectively employed a Fabian defense in the aftermath of the Battle of the Alamo, using delaying tactics and small-unit harrying against Santa Anna's much larger force, to give time for the Army of Texas to grow into a viable fighting force. When he finally met Santa Anna at San Jacinto, the resulting victory ensured the establishment of the Republic of Texas. During the First World War in German East Africa, Generals Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck and Jan Smuts both used the Fabian strategy in their campaigns. During the First Indochina War, the Viet Minh used the strategy by utilizing delaying and hit-and-run tactics and scorched-earth strategy against the better-equipped French forces, which prolonged the war and caused both the French high command and home front to grow weary of the fighting, ending with the decisive Vietnamese victory at Dien Bien Phu. The Viet Cong and the PAVN would later use this strategy against the Americans and ARVN forces during the Vietnam War. Fabian socialism Fabian socialism, the ideology of the Fabian Society (founded in 1884), significantly influenced the Labour Party in the United Kingdom. It utilizes the same strategy of a "war of attrition" to facilitate the society's aim to bring about a socialist state. The advocation of gradualism distinguished this brand of socialism from those who favor revolutionary action. See also Attrition warfare Battle of annihilation Fleet in being Guerrilla warfare U.S. Army Strategist References ^ Alvin Ang, "How To Use The “Fabian Strategy” To Slow-Boil Your Way To Success", Mind Cafe, Feb. 6, 2021; accessed 2023.06.21. ^ "Fabian Strategy". George Washington's Mount Vernon. Retrieved 2019-05-03. ^ a b "Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus \| Roman statesman and commander". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-05-03. ^ Ball, Philip (2016-04-03). "The truth about Hannibal's route across the Alps". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved 2019-05-03. ^ "Battle of the Trebbia River \| Roman-Carthaginian history". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-05-03. ^ "Battle of Trasimene \| Roman-Carthaginian history". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-05-03. ^ Erdkamp, Paul (1992). "Polybius, Livy and the 'Fabian Strategy'". Ancient Society. 23: 127–147. doi:10.2143/AS.23.0.2005877. ISSN 0066-1619. JSTOR 44079478. ^ Daly, Gregory (2005-08-18). Cannae: The Experience of Battle in the Second Punic War. Routledge. p. 16. ISBN 9781134507122. ^ Gabriel, Richard A. (2011-02-28). Hannibal: The Military Biography of Rome's Greatest Enemy. Potomac Books, Inc. p. 91. ISBN 9781597976862. ^ Fronda, Michael P. (2010-06-10). Between Rome and Carthage: Southern Italy during the Second Punic War. Cambridge University Press. pp. 37, 39–40. ISBN 9781139488624. ^ Prevas, John (2017-09-26). Hannibal's Oath: The Life and Wars of Rome's Greatest Enemy. Hachette Books. ISBN 9780306824258. ^ Gabriel, Richard A. (2011). Hannibal: The Military Biography of Rome's Greatest Enemy. Potomac Books, Inc. ISBN 9781597977661. ^ Clare, Israel Smith (1893). Ancient Greece and Rome. Werner Company. p. 923. ^ Strauss, Barry (2013). Masters of Command: Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, and the Genius of Leadership. Simon and Schuster. p. 88. ISBN 9781439164495. ^ Livy (1872). The History of Rome. Bell. p. 781. ^ Kettenhofen, Erich (19 April 2012). "Julian". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 11 February 2020. ^ Joseph J. Ellis (2004). His Excellency. Vintage Books. pp. 92–109. ISBN 978-1400032532. ^ Adams, Charles Francis (1875). Familiar Letters of John Adams and His Wife Abigail Adams, During the Revolution: With a Memoir of Mrs. Adams. Hurd and Houghton. p. 305. ISBN 9780836953183. ^ Bettwy, Samuel William (2014). "Comparing Uses of the Strategic Defense (Fabian Strategy) by General Washington (1776-78) and Russian Generals (1904-05)". doi:10.2139/ssrn.2544985. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires \|journal= (help) ^ J.C. Smuts, Jan Christiaan Smuts (Cape Town: Cassell & Company LTD, 1952), 170. ^ "Fabianism \| socialist movement". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-05-11. Liddell Hart, B. H. Strategy. London: Faber & Faber, 1967 (2nd rev. ed.) vteMilitary and warConcepts Military Service History Technology Occupational roles Recruitment Roles: Soldier Sailor Airman Enlisted rank Officer Commanding officer Executive officer Protocols and structure: Ranks List Uniforms Awards and decorations By country Highest Categories: Ranks Forces Command and control Defense ministry Armed Forces: Army Navy Air force Marines Space force Special forces Airborne forces Commando Frogman Militia Reserves Functional specialties: Communications Engineers Intelligence Reconnaissance List Medical Military police Gendarmerie Security forces Border guard Coast guard Logistics By country Categories: Combat occupations Development: Basic training Military maneuvers Combat training Branches Land units: Combat arms Infantry Armor Cavalry Artillery Special reconnaissance Signal corps Naval units: Warships Surface Littoral Patrol Submarines Aircraft carriers Landing craft Auxiliary ship Air units: Fighters Bombers Command Close air support Electronic-warfare Reconnaissance Structure Organization By country Armies by country Chain of command Unified combatant command General staff Land: Army group Field army Corps List Division List Brigade By type Regiment By country By type Battalion By country By type Platoon Squad Naval: Naval fleet Task force Carrier strike group Division Flotilla Squadron Air: Combat box Special units by nation: Battle Fleet; 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While avoiding decisive battles, the side employing this strategy harasses its enemy through skirmishes to cause attrition, disrupt supply and affect morale. Employment of this strategy implies that the side adopting this strategy believes time is on its side, usually because the side employing the strategy is fighting in, or close to, their homeland and the enemy is far from home and by necessity has long and costly supply lines. It may also be adopted when no feasible alternative strategy can be devised.By extension, the term is also applied to other situations in which a large, ambitious goal is seen as being out of reach, but may be accomplished in little steps.[1]","title":"Fabian strategy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:N26_Fabius_Cunctator,_Sch%C3%B6nbrunn_(04).jpg"},{"link_name":"Quintus Fabius Maximus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_Verrucosus"},{"link_name":"Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_Verrucosus"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"dictator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_dictator"},{"link_name":"Roman Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"Carthaginian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage"},{"link_name":"Hannibal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Second Punic War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Punic_War"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"crossed the Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal%27s_crossing_of_the_Alps"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Trebia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Trebia"},{"link_name":"Lake Trasimene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"dictator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_dictator"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Mediterranean Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"supply lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_supply-chain_management"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"cavalry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalry"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"scorched earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorched_earth"},{"link_name":"fortified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"interior lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interior_lines"},{"link_name":"Spanish mercenaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercenaries_of_the_ancient_Iberian_peninsula"},{"link_name":"Gaulish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul"},{"link_name":"sieges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege"}],"text":"Statue of Quintus Fabius Maximus, the strategy's namesakeThis strategy derives its name from Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus,[2] the dictator of the Roman Republic given the task of defeating the great Carthaginian general Hannibal in southern Italy during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC).[3] At the start of the war, Hannibal boldly crossed the Alps and invaded Italy.[4] Due to his skill as a general, Hannibal repeatedly inflicted devastating losses on the Romans—quickly achieving two crushing victories over Roman armies at Trebia in 218 BC and Lake Trasimene in 217 BC.[5][6] After these disasters, the Romans gave full authority to Fabius Maximus as dictator. Fabius initiated a war of attrition, fought through constant skirmishes, limiting the ability of the Carthaginians to forage for food and denying them significant victories.[7][8]Hannibal was handicapped by two weaknesses. First, he was commander of an invading foreign army (on Italian soil), and was effectively cut off from his home country in North Africa by difficulty of seaborne resupply over the Mediterranean Sea.[9] As long as Rome's allies remained loyal, there was little he could do to win. Hannibal tried to convince the allies of Rome that it was more beneficial for them to side with Carthage (through a combination of victory and negotiation).[10] Fabius calculated that, in order to defeat Hannibal, he had to avoid engaging him altogether (so as to deprive him of victories). He determined that Hannibal's largely extended supply lines (as well as the cost of maintaining the Carthaginian army in the field) meant that Rome had time on its side.[citation needed]Fabius avoided battle as a deliberate strategy.[11] He sent out small military units to attack Hannibal's foraging parties[12] while keeping the Roman army in hilly terrain to nullify Carthaginian cavalry superiority.[13] Residents of small villages in the path of the Carthaginians were ordered by Fabius to burn their crops creating scorched earth and take refuge in fortified towns.[14] Fabius used interior lines to ensure that Hannibal could not march directly on Rome without having to first abandon his Mediterranean ports (supply lines). At the same time, Fabius began to inflict constant, small, debilitating defeats on the Carthaginians. This, Fabius had concluded, would wear down the invaders' endurance and discourage Rome's allies from switching sides, without challenging the Carthaginians to major battles. Once the Carthaginians were sufficiently weakened and demoralized by lack of food and supplies, Fabius and his well-fed legions would then fight a decisive battle in the hope of crushing the Carthaginians once and for all.Hannibal's second weakness was much of his army being made up of Spanish mercenaries and Gaulish allies. Their loyalty to Hannibal was shallow; though they disliked Rome, they mainly desired quick battles and raids for plunder. They were unsuited for long sieges, and possessed neither the equipment nor the patience for such tactics. The tedium of countless small-skirmish defeats sapped their morale, and they began to desert.With no main Roman army to attack, Hannibal's army became virtually no threat to Rome, which was a walled city that required a long siege to take. Fabius's strategy struck at the heart of Hannibal's weakness. Time, not major battles, would cripple Hannibal.","title":"Rome versus Carthage: The Second Punic War"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Roman Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Senate"},{"link_name":"magister equitum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_the_Horse"},{"link_name":"Marcus Minucius Rufus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Minucius_Rufus_(consul_221_BC)"},{"link_name":"Samnite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samnites"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Gaius Terentius Varro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Terentius_Varro"},{"link_name":"Battle of Cannae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae"},{"link_name":"cognomen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognomen"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"}],"sub_title":"Political opposition","text":"Fabius's strategy, though a military success and tolerable to wiser minds in the Roman Senate, was unpopular; the Romans had been long accustomed to facing and besting their enemies directly on the field of battle. The Fabian strategy was, in part, ruined because of a lack of unity in the command of the Roman army. The magister equitum, Marcus Minucius Rufus, a political enemy of Fabius, famously exclaiming:Are we come here to see our allies butchered, and their property burned, as a spectacle to be enjoyed? And if we are not moved with shame on account of any others, are we not on account of these citizens... which now not the neighboring Samnite wastes with fire, but a Carthaginian foreigner, who has advanced even this far from the remotest limits of the world, through our dilatoriness and inactivity?[15]As the memory of the shock of Hannibal's victories grew dimmer, the Roman populace gradually started to question the wisdom of the Fabian strategy, the very thing which had given them time to recover. It was especially frustrating to the mass of the people, who were eager to see a quick conclusion to the war. Moreover, it was widely believed that if Hannibal continued plundering Italy unopposed, the allies, believing that Rome was incapable of protecting them, might defect to the Carthaginians.Since Fabius won no large-scale victories, the Senate removed him from command in 216 BC. Their chosen replacement, Gaius Terentius Varro, led the Roman army into a debacle at the Battle of Cannae. The Romans, after experiencing this catastrophic defeat and losing countless other battles, had by this point learned their lesson. They utilized the strategies that Fabius had taught them, which, they finally realized, were the only feasible means of driving Hannibal from Italy.This strategy of attrition earned Fabius the cognomen \"Cunctator\" (The Delayer).[3]","title":"Rome versus Carthage: The Second Punic War"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Antony's Atropatene campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony%27s_Atropatene_campaign"},{"link_name":"Hanzhong Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanzhong_Campaign"},{"link_name":"Han Dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty"},{"link_name":"Liu Xuande","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Bei"},{"link_name":"Fa Xiaozhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa_Zheng"},{"link_name":"Cao Mengde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Cao"},{"link_name":"Xiahou Miaocai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiahou_Yuan"},{"link_name":"Roman campaign against Persia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian%27s_Persian_War"},{"link_name":"Julian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_(emperor)"},{"link_name":"Shapur II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shapur_II"},{"link_name":"scorched earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorched_earth"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Robert the Bruce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_the_Bruce"},{"link_name":"scorched earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorched_earth"},{"link_name":"First War of Scottish Independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_War_of_Scottish_Independence"},{"link_name":"Bertrand du Guesclin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_du_Guesclin"},{"link_name":"Hundred Years' War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War"},{"link_name":"Edward, the Black Prince","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward,_the_Black_Prince"},{"link_name":"American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"George Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington"},{"link_name":"American Revolutionary War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"Battle of Long Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Long_Island"},{"link_name":"campaigns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Indian_wars"},{"link_name":"Native Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"British Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Army"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"John Adams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Napoleon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon"},{"link_name":"Grande Armée","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grande_Arm%C3%A9e"},{"link_name":"scorched earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorched_earth"},{"link_name":"guerrilla war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerrilla_war"},{"link_name":"French invasion of Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"Sam Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Houston"},{"link_name":"Battle of the Alamo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Alamo"},{"link_name":"Santa Anna's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_L%C3%B3pez_de_Santa_Anna"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"San Jacinto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_San_Jacinto"},{"link_name":"Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_von_Lettow-Vorbeck"},{"link_name":"Jan Smuts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Smuts"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"First Indochina War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Indochina_War"},{"link_name":"Viet Minh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viet_Minh"},{"link_name":"Dien Bien Phu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Dien_Bien_Phu"},{"link_name":"Viet Cong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viet_Cong"},{"link_name":"PAVN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Army_of_Vietnam"},{"link_name":"ARVN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_the_Republic_of_Vietnam"},{"link_name":"Vietnam War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War"}],"text":"During Antony's Atropatene campaign, the Parthians first destroyed the isolated baggage train and siege engines of the invaders. As Antony proceeded to lay siege on the Atropatenian capital, they began harassing the besiegers, forcing them to retreat.During the Hanzhong Campaign in 219 AD, one year before the fall of ancient China's Han Dynasty, the warlord Liu Xuande and his strategist Fa Xiaozhi utilized a Fabian strategy to target and capture strategic locations from the forces of the rival warlord Cao Mengde. One of these attacks would result in the death of one of Mengde's top generals, Xiahou Miaocai.During the Roman campaign against Persia prosecuted by Julian in 363 AD, the main Persian army under Shapur II let the numerically superior Romans advance deep into their territory, avoiding a full-scale battle at the expense of the destruction of their fortresses. As the fortified Persian capital seemed impregnable, Julian was lured into Persia's interior, where the Persians employed scorched earth tactics. Shapur II's army appeared later and engaged in continuous skirmishes only after the starving Romans were in retreat, resulting in a disastrous Roman defeat.[16]It is the strategy used by King Robert the Bruce in combination with scorched earth in the First War of Scottish Independence against the English after the disastrous defeats at the Battle of Dunbar, Battle of Falkirk and Battle of Methven. Eventually King Robert was able to regain the entire kingdom of Scotland which had been conquered by the English.The strategy was used by the medieval French general Bertrand du Guesclin during the Hundred Years' War against the English following a series of disastrous defeats in pitched battles against Edward, the Black Prince. Eventually du Guesclin was able to recover most of the territory that had been lost.The most noted use of Fabian strategy in American history was by George Washington, sometimes called the \"American Fabius\" for his use of the strategy during the first year of the American Revolutionary War. While Washington had initially pushed for traditional direct engagements using battle lines, he was convinced of the merits of using his army to harass the British rather than engage them, both by the urging of his generals in his councils of war, and by the pitched-battle disasters of 1776, especially the Battle of Long Island. In addition, given his background as a colonial officer who had participated in asymmetric campaigns against Native Americans, Washington predicted that this style would aid in defeating the traditional tactics of the British Army.[17] John Adams' dissatisfaction with Washington's conduct of the war led him to declare, \"I am sick of Fabian systems in all quarters.\"[18]Throughout history, the Fabian strategy has been employed all over the world. Used against Napoleon's Grande Armée in combination with scorched earth and guerrilla war, it proved decisive in defeating the French invasion of Russia. Sam Houston effectively employed a Fabian defense in the aftermath of the Battle of the Alamo, using delaying tactics and small-unit harrying against Santa Anna's much larger force, to give time for the Army of Texas to grow into a viable fighting force.[19] When he finally met Santa Anna at San Jacinto, the resulting victory ensured the establishment of the Republic of Texas. During the First World War in German East Africa, Generals Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck and Jan Smuts both used the Fabian strategy in their campaigns.[20]During the First Indochina War, the Viet Minh used the strategy by utilizing delaying and hit-and-run tactics and scorched-earth strategy against the better-equipped French forces, which prolonged the war and caused both the French high command and home front to grow weary of the fighting, ending with the decisive Vietnamese victory at Dien Bien Phu. The Viet Cong and the PAVN would later use this strategy against the Americans and ARVN forces during the Vietnam War.","title":"Later examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fabian socialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian_socialism"},{"link_name":"Fabian Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian_Society"},{"link_name":"Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland"},{"link_name":"socialist state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_state"},{"link_name":"gradualism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradualism"},{"link_name":"socialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism"},{"link_name":"revolutionary action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Fabian socialism, the ideology of the Fabian Society (founded in 1884), significantly influenced the Labour Party in the United Kingdom. It utilizes the same strategy of a \"war of attrition\" to facilitate the society's aim to bring about a socialist state. The advocation of gradualism distinguished this brand of socialism from those who favor revolutionary action.[21]","title":"Fabian socialism"}]	[{"image_text":"Statue of Quintus Fabius Maximus, the strategy's namesake","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/N26_Fabius_Cunctator%2C_Sch%C3%B6nbrunn_%2804%29.jpg/220px-N26_Fabius_Cunctator%2C_Sch%C3%B6nbrunn_%2804%29.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Attrition warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attrition_warfare"},{"title":"Battle of annihilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_annihilation"},{"title":"Fleet in being","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleet_in_being"},{"title":"Guerrilla warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare"},{"title":"U.S. Army Strategist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Army_Strategist"}]	[{"reference":"\"Fabian Strategy\". George Washington's Mount Vernon. Retrieved 2019-05-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/fabian-strategy/","url_text":"\"Fabian Strategy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus \| Roman statesman and commander\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-05-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/biography/Quintus-Fabius-Maximus-Verrucosus","url_text":"\"Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus \| Roman statesman and commander\""}]},{"reference":"Ball, Philip (2016-04-03). \"The truth about Hannibal's route across the Alps\". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved 2019-05-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/apr/03/where-muck-hannibals-elephants-alps-italy-bill-mahaney-york-university-toronto","url_text":"\"The truth about Hannibal's route across the Alps\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0029-7712","url_text":"0029-7712"}]},{"reference":"\"Battle of the Trebbia River \| Roman-Carthaginian history\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-05-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Trebbia-River","url_text":"\"Battle of the Trebbia River \| Roman-Carthaginian history\""}]},{"reference":"\"Battle of Trasimene \| Roman-Carthaginian history\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-05-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Battle-of-Trasimene","url_text":"\"Battle of Trasimene \| Roman-Carthaginian history\""}]},{"reference":"Erdkamp, Paul (1992). \"Polybius, Livy and the 'Fabian Strategy'\". Ancient Society. 23: 127–147. doi:10.2143/AS.23.0.2005877. ISSN 0066-1619. JSTOR 44079478.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2143%2FAS.23.0.2005877","url_text":"10.2143/AS.23.0.2005877"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0066-1619","url_text":"0066-1619"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/44079478","url_text":"44079478"}]},{"reference":"Daly, Gregory (2005-08-18). Cannae: The Experience of Battle in the Second Punic War. Routledge. p. 16. ISBN 9781134507122.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=oxOCAgAAQBAJ&q=Battle+of+lake+trasimene+Fabius","url_text":"Cannae: The Experience of Battle in the Second Punic War"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134507122","url_text":"9781134507122"}]},{"reference":"Gabriel, Richard A. (2011-02-28). Hannibal: The Military Biography of Rome's Greatest Enemy. Potomac Books, Inc. p. 91. ISBN 9781597976862.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=IJcT7R0dEe4C&q=hannibal+italy+invasion+cut+off+from+carthage&pg=PA91","url_text":"Hannibal: The Military Biography of Rome's Greatest Enemy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781597976862","url_text":"9781597976862"}]},{"reference":"Fronda, Michael P. (2010-06-10). Between Rome and Carthage: Southern Italy during the Second Punic War. Cambridge University Press. pp. 37, 39–40. ISBN 9781139488624.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zF0Wiv7UJ7oC&q=hannibal+italy+invasion+allies+in+italy","url_text":"Between Rome and Carthage: Southern Italy during the Second Punic War"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139488624","url_text":"9781139488624"}]},{"reference":"Prevas, John (2017-09-26). Hannibal's Oath: The Life and Wars of Rome's Greatest Enemy. Hachette Books. ISBN 9780306824258.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=CcHqDQAAQBAJ&q=fabius+shadow+hannibals+army&pg=PT115","url_text":"Hannibal's Oath: The Life and Wars of Rome's Greatest Enemy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780306824258","url_text":"9780306824258"}]},{"reference":"Gabriel, Richard A. (2011). Hannibal: The Military Biography of Rome's Greatest Enemy. Potomac Books, Inc. ISBN 9781597977661.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=h-VlDC4Jt6gC&q=fabius+forage+hannibal&pg=PT181","url_text":"Hannibal: The Military Biography of Rome's Greatest Enemy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781597977661","url_text":"9781597977661"}]},{"reference":"Clare, Israel Smith (1893). Ancient Greece and Rome. Werner Company. p. 923.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8EgQAAAAYAAJ&q=fabius+maneuvering+in+the+hills&pg=PA923","url_text":"Ancient Greece and Rome"}]},{"reference":"Strauss, Barry (2013). Masters of Command: Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, and the Genius of Leadership. Simon and Schuster. p. 88. ISBN 9781439164495.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=pMdpAo6BaXkC&q=fabius+village+fortified+towns+%C2%A0hannibal&pg=PA88","url_text":"Masters of Command: Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, and the Genius of Leadership"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781439164495","url_text":"9781439164495"}]},{"reference":"Livy (1872). The History of Rome. Bell. p. 781.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SikNAAAAIAAJ&q=Did+we+come+here+to+see+our+allies+butchered,+and+their+property+burned,+as+a+spectacle+to+be+enjoyed&pg=PA781","url_text":"The History of Rome"}]},{"reference":"Kettenhofen, Erich (19 April 2012). \"Julian\". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 11 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/julian-flavius-claudius-iulianus-roman-emperor","url_text":"\"Julian\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Iranica","url_text":"Encyclopaedia Iranica"}]},{"reference":"Joseph J. Ellis (2004). His Excellency. Vintage Books. pp. 92–109. ISBN 978-1400032532.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_J._Ellis","url_text":"Joseph J. Ellis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400032532","url_text":"978-1400032532"}]},{"reference":"Adams, Charles Francis (1875). Familiar Letters of John Adams and His Wife Abigail Adams, During the Revolution: With a Memoir of Mrs. Adams. Hurd and Houghton. p. 305. ISBN 9780836953183.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=qhcOAAAAIAAJ&q=%22I+am+sick+of+Fabian+systems+in+all+quarters!%22&pg=PA305","url_text":"Familiar Letters of John Adams and His Wife Abigail Adams, During the Revolution: With a Memoir of Mrs. Adams"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780836953183","url_text":"9780836953183"}]},{"reference":"Bettwy, Samuel William (2014). \"Comparing Uses of the Strategic Defense (Fabian Strategy) by General Washington (1776-78) and Russian Generals (1904-05)\". doi:10.2139/ssrn.2544985.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.2544985","url_text":"10.2139/ssrn.2544985"}]},{"reference":"\"Fabianism \| socialist movement\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/event/Fabianism","url_text":"\"Fabianism \| socialist movement\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://medium.com/mind-cafe/how-to-use-the-fabian-strategy-to-slow-boil-your-way-to-success-741cc5ee884c","external_links_name":"How To Use The “Fabian Strategy” To Slow-Boil Your Way To Success"},{"Link":"https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/fabian-strategy/","external_links_name":"\"Fabian Strategy\""},{"Link":"https://www.britannica.com/biography/Quintus-Fabius-Maximus-Verrucosus","external_links_name":"\"Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus \| Roman statesman and commander\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/apr/03/where-muck-hannibals-elephants-alps-italy-bill-mahaney-york-university-toronto","external_links_name":"\"The truth about Hannibal's route across the Alps\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0029-7712","external_links_name":"0029-7712"},{"Link":"https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Trebbia-River","external_links_name":"\"Battle of the Trebbia River \| Roman-Carthaginian history\""},{"Link":"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Battle-of-Trasimene","external_links_name":"\"Battle of Trasimene \| Roman-Carthaginian history\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2143%2FAS.23.0.2005877","external_links_name":"10.2143/AS.23.0.2005877"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0066-1619","external_links_name":"0066-1619"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/44079478","external_links_name":"44079478"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=oxOCAgAAQBAJ&q=Battle+of+lake+trasimene+Fabius","external_links_name":"Cannae: The Experience of Battle in the Second Punic War"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=IJcT7R0dEe4C&q=hannibal+italy+invasion+cut+off+from+carthage&pg=PA91","external_links_name":"Hannibal: The Military Biography of Rome's Greatest Enemy"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zF0Wiv7UJ7oC&q=hannibal+italy+invasion+allies+in+italy","external_links_name":"Between Rome and Carthage: Southern Italy during the Second Punic War"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=CcHqDQAAQBAJ&q=fabius+shadow+hannibals+army&pg=PT115","external_links_name":"Hannibal's Oath: The Life and Wars of Rome's Greatest Enemy"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=h-VlDC4Jt6gC&q=fabius+forage+hannibal&pg=PT181","external_links_name":"Hannibal: The Military Biography of Rome's Greatest Enemy"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8EgQAAAAYAAJ&q=fabius+maneuvering+in+the+hills&pg=PA923","external_links_name":"Ancient Greece and Rome"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=pMdpAo6BaXkC&q=fabius+village+fortified+towns+%C2%A0hannibal&pg=PA88","external_links_name":"Masters of Command: Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, and the Genius of Leadership"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SikNAAAAIAAJ&q=Did+we+come+here+to+see+our+allies+butchered,+and+their+property+burned,+as+a+spectacle+to+be+enjoyed&pg=PA781","external_links_name":"The History of Rome"},{"Link":"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/julian-flavius-claudius-iulianus-roman-emperor","external_links_name":"\"Julian\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=qhcOAAAAIAAJ&q=%22I+am+sick+of+Fabian+systems+in+all+quarters!%22&pg=PA305","external_links_name":"Familiar Letters of John Adams and His Wife Abigail Adams, During the Revolution: With a Memoir of Mrs. Adams"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.2544985","external_links_name":"10.2139/ssrn.2544985"},{"Link":"https://www.britannica.com/event/Fabianism","external_links_name":"\"Fabianism \| socialist movement\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Welch	Terry Welch	["1 Education","2 Career","3 References"]	American computer scientist Terry WelchBornTerry Archer Welch(1939-01-20)January 20, 1939DiedNovember 22, 1988(1988-11-22) (aged 49)Alma materMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyKnown forLempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) compressionSpouseRaylene WelchChildrenKindra Welch Curry, Kerri Welch, Travis WelchScientific careerThesisBounds on Information Retrieval Efficiency in Static File Structures (1971)Doctoral advisorPeter EliasDoctoral studentsNick Tredennick Terry Archer Welch was an American computer scientist. Along with Abraham Lempel and Jacob Ziv, he developed the lossless Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) compression algorithm, which was published in 1984. Education Welch received a B.S., M.S. and Ph.D. degree at MIT in electrical engineering. He taught at the University of Texas at Austin and worked in computer design at Honeywell in Waltham, Massachusetts. Career He taught at the University of Texas in Austin until joining the Sperry Research Center, Sudbury, Massachusetts, in 1976 where the paper about the LZW algorithm was published. In 1983 he joined DEC where he worked as DEC liaison to MCC's advanced computer architecture program. He died of a brain tumor in 1988. References ^ Terry Welch author profile page at the ACM Digital Library ^ Terry Welch's publications indexed by the Scopus bibliographic database. (subscription required) ^ Welch, Terry (1984). "A Technique for High-Performance Data Compression" (PDF). Computer. 17 (6): 8–19. doi:10.1109/MC.1984.1659158. S2CID 2055321. ^ "Texas, Death Index, 1964-1998," index, FamilySearch (accessed 06 Mar 2014), Terry Archer Welch, 22 Nov 1988; citing Texas Department of State Health Services, Austin, Texas. (registration required) Authority control databases: Academics Association for Computing Machinery DBLP zbMATH P ≟ NP This biographical article relating to a computer scientist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Abraham Lempel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Lempel"},{"link_name":"Jacob Ziv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Ziv"},{"link_name":"lossless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lossless"},{"link_name":"Lempel–Ziv–Welch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lempel%E2%80%93Ziv%E2%80%93Welch"},{"link_name":"compression algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_algorithm"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-acm-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scopus-2"}],"text":"Terry Archer Welch was an American computer scientist. Along with Abraham Lempel and Jacob Ziv, he developed the lossless Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) compression algorithm, which was published in 1984.[1][2]","title":"Terry Welch"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"B.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science"},{"link_name":"M.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science"},{"link_name":"Ph.D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"MIT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"electrical engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering"},{"link_name":"University of Texas at Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin"},{"link_name":"computer design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_design"},{"link_name":"Honeywell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeywell"},{"link_name":"Waltham, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waltham,_Massachusetts"}],"text":"Welch received a B.S., M.S. and Ph.D. degree at MIT in electrical engineering. He taught at the University of Texas at Austin and worked in computer design at Honeywell in Waltham, Massachusetts.","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sperry Research Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperry_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Sudbury, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudbury,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"DEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"MCC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microelectronics_and_Computer_Technology_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"He taught at the University of Texas in Austin until joining the Sperry Research Center, Sudbury, Massachusetts, in 1976 where the paper about the LZW algorithm was published. In 1983 he joined DEC where he worked as DEC liaison to MCC's advanced computer architecture program.[3]He died of a brain tumor in 1988.[4]","title":"Career"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Welch, Terry (1984). \"A Technique for High-Performance Data Compression\" (PDF). Computer. 17 (6): 8–19. doi:10.1109/MC.1984.1659158. S2CID 2055321.","urls":[{"url_text":"Welch, Terry"},{"url":"http://www.cs.duke.edu/courses/spring03/cps296.5/papers/welch_1984_technique_for.pdf","url_text":"\"A Technique for High-Performance Data Compression\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMC.1984.1659158","url_text":"10.1109/MC.1984.1659158"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2055321","url_text":"2055321"}]}]	[{"Link":"http://publications.csail.mit.edu/lcs/specpub.php?id=656","external_links_name":"Bounds on Information Retrieval Efficiency in Static File Structures"},{"Link":"https://dl.acm.org/author_page.cfm?id=81332534687","external_links_name":"Terry Welch"},{"Link":"https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.url?authorId=7101732970","external_links_name":"Terry Welch's publications"},{"Link":"http://www.cs.duke.edu/courses/spring03/cps296.5/papers/welch_1984_technique_for.pdf","external_links_name":"\"A Technique for High-Performance Data Compression\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMC.1984.1659158","external_links_name":"10.1109/MC.1984.1659158"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2055321","external_links_name":"2055321"},{"Link":"https://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.1.1/JVJC-KQ7","external_links_name":"Terry Archer Welch"},{"Link":"https://dl.acm.org/profile/81332534687","external_links_name":"Association for Computing Machinery"},{"Link":"https://dblp.org/pid/35/4945","external_links_name":"DBLP"},{"Link":"https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:welch.terry-a","external_links_name":"zbMATH"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Terry_Welch&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16550_UART	16550 UART	["1 Features","2 The FIFO buffer","2.1 Issue with the buffer","3 See also","4 References","5 Further reading","6 External links"]	Integrated circuit serial port implementation Exar 16550 The 16550 UART (universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter) is an integrated circuit designed for implementing the interface for serial communications. The corrected -A version was released in 1987 by National Semiconductor. It is frequently used to implement the serial port for IBM PC compatible personal computers, where it is often connected to an RS-232 interface for modems, serial mice, printers, and similar peripherals. It was the first serial chip used in the IBM PS/2 line, which were introduced in 1987. The part was originally made by National Semiconductor. Similarly numbered devices, with varying levels of compatibility with the original National Semiconductor part, are made by other manufacturers. A UART function that is register-compatible with the 16550 is usually a feature of multifunction I/O cards for IBM PC-compatible computers and may be integrated on the motherboard of other compatible computers. Replacement of the factory-installed 8250 UART was a common upgrade for owners of IBM PC, XT, and compatible computers when high-speed modems became available. Above 9600 baud, owners discovered that the serial ports of the computers were not able to handle a continuous flow of data without losing characters. Exchange of the 8250 (having only a one-byte received data buffer) with a 16550—and occasionally patching or setting system software to be aware of the FIFO feature of the new chip—improved the reliability and stability of high-speed connections. Features Main features of the 16550 include: The ability to convert data from serial to parallel, and from parallel to serial, using shift registers. An on-chip bit rate (baud rate) generator to control transmit and receive data rate. Handshake lines for control of an external modem, controllable by software. An interrupt function to the host microprocessor. An on-chip FIFO buffer for both incoming and outgoing data; this gives the host system more time to respond to an interrupt generated by the UART, without loss of data. Both the computer hardware and software interface of the 16550 are backward compatible with the earlier 8250 UART and 16450 UART. The current version (since 1995) by Texas Instruments which bought National Semiconductor is called the 16550D. The 16550A and newer is pin-compatible with the 16450, but the Microsoft diagnostics program (MSD) supplied with MS-DOS 6.x, Windows 9x, Windows Me, and Windows 2000 often report the 16450 chip as an 8250 chip. The FIFO buffer National Semiconductor NS16550AFN One drawback of the earlier 8250 UARTs and 16450 UARTs was that interrupts were generated for each byte received. This generated high rates of interrupts as transfer speeds increased. More critically, with only a 1-byte buffer there is a genuine risk that a received byte will be overwritten if interrupt service delays occur. To overcome these shortcomings, the 16550 series UARTs incorporated a 16-byte FIFO buffer with a programmable interrupt trigger of 1, 4, 8, or 14 bytes. The 16550 also incorporates a transmit FIFO, though this feature is less critical as delays in interrupt service would only result in sub-optimal transmission speeds and not actual data loss. The 16550A(F) version was a must-have to use modems with a data transmit rate of 9600 baud. Dropouts occurred with 14.4 kbit/s (V.32bis and higher) units and as compression was added with V.42 getting more data per interrupt was critical as data speed continued to increase. Issue with the buffer The original 16550 had a bug that prevented this FIFO from being used. National Semiconductor later released the 16550A which corrected this issue. Not all manufacturers adopted this nomenclature, however, continuing to refer to the fixed chip as a 16550. According to another source, the FIFO issue was corrected only in the 16550AF model, with the A model still being buggy. (The C and CF models are okay too, according to this source.) The 16550AFN model added DMA transfers. See also Universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter (UART) References ^ Michael, Martin (1987). "A Comparison of the INS8250, NS16450 and NS16550A Series of UARTs". Microcommunication Elements Databook. AN-493. Santa Clara, CA, USA: National Semiconductor. pp. 4. Retrieved 2020-02-07. The primary difference between these two parts is in the operation of the FIFOs. The NS16550 will sometimes transfer extra characters when the CPU reads the RX FIFO. Due to the asynchronous nature of this failure there is no work-around and the NS16550 should NOT be used in the FIFO mode. The NS16550A has no problems operating in the FIFO mode and should be used on all new designs. ^ a b c Upgrading and Repairing PCs. Que Publishing. 2003. p. 965. ISBN 9780789729743. Retrieved 2016-04-16. ^ Van Gilluwe, Frank (1997). Undocumented PC (2 ed.). Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-20147950-8. ^ Paul, Matthias R. (2002-04-06). "Re: ANNOUNCE: CuteMouse 2.0 alpha 1". freedos-dev. Archived from the original on 2020-02-07. Retrieved 2020-02-07. (NB. Has various information on 8250 chip bugs.) ^ "What are UART and How Do They Affect Performance?". Archived from the original on 2020-02-07. Retrieved 2020-02-07. ^ Nickalls, Richard W. D.; Ramasubramanian, R. (1995). Interfacing the IBM-PC to Medical Equipment: The Art of Serial Communication. Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-0-521-46280-8. Further reading "PC16550D - Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter with FIFOs" (PDF). Revision C. Texas Instruments. May 2015 . SNLS378C. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-08-26. Blies, Lammert. "Serial UART information". Archived from the original on 2020-02-07. Retrieved 2018-09-23. External links Serial Programming/8250 UART Programming vteTechnical and de facto standards for wired computer busesGeneral System bus Front-side bus Back-side bus Daisy chain Control bus Address bus Bus contention Bus mastering Network on a chip Plug and play List of bus bandwidths Standards SS-50 bus S-100 bus Multibus Unibus VAXBI MBus STD Bus SMBus Q-Bus Europe Card Bus ISA STEbus Zorro II Zorro III CAMAC FASTBUS LPC HP Precision Bus EISA VME VXI VXS NuBus TURBOchannel MCA SBus VLB HP GSC bus InfiniBand Ethernet UPA PCI PCI Extended (PCI-X) PXI PCI Express (PCIe) AGP Compute Express Link (CXL) Direct Media Interface (DMI) RapidIO Intel QuickPath Interconnect NVLink HyperTransport Infinity Fabric Intel Ultra Path Interconnect Coherent Accelerator Processor Interface (CAPI) SpaceWire Storage ST-506 ESDI IPI SMD Parallel ATA (PATA) Bus and Tag DSSI HIPPI Serial ATA (SATA) SCSI Parallel SAS ESCON Fibre Channel SSA SATAe PCI Express (via AHCI or NVMe logical device interface) Peripheral Apple Desktop Bus Atari SIO DCB Commodore bus HP-IL HIL MIDI RS-232 RS-422 RS-423 RS-485 Lightning DMX512-A IEEE-488 (GPIB) IEEE-1284 (parallel port) IEEE-1394 (FireWire) UNI/O 1-Wire I²C (ACCESS.bus, PMBus, SMBus) I3C SPI D²B Parallel SCSI Profibus USB Camera Link External PCIe Thunderbolt Audio ADAT Lightpipe AES3 Intel HD Audio I²S MADI McASP S/PDIF TOSLINK Portable PC Card ExpressCard Embedded Multidrop bus CoreConnect AMBA (AXI) Wishbone SLIMbus Interfaces are listed by their speed in the (roughly) ascending order, so the interface at the end of each section should be the fastest. Category	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Exar16550onItronixPCB.jpg"},{"link_name":"Exar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exar_Corporation"},{"link_name":"universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_asynchronous_receiver-transmitter"},{"link_name":"integrated circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"serial communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_communications"},{"link_name":"National Semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Michael_1987-1"},{"link_name":"serial port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_port"},{"link_name":"IBM PC compatible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible"},{"link_name":"RS-232","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-232"},{"link_name":"mice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_mouse"},{"link_name":"IBM PS/2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PS/2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-upgrpc-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gilluwe_1997-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paul_2002_CTMOUSE-4"},{"link_name":"8250 UART","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8250_UART"},{"link_name":"FIFO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFO_(computing_and_electronics)"}],"text":"Exar 16550The 16550 UART (universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter) is an integrated circuit designed for implementing the interface for serial communications. The corrected -A version was released in 1987 by National Semiconductor.[1] It is frequently used to implement the serial port for IBM PC compatible personal computers, where it is often connected to an RS-232 interface for modems, serial mice, printers, and similar peripherals. It was the first serial chip used in the IBM PS/2 line, which were introduced in 1987.[2][3][4]The part was originally made by National Semiconductor. Similarly numbered devices, with varying levels of compatibility with the original National Semiconductor part, are made by other manufacturers. A UART function that is register-compatible with the 16550 is usually a feature of multifunction I/O cards for IBM PC-compatible computers and may be integrated on the motherboard of other compatible computers.Replacement of the factory-installed 8250 UART was a common upgrade for owners of IBM PC, XT, and compatible computers when high-speed modems became available. Above 9600 baud, owners discovered that the serial ports of the computers were not able to handle a continuous flow of data without losing characters. Exchange of the 8250 (having only a one-byte received data buffer) with a 16550—and occasionally patching or setting system software to be aware of the FIFO feature of the new chip—improved the reliability and stability of high-speed connections.","title":"16550 UART"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"shift registers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shift_register"},{"link_name":"baud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baud"},{"link_name":"modem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem"},{"link_name":"interrupt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrupt"},{"link_name":"microprocessor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor"},{"link_name":"buffer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffer_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"computer hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"8250 UART","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8250_UART"},{"link_name":"16450 UART","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16450_UART"},{"link_name":"Texas Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-upgrpc-2"},{"link_name":"MSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Diagnostics"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-upgrpc-2"}],"text":"Main features of the 16550 include:The ability to convert data from serial to parallel, and from parallel to serial, using shift registers.\nAn on-chip bit rate (baud rate) generator to control transmit and receive data rate.\nHandshake lines for control of an external modem, controllable by software.\nAn interrupt function to the host microprocessor.\nAn on-chip FIFO buffer for both incoming and outgoing data; this gives the host system more time to respond to an interrupt generated by the UART, without loss of data.Both the computer hardware and software interface of the 16550 are backward compatible with the earlier 8250 UART and 16450 UART. The current version (since 1995) by Texas Instruments which bought National Semiconductor is called the 16550D.[2]The 16550A and newer is pin-compatible with the 16450, but the Microsoft diagnostics program (MSD) supplied with MS-DOS 6.x, Windows 9x, Windows Me, and Windows 2000 often report the 16450 chip as an 8250 chip.[2]","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NS16550AFN_UART_chip.jpg"},{"link_name":"V.32bis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU-T_V.32bis"},{"link_name":"V.42","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU-T_V.42"}],"text":"National Semiconductor NS16550AFNOne drawback of the earlier 8250 UARTs and 16450 UARTs was that interrupts were generated for each byte received. This generated high rates of interrupts as transfer speeds increased. More critically, with only a 1-byte buffer there is a genuine risk that a received byte will be overwritten if interrupt service delays occur. To overcome these shortcomings, the 16550 series UARTs incorporated a 16-byte FIFO buffer with a programmable interrupt trigger of 1, 4, 8, or 14 bytes.The 16550 also incorporates a transmit FIFO, though this feature is less critical as delays in interrupt service would only result in sub-optimal transmission speeds and not actual data loss.The 16550A(F) version was a must-have to use modems with a data transmit rate of 9600 baud. Dropouts occurred with 14.4 kbit/s (V.32bis and higher) units and as compression was added with V.42 getting more data per interrupt was critical as data speed continued to increase.","title":"The FIFO buffer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PCComp-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nickalls_1995-6"}],"sub_title":"Issue with the buffer","text":"The original 16550 had a bug that prevented this FIFO from being used. National Semiconductor later released the 16550A which corrected this issue. Not all manufacturers adopted this nomenclature, however, continuing to refer to the fixed chip as a 16550.[5]According to another source, the FIFO issue was corrected only in the 16550AF model, with the A model still being buggy. (The C and CF models are okay too, according to this source.) The 16550AFN model added DMA transfers.[6]","title":"The FIFO buffer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"PC16550D - Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter with FIFOs\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20180826215135/http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/pc16550d.pdf"},{"link_name":"Texas Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/pc16550d.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"Serial UART information\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20200207194832/https://www.lammertbies.nl/comm/info/serial-uart"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.lammertbies.nl/comm/info/serial-uart.html"}],"text":"\"PC16550D - Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter with FIFOs\" (PDF). Revision C. Texas Instruments. May 2015 [June 1995]. SNLS378C. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-08-26.\nBlies, Lammert. \"Serial UART information\". Archived from the original on 2020-02-07. Retrieved 2018-09-23.","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"Exar 16550","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Exar16550onItronixPCB.jpg/220px-Exar16550onItronixPCB.jpg"},{"image_text":"National Semiconductor NS16550AFN","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/NS16550AFN_UART_chip.jpg/220px-NS16550AFN_UART_chip.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_asynchronous_receiver-transmitter"}]	[{"reference":"Michael, Martin (1987). \"A Comparison of the INS8250, NS16450 and NS16550A Series of UARTs\". Microcommunication Elements Databook. AN-493. Santa Clara, CA, USA: National Semiconductor. pp. 4. Retrieved 2020-02-07. The primary difference between these two parts is in the operation of the FIFOs. The NS16550 will sometimes transfer extra characters when the CPU reads the RX FIFO. Due to the asynchronous nature of this failure there is no work-around and the NS16550 should NOT be used in the FIFO mode. The NS16550A has no problems operating in the FIFO mode and should be used on all new designs.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_nationaldamunicationsElementsDataBook_19316911","url_text":"\"A Comparison of the INS8250, NS16450 and NS16550A Series of UARTs\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Semiconductor","url_text":"National Semiconductor"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_nationaldamunicationsElementsDataBook_19316911/page/n203","url_text":"4"}]},{"reference":"Upgrading and Repairing PCs. Que Publishing. 2003. p. 965. ISBN 9780789729743. Retrieved 2016-04-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=E1p2FDL7P5QC&pg=PA965","url_text":"Upgrading and Repairing PCs"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Que_Publishing","url_text":"Que Publishing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780789729743","url_text":"9780789729743"}]},{"reference":"Van Gilluwe, Frank (1997). Undocumented PC (2 ed.). Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-20147950-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison_Wesley","url_text":"Addison Wesley"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-20147950-8","url_text":"0-20147950-8"}]},{"reference":"Paul, Matthias R. (2002-04-06). \"Re: [fd-dev] ANNOUNCE: CuteMouse 2.0 alpha 1\". freedos-dev. Archived from the original on 2020-02-07. Retrieved 2020-02-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://marc.info/?l=freedos-dev&m=101807226917577","url_text":"\"Re: [fd-dev] ANNOUNCE: CuteMouse 2.0 alpha 1\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200207130948/https://marc.info/?l=freedos-dev&m=101807226917577&w=2","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"What are UART and How Do They Affect Performance?\". Archived from the original on 2020-02-07. Retrieved 2020-02-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pccompci.com/uarts.html","url_text":"\"What are UART and How Do They Affect Performance?\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200207194229/https://www.pccompci.com/uarts.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Nickalls, Richard W. D.; Ramasubramanian, R. (1995). Interfacing the IBM-PC to Medical Equipment: The Art of Serial Communication. Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-0-521-46280-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/interfacingibmpc0000nick","url_text":"Interfacing the IBM-PC to Medical Equipment: The Art of Serial Communication"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/interfacingibmpc0000nick/page/25","url_text":"25"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-46280-8","url_text":"978-0-521-46280-8"}]},{"reference":"\"PC16550D - Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter with FIFOs\" (PDF). Revision C. Texas Instruments. May 2015 [June 1995]. SNLS378C. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-08-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180826215135/http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/pc16550d.pdf","url_text":"\"PC16550D - Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter with FIFOs\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments","url_text":"Texas Instruments"},{"url":"http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/pc16550d.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Blies, Lammert. \"Serial UART information\". Archived from the original on 2020-02-07. Retrieved 2018-09-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200207194832/https://www.lammertbies.nl/comm/info/serial-uart","url_text":"\"Serial UART information\""},{"url":"https://www.lammertbies.nl/comm/info/serial-uart.html","url_text":"the original"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_nationaldamunicationsElementsDataBook_19316911","external_links_name":"\"A Comparison of the INS8250, NS16450 and NS16550A Series of UARTs\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_nationaldamunicationsElementsDataBook_19316911/page/n203","external_links_name":"4"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=E1p2FDL7P5QC&pg=PA965","external_links_name":"Upgrading and Repairing PCs"},{"Link":"https://marc.info/?l=freedos-dev&m=101807226917577","external_links_name":"\"Re: [fd-dev] ANNOUNCE: CuteMouse 2.0 alpha 1\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200207130948/https://marc.info/?l=freedos-dev&m=101807226917577&w=2","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.pccompci.com/uarts.html","external_links_name":"\"What are UART and How Do They Affect Performance?\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200207194229/https://www.pccompci.com/uarts.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/interfacingibmpc0000nick","external_links_name":"Interfacing the IBM-PC to Medical Equipment: The Art of Serial Communication"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/interfacingibmpc0000nick/page/25","external_links_name":"25"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180826215135/http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/pc16550d.pdf","external_links_name":"\"PC16550D - Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter with FIFOs\""},{"Link":"http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/pc16550d.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200207194832/https://www.lammertbies.nl/comm/info/serial-uart","external_links_name":"\"Serial UART information\""},{"Link":"https://www.lammertbies.nl/comm/info/serial-uart.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Serial_Programming/8250_UART_Programming","external_links_name":"Serial Programming/8250 UART Programming"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piggy-back_(transportation)	Piggyback (transportation)	["1 Etymology","2 Examples","2.1 Human locomotion","2.2 Rail","2.3 Marine","2.4 Air transport","2.5 Space","2.6 Military","3 Gallery","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]	One transportation unit carried on another A Nepali child carries another child, "piggyback" Piggyback transportation refers to the transportation of goods where one transportation unit is carried on the back of something else. It is a specialised form of intermodal transportation and combined transport. Etymology Piggyback is a corruption of pickaback, which is likely to be a folk etymology alteration of pick pack (1560s), which perhaps is from pick, a dialectal variant of the verb pitch. Examples Human locomotion A handball game with piggybacking players in Ancient Greece circa. 500 BCE A person carrying someone else on their back is most commonly seen in the modern day in the form of a parent carrying an underage child, either for travelling or for children's games. It can involve the carrier crawling on hands and knees with the child straddling over the back like riding a horse, or with the carrier standing upright with the child hugging or cradled behind the back, often with the child's arms leaning over the carrier's shoulders and legs wrapping around the flanks. Piggybacking may also feature in the context of play or sport, and evidence of this dates back to Ancient Greece where games involving piggyback riding were combined with the requirement of catching or throwing a ball. In the modern era, wife carrying competitions, where the female participants ride on the back of their male partners running the race, are popular in some countries. Rail Main article: Trailer-on-flatcar Trucks on a train in India A train of coupled Commonwealth Railways narrow-gauge cattle cars on continuous rails laid on standard gauge flatcars (outback Australia) See also: Rolling highway, Modalohr, Roadrailer, Well car, Well wagon, and Loading gauge In rail transport, the practice of carrying trailers or semi-trailers in a train atop a flatcar is referred to as "piggybacking". Early drawings of the Liverpool & Manchester Railway c1830 show road coaches being piggybacked on railway flat wagons. The rail service provided for trucks which are carried on trains for part of their journey is referred to as a rolling road, or rolling highway. A related transportation method is the rail transport of semi-trailers, without road tractors, sometimes referred to as "trailer on flatcar (TOFC)". In the United States, TOFC traffic grew from 1% of freight in 1957 to 5% in 1964 and 15% in 1986. A railway wagon of one track gauge can be carried on a flat wagon (transporter wagon or rollbock) of another gauge. In addition, an entire train of coupled wagons of one gauge can be carried on continuous rails on a train of flat wagons of another gauge. This was achieved by the Commonwealth Railways on the Marree railway line in South Australia between Telford Cut and Port Augusta in the mid-1950s. Japan Railways planned a similar "Train on Train" scheme, but at much higher speeds, to operate from 2016. Marine Small ships of all kinds can be piggybacked on larger ships. Examples include lifeboats, landing craft, and minesweepers on motherships, as well as midget submarines on larger submarines, such as those used for the 1942 Japanese submarine attack on Sydney. Air transport The 1930s British Short Mayo Composite, in which a smaller, four-engine floatplane aircraft named Mercury was carried aloft on the back of a larger four-engine flying boat named Maia, enabled the Mercury to achieve a greater range than would have been possible had it taken off under its own power. The American Space Shuttle was carried on top of specially-modified Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft when the shuttle landed at places other than Kennedy Space Center. Space In space transportation systems, a smaller satellite that is carried as a secondary payload on a launch is said to be "piggybacked" on the main launch. It is often the case of small satellites and cubesats, since they can not usually afford accessing space on a dedicated launch and they choose instead to take profit of the remaining payload capacity in a big satellite launch. However, this is usually at the cost of not being able to fly to their desired orbit and having to remain on a similar orbit to that of the big satellite. Military The metal caterpillar treads of a tank wear out quickly when travelling long distances on ordinary roads. Also, tracked vehicles seriously damage the tarmac layer of ordinary roads (unless the caterpillar treads are specially fitted with rubber pads to avoid this). It is therefore necessary to provide tank transporters, which have rubber tires, to the battlefield. Gallery Timber wagon on rollbocks Trucks on board a ro-ro ship A South Australian Railways T class narrow-gauge locomotive on a broad-gauge crocodile car The Space Shuttle Atlantis atop a NASA Boeing 747 Bonn–Oberkassel train ferry Rolling road Youths playing a ball game, circa 500 B.C. Trailers on flatcars in the United States See also Autorack Bière–Apples–Morges Railway Car carrier trailer Car float Double-stack rail transport Ferry Fireman's carry Hupac Konkan Railway Corporation Loading gauge Modalohr Motorail Pichi Richi Railway Roadrailer Rolling highway Roll-on/roll-off Structure gauge Train ferry Two-foot-gauge railways in South Africa References ^ Pearlman, Robert Z. (7 September 2012). "Shuttle Endeavour to get one last piggyback ride across US". NBC News. Retrieved 24 October 2012. ^ Harper, Douglas. "piggyback". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 24 October 2012. ^ Gardiner, E. Norman, 'Athletics of the Ancient World', Oxford: OUP, 1967, illustration 209 / facing p. 230 ^ "The Geography of Transport Systems". Archived from the original on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 11 July 2011. ^ "The Train Book" by DK, p23 ^ Piggback: The Trailer Train story Railway Age May 25, 1964 page 44 ^ Field, Alexander J (2011). A great leap forward: 1930s depression and U.S. economic growth. New Haven, London: Yale University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-300-15109-1. ^ Pick-a-back operation solves gauge-break problem Adelaide Advertiser ^ Complete narrow-gauge trains on standard-gauge wagons Railway Gazette International September 9, 1955 pages 305-308 ^ 独自の研究開発人と物流高速化に活路 . Hokkaido Shimbun (in Japanese). Japan: The Hokkaido Shimbun Press. 20 December 2008. Retrieved 30 September 2009. ^ "Mine-Sweepers By "Piggyback"", The Mercury (Hobart): 5, 5 June 1951 External links Look up piggyback in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Piggy-back transport. Double Piggyback p120 RGI Modalohr Authority control databases: National Germany Israel United States	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Getting_children_out_of_the_fields_and_into_school_(8424375496).jpg"},{"link_name":"intermodal transportation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodal_freight_transport"},{"link_name":"combined transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_transport"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"A Nepali child carries another child, \"piggyback\"Piggyback transportation refers to the transportation of goods where one transportation unit is carried on the back of something else. It is a specialised form of intermodal transportation and combined transport.[1]","title":"Piggyback (transportation)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"etymology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymology"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Piggyback is a corruption of pickaback, which is likely to be a folk etymology alteration of pick pack (1560s), which perhaps is from pick, a dialectal variant of the verb pitch.[2]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Handball_pick-a-back_Ancient_Greece.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"back","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_back"},{"link_name":"parent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parent"},{"link_name":"child","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child"},{"link_name":"travelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travelling"},{"link_name":"children's games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children%27s_game"},{"link_name":"crawling on hands and knees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crawling_(human)#Standard_crawl"},{"link_name":"straddling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_human_positions#Riding_positions"},{"link_name":"riding a horse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseriding"},{"link_name":"upright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upright_posture"},{"link_name":"hugging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hug"},{"link_name":"cradled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babywearing"},{"link_name":"shoulders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoulder"},{"link_name":"flanks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flank_(anatomy)"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"wife carrying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wife_carrying"}],"sub_title":"Human locomotion","text":"A handball game with piggybacking players in Ancient Greece circa. 500 BCEA person carrying someone else on their back is most commonly seen in the modern day in the form of a parent carrying an underage child, either for travelling or for children's games. It can involve the carrier crawling on hands and knees with the child straddling over the back like riding a horse, or with the carrier standing upright with the child hugging or cradled behind the back, often with the child's arms leaning over the carrier's shoulders and legs wrapping around the flanks.Piggybacking may also feature in the context of play or sport, and evidence of this dates back to Ancient Greece where games involving piggyback riding were combined with the requirement of catching or throwing a ball.[3] In the modern era, wife carrying competitions, where the female participants ride on the back of their male partners running the race, are popular in some countries.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Train_Carrying_Trucks_in_Konkan_Railway.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Commonwealth_Railways_narrow-gauge_cattle_cars_on_rails_laid_on_standard-gauge_flatcars,_Stirling_North-Marree_line,_1955.jpg"},{"link_name":"cattle cars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattle_car"},{"link_name":"standard gauge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_gauge"},{"link_name":"flatcars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat_wagon"},{"link_name":"outback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outback"},{"link_name":"Rolling highway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_highway"},{"link_name":"Modalohr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modalohr"},{"link_name":"Roadrailer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roadrailer"},{"link_name":"Well car","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well_car"},{"link_name":"Well wagon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_U_special_wagon#Intermodal_container_well_wagons"},{"link_name":"Loading gauge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loading_gauge"},{"link_name":"semi-trailers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-trailer"},{"link_name":"flatcar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatcar"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Liverpool & Manchester Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool_%26_Manchester_Railway"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"rolling highway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_highway"},{"link_name":"semi-trailers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-trailer"},{"link_name":"road tractors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_tractor"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"track gauge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_gauge"},{"link_name":"transporter wagon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transporter_wagon"},{"link_name":"rollbock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollbock"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth Railways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Railways"},{"link_name":"Marree railway line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marree_railway_line"},{"link_name":"Telford Cut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telford_Cut"},{"link_name":"Port Augusta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Augusta"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Train on Train","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Train_on_Train"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hokkaidoshimbun20081220-10"}],"sub_title":"Rail","text":"Trucks on a train in IndiaA train of coupled Commonwealth Railways narrow-gauge cattle cars on continuous rails laid on standard gauge flatcars (outback Australia)See also: Rolling highway, Modalohr, Roadrailer, Well car, Well wagon, and Loading gaugeIn rail transport, the practice of carrying trailers or semi-trailers in a train atop a flatcar is referred to as \"piggybacking\".[4] Early drawings of the Liverpool & Manchester Railway c1830 show road coaches being piggybacked on railway flat wagons.[5]The rail service provided for trucks which are carried on trains for part of their journey is referred to as a rolling road, or rolling highway. A related transportation method is the rail transport of semi-trailers, without road tractors, sometimes referred to as \"trailer on flatcar (TOFC)\". In the United States, TOFC traffic grew from 1% of freight in 1957 to 5% in 1964 and 15% in 1986.[6][7]A railway wagon of one track gauge can be carried on a flat wagon (transporter wagon or rollbock) of another gauge. In addition, an entire train of coupled wagons of one gauge can be carried on continuous rails on a train of flat wagons of another gauge. This was achieved by the Commonwealth Railways on the Marree railway line in South Australia between Telford Cut and Port Augusta in the mid-1950s.[8][9] Japan Railways planned a similar \"Train on Train\" scheme, but at much higher speeds, to operate from 2016.[10]","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lifeboats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifeboat_(rescue)"},{"link_name":"landing craft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_craft"},{"link_name":"minesweepers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minesweeper_(ship)"},{"link_name":"motherships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mothership"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"midget submarines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midget_submarine"},{"link_name":"submarines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine"},{"link_name":"1942 Japanese submarine attack on Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Sydney_Harbour"}],"sub_title":"Marine","text":"Small ships of all kinds can be piggybacked on larger ships. Examples include lifeboats, landing craft, and minesweepers on motherships,[11] as well as midget submarines on larger submarines, such as those used for the 1942 Japanese submarine attack on Sydney.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Short Mayo Composite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_Mayo_Composite"},{"link_name":"floatplane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floatplane"},{"link_name":"flying boat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_boat"},{"link_name":"Space Shuttle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle"},{"link_name":"Boeing 747","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747"},{"link_name":"Shuttle Carrier Aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle_Carrier_Aircraft"}],"sub_title":"Air transport","text":"The 1930s British Short Mayo Composite, in which a smaller, four-engine floatplane aircraft named Mercury was carried aloft on the back of a larger four-engine flying boat named Maia, enabled the Mercury to achieve a greater range than would have been possible had it taken off under its own power. The American Space Shuttle was carried on top of specially-modified Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft when the shuttle landed at places other than Kennedy Space Center.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"satellite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite"},{"link_name":"launch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket#Flight"},{"link_name":"small satellites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_satellite"},{"link_name":"cubesats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CubeSat"},{"link_name":"orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit"}],"sub_title":"Space","text":"In space transportation systems, a smaller satellite that is carried as a secondary payload on a launch is said to be \"piggybacked\" on the main launch. It is often the case of small satellites and cubesats, since they can not usually afford accessing space on a dedicated launch and they choose instead to take profit of the remaining payload capacity in a big satellite launch. However, this is usually at the cost of not being able to fly to their desired orbit and having to remain on a similar orbit to that of the big satellite.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank"},{"link_name":"tank transporters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank_transporter"}],"sub_title":"Military","text":"The metal caterpillar treads of a tank wear out quickly when travelling long distances on ordinary roads. Also, tracked vehicles seriously damage the tarmac layer of ordinary roads (unless the caterpillar treads are specially fitted with rubber pads to avoid this). It is therefore necessary to provide tank transporters, which have rubber tires, to the battlefield.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MBC_Ua_235A.JPG"},{"link_name":"rollbocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollbock"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20090803_hellenic_spirit25.jpg"},{"link_name":"ro-ro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roll-on/roll-off"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:South_Australian_Railways_narrow_gauge_locomotive_T232_on_broad_gauge_crocodile_car.jpg"},{"link_name":"South Australian Railways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Australian_Railways"},{"link_name":"T class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Australian_Railways_T_class"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atlantis_on_Shuttle_Carrier_Aircraft.jpg"},{"link_name":"Space Shuttle Atlantis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Atlantis"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"Boeing 747","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trajekt_im_Strom.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bonn–Oberkassel train ferry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonn%E2%80%93Oberkassel_train_ferry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ROLA_Kelenfold.JPG"},{"link_name":"Rolling road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_highway"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Handball_pick-a-back_Ancient_Greece.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_End_(for_now)_(6265367138).jpg"}],"text":"Timber wagon on rollbocks\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTrucks on board a ro-ro ship\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA South Australian Railways T class narrow-gauge locomotive on a broad-gauge crocodile car\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Space Shuttle Atlantis atop a NASA Boeing 747\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBonn–Oberkassel train ferry\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRolling road\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tYouths playing a ball game, circa 500 B.C.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTrailers on flatcars in the United States","title":"Gallery"}]	[{"image_text":"A Nepali child carries another child, \"piggyback\"","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Getting_children_out_of_the_fields_and_into_school_%288424375496%29.jpg/220px-Getting_children_out_of_the_fields_and_into_school_%288424375496%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"A handball game with piggybacking players in Ancient Greece circa. 500 BCE","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Handball_pick-a-back_Ancient_Greece.jpg/220px-Handball_pick-a-back_Ancient_Greece.jpg"},{"image_text":"Trucks on a train in India","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Train_Carrying_Trucks_in_Konkan_Railway.jpg/220px-Train_Carrying_Trucks_in_Konkan_Railway.jpg"},{"image_text":"A train of coupled Commonwealth Railways narrow-gauge cattle cars on continuous rails laid on standard gauge flatcars (outback Australia)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Commonwealth_Railways_narrow-gauge_cattle_cars_on_rails_laid_on_standard-gauge_flatcars%2C_Stirling_North-Marree_line%2C_1955.jpg/220px-Commonwealth_Railways_narrow-gauge_cattle_cars_on_rails_laid_on_standard-gauge_flatcars%2C_Stirling_North-Marree_line%2C_1955.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Autorack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autorack"},{"title":"Bière–Apples–Morges Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi%C3%A8re%E2%80%93Apples%E2%80%93Morges_Railway"},{"title":"Car carrier trailer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car_carrier_trailer"},{"title":"Car float","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car_float"},{"title":"Double-stack rail transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-stack_rail_transport"},{"title":"Ferry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferry"},{"title":"Fireman's carry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fireman%27s_carry"},{"title":"Hupac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hupac"},{"title":"Konkan Railway Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konkan_Railway_Corporation"},{"title":"Loading gauge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loading_gauge"},{"title":"Modalohr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modalohr"},{"title":"Motorail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorail"},{"title":"Pichi Richi Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pichi_Richi_Railway"},{"title":"Roadrailer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roadrailer"},{"title":"Rolling highway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_highway"},{"title":"Roll-on/roll-off","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roll-on/roll-off"},{"title":"Structure gauge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_gauge"},{"title":"Train ferry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Train_ferry"},{"title":"Two-foot-gauge railways in South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-foot-gauge_railways_in_South_Africa"}]	[{"reference":"Pearlman, Robert Z. (7 September 2012). \"Shuttle Endeavour to get one last piggyback ride across US\". NBC News. Retrieved 24 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nbcnews.com/id/48943784","url_text":"\"Shuttle Endeavour to get one last piggyback ride across US\""}]},{"reference":"Harper, Douglas. \"piggyback\". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 24 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=piggyback","url_text":"\"piggyback\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Geography of Transport Systems\". Archived from the original on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 11 July 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120324103201/http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/pbdblstk.html","url_text":"\"The Geography of Transport Systems\""},{"url":"http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/pbdblstk.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Field, Alexander J (2011). A great leap forward: 1930s depression and U.S. economic growth. New Haven, London: Yale University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-300-15109-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15109-1","url_text":"978-0-300-15109-1"}]},{"reference":"独自の研究開発人と物流高速化に活路 [Own R&D leading to increased speed]. Hokkaido Shimbun (in Japanese). Japan: The Hokkaido Shimbun Press. 20 December 2008. Retrieved 30 September 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hokkaido-np.co.jp/cont/shinkansen/45633.html","url_text":"独自の研究開発人と物流高速化に活路"}]},{"reference":"\"Mine-Sweepers By \"Piggyback\"\", The Mercury (Hobart): 5, 5 June 1951","urls":[{"url":"http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article27038730?searchTerm=piggyback#pstart1911980","url_text":"\"Mine-Sweepers By \"Piggyback\"\""}]}]	[{"Link":"http://www.nbcnews.com/id/48943784","external_links_name":"\"Shuttle Endeavour to get one last piggyback ride across US\""},{"Link":"http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=piggyback","external_links_name":"\"piggyback\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120324103201/http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/pbdblstk.html","external_links_name":"\"The Geography of Transport Systems\""},{"Link":"http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/pbdblstk.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/11935586","external_links_name":"Pick-a-back operation solves gauge-break problem"},{"Link":"http://www.hokkaido-np.co.jp/cont/shinkansen/45633.html","external_links_name":"独自の研究開発人と物流高速化に活路"},{"Link":"http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article27038730?searchTerm=piggyback#pstart1911980","external_links_name":"\"Mine-Sweepers By \"Piggyback\"\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DeEDAAAAMBAJ&dq=piggyback+train+australia&pg=PA120","external_links_name":"Double Piggyback p120"},{"Link":"https://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/10/modalohr-plans-europe-wide-expansion.html","external_links_name":"RGI Modalohr"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4160726-0","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007548571705171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85102091","external_links_name":"United States"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_for_Pen_Computing	Windows for Pen Computing	["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"]	Software suite for Windows 3.1 for pen compuing Microsoft Windows for Pen ComputingOriginal author(s)MicrosoftDeveloper(s)MicrosoftInitial release1992 as Microsoft Windows 3.1 for Pen Computing 1.0Stable releaseMicrosoft Windows 95 for Pen Computing 2.0 / 1995 Operating systemMicrosoft WindowsLicenseProprietary Windows for Pen Computing is a software suite for Windows 3.1x, that Microsoft designed to incorporate pen computing capabilities into the Windows operating environment. Windows for Pen Computing was the second major pen computing platform for x86 tablet PCs; GO Corporation released their operating system, PenPoint OS, shortly before Microsoft published Windows for Pen Computing 1.0 in 1992. The software features of Windows for Pen Computing 1.0 includes an on-screen keyboard, a notepad program for writing with the stylus, and a program for training the system to respond accurately to the user's handwriting. Microsoft included Windows for Pen Computing 1.0 in the Windows SDK, and the operating environment was also bundled with compatible devices. Microsoft published Windows 95 in 1995, and later released Pen Services for Windows 95, also known as Windows for Pen Computing 2.0, for this new operating system. Windows XP Tablet PC Edition superseded Windows for Pen Computing in 2002. Subsequent Windows versions, such as Windows Vista and Windows 7, supported pen computing intrinsically. See also Windows Ink Workspace References ^ Lisa Stampfli (December 1995). "Pen Computing and Windows 95". Pen Computing Magazine. Retrieved May 6, 2008. ^ Marlin Eller and Jennifer Edstrom (1998), Barbarians Led by Bill Gates, Owl Books ^ Scott Griepentrog (August 1996). "Pen Services for Windows 95". Pen Computing Magazine. Retrieved February 16, 2017. External links The Unknown History of Pen Computing contains a history of pen computing, including touch and gesture technology, from approximately 1917 to 1992. About Tablet Computing Old and New - an article that mentions Windows Pen in passing Annotated bibliography of references to handwriting recognition and pen computing Windows für Pen Computer (in German) Windows for Pen Computer (German link above translated by Google) Notes on the History of Pen-based Computing (YouTube) This Microsoft Windows article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte vteMicrosoft Windows Components Versions History Comparison Criticism DOS-based 1.0 2.0 2.1 3.0 3.1 Windows 9x 95 98 Me Windows NTBase releases NT 3.1 NT 3.5 NT 3.51 NT 4.0 2000 XP Pro x64 Media Center Vista 7 8 / 8.1 10 11 Windows Server Server 2003 Home Server Server 2008 EBS 2008 HPC Server 2008 Server 2008 R2 Home Server 2011 Server 2012 Server 2012 R2 Server 2016 Server 2019 Server 2022 Other releases Fundamentals for Legacy PCs RT Specialized Preinstallation Environment MultiPoint Server Windows Embedded / Windows IoTEmbedded Compact CE 5.0 Embedded CE 6.0 Embedded Compact 7 Other Embedded Automotive Embedded Industry Windows Mobile Pocket PC 2000 Pocket PC 2002 Mobile 2003 Mobile 5.0 Mobile 6.0 Mobile 6.1 Mobile 6.5 Windows Phone Phone 7 Phone 8 Phone 8.1 10 Mobile Cancelled Cairo Nashville Neptune Odyssey Polaris 10X Related Development 95 XP Vista Editions XP Vista 7 8 10 11 New features XP Vista 7 8 10 11 Removed features XP Vista 7 8 10 11 Version history Phone 10 10 Mobile 11 Version comparison Vista and XP Criticism XP Vista 10 Windows for Pen Computing Microsoft Plus! Microsoft PowerToys Windows Server Essentials List of versions Comparison Category	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"software suite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_suite"},{"link_name":"Windows 3.1x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.1x"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"pen computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pen_computing"},{"link_name":"operating environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_environment#Computing"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"},{"link_name":"tablet PCs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet_computer"},{"link_name":"GO Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GO_Corporation"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"PenPoint OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PenPoint_OS"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pencomputingmag-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"on-screen keyboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-screen_keyboard"},{"link_name":"stylus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylus_(computing)"},{"link_name":"handwriting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handwriting"},{"link_name":"Windows SDK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_SDK"},{"link_name":"Windows 95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_95"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"Windows XP Tablet PC Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_XP_editions#Tablet_PC_Edition"},{"link_name":"Windows versions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Microsoft_Windows_versions"},{"link_name":"Windows Vista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Vista"},{"link_name":"Windows 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_7"}],"text":"Windows for Pen Computing is a software suite for Windows 3.1x, that Microsoft designed to incorporate pen computing capabilities into the Windows operating environment. Windows for Pen Computing was the second major pen computing platform for x86 tablet PCs; GO Corporation released their operating system, PenPoint OS, shortly before Microsoft published Windows for Pen Computing 1.0 in 1992.[1][2]The software features of Windows for Pen Computing 1.0 includes an on-screen keyboard, a notepad program for writing with the stylus, and a program for training the system to respond accurately to the user's handwriting. Microsoft included Windows for Pen Computing 1.0 in the Windows SDK, and the operating environment was also bundled with compatible devices.Microsoft published Windows 95 in 1995, and later released Pen Services for Windows 95,[3] also known as Windows for Pen Computing 2.0, for this new operating system. Windows XP Tablet PC Edition superseded Windows for Pen Computing in 2002. Subsequent Windows versions, such as Windows Vista and Windows 7, supported pen computing intrinsically.","title":"Windows for Pen Computing"}]	[]	[{"title":"Windows Ink Workspace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Ink_Workspace"}]	[{"reference":"Lisa Stampfli (December 1995). \"Pen Computing and Windows 95\". Pen Computing Magazine. Retrieved May 6, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pencomputing.com/developer/pen_extensions.html","url_text":"\"Pen Computing and Windows 95\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pen_Computing_Magazine&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Pen Computing Magazine"}]},{"reference":"Marlin Eller and Jennifer Edstrom (1998), Barbarians Led by Bill Gates, Owl Books","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlin_Eller","url_text":"Marlin Eller"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbarians_Led_by_Bill_Gates","url_text":"Barbarians Led by Bill Gates"}]},{"reference":"Scott Griepentrog (August 1996). \"Pen Services for Windows 95\". Pen Computing Magazine. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_scientist	Cognitive science	["1 History","2 Principles","2.1 Levels of analysis","2.2 Interdisciplinary nature","2.3 Cognitive science: the term","3 Scope","3.1 Artificial intelligence","3.2 Attention","3.3 Bodily processes related to cognition","3.4 Knowledge and processing of language","3.5 Learning and development","3.6 Memory","3.7 Perception and action","3.8 Consciousness","4 Research methods","4.1 Behavioral experiments","4.2 Brain imaging","4.3 Computational modeling","4.4 Neurobiological methods","5 Key findings","6 Notable researchers","7 Epistemics","8 Binding problem in cognitive science","9 See also","10 References","11 External links"]	Interdisciplinary scientific study of cognitive processes For the journal, see Cognitive Science (journal). Figure illustrating the fields that contributed to the birth of cognitive science, including linguistics, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, anthropology, and psychology Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary, scientific study of the mind and its processes. It examines the nature, the tasks, and the functions of cognition (in a broad sense). Mental faculties of concern to cognitive scientists include language, perception, memory, attention, reasoning, and emotion; to understand these faculties, cognitive scientists borrow from fields such as linguistics, psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, and anthropology. The typical analysis of cognitive science spans many levels of organization, from learning and decision to logic and planning; from neural circuitry to modular brain organization. One of the fundamental concepts of cognitive science is that "thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures." History The cognitive sciences began as an intellectual movement in the 1950s, called the cognitive revolution. Cognitive science has a prehistory traceable back to ancient Greek philosophical texts (see Plato's Meno and Aristotle's De Anima); Modern philosophers such as Descartes, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Benedict de Spinoza, Nicolas Malebranche, Pierre Cabanis, Leibniz and John Locke, rejected scholasticism while mostly having never read Aristotle, and they were working with an entirely different set of tools and core concepts than those of the cognitive scientist. The modern culture of cognitive science can be traced back to the early cyberneticists in the 1930s and 1940s, such as Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts, who sought to understand the organizing principles of the mind. McCulloch and Pitts developed the first variants of what are now known as artificial neural networks, models of computation inspired by the structure of biological neural networks. Another precursor was the early development of the theory of computation and the digital computer in the 1940s and 1950s. Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, Alan Turing, and John von Neumann were instrumental in these developments. The modern computer, or Von Neumann machine, would play a central role in cognitive science, both as a metaphor for the mind, and as a tool for investigation. The first instance of cognitive science experiments being done at an academic institution took place at MIT Sloan School of Management, established by J.C.R. Licklider working within the psychology department and conducting experiments using computer memory as models for human cognition. In 1959, Noam Chomsky published a scathing review of B. F. Skinner's book Verbal Behavior. At the time, Skinner's behaviorist paradigm dominated the field of psychology within the United States. Most psychologists focused on functional relations between stimulus and response, without positing internal representations. Chomsky argued that in order to explain language, we needed a theory like generative grammar, which not only attributed internal representations but characterized their underlying order. The term cognitive science was coined by Christopher Longuet-Higgins in his 1973 commentary on the Lighthill report, which concerned the then-current state of artificial intelligence research. In the same decade, the journal Cognitive Science and the Cognitive Science Society were founded. The founding meeting of the Cognitive Science Society was held at the University of California, San Diego in 1979, which resulted in cognitive science becoming an internationally visible enterprise. In 1972, Hampshire College started the first undergraduate education program in Cognitive Science, led by Neil Stillings. In 1982, with assistance from Professor Stillings, Vassar College became the first institution in the world to grant an undergraduate degree in Cognitive Science. In 1986, the first Cognitive Science Department in the world was founded at the University of California, San Diego. In the 1970s and early 1980s, as access to computers increased, artificial intelligence research expanded. Researchers such as Marvin Minsky would write computer programs in languages such as LISP to attempt to formally characterize the steps that human beings went through, for instance, in making decisions and solving problems, in the hope of better understanding human thought, and also in the hope of creating artificial minds. This approach is known as "symbolic AI". Eventually the limits of the symbolic AI research program became apparent. For instance, it seemed to be unrealistic to comprehensively list human knowledge in a form usable by a symbolic computer program. The late 80s and 90s saw the rise of neural networks and connectionism as a research paradigm. Under this point of view, often attributed to James McClelland and David Rumelhart, the mind could be characterized as a set of complex associations, represented as a layered network. Critics argue that there are some phenomena which are better captured by symbolic models, and that connectionist models are often so complex as to have little explanatory power. Recently symbolic and connectionist models have been combined, making it possible to take advantage of both forms of explanation. While both connectionism and symbolic approaches have proven useful for testing various hypotheses and exploring approaches to understanding aspects of cognition and lower level brain functions, neither are biologically realistic and therefore, both suffer from a lack of neuroscientific plausibility. Connectionism has proven useful for exploring computationally how cognition emerges in development and occurs in the human brain, and has provided alternatives to strictly domain-specific / domain general approaches. For example, scientists such as Jeff Elman, Liz Bates, and Annette Karmiloff-Smith have posited that networks in the brain emerge from the dynamic interaction between them and environmental input. Recent developments in quantum computation, including the ability to run quantum circuits on quantum computers such as IBM Quantum Platform, has accelerated work using elements from quantum mechanics in cognitive models. Principles Levels of analysis See also: Functionalism (philosophy of mind) A central tenet of cognitive science is that a complete understanding of the mind/brain cannot be attained by studying only a single level. An example would be the problem of remembering a phone number and recalling it later. One approach to understanding this process would be to study behavior through direct observation, or naturalistic observation. A person could be presented with a phone number and be asked to recall it after some delay of time; then the accuracy of the response could be measured. Another approach to measure cognitive ability would be to study the firings of individual neurons while a person is trying to remember the phone number. Neither of these experiments on its own would fully explain how the process of remembering a phone number works. Even if the technology to map out every neuron in the brain in real-time were available and it were known when each neuron fired it would still be impossible to know how a particular firing of neurons translates into the observed behavior. Thus an understanding of how these two levels relate to each other is imperative. Francisco Varela, in The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience, argues that "the new sciences of the mind need to enlarge their horizon to encompass both lived human experience and the possibilities for transformation inherent in human experience". On the classic cognitivist view, this can be provided by a functional level account of the process. Studying a particular phenomenon from multiple levels creates a better understanding of the processes that occur in the brain to give rise to a particular behavior. Marr gave a famous description of three levels of analysis: The computational theory, specifying the goals of the computation; Representation and algorithms, giving a representation of the inputs and outputs and the algorithms which transform one into the other; and The hardware implementation, or how algorithm and representation may be physically realized. Interdisciplinary nature Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field with contributors from various fields, including psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy of mind, computer science, anthropology and biology. Cognitive scientists work collectively in hope of understanding the mind and its interactions with the surrounding world much like other sciences do. The field regards itself as compatible with the physical sciences and uses the scientific method as well as simulation or modeling, often comparing the output of models with aspects of human cognition. Similarly to the field of psychology, there is some doubt whether there is a unified cognitive science, which have led some researchers to prefer 'cognitive sciences' in plural. Many, but not all, who consider themselves cognitive scientists hold a functionalist view of the mind—the view that mental states and processes should be explained by their function – what they do. According to the multiple realizability account of functionalism, even non-human systems such as robots and computers can be ascribed as having cognition. Cognitive science: the term The term "cognitive" in "cognitive science" is used for "any kind of mental operation or structure that can be studied in precise terms" (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999). This conceptualization is very broad, and should not be confused with how "cognitive" is used in some traditions of analytic philosophy, where "cognitive" has to do only with formal rules and truth-conditional semantics. The earliest entries for the word "cognitive" in the OED take it to mean roughly "pertaining to the action or process of knowing". The first entry, from 1586, shows the word was at one time used in the context of discussions of Platonic theories of knowledge. Most in cognitive science, however, presumably do not believe their field is the study of anything as certain as the knowledge sought by Plato. Scope Cognitive science is a large field, and covers a wide array of topics on cognition. However, it should be recognized that cognitive science has not always been equally concerned with every topic that might bear relevance to the nature and operation of minds. Classical cognitivists have largely de-emphasized or avoided social and cultural factors, embodiment, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition, and comparative and evolutionary psychologies. However, with the decline of behaviorism, internal states such as affects and emotions, as well as awareness and covert attention became approachable again. For example, situated and embodied cognition theories take into account the current state of the environment as well as the role of the body in cognition. With the newfound emphasis on information processing, observable behavior was no longer the hallmark of psychological theory, but the modeling or recording of mental states. Below are some of the main topics that cognitive science is concerned with. This is not an exhaustive list. See List of cognitive science topics for a list of various aspects of the field. Artificial intelligence Main articles: Artificial intelligence and Outline of artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) involves the study of cognitive phenomena in machines. One of the practical goals of AI is to implement aspects of human intelligence in computers. Computers are also widely used as a tool with which to study cognitive phenomena. Computational modeling uses simulations to study how human intelligence may be structured. (See § Computational modeling.) There is some debate in the field as to whether the mind is best viewed as a huge array of small but individually feeble elements (i.e. neurons), or as a collection of higher-level structures such as symbols, schemes, plans, and rules. The former view uses connectionism to study the mind, whereas the latter emphasizes symbolic artificial intelligence. One way to view the issue is whether it is possible to accurately simulate a human brain on a computer without accurately simulating the neurons that make up the human brain. Attention Main article: Attention Attention is the selection of important information. The human mind is bombarded with millions of stimuli and it must have a way of deciding which of this information to process. Attention is sometimes seen as a spotlight, meaning one can only shine the light on a particular set of information. Experiments that support this metaphor include the dichotic listening task (Cherry, 1957) and studies of inattentional blindness (Mack and Rock, 1998). In the dichotic listening task, subjects are bombarded with two different messages, one in each ear, and told to focus on only one of the messages. At the end of the experiment, when asked about the content of the unattended message, subjects cannot report it. The psychological construct of Attention is sometimes confused with the concept of Intentionality due to some degree of semantic ambiguity in their definitions. At the beginning of experimental research on Attention, Wilhelm Wundt defined this term as "that psychical process, which is operative in the clear perception of the narrow region of the content of consciousness." His experiments showed the limits of Attention in space and time, which were 3-6 letters during an exposition of 1/10 s. Because this notion develops within the framework of the original meaning during a hundred years of research, the definition of Attention would reflect the sense when it accounts for the main features initially attributed to this term – it is a process of controlling thought that continues over time. While Intentionality is the power of minds to be about something, Attention is the concentration of awareness on some phenomenon during a period of time, which is necessary to elevate the clear perception of the narrow region of the content of consciousness and which is feasible to control this focus in mind. The significance of knowledge about the scope of attention for studying cognition is that it defines the intellectual functions of cognition such as apprehension, judgment, reasoning, and working memory. The development of attention scope increases the set of faculties responsible for the mind relies on how it perceives, remembers, considers, and evaluates in making decisions. The ground of this statement is that the more details (associated with an event) the mind may grasp for their comparison, association, and categorization, the closer apprehension, judgment, and reasoning of the event are in accord with reality. According to Latvian professor Sandra Mihailova and professor Igor Val Danilov, the more elements of the phenomenon (or phenomena ) the mind can keep in the scope of attention simultaneously, the more significant number of reasonable combinations within that event it can achieve, enhancing the probability of better understanding features and particularity of the phenomenon (phenomena). For example, three items in the focal point of consciousness yield six possible combinations (3 factorial) and four items – 24 (4 factorial) combinations. The number of reasonable combinations becomes significant in the case of a focal point with six items with 720 possible combinations (6 factorial). Bodily processes related to cognition Embodied cognition approaches to cognitive science emphasize the role of body and environment in cognition. This includes both neural and extra-neural bodily processes, and factors that range from affective and emotional processes, to posture, motor control, proprioception, and kinaesthesis, to autonomic processes that involve heartbeat and respiration, to the role of the enteric gut microbiome. It also includes accounts of how the body engages with or is coupled to social and physical environments. 4E (embodied, embedded, extended and enactive) cognition includes a broad range of views about brain-body-environment interaction, from causal embeddedness to stronger claims about how the mind extends to include tools and instruments, as well as the role of social interactions, action-oriented processes, and affordances. 4E theories range from those closer to classic cognitivism (so-called "weak" embodied cognition) to stronger extended and enactive versions that are sometimes referred to as radical embodied cognitive science. Knowledge and processing of language A well known example of a phrase structure tree. This is one way of representing human language that shows how different components are organized hierarchically. Main articles: Theoretical linguistics, Cognitive linguistics, Language, Linguistics, and Psycholinguistics The ability to learn and understand language is an extremely complex process. Language is acquired within the first few years of life, and all humans under normal circumstances are able to acquire language proficiently. A major driving force in the theoretical linguistic field is discovering the nature that language must have in the abstract in order to be learned in such a fashion. Some of the driving research questions in studying how the brain itself processes language include: (1) To what extent is linguistic knowledge innate or learned?, (2) Why is it more difficult for adults to acquire a second-language than it is for infants to acquire their first-language?, and (3) How are humans able to understand novel sentences? The study of language processing ranges from the investigation of the sound patterns of speech to the meaning of words and whole sentences. Linguistics often divides language processing into orthography, phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Many aspects of language can be studied from each of these components and from their interaction. The study of language processing in cognitive science is closely tied to the field of linguistics. Linguistics was traditionally studied as a part of the humanities, including studies of history, art and literature. In the last fifty years or so, more and more researchers have studied knowledge and use of language as a cognitive phenomenon, the main problems being how knowledge of language can be acquired and used, and what precisely it consists of. Linguists have found that, while humans form sentences in ways apparently governed by very complex systems, they are remarkably unaware of the rules that govern their own speech. Thus linguists must resort to indirect methods to determine what those rules might be, if indeed rules as such exist. In any event, if speech is indeed governed by rules, they appear to be opaque to any conscious consideration. Learning and development Main articles: Learning and Developmental psychology Learning and development are the processes by which we acquire knowledge and information over time. Infants are born with little or no knowledge (depending on how knowledge is defined), yet they rapidly acquire the ability to use language, walk, and recognize people and objects. Research in learning and development aims to explain the mechanisms by which these processes might take place. A major question in the study of cognitive development is the extent to which certain abilities are innate or learned. This is often framed in terms of the nature and nurture debate. The nativist view emphasizes that certain features are innate to an organism and are determined by its genetic endowment. The empiricist view, on the other hand, emphasizes that certain abilities are learned from the environment. Although clearly both genetic and environmental input is needed for a child to develop normally, considerable debate remains about how genetic information might guide cognitive development. In the area of language acquisition, for example, some (such as Steven Pinker) have argued that specific information containing universal grammatical rules must be contained in the genes, whereas others (such as Jeffrey Elman and colleagues in Rethinking Innateness) have argued that Pinker's claims are biologically unrealistic. They argue that genes determine the architecture of a learning system, but that specific "facts" about how grammar works can only be learned as a result of experience. Memory Main article: Memory Memory allows us to store information for later retrieval. Memory is often thought of as consisting of both a long-term and short-term store. Long-term memory allows us to store information over prolonged periods (days, weeks, years). We do not yet know the practical limit of long-term memory capacity. Short-term memory allows us to store information over short time scales (seconds or minutes). Memory is also often grouped into declarative and procedural forms. Declarative memory—grouped into subsets of semantic and episodic forms of memory—refers to our memory for facts and specific knowledge, specific meanings, and specific experiences (e.g. "Are apples food?", or "What did I eat for breakfast four days ago?"). Procedural memory allows us to remember actions and motor sequences (e.g. how to ride a bicycle) and is often dubbed implicit knowledge or memory . Cognitive scientists study memory just as psychologists do, but tend to focus more on how memory bears on cognitive processes, and the interrelationship between cognition and memory. One example of this could be, what mental processes does a person go through to retrieve a long-lost memory? Or, what differentiates between the cognitive process of recognition (seeing hints of something before remembering it, or memory in context) and recall (retrieving a memory, as in "fill-in-the-blank")? Perception and action The Necker cube, an example of an optical illusion An optical illusion. The square A is exactly the same shade of gray as square B. See checker shadow illusion. Main article: Perception Perception is the ability to take in information via the senses, and process it in some way. Vision and hearing are two dominant senses that allow us to perceive the environment. Some questions in the study of visual perception, for example, include: (1) How are we able to recognize objects?, (2) Why do we perceive a continuous visual environment, even though we only see small bits of it at any one time? One tool for studying visual perception is by looking at how people process optical illusions. The image on the right of a Necker cube is an example of a bistable percept, that is, the cube can be interpreted as being oriented in two different directions. The study of haptic (tactile), olfactory, and gustatory stimuli also fall into the domain of perception. Action is taken to refer to the output of a system. In humans, this is accomplished through motor responses. Spatial planning and movement, speech production, and complex motor movements are all aspects of action. Consciousness Main article: Consciousness Consciousness is the awareness of experiences within oneself. This helps the mind with having the ability to experience or feel a sense of self. Research methods Many different methodologies are used to study cognitive science. As the field is highly interdisciplinary, research often cuts across multiple areas of study, drawing on research methods from psychology, neuroscience, computer science and systems theory. Behavioral experiments In order to have a description of what constitutes intelligent behavior, one must study behavior itself. This type of research is closely tied to that in cognitive psychology and psychophysics. By measuring behavioral responses to different stimuli, one can understand something about how those stimuli are processed. Lewandowski & Strohmetz (2009) reviewed a collection of innovative uses of behavioral measurement in psychology including behavioral traces, behavioral observations, and behavioral choice. Behavioral traces are pieces of evidence that indicate behavior occurred, but the actor is not present (e.g., litter in a parking lot or readings on an electric meter). Behavioral observations involve the direct witnessing of the actor engaging in the behavior (e.g., watching how close a person sits next to another person). Behavioral choices are when a person selects between two or more options (e.g., voting behavior, choice of a punishment for another participant). Reaction time. The time between the presentation of a stimulus and an appropriate response can indicate differences between two cognitive processes, and can indicate some things about their nature. For example, if in a search task the reaction times vary proportionally with the number of elements, then it is evident that this cognitive process of searching involves serial instead of parallel processing. Psychophysical responses. Psychophysical experiments are an old psychological technique, which has been adopted by cognitive psychology. They typically involve making judgments of some physical property, e.g. the loudness of a sound. Correlation of subjective scales between individuals can show cognitive or sensory biases as compared to actual physical measurements. Some examples include: sameness judgments for colors, tones, textures, etc. threshold differences for colors, tones, textures, etc. Eye tracking. This methodology is used to study a variety of cognitive processes, most notably visual perception and language processing. The fixation point of the eyes is linked to an individual's focus of attention. Thus, by monitoring eye movements, we can study what information is being processed at a given time. Eye tracking allows us to study cognitive processes on extremely short time scales. Eye movements reflect online decision making during a task, and they provide us with some insight into the ways in which those decisions may be processed. Brain imaging Main article: Neuroimaging Image of the human head with the brain. The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus. Brain imaging involves analyzing activity within the brain while performing various tasks. This allows us to link behavior and brain function to help understand how information is processed. Different types of imaging techniques vary in their temporal (time-based) and spatial (location-based) resolution. Brain imaging is often used in cognitive neuroscience. Single-photon emission computed tomography and positron emission tomography. SPECT and PET use radioactive isotopes, which are injected into the subject's bloodstream and taken up by the brain. By observing which areas of the brain take up the radioactive isotope, we can see which areas of the brain are more active than other areas. PET has similar spatial resolution to fMRI, but it has extremely poor temporal resolution. Electroencephalography. EEG measures the electrical fields generated by large populations of neurons in the cortex by placing a series of electrodes on the scalp of the subject. This technique has an extremely high temporal resolution, but a relatively poor spatial resolution. Functional magnetic resonance imaging. fMRI measures the relative amount of oxygenated blood flowing to different parts of the brain. More oxygenated blood in a particular region is assumed to correlate with an increase in neural activity in that part of the brain. This allows us to localize particular functions within different brain regions. fMRI has moderate spatial and temporal resolution. Optical imaging. This technique uses infrared transmitters and receivers to measure the amount of light reflectance by blood near different areas of the brain. Since oxygenated and deoxygenated blood reflects light by different amounts, we can study which areas are more active (i.e., those that have more oxygenated blood). Optical imaging has moderate temporal resolution, but poor spatial resolution. It also has the advantage that it is extremely safe and can be used to study infants' brains. Magnetoencephalography. MEG measures magnetic fields resulting from cortical activity. It is similar to EEG, except that it has improved spatial resolution since the magnetic fields it measures are not as blurred or attenuated by the scalp, meninges and so forth as the electrical activity measured in EEG is. MEG uses SQUID sensors to detect tiny magnetic fields. Computational modeling See also: Computational cognition and Cognitive model An artificial neural network with two layers Computational models require a mathematically and logically formal representation of a problem. Computer models are used in the simulation and experimental verification of different specific and general properties of intelligence. Computational modeling can help us understand the functional organization of a particular cognitive phenomenon. Approaches to cognitive modeling can be categorized as: (1) symbolic, on abstract mental functions of an intelligent mind by means of symbols; (2) subsymbolic, on the neural and associative properties of the human brain; and (3) across the symbolic–subsymbolic border, including hybrid. Symbolic modeling evolved from the computer science paradigms using the technologies of knowledge-based systems, as well as a philosophical perspective (e.g. "Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Intelligence" (GOFAI)). They were developed by the first cognitive researchers and later used in information engineering for expert systems. Since the early 1990s it was generalized in systemics for the investigation of functional human-like intelligence models, such as personoids, and, in parallel, developed as the SOAR environment. Recently, especially in the context of cognitive decision-making, symbolic cognitive modeling has been extended to the socio-cognitive approach, including social and organizational cognition, interrelated with a sub-symbolic non-conscious layer. Subsymbolic modeling includes connectionist/neural network models. Connectionism relies on the idea that the mind/brain is composed of simple nodes and its problem-solving capacity derives from the connections between them. Neural nets are textbook implementations of this approach. Some critics of this approach feel that while these models approach biological reality as a representation of how the system works, these models lack explanatory powers because, even in systems endowed with simple connection rules, the emerging high complexity makes them less interpretable at the connection-level than they apparently are at the macroscopic level. Other approaches gaining in popularity include (1) dynamical systems theory, (2) mapping symbolic models onto connectionist models (Neural-symbolic integration or hybrid intelligent systems), and (3) and Bayesian models, which are often drawn from machine learning. All the above approaches tend either to be generalized to the form of integrated computational models of a synthetic/abstract intelligence (i.e. cognitive architecture) in order to be applied to the explanation and improvement of individual and social/organizational decision-making and reasoning or to focus on single simulative programs (or microtheories/"middle-range" theories) modelling specific cognitive faculties (e.g. vision, language, categorization etc.). Neurobiological methods Research methods borrowed directly from neuroscience and neuropsychology can also help us to understand aspects of intelligence. These methods allow us to understand how intelligent behavior is implemented in a physical system. Single-unit recording Direct brain stimulation Animal models Postmortem studies Key findings Cognitive science has given rise to models of human cognitive bias and risk perception, and has been influential in the development of behavioral finance, part of economics. It has also given rise to a new theory of the philosophy of mathematics (related to denotational mathematics), and many theories of artificial intelligence, persuasion and coercion. It has made its presence known in the philosophy of language and epistemology as well as constituting a substantial wing of modern linguistics. Fields of cognitive science have been influential in understanding the brain's particular functional systems (and functional deficits) ranging from speech production to auditory processing and visual perception. It has made progress in understanding how damage to particular areas of the brain affect cognition, and it has helped to uncover the root causes and results of specific dysfunction, such as dyslexia, anopsia, and hemispatial neglect. Notable researchers This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message) See also: List of cognitive scientists Name Year of birth Year of contribution Contribution(s) David Chalmers 1966 1995 Dualism, hard problem of consciousness Daniel Dennett 1942 1987 Offered a computational systems perspective (Multiple drafts model) John Searle 1932 1980 Chinese room Douglas Hofstadter 1945 1979 Gödel, Escher, Bach Jerry Fodor 1935 1968, 1975 Functionalism Alan Baddeley 1934 1974 Baddeley's model of working memory Marvin Minsky 1927 1970s, early 1980s Wrote computer programs in languages such as LISP to attempt to formally characterize the steps that human beings go through, such as making decisions and solving problems Christopher Longuet-Higgins 1923 1973 Coined the term cognitive science Noam Chomsky 1928 1959 Published a review of B.F. Skinner's book Verbal Behavior which began cognitivism against then-dominant behaviorism George Miller 1920 1956 Wrote about the capacities of human thinking through mental representations Herbert Simon 1916 1956 Co-created Logic Theory Machine and General Problem Solver with Allen Newell, EPAM (Elementary Perceiver and Memorizer) theory, organizational decision-making John McCarthy 1927 1955 Coined the term artificial intelligence and organized the famous Dartmouth conference in Summer 1956, which started AI as a field McCulloch and Pitts 1930s–1940s Developed early artificial neural networks J. C. R. Licklider 1915 Established MIT Sloan School of Management Lila R. Gleitman 1929 1970s-2010s Wide-ranging contributions to understanding the cognition of language acquisition, including syntactic bootstrapping theory Eleanor Rosch 1938 1976 Development of the Prototype Theory of categorisation Philip N. Johnson-Laird 1936 1980 Introduced the idea of mental models in cognitive science Dedre Gentner 1944 1983 Development of the Structure-mapping Theory of analogical reasoning Allen Newell 1927 1990 Development of the field of Cognitive architecture in cognitive modelling and artificial intelligence Annette Karmiloff-Smith 1938 1992 Integrating neuroscience and computational modelling into theories of cognitive development David Marr (neuroscientist) 1945 1990 Proponent of the Three-Level Hypothesis of levels of analysis of computational systems Peter Gärdenfors 1949 2000 Creator of the conceptual space framework used in cognitive modelling and artificial intelligence. Linda B. Smith 1951 1993 Together with Esther Thelen, created a dynamical systems approach to understanding cognitive development Some of the more recognized names in cognitive science are usually either the most controversial or the most cited. Within philosophy, some familiar names include Daniel Dennett, who writes from a computational systems perspective, John Searle, known for his controversial Chinese room argument, and Jerry Fodor, who advocates functionalism. Others include David Chalmers, who advocates Dualism and is also known for articulating the hard problem of consciousness, and Douglas Hofstadter, famous for writing Gödel, Escher, Bach, which questions the nature of words and thought. In the realm of linguistics, Noam Chomsky and George Lakoff have been influential (both have also become notable as political commentators). In artificial intelligence, Marvin Minsky, Herbert A. Simon, and Allen Newell are prominent. Popular names in the discipline of psychology include George A. Miller, James McClelland, Philip Johnson-Laird, Lawrence Barsalou, Vittorio Guidano, Howard Gardner and Steven Pinker. Anthropologists Dan Sperber, Edwin Hutchins, Bradd Shore, James Wertsch and Scott Atran, have been involved in collaborative projects with cognitive and social psychologists, political scientists and evolutionary biologists in attempts to develop general theories of culture formation, religion, and political association. Computational theories (with models and simulations) have also been developed, by David Rumelhart, James McClelland and Philip Johnson-Laird. Epistemics Epistemics is a term coined in 1969 by the University of Edinburgh with the foundation of its School of Epistemics. Epistemics is to be distinguished from epistemology in that epistemology is the philosophical theory of knowledge, whereas epistemics signifies the scientific study of knowledge. Christopher Longuet-Higgins has defined it as "the construction of formal models of the processes (perceptual, intellectual, and linguistic) by which knowledge and understanding are achieved and communicated." In his 1978 essay "Epistemics: The Regulative Theory of Cognition", Alvin I. Goldman claims to have coined the term "epistemics" to describe a reorientation of epistemology. Goldman maintains that his epistemics is continuous with traditional epistemology and the new term is only to avoid opposition. Epistemics, in Goldman's version, differs only slightly from traditional epistemology in its alliance with the psychology of cognition; epistemics stresses the detailed study of mental processes and information-processing mechanisms that lead to knowledge or beliefs. In the mid-1980s, the School of Epistemics was renamed as The Centre for Cognitive Science (CCS). In 1998, CCS was incorporated into the University of Edinburgh's School of Informatics. Binding problem in cognitive science One of the core aims of cognitive science is to achieve an integrated theory of cognition. This requires integrative mechanisms explaining how the information processing that occurs simultaneously in spatially segregated (sub-)cortical areas in the brain is coordinated and bound together to give rise to coherent perceptual and symbolic representations. One approach is to solve this "Binding problem" (that is, the problem of dynamically representing conjunctions of informational elements, from the most basic perceptual representations ("feature binding") to the most complex cognitive representations, like symbol structures ("variable binding")), by means of integrative synchronization mechanisms. In other words, one of the coordinating mechanisms appears to be the temporal (phase) synchronization of neural activity based on dynamical self-organizing processes in neural networks, described by the Binding-by-synchrony (BBS) Hypothesis from neurophysiology. Connectionist cognitive neuroarchitectures have been developed that use integrative synchronization mechanisms to solve this binding problem in perceptual cognition and in language cognition. In perceptual cognition the problem is to explain how elementary object properties and object relations, like the object color or the object form, can be dynamically bound together or can be integrated to a representation of this perceptual object by means of a synchronization mechanism ("feature binding", "feature linking"). In language cognition the problem is to explain how semantic concepts and syntactic roles can be dynamically bound together or can be integrated to complex cognitive representations like systematic and compositional symbol structures and propositions by means of a synchronization mechanism ("variable binding") (see also the "Symbolism vs. connectionism debate" in connectionism). However, despite significant advances in understanding the integrated theory of cognition (specifically the Binding problem), the debate on this issue of beginning cognition is still in progress. From the different perspectives noted above, this problem can be reduced to the issue of how organisms at the simple reflexes stage of development overcome the threshold of the environmental chaos of sensory stimuli: electromagnetic waves, chemical interactions, and pressure fluctuations. The so-called Primary Data Entry (PDE) thesis poses doubts about the ability of such an organism to overcome this cue threshold on its own. In terms of mathematical tools, the PDE thesis underlines the insuperable high threshold of the cacophony of environmental stimuli (the stimuli noise) for young organisms at the onset of life. It argues that the temporal (phase) synchronization of neural activity based on dynamical self-organizing processes in neural networks, any dynamical bound together or integration to a representation of the perceptual object by means of a synchronization mechanism can not help organisms in distinguishing relevant cue (informative stimulus) for overcome this noise threshold. 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social science model Functionalism Memetics Multilineal evolution Neo-Darwinism Neoevolutionism Sociocultural evolution Unilineal evolution Evolutionary psychologists Evolutionary psychology Psychology portal Evolutionary biology portal Authority control databases: National Spain France BnF data Germany Israel United States Japan Czech Republic	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cognitive Science (journal)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_Science_(journal)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cognitive_Science_Hexagon.svg"},{"link_name":"linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"},{"link_name":"neuroscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience"},{"link_name":"artificial 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intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind"},{"link_name":"neuroscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience"},{"link_name":"anthropology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stanford1-3"},{"link_name":"neural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stanford1-3"}],"text":"For the journal, see Cognitive Science (journal).Figure illustrating the fields that contributed to the birth of cognitive science, including linguistics, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, anthropology, and psychology[1]Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary, scientific study of the mind and its processes.[2] It examines the nature, the tasks, and the functions of cognition (in a broad sense). Mental faculties of concern to cognitive scientists include language, perception, memory, attention, reasoning, and emotion; to understand these faculties, cognitive scientists borrow from fields such as linguistics, psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, and anthropology.[3] The typical analysis of cognitive science spans many levels of organization, from learning and decision to logic and planning; from neural circuitry to modular brain organization. One of the fundamental concepts of cognitive science is that \"thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures.\"[3]","title":"Cognitive science"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cognitive revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_revolution"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"Meno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meno"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"De Anima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Anima"},{"link_name":"Descartes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes"},{"link_name":"David Hume","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume"},{"link_name":"Immanuel Kant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant"},{"link_name":"Benedict de Spinoza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedict_de_Spinoza"},{"link_name":"Nicolas Malebranche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche"},{"link_name":"Pierre Cabanis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Cabanis"},{"link_name":"Leibniz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz"},{"link_name":"John Locke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke"},{"link_name":"scholasticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholasticism"},{"link_name":"cyberneticists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics"},{"link_name":"Warren McCulloch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_McCulloch"},{"link_name":"Walter Pitts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Pitts"},{"link_name":"artificial neural networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_networks"},{"link_name":"biological neural networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_neural_networks"},{"link_name":"theory of computation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_computation"},{"link_name":"digital computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_computer"},{"link_name":"Kurt Gödel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del"},{"link_name":"Alonzo Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alonzo_Church"},{"link_name":"Alan Turing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing"},{"link_name":"John von Neumann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_von_Neumann"},{"link_name":"Von Neumann machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture"},{"link_name":"MIT Sloan School of Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Sloan_School_of_Management"},{"link_name":"J.C.R. Licklider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.C.R._Licklider"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Noam Chomsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky"},{"link_name":"B. F. Skinner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner"},{"link_name":"Verbal Behavior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_Behavior"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chomsky_1959_26%E2%80%9358-5"},{"link_name":"behaviorist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorist"},{"link_name":"generative grammar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_grammar"},{"link_name":"Christopher Longuet-Higgins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._Christopher_Longuet-Higgins"},{"link_name":"Lighthill report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthill_report"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Cognitive Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_Science_(journal)"},{"link_name":"Cognitive Science Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_Science_Society"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Cognitive Science Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_Science_Society"},{"link_name":"University of California, San Diego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Diego"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cogsci.ucsd.edu-8"},{"link_name":"Hampshire College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampshire_College"},{"link_name":"Vassar College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassar_College"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"University of California, San Diego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Diego"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cogsci.ucsd.edu-8"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"Marvin Minsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvin_Minsky"},{"link_name":"LISP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LISP"},{"link_name":"thought","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought"},{"link_name":"neural networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_networks"},{"link_name":"connectionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectionism"},{"link_name":"James McClelland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_McClelland_(psychologist)"},{"link_name":"David Rumelhart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Rumelhart"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"quantum computation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computation"},{"link_name":"IBM Quantum Platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Quantum_Platform"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"The cognitive sciences began as an intellectual movement in the 1950s, called the cognitive revolution. Cognitive science has a prehistory traceable back to ancient Greek philosophical texts (see Plato's Meno and Aristotle's De Anima); Modern philosophers such as Descartes, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Benedict de Spinoza, Nicolas Malebranche, Pierre Cabanis, Leibniz and John Locke, rejected scholasticism while mostly having never read Aristotle, and they were working with an entirely different set of tools and core concepts than those of the cognitive scientist.The modern culture of cognitive science can be traced back to the early cyberneticists in the 1930s and 1940s, such as Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts, who sought to understand the organizing principles of the mind. McCulloch and Pitts developed the first variants of what are now known as artificial neural networks, models of computation inspired by the structure of biological neural networks.Another precursor was the early development of the theory of computation and the digital computer in the 1940s and 1950s. Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, Alan Turing, and John von Neumann were instrumental in these developments. The modern computer, or Von Neumann machine, would play a central role in cognitive science, both as a metaphor for the mind, and as a tool for investigation.The first instance of cognitive science experiments being done at an academic institution took place at MIT Sloan School of Management, established by J.C.R. Licklider working within the psychology department and conducting experiments using computer memory as models for human cognition.[4]\nIn 1959, Noam Chomsky published a scathing review of B. F. Skinner's book Verbal Behavior.[5] At the time, Skinner's behaviorist paradigm dominated the field of psychology within the United States. Most psychologists focused on functional relations between stimulus and response, without positing internal representations. Chomsky argued that in order to explain language, we needed a theory like generative grammar, which not only attributed internal representations but characterized their underlying order.The term cognitive science was coined by Christopher Longuet-Higgins in his 1973 commentary on the Lighthill report, which concerned the then-current state of artificial intelligence research.[6] In the same decade, the journal Cognitive Science and the Cognitive Science Society were founded.[7] The founding meeting of the Cognitive Science Society was held at the University of California, San Diego in 1979, which resulted in cognitive science becoming an internationally visible enterprise.[8] In 1972, Hampshire College started the first undergraduate education program in Cognitive Science, led by Neil Stillings. In 1982, with assistance from Professor Stillings, Vassar College became the first institution in the world to grant an undergraduate degree in Cognitive Science.[9] In 1986, the first Cognitive Science Department in the world was founded at the University of California, San Diego.[8]In the 1970s and early 1980s, as access to computers increased, artificial intelligence research expanded. Researchers such as Marvin Minsky would write computer programs in languages such as LISP to attempt to formally characterize the steps that human beings went through, for instance, in making decisions and solving problems, in the hope of better understanding human thought, and also in the hope of creating artificial minds. This approach is known as \"symbolic AI\".Eventually the limits of the symbolic AI research program became apparent. For instance, it seemed to be unrealistic to comprehensively list human knowledge in a form usable by a symbolic computer program. The late 80s and 90s saw the rise of neural networks and connectionism as a research paradigm. Under this point of view, often attributed to James McClelland and David Rumelhart, the mind could be characterized as a set of complex associations, represented as a layered network. Critics argue that there are some phenomena which are better captured by symbolic models, and that connectionist models are often so complex as to have little explanatory power. Recently symbolic and connectionist models have been combined, making it possible to take advantage of both forms of explanation.[10][11] While both connectionism and symbolic approaches have proven useful for testing various hypotheses and exploring approaches to understanding aspects of cognition and lower level brain functions, neither are biologically realistic and therefore, both suffer from a lack of neuroscientific plausibility.[12][13][14][15][16][17][18] Connectionism has proven useful for exploring computationally how cognition emerges in development and occurs in the human brain, and has provided alternatives to strictly domain-specific / domain general approaches. For example, scientists such as Jeff Elman, Liz Bates, and Annette Karmiloff-Smith have posited that networks in the brain emerge from the dynamic interaction between them and environmental input.[19]Recent developments in quantum computation, including the ability to run quantum circuits on quantum computers such as IBM Quantum Platform, has accelerated work using elements from quantum mechanics in cognitive models.[20][21]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Principles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Functionalism (philosophy of mind)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)"},{"link_name":"naturalistic observation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalistic_observation"},{"link_name":"neurons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron"},{"link_name":"Francisco Varela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Varela"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Marr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Marr_(psychologist)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Levels of analysis","text":"See also: Functionalism (philosophy of mind)A central tenet of cognitive science is that a complete understanding of the mind/brain cannot be attained by studying only a single level. An example would be the problem of remembering a phone number and recalling it later. One approach to understanding this process would be to study behavior through direct observation, or naturalistic observation. A person could be presented with a phone number and be asked to recall it after some delay of time; then the accuracy of the response could be measured. Another approach to measure cognitive ability would be to study the firings of individual neurons while a person is trying to remember the phone number. Neither of these experiments on its own would fully explain how the process of remembering a phone number works. Even if the technology to map out every neuron in the brain in real-time were available and it were known when each neuron fired it would still be impossible to know how a particular firing of neurons translates into the observed behavior. Thus an understanding of how these two levels relate to each other is imperative. Francisco Varela, in The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience, argues that \"the new sciences of the mind need to enlarge their horizon to encompass both lived human experience and the possibilities for transformation inherent in human experience\".[22] On the classic cognitivist view, this can be provided by a functional level account of the process. Studying a particular phenomenon from multiple levels creates a better understanding of the processes that occur in the brain to give rise to a particular behavior.\nMarr[23] gave a famous description of three levels of analysis:The computational theory, specifying the goals of the computation;\nRepresentation and algorithms, giving a representation of the inputs and outputs and the algorithms which transform one into the other; and\nThe hardware implementation, or how algorithm and representation may be physically realized.","title":"Principles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"},{"link_name":"neuroscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience"},{"link_name":"linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"},{"link_name":"philosophy of mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind"},{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"anthropology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology"},{"link_name":"biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology"},{"link_name":"scientific method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method"},{"link_name":"simulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation"},{"link_name":"modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_(abstract)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"functionalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)"},{"link_name":"multiple realizability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_realizability"}],"sub_title":"Interdisciplinary nature","text":"Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field with contributors from various fields, including psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy of mind, computer science, anthropology and biology. Cognitive scientists work collectively in hope of understanding the mind and its interactions with the surrounding world much like other sciences do. The field regards itself as compatible with the physical sciences and uses the scientific method as well as simulation or modeling, often comparing the output of models with aspects of human cognition. Similarly to the field of psychology, there is some doubt whether there is a unified cognitive science, which have led some researchers to prefer 'cognitive sciences' in plural.[24][25]Many, but not all, who consider themselves cognitive scientists hold a functionalist view of the mind—the view that mental states and processes should be explained by their function – what they do. According to the multiple realizability account of functionalism, even non-human systems such as robots and computers can be ascribed as having cognition.","title":"Principles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lakoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Lakoff"},{"link_name":"Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Johnson_(professor)"},{"link_name":"analytic philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy"},{"link_name":"truth-conditional semantics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth-conditional_semantics"},{"link_name":"OED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary"},{"link_name":"Platonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"knowledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Cognitive science: the term","text":"The term \"cognitive\" in \"cognitive science\" is used for \"any kind of mental operation or structure that can be studied in precise terms\" (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999). This conceptualization is very broad, and should not be confused with how \"cognitive\" is used in some traditions of analytic philosophy, where \"cognitive\" has to do only with formal rules and truth-conditional semantics.The earliest entries for the word \"cognitive\" in the OED take it to mean roughly \"pertaining to the action or process of knowing\". The first entry, from 1586, shows the word was at one time used in the context of discussions of Platonic theories of knowledge. Most in cognitive science, however, presumably do not believe their field is the study of anything as certain as the knowledge sought by Plato.[26]","title":"Principles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"animal cognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_cognition"},{"link_name":"comparative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_psychology"},{"link_name":"evolutionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology"},{"link_name":"behaviorism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism"},{"link_name":"embodied cognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embodied_cognition"},{"link_name":"List of cognitive science topics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_science_topics"}],"text":"Cognitive science is a large field, and covers a wide array of topics on cognition. However, it should be recognized that cognitive science has not always been equally concerned with every topic that might bear relevance to the nature and operation of minds. Classical cognitivists have largely de-emphasized or avoided social and cultural factors, embodiment, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition, and comparative and evolutionary psychologies. However, with the decline of behaviorism, internal states such as affects and emotions, as well as awareness and covert attention became approachable again. For example, situated and embodied cognition theories take into account the current state of the environment as well as the role of the body in cognition. With the newfound emphasis on information processing, observable behavior was no longer the hallmark of psychological theory, but the modeling or recording of mental states.Below are some of the main topics that cognitive science is concerned with. This is not an exhaustive list. See List of cognitive science topics for a list of various aspects of the field.","title":"Scope"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Computational modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_model"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"§ Computational modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Computational_modeling"},{"link_name":"connectionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectionism"},{"link_name":"symbolic artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_artificial_intelligence"}],"sub_title":"Artificial intelligence","text":"Artificial intelligence (AI) involves the study of cognitive phenomena in machines. One of the practical goals of AI is to implement aspects of human intelligence in computers. Computers are also widely used as a tool with which to study cognitive phenomena. Computational modeling uses simulations to study how human intelligence may be structured.[27] (See § Computational modeling.)There is some debate in the field as to whether the mind is best viewed as a huge array of small but individually feeble elements (i.e. neurons), or as a collection of higher-level structures such as symbols, schemes, plans, and rules. The former view uses connectionism to study the mind, whereas the latter emphasizes symbolic artificial intelligence. One way to view the issue is whether it is possible to accurately simulate a human brain on a computer without accurately simulating the neurons that make up the human brain.","title":"Scope"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dichotic listening","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichotic_listening"},{"link_name":"inattentional blindness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inattentional_blindness"},{"link_name":"Intentionality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intentionality"},{"link_name":"definitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition"},{"link_name":"Wilhelm Wundt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wundt_1912-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wundt_1912-28"},{"link_name":"definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Intentionality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intentionality"},{"link_name":"phenomenon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenon"},{"link_name":"perception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception"},{"link_name":"consciousness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness"},{"link_name":"mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind"},{"link_name":"cognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition"},{"link_name":"mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ValDanilov_Mihailova_2022-31"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ValDanilov_Mihailova_2022-31"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ValDanilov_Mihailova_2022-31"}],"sub_title":"Attention","text":"Attention is the selection of important information. The human mind is bombarded with millions of stimuli and it must have a way of deciding which of this information to process. Attention is sometimes seen as a spotlight, meaning one can only shine the light on a particular set of information. Experiments that support this metaphor include the dichotic listening task (Cherry, 1957) and studies of inattentional blindness (Mack and Rock, 1998). In the dichotic listening task, subjects are bombarded with two different messages, one in each ear, and told to focus on only one of the messages. At the end of the experiment, when asked about the content of the unattended message, subjects cannot report it.The psychological construct of Attention is sometimes confused with the concept of Intentionality due to some degree of semantic ambiguity in their definitions. At the beginning of experimental research on Attention, Wilhelm Wundt defined this term as \"that psychical process, which is operative in the clear perception of the narrow region of the content of consciousness.\"[28] His experiments showed the limits of Attention in space and time, which were 3-6 letters during an exposition of 1/10 s.[28] Because this notion develops within the framework of the original meaning during a hundred years of research, the definition of Attention would reflect the sense when it accounts for the main features initially attributed to this term – it is a process of controlling thought that continues over time.[29] While Intentionality is the power of minds to be about something, Attention is the concentration of awareness on some phenomenon during a period of time, which is necessary to elevate the clear perception of the narrow region of the content of consciousness and which is feasible to control this focus in mind.The significance of knowledge about the scope of attention for studying cognition is that it defines the intellectual functions of cognition such as apprehension, judgment, reasoning, and working memory. The development of attention scope increases the set of faculties responsible for the mind relies on how it perceives, remembers, considers, and evaluates in making decisions.[30] The ground of this statement is that the more details (associated with an event) the mind may grasp for their comparison, association, and categorization, the closer apprehension, judgment, and reasoning of the event are in accord with reality.[31] According to Latvian professor Sandra Mihailova and professor Igor Val Danilov, the more elements of the phenomenon (or phenomena ) the mind can keep in the scope of attention simultaneously, the more significant number of reasonable combinations within that event it can achieve, enhancing the probability of better understanding features and particularity of the phenomenon (phenomena).[31] For example, three items in the focal point of consciousness yield six possible combinations (3 factorial) and four items – 24 (4 factorial) combinations. The number of reasonable combinations becomes significant in the case of a focal point with six items with 720 possible combinations (6 factorial).[31]","title":"Scope"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Embodied cognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embodied_cognition"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"proprioception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"sub_title":"Bodily processes related to cognition","text":"Embodied cognition approaches to cognitive science emphasize the role of body and environment in cognition. This includes both neural and extra-neural bodily processes, and factors that range from affective and emotional processes,[32] to posture, motor control, proprioception, and kinaesthesis,[33] to autonomic processes that involve heartbeat[34] and respiration,[35] to the role of the enteric gut microbiome.[36] It also includes accounts of how the body engages with or is coupled to social and physical environments. 4E (embodied, embedded, extended and enactive) cognition[37][38] includes a broad range of views about brain-body-environment interaction, from causal embeddedness to stronger claims about how the mind extends to include tools and instruments, as well as the role of social interactions, action-oriented processes, and affordances. 4E theories range from those closer to classic cognitivism (so-called \"weak\" embodied cognition[39]) to stronger extended[40] and enactive versions that are sometimes referred to as radical embodied cognitive science.[41][42]","title":"Scope"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cgisf-tgg.svg"},{"link_name":"well known example","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorless_green_ideas_sleep_furiously"},{"link_name":"phrase structure tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrase_structure_rules"},{"link_name":"Linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"},{"link_name":"orthography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthography"},{"link_name":"phonetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetics"},{"link_name":"phonology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonology"},{"link_name":"morphology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"syntax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax"},{"link_name":"semantics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics"},{"link_name":"pragmatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Linguists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"}],"sub_title":"Knowledge and processing of language","text":"A well known example of a phrase structure tree. This is one way of representing human language that shows how different components are organized hierarchically.The ability to learn and understand language is an extremely complex process. Language is acquired within the first few years of life, and all humans under normal circumstances are able to acquire language proficiently. A major driving force in the theoretical linguistic field is discovering the nature that language must have in the abstract in order to be learned in such a fashion. Some of the driving research questions in studying how the brain itself processes language include: (1) To what extent is linguistic knowledge innate or learned?, (2) Why is it more difficult for adults to acquire a second-language than it is for infants to acquire their first-language?, and (3) How are humans able to understand novel sentences?The study of language processing ranges from the investigation of the sound patterns of speech to the meaning of words and whole sentences. Linguistics often divides language processing into orthography, phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Many aspects of language can be studied from each of these components and from their interaction.[43][better source needed]The study of language processing in cognitive science is closely tied to the field of linguistics. Linguistics was traditionally studied as a part of the humanities, including studies of history, art and literature. In the last fifty years or so, more and more researchers have studied knowledge and use of language as a cognitive phenomenon, the main problems being how knowledge of language can be acquired and used, and what precisely it consists of.[44] Linguists have found that, while humans form sentences in ways apparently governed by very complex systems, they are remarkably unaware of the rules that govern their own speech. Thus linguists must resort to indirect methods to determine what those rules might be, if indeed rules as such exist. In any event, if speech is indeed governed by rules, they appear to be opaque to any conscious consideration.","title":"Scope"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"recognize people and objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience_of_visual_object_recognition"},{"link_name":"innate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innate"},{"link_name":"nature and nurture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_and_nurture"},{"link_name":"nativist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_nativism"},{"link_name":"genetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics"},{"link_name":"empiricist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism"},{"link_name":"language acquisition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_acquisition"},{"link_name":"Steven Pinker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Pinker"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Rethinking Innateness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rethinking_Innateness"}],"sub_title":"Learning and development","text":"Learning and development are the processes by which we acquire knowledge and information over time. Infants are born with little or no knowledge (depending on how knowledge is defined), yet they rapidly acquire the ability to use language, walk, and recognize people and objects. Research in learning and development aims to explain the mechanisms by which these processes might take place.A major question in the study of cognitive development is the extent to which certain abilities are innate or learned. This is often framed in terms of the nature and nurture debate. The nativist view emphasizes that certain features are innate to an organism and are determined by its genetic endowment. The empiricist view, on the other hand, emphasizes that certain abilities are learned from the environment. Although clearly both genetic and environmental input is needed for a child to develop normally, considerable debate remains about how genetic information might guide cognitive development. In the area of language acquisition, for example, some (such as Steven Pinker)[45] have argued that specific information containing universal grammatical rules must be contained in the genes, whereas others (such as Jeffrey Elman and colleagues in Rethinking Innateness) have argued that Pinker's claims are biologically unrealistic. They argue that genes determine the architecture of a learning system, but that specific \"facts\" about how grammar works can only be learned as a result of experience.","title":"Scope"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Declarative memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarative_memory"},{"link_name":"semantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_memory"},{"link_name":"episodic forms of memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episodic_memory"},{"link_name":"Procedural memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memory"},{"link_name":"cognitive processes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_process"}],"sub_title":"Memory","text":"Memory allows us to store information for later retrieval. Memory is often thought of as consisting of both a long-term and short-term store. Long-term memory allows us to store information over prolonged periods (days, weeks, years). We do not yet know the practical limit of long-term memory capacity. Short-term memory allows us to store information over short time scales (seconds or minutes).Memory is also often grouped into declarative and procedural forms. Declarative memory—grouped into subsets of semantic and episodic forms of memory—refers to our memory for facts and specific knowledge, specific meanings, and specific experiences (e.g. \"Are apples food?\", or \"What did I eat for breakfast four days ago?\"). Procedural memory allows us to remember actions and motor sequences (e.g. how to ride a bicycle) and is often dubbed implicit knowledge or memory .Cognitive scientists study memory just as psychologists do, but tend to focus more on how memory bears on cognitive processes, and the interrelationship between cognition and memory. One example of this could be, what mental processes does a person go through to retrieve a long-lost memory? Or, what differentiates between the cognitive process of recognition (seeing hints of something before remembering it, or memory in context) and recall (retrieving a memory, as in \"fill-in-the-blank\")?","title":"Scope"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Necker_cube.svg"},{"link_name":"The Necker cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Necker_cube"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Checker_shadow_illusion.svg"},{"link_name":"checker shadow illusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checker_shadow_illusion"},{"link_name":"senses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senses"},{"link_name":"Vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_perception"},{"link_name":"hearing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_(sense)"},{"link_name":"optical illusions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_illusion"},{"link_name":"haptic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haptic_perception"},{"link_name":"tactile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touch"},{"link_name":"olfactory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactory"},{"link_name":"gustatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustatory"}],"sub_title":"Perception and action","text":"The Necker cube, an example of an optical illusionAn optical illusion. The square A is exactly the same shade of gray as square B. See checker shadow illusion.Perception is the ability to take in information via the senses, and process it in some way. Vision and hearing are two dominant senses that allow us to perceive the environment. Some questions in the study of visual perception, for example, include: (1) How are we able to recognize objects?, (2) Why do we perceive a continuous visual environment, even though we only see small bits of it at any one time? One tool for studying visual perception is by looking at how people process optical illusions. The image on the right of a Necker cube is an example of a bistable percept, that is, the cube can be interpreted as being oriented in two different directions.The study of haptic (tactile), olfactory, and gustatory stimuli also fall into the domain of perception.Action is taken to refer to the output of a system. In humans, this is accomplished through motor responses. Spatial planning and movement, speech production, and complex motor movements are all aspects of action.","title":"Scope"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"self","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self"}],"sub_title":"Consciousness","text":"Consciousness is the awareness of experiences within oneself. \nThis helps the mind with having the ability to experience or feel a sense of self.","title":"Scope"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"},{"link_name":"neuroscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience"},{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"systems theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_theory"}],"text":"Many different methodologies are used to study cognitive science. As the field is highly interdisciplinary, research often cuts across multiple areas of study, drawing on research methods from psychology, neuroscience, computer science and systems theory.","title":"Research methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cognitive psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology"},{"link_name":"psychophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychophysics"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Eye tracking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_tracking"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"sub_title":"Behavioral experiments","text":"In order to have a description of what constitutes intelligent behavior, one must study behavior itself. This type of research is closely tied to that in cognitive psychology and psychophysics. By measuring behavioral responses to different stimuli, one can understand something about how those stimuli are processed. Lewandowski & Strohmetz (2009) reviewed a collection of innovative uses of behavioral measurement in psychology including behavioral traces, behavioral observations, and behavioral choice.[46] Behavioral traces are pieces of evidence that indicate behavior occurred, but the actor is not present (e.g., litter in a parking lot or readings on an electric meter). Behavioral observations involve the direct witnessing of the actor engaging in the behavior (e.g., watching how close a person sits next to another person). Behavioral choices are when a person selects between two or more options (e.g., voting behavior, choice of a punishment for another participant).Reaction time. The time between the presentation of a stimulus and an appropriate response can indicate differences between two cognitive processes, and can indicate some things about their nature. For example, if in a search task the reaction times vary proportionally with the number of elements, then it is evident that this cognitive process of searching involves serial instead of parallel processing.\nPsychophysical responses. Psychophysical experiments are an old psychological technique, which has been adopted by cognitive psychology. They typically involve making judgments of some physical property, e.g. the loudness of a sound. Correlation of subjective scales between individuals can show cognitive or sensory biases as compared to actual physical measurements. Some examples include:\nsameness judgments for colors, tones, textures, etc.\nthreshold differences for colors, tones, textures, etc.\nEye tracking. This methodology is used to study a variety of cognitive processes, most notably visual perception and language processing. The fixation point of the eyes is linked to an individual's focus of attention. Thus, by monitoring eye movements, we can study what information is being processed at a given time. Eye tracking allows us to study cognitive processes on extremely short time scales. Eye movements reflect online decision making during a task, and they provide us with some insight into the ways in which those decisions may be processed.[47]","title":"Research methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hypothalamus.jpg"},{"link_name":"hypothalamus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus"},{"link_name":"cognitive neuroscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience"},{"link_name":"Single-photon emission computed tomography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography"},{"link_name":"positron emission tomography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography"},{"link_name":"Electroencephalography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography"},{"link_name":"Functional magnetic resonance imaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging"},{"link_name":"Optical imaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_imaging"},{"link_name":"Magnetoencephalography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoencephalography"},{"link_name":"EEG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography"}],"sub_title":"Brain imaging","text":"Image of the human head with the brain. The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus.Brain imaging involves analyzing activity within the brain while performing various tasks. This allows us to link behavior and brain function to help understand how information is processed. Different types of imaging techniques vary in their temporal (time-based) and spatial (location-based) resolution. Brain imaging is often used in cognitive neuroscience.Single-photon emission computed tomography and positron emission tomography. SPECT and PET use radioactive isotopes, which are injected into the subject's bloodstream and taken up by the brain. By observing which areas of the brain take up the radioactive isotope, we can see which areas of the brain are more active than other areas. PET has similar spatial resolution to fMRI, but it has extremely poor temporal resolution.\nElectroencephalography. EEG measures the electrical fields generated by large populations of neurons in the cortex by placing a series of electrodes on the scalp of the subject. This technique has an extremely high temporal resolution, but a relatively poor spatial resolution.\nFunctional magnetic resonance imaging. fMRI measures the relative amount of oxygenated blood flowing to different parts of the brain. More oxygenated blood in a particular region is assumed to correlate with an increase in neural activity in that part of the brain. This allows us to localize particular functions within different brain regions. fMRI has moderate spatial and temporal resolution.\nOptical imaging. This technique uses infrared transmitters and receivers to measure the amount of light reflectance by blood near different areas of the brain. Since oxygenated and deoxygenated blood reflects light by different amounts, we can study which areas are more active (i.e., those that have more oxygenated blood). Optical imaging has moderate temporal resolution, but poor spatial resolution. It also has the advantage that it is extremely safe and can be used to study infants' brains.\nMagnetoencephalography. MEG measures magnetic fields resulting from cortical activity. It is similar to EEG, except that it has improved spatial resolution since the magnetic fields it measures are not as blurred or attenuated by the scalp, meninges and so forth as the electrical activity measured in EEG is. MEG uses SQUID sensors to detect tiny magnetic fields.","title":"Research methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Computational cognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_cognition"},{"link_name":"Cognitive model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multi-Layer_Neural_Network-Vector.svg"},{"link_name":"artificial neural network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network"},{"link_name":"Computational models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_model"},{"link_name":"properties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property"},{"link_name":"intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence"},{"link_name":"knowledge-based systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge-based_systems"},{"link_name":"GOFAI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GOFAI"},{"link_name":"information engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_engineering_(field)"},{"link_name":"expert systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_system"},{"link_name":"systemics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemics"},{"link_name":"personoids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personoid"},{"link_name":"SOAR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soar_(cognitive_architecture)"},{"link_name":"socio-cognitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socio-cognitive"},{"link_name":"connectionist/neural network models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectionism"},{"link_name":"Neural nets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_nets"},{"link_name":"dynamical systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model#Dynamical_systems"},{"link_name":"hybrid intelligent systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_intelligent_systems"},{"link_name":"Bayesian models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_cognitive_science"},{"link_name":"machine learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning"},{"link_name":"cognitive architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_architectures"},{"link_name":"decision-making","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision-making"},{"link_name":"reasoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_reasoning"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"}],"sub_title":"Computational modeling","text":"See also: Computational cognition and Cognitive modelAn artificial neural network with two layersComputational models require a mathematically and logically formal representation of a problem. Computer models are used in the simulation and experimental verification of different specific and general properties of intelligence. Computational modeling can help us understand the functional organization of a particular cognitive phenomenon.\nApproaches to cognitive modeling can be categorized as: (1) symbolic, on abstract mental functions of an intelligent mind by means of symbols; (2) subsymbolic, on the neural and associative properties of the human brain; and (3) across the symbolic–subsymbolic border, including hybrid.Symbolic modeling evolved from the computer science paradigms using the technologies of knowledge-based systems, as well as a philosophical perspective (e.g. \"Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Intelligence\" (GOFAI)). They were developed by the first cognitive researchers and later used in information engineering for expert systems. Since the early 1990s it was generalized in systemics for the investigation of functional human-like intelligence models, such as personoids, and, in parallel, developed as the SOAR environment. Recently, especially in the context of cognitive decision-making, symbolic cognitive modeling has been extended to the socio-cognitive approach, including social and organizational cognition, interrelated with a sub-symbolic non-conscious layer.\nSubsymbolic modeling includes connectionist/neural network models. Connectionism relies on the idea that the mind/brain is composed of simple nodes and its problem-solving capacity derives from the connections between them. Neural nets are textbook implementations of this approach. Some critics of this approach feel that while these models approach biological reality as a representation of how the system works, these models lack explanatory powers because, even in systems endowed with simple connection rules, the emerging high complexity makes them less interpretable at the connection-level than they apparently are at the macroscopic level.\nOther approaches gaining in popularity include (1) dynamical systems theory, (2) mapping symbolic models onto connectionist models (Neural-symbolic integration or hybrid intelligent systems), and (3) and Bayesian models, which are often drawn from machine learning.All the above approaches tend either to be generalized to the form of integrated computational models of a synthetic/abstract intelligence (i.e. cognitive architecture) in order to be applied to the explanation and improvement of individual and social/organizational decision-making and reasoning[48][49] or to focus on single simulative programs (or microtheories/\"middle-range\" theories) modelling specific cognitive faculties (e.g. vision, language, categorization etc.).","title":"Research methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"neuroscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience"},{"link_name":"neuropsychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychology"},{"link_name":"Single-unit recording","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-unit_recording"},{"link_name":"Direct brain stimulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial_direct_current_stimulation"},{"link_name":"Animal models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_models"},{"link_name":"Postmortem studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmortem_studies"}],"sub_title":"Neurobiological methods","text":"Research methods borrowed directly from neuroscience and neuropsychology can also help us to understand aspects of intelligence. These methods allow us to understand how intelligent behavior is implemented in a physical system.Single-unit recording\nDirect brain stimulation\nAnimal models\nPostmortem studies","title":"Research methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cognitive bias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_bias"},{"link_name":"risk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk"},{"link_name":"behavioral finance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_finance"},{"link_name":"economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"},{"link_name":"philosophy of mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"persuasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasion"},{"link_name":"coercion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercion"},{"link_name":"philosophy of language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_language"},{"link_name":"epistemology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology"},{"link_name":"linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"},{"link_name":"dyslexia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyslexia"},{"link_name":"anopsia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anopsia"},{"link_name":"hemispatial neglect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemispatial_neglect"}],"text":"Cognitive science has given rise to models of human cognitive bias and risk perception, and has been influential in the development of behavioral finance, part of economics. It has also given rise to a new theory of the philosophy of mathematics (related to denotational mathematics), and many theories of artificial intelligence, persuasion and coercion. It has made its presence known in the philosophy of language and epistemology as well as constituting a substantial wing of modern linguistics. Fields of cognitive science have been influential in understanding the brain's particular functional systems (and functional deficits) ranging from speech production to auditory processing and visual perception. It has made progress in understanding how damage to particular areas of the brain affect cognition, and it has helped to uncover the root causes and results of specific dysfunction, such as dyslexia, anopsia, and hemispatial neglect.","title":"Key findings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of cognitive scientists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_scientists"},{"link_name":"Daniel Dennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Dennett"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"John Searle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Searle"},{"link_name":"Chinese room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_room"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Jerry Fodor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Fodor"},{"link_name":"functionalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"David Chalmers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Chalmers"},{"link_name":"Dualism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)"},{"link_name":"the hard problem of consciousness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_hard_problem_of_consciousness"},{"link_name":"Douglas Hofstadter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Hofstadter"},{"link_name":"Gödel, Escher, Bach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del,_Escher,_Bach"},{"link_name":"Noam Chomsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky"},{"link_name":"George Lakoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Lakoff"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"Marvin Minsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvin_Minsky"},{"link_name":"Herbert A. Simon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon"},{"link_name":"Allen Newell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Newell"},{"link_name":"George A. Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller"},{"link_name":"James McClelland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_McClelland_(psychologist)"},{"link_name":"Philip Johnson-Laird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Johnson-Laird"},{"link_name":"Lawrence Barsalou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Barsalou"},{"link_name":"Vittorio Guidano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vittorio_Guidano"},{"link_name":"Howard Gardner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Gardner"},{"link_name":"Steven Pinker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Pinker"},{"link_name":"Dan Sperber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Sperber"},{"link_name":"Edwin Hutchins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Hutchins"},{"link_name":"Bradd Shore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradd_Shore"},{"link_name":"James Wertsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Wertsch"},{"link_name":"Scott Atran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Atran"},{"link_name":"David Rumelhart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Rumelhart"},{"link_name":"James McClelland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_McClelland_(psychologist)"},{"link_name":"Philip Johnson-Laird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Johnson-Laird"}],"text":"See also: List of cognitive scientistsSome of the more recognized names in cognitive science are usually either the most controversial or the most cited. Within philosophy, some familiar names include Daniel Dennett, who writes from a computational systems perspective,[70] John Searle, known for his controversial Chinese room argument,[71] and Jerry Fodor, who advocates functionalism.[72]Others include David Chalmers, who advocates Dualism and is also known for articulating the hard problem of consciousness, and Douglas Hofstadter, famous for writing Gödel, Escher, Bach, which questions the nature of words and thought.In the realm of linguistics, Noam Chomsky and George Lakoff have been influential (both have also become notable as political commentators). In artificial intelligence, Marvin Minsky, Herbert A. Simon, and Allen Newell are prominent.Popular names in the discipline of psychology include George A. Miller, James McClelland, Philip Johnson-Laird, Lawrence Barsalou, Vittorio Guidano, Howard Gardner and Steven Pinker. Anthropologists Dan Sperber, Edwin Hutchins, Bradd Shore, James Wertsch and Scott Atran, have been involved in collaborative projects with cognitive and social psychologists, political scientists and evolutionary biologists in attempts to develop general theories of culture formation, religion, and political association.Computational theories (with models and simulations) have also been developed, by David Rumelhart, James McClelland and Philip Johnson-Laird.","title":"Notable researchers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"epistemology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology"},{"link_name":"Christopher Longuet-Higgins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Longuet-Higgins"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Alvin I. Goldman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin_I._Goldman"},{"link_name":"School of Informatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh_School_of_Informatics"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"}],"text":"Epistemics is a term coined in 1969 by the University of Edinburgh with the foundation of its School of Epistemics. Epistemics is to be distinguished from epistemology in that epistemology is the philosophical theory of knowledge, whereas epistemics signifies the scientific study of knowledge.Christopher Longuet-Higgins has defined it as \"the construction of formal models of the processes (perceptual, intellectual, and linguistic) by which knowledge and understanding are achieved and communicated.\"[73]\nIn his 1978 essay \"Epistemics: The Regulative Theory of Cognition\",[74] Alvin I. Goldman claims to have coined the term \"epistemics\" to describe a reorientation of epistemology. Goldman maintains that his epistemics is continuous with traditional epistemology and the new term is only to avoid opposition. Epistemics, in Goldman's version, differs only slightly from traditional epistemology in its alliance with the psychology of cognition; epistemics stresses the detailed study of mental processes and information-processing mechanisms that lead to knowledge or beliefs.In the mid-1980s, the School of Epistemics was renamed as The Centre for Cognitive Science (CCS). In 1998, CCS was incorporated into the University of Edinburgh's School of Informatics.[75]","title":"Epistemics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Binding problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_problem"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"Binding-by-synchrony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding-by-synchrony"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"connectionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectionism"},{"link_name":"Binding problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_problem"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Val_Danilov_2023_Theoretical_Grounds-87"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Val_Danilov_2023_Theoretical_Grounds-87"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Val_Danilov_2023_Theoretical_Grounds-87"}],"text":"One of the core aims of cognitive science is to achieve an integrated theory of cognition. This requires integrative mechanisms explaining how the information processing that occurs simultaneously in spatially segregated (sub-)cortical areas in the brain is coordinated and bound together to give rise to coherent perceptual and symbolic representations. One approach is to solve this \"Binding problem\"[76][77][78] (that is, the problem of dynamically representing conjunctions of informational elements, from the most basic perceptual representations (\"feature binding\") to the most complex cognitive representations, like symbol structures (\"variable binding\")), by means of integrative synchronization mechanisms. In other words, one of the coordinating mechanisms appears to be the temporal (phase) synchronization of neural activity based on dynamical self-organizing processes in neural networks, described by the Binding-by-synchrony (BBS) Hypothesis from neurophysiology.[79][80][81][82] Connectionist cognitive neuroarchitectures have been developed that use integrative synchronization mechanisms to solve this binding problem in perceptual cognition and in language cognition.[83][84][85] In perceptual cognition the problem is to explain how elementary object properties and object relations, like the object color or the object form, can be dynamically bound together or can be integrated to a representation of this perceptual object by means of a synchronization mechanism (\"feature binding\", \"feature linking\"). In language cognition the problem is to explain how semantic concepts and syntactic roles can be dynamically bound together or can be integrated to complex cognitive representations like systematic and compositional symbol structures and propositions by means of a synchronization mechanism (\"variable binding\") (see also the \"Symbolism vs. connectionism debate\" in connectionism).However, despite significant advances in understanding the integrated theory of cognition (specifically the Binding problem), the debate on this issue of beginning cognition is still in progress. From the different perspectives noted above, this problem can be reduced to the issue of how organisms at the simple reflexes stage of development overcome the threshold of the environmental chaos of sensory stimuli: electromagnetic waves, chemical interactions, and pressure fluctuations.[86] The so-called Primary Data Entry (PDE) thesis poses doubts about the ability of such an organism to overcome this cue threshold on its own.[87] In terms of mathematical tools, the PDE thesis underlines the insuperable high threshold of the cacophony of environmental stimuli (the stimuli noise) for young organisms at the onset of life.[87] It argues that the temporal (phase) synchronization of neural activity based on dynamical self-organizing processes in neural networks, any dynamical bound together or integration to a representation of the perceptual object by means of a synchronization mechanism can not help organisms in distinguishing relevant cue (informative stimulus) for overcome this noise threshold.[87]","title":"Binding problem in cognitive science"}]	[{"image_text":"Figure illustrating the fields that contributed to the birth of cognitive science, including linguistics, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, anthropology, and psychology[1]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Cognitive_Science_Hexagon.svg/250px-Cognitive_Science_Hexagon.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A well known example of a phrase structure tree. This is one way of representing human language that shows how different components are organized hierarchically.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Cgisf-tgg.svg/230px-Cgisf-tgg.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The Necker cube, an example of an optical illusion","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Necker_cube.svg/150px-Necker_cube.svg.png"},{"image_text":"An optical illusion. The square A is exactly the same shade of gray as square B. See checker shadow illusion.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Checker_shadow_illusion.svg/220px-Checker_shadow_illusion.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Image of the human head with the brain. The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Hypothalamus.jpg/150px-Hypothalamus.jpg"},{"image_text":"An artificial neural network with two layers","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Multi-Layer_Neural_Network-Vector.svg/200px-Multi-Layer_Neural_Network-Vector.svg.png"}]	[{"title":"Affective science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_science"},{"title":"Cognitive anthropology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_anthropology"},{"title":"Cognitive biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_biology"},{"title":"Cognitive computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_computing"},{"title":"Cognitive ethology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_ethology"},{"title":"Cognitive linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics"},{"title":"Cognitive neuropsychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuropsychology"},{"title":"Cognitive neuroscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience"},{"title":"Cognitive psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology"},{"title":"Cognitive science of religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion"},{"title":"Computational neuroscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_neuroscience"},{"title":"Computational-representational understanding of mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational-representational_understanding_of_mind"},{"title":"Concept mining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_mining"},{"title":"Decision field theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_field_theory"},{"title":"Decision theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_theory"},{"title":"Dynamicism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamicism"},{"title":"Educational neuroscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_neuroscience"},{"title":"Educational psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology"},{"title":"Embodied cognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embodied_cognition"},{"title":"Embodied cognitive science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embodied_cognitive_science"},{"title":"Enactivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enactivism"},{"title":"Epistemology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology"},{"title":"Folk psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_psychology"},{"title":"Heterophenomenology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterophenomenology"},{"title":"Human Cognome Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Cognome_Project"},{"title":"Human–computer interaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction"},{"title":"Indiana Archives of Cognitive Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_Archives_of_Cognitive_Science"},{"title":"Informatics (academic field)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatics_(academic_field)"},{"title":"List of cognitive scientists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_scientists"},{"title":"List of psychology awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychology_awards"},{"title":"Malleable intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleable_intelligence"},{"title":"Neural Darwinism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism"},{"title":"Personal information management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_information_management"},{"title":"Qualia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia"},{"title":"Quantum cognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_cognition"},{"title":"Simulated consciousness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulated_consciousness"},{"title":"Situated cognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situated_cognition"},{"title":"Society of Mind theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Mind_theory"},{"title":"Spatial cognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_cognition"},{"title":"Speech–language pathology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech%E2%80%93language_pathology"},{"title":"Philosophy portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy"},{"title":"Psychology portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Psychology"},{"title":"Outline of human intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_human_intelligence"},{"title":"Outline of thought","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_thought"}]	[{"reference":"Miller, George A (1 March 2003). \"The cognitive revolution: a historical perspective\". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 7 (3): 141–144. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00029-9. ISSN 1364-6613. PMID 12639696. S2CID 206129621. Archived from the original on 21 November 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller","url_text":"Miller, George A"},{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661303000299","url_text":"\"The cognitive revolution: a historical perspective\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1364-6613%2803%2900029-9","url_text":"10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00029-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1364-6613","url_text":"1364-6613"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12639696","url_text":"12639696"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206129621","url_text":"206129621"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181121185812/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661303000299","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Ask the Cognitive Scientist\". American Federation of Teachers. 8 August 2014. Archived from the original on 17 September 2014. Retrieved 25 December 2013. Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field of researchers from Linguistics, psychology, neuroscience, philosophy, computer science, and anthropology that seek to understand the mind.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aft.org/newspubs/periodicals/ae/summer2002/willingham.cfm","url_text":"\"Ask the Cognitive Scientist\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140917085214/http://www.aft.org/newspubs/periodicals/ae/summer2002/willingham.cfm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hafner, K.; Lyon, M. (1996). Where wizards stay up late: The origins of the Internet. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 32. ISBN 0-684-81201-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-81201-0","url_text":"0-684-81201-0"}]},{"reference":"Chomsky, Noam (1959). \"Review of Verbal behavior\". Language. 35 (1): 26–58. doi:10.2307/411334. ISSN 0097-8507. JSTOR 411334.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F411334","url_text":"10.2307/411334"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0097-8507","url_text":"0097-8507"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/411334","url_text":"411334"}]},{"reference":"Longuet-Higgins, H. C. (1973). \"Comments on the Lighthill Report and the Sutherland Reply\". Artificial Intelligence: a paper symposium. Science Research Council. pp. 35–37. ISBN 0-901660-18-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-901660-18-3","url_text":"0-901660-18-3"}]},{"reference":"\"UCSD Cognitive Science - UCSD Cognitive Science\". Archived from the original on 9 July 2015. Retrieved 8 July 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150709171712/http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/about-us/ucsd-cog-sci/","url_text":"\"UCSD Cognitive Science - UCSD Cognitive Science\""},{"url":"http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/about-us/ucsd-cog-sci/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Box 729. \"About - Cognitive Science - Vassar College\". Cogsci.vassar.edu. Archived from the original on 17 September 2012. 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ISBN 0-7923-9517-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Sun","url_text":"Sun, Ron"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7923-9517-4","url_text":"0-7923-9517-4"}]},{"reference":"\"Encephalos Journal\". www.encephalos.gr. Archived from the original on 25 June 2011. Retrieved 20 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.encephalos.gr/48-1-01e.htm","url_text":"\"Encephalos Journal\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110625102426/http://www.encephalos.gr/48-1-01e.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Wilson, Elizabeth A. (4 February 2016). Neural Geographies: Feminism and the Microstructure of Cognition. Routledge. ISBN 9781317958765. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023. 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S2CID 15349751.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.62.4813","url_text":"10.1.1.62.4813"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9751004-1-7","url_text":"978-0-9751004-1-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15349751","url_text":"15349751"}]},{"reference":"Zorzi, Marco; Testolin, Alberto; Stoianov, Ivilin P. (20 August 2013). \"Modeling language and cognition with deep unsupervised learning: a tutorial overview\". Frontiers in Psychology. 4: 515. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00515. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 3747356. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_point_arithmetic	Floating-point arithmetic	["1 Overview","1.1 Floating-point numbers","1.2 Alternatives to floating-point numbers","2 History","3 Range of floating-point numbers","4 IEEE 754: floating point in modern computers","4.1 Internal representation","5 Other notable floating-point formats","6 Representable numbers, conversion and rounding","6.1 Rounding modes","6.2 Binary-to-decimal conversion with minimal number of digits","6.3 Decimal-to-binary conversion","7 Floating-point operations","7.1 Addition and subtraction","7.2 Multiplication and division","7.3 Literal syntax","8 Dealing with exceptional cases","9 Accuracy problems","9.1 Incidents","9.2 Machine precision and backward error analysis","9.3 Minimizing the effect of accuracy problems","9.4 \"Fast math\" optimization","10 See also","11 Notes","12 References","13 Further reading","14 External links"]	"Floating point" redirects here. For other uses, see Floating point (disambiguation). Computer approximation for real numbers An early electromechanical programmable computer, the Z3, included floating-point arithmetic (replica on display at Deutsches Museum in Munich). In computing, floating-point arithmetic (FP) is arithmetic that represents subsets of real numbers using an integer with a fixed precision, called the significand, scaled by an integer exponent of a fixed base. Numbers of this form are called floating-point numbers.: 3 : 10 For example, 12.345 is a floating-point number in base ten with five digits of precision: 12.345 = 12345 ⏟ significand × 10 ⏟ base − 3 ⏞ exponent {\displaystyle 12.345=\!\underbrace {12345} _{\text{significand}}\!\times \!\underbrace {10} _{\text{base}}\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\overbrace {{}^{-3}} ^{\text{exponent}}} However, unlike 12.345, 12.3456 is not a floating-point number in base ten with five digits of precision—it needs six digits of precision; the nearest floating-point number with only five digits is 12.346. In practice, most floating-point systems use base two, though base ten (decimal floating point) is also common. Floating-point arithmetic operations, such as addition and division, approximate the corresponding real number arithmetic operations by rounding any result that is not a floating-point number itself to a nearby floating-point number.: 22 : 10 For example, in a floating-point arithmetic with five base-ten digits of precision, the sum 12.345 + 1.0001 = 13.3451 might be rounded to 13.345. The term floating point refers to the fact that the number's radix point can "float" anywhere to the left, right, or between the significant digits of the number. This position is indicated by the exponent, so floating point can be considered a form of scientific notation. A floating-point system can be used to represent, with a fixed number of digits, numbers of very different orders of magnitude — such as the number of meters between galaxies or between protons in an atom. For this reason, floating-point arithmetic is often used to allow very small and very large real numbers that require fast processing times. The result of this dynamic range is that the numbers that can be represented are not uniformly spaced; the difference between two consecutive representable numbers varies with their exponent. Single-precision floating-point numbers on a number line: the green lines mark representable values. Augmented version above showing both signs of representable values Over the years, a variety of floating-point representations have been used in computers. In 1985, the IEEE 754 Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic was established, and since the 1990s, the most commonly encountered representations are those defined by the IEEE. The speed of floating-point operations, commonly measured in terms of FLOPS, is an important characteristic of a computer system, especially for applications that involve intensive mathematical calculations. A floating-point unit (FPU, colloquially a math coprocessor) is a part of a computer system specially designed to carry out operations on floating-point numbers. Overview Floating-point numbers A number representation specifies some way of encoding a number, usually as a string of digits. There are several mechanisms by which strings of digits can represent numbers. In standard mathematical notation, the digit string can be of any length, and the location of the radix point is indicated by placing an explicit "point" character (dot or comma) there. If the radix point is not specified, then the string implicitly represents an integer and the unstated radix point would be off the right-hand end of the string, next to the least significant digit. In fixed-point systems, a position in the string is specified for the radix point. So a fixed-point scheme might use a string of 8 decimal digits with the decimal point in the middle, whereby "00012345" would represent 0001.2345. In scientific notation, the given number is scaled by a power of 10, so that it lies within a specific range—typically between 1 and 10, with the radix point appearing immediately after the first digit. As a power of ten, the scaling factor is then indicated separately at the end of the number. For example, the orbital period of Jupiter's moon Io is 152,853.5047 seconds, a value that would be represented in standard-form scientific notation as 1.528535047×105 seconds. Floating-point representation is similar in concept to scientific notation. Logically, a floating-point number consists of: A signed (meaning positive or negative) digit string of a given length in a given base (or radix). This digit string is referred to as the significand, mantissa, or coefficient. The length of the significand determines the precision to which numbers can be represented. The radix point position is assumed always to be somewhere within the significand—often just after or just before the most significant digit, or to the right of the rightmost (least significant) digit. This article generally follows the convention that the radix point is set just after the most significant (leftmost) digit. A signed integer exponent (also referred to as the characteristic, or scale), which modifies the magnitude of the number. To derive the value of the floating-point number, the significand is multiplied by the base raised to the power of the exponent, equivalent to shifting the radix point from its implied position by a number of places equal to the value of the exponent—to the right if the exponent is positive or to the left if the exponent is negative. Using base-10 (the familiar decimal notation) as an example, the number 152,853.5047, which has ten decimal digits of precision, is represented as the significand 1,528,535,047 together with 5 as the exponent. To determine the actual value, a decimal point is placed after the first digit of the significand and the result is multiplied by 105 to give 1.528535047×105, or 152,853.5047. In storing such a number, the base (10) need not be stored, since it will be the same for the entire range of supported numbers, and can thus be inferred. Symbolically, this final value is: s b p − 1 × b e , {\displaystyle {\frac {s}{b^{\,p-1}}}\times b^{e},} where s is the significand (ignoring any implied decimal point), p is the precision (the number of digits in the significand), b is the base (in our example, this is the number ten), and e is the exponent. Historically, several number bases have been used for representing floating-point numbers, with base two (binary) being the most common, followed by base ten (decimal floating point), and other less common varieties, such as base sixteen (hexadecimal floating point), base eight (octal floating point), base four (quaternary floating point), base three (balanced ternary floating point) and even base 256 and base 65,536. A floating-point number is a rational number, because it can be represented as one integer divided by another; for example 1.45×103 is (145/100)×1000 or 145,000/100. The base determines the fractions that can be represented; for instance, 1/5 cannot be represented exactly as a floating-point number using a binary base, but 1/5 can be represented exactly using a decimal base (0.2, or 2×10−1). However, 1/3 cannot be represented exactly by either binary (0.010101...) or decimal (0.333...), but in base 3, it is trivial (0.1 or 1×3−1) . The occasions on which infinite expansions occur depend on the base and its prime factors. The way in which the significand (including its sign) and exponent are stored in a computer is implementation-dependent. The common IEEE formats are described in detail later and elsewhere, but as an example, in the binary single-precision (32-bit) floating-point representation, p = 24 {\displaystyle p=24} , and so the significand is a string of 24 bits. For instance, the number π's first 33 bits are: 11001001 00001111 1101101 0 _ 10100010 0. {\displaystyle 11001001\ 00001111\ 1101101{\underline {0}}\ 10100010\ 0.} In this binary expansion, let us denote the positions from 0 (leftmost bit, or most significant bit) to 32 (rightmost bit). The 24-bit significand will stop at position 23, shown as the underlined bit 0 above. The next bit, at position 24, is called the round bit or rounding bit. It is used to round the 33-bit approximation to the nearest 24-bit number (there are specific rules for halfway values, which is not the case here). This bit, which is 1 in this example, is added to the integer formed by the leftmost 24 bits, yielding: 11001001 00001111 1101101 1 _ . {\displaystyle 11001001\ 00001111\ 1101101{\underline {1}}.} When this is stored in memory using the IEEE 754 encoding, this becomes the significand s. The significand is assumed to have a binary point to the right of the leftmost bit. So, the binary representation of π is calculated from left-to-right as follows: ( ∑ n = 0 p − 1 bit n × 2 − n ) × 2 e = ( 1 × 2 − 0 + 1 × 2 − 1 + 0 × 2 − 2 + 0 × 2 − 3 + 1 × 2 − 4 + ⋯ + 1 × 2 − 23 ) × 2 1 ≈ 1.5707964 × 2 ≈ 3.1415928 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\left(\sum _{n=0}^{p-1}{\text{bit}}_{n}\times 2^{-n}\right)\times 2^{e}\\={}&\left(1\times 2^{-0}+1\times 2^{-1}+0\times 2^{-2}+0\times 2^{-3}+1\times 2^{-4}+\cdots +1\times 2^{-23}\right)\times 2^{1}\\\approx {}&1.5707964\times 2\\\approx {}&3.1415928\end{aligned}}} where p is the precision (24 in this example), n is the position of the bit of the significand from the left (starting at 0 and finishing at 23 here) and e is the exponent (1 in this example). It can be required that the most significant digit of the significand of a non-zero number be non-zero (except when the corresponding exponent would be smaller than the minimum one). This process is called normalization. For binary formats (which uses only the digits 0 and 1), this non-zero digit is necessarily 1. Therefore, it does not need to be represented in memory, allowing the format to have one more bit of precision. This rule is variously called the leading bit convention, the implicit bit convention, the hidden bit convention, or the assumed bit convention. Alternatives to floating-point numbers The floating-point representation is by far the most common way of representing in computers an approximation to real numbers. However, there are alternatives: Fixed-point representation uses integer hardware operations controlled by a software implementation of a specific convention about the location of the binary or decimal point, for example, 6 bits or digits from the right. The hardware to manipulate these representations is less costly than floating point, and it can be used to perform normal integer operations, too. Binary fixed point is usually used in special-purpose applications on embedded processors that can only do integer arithmetic, but decimal fixed point is common in commercial applications. Logarithmic number systems (LNSs) represent a real number by the logarithm of its absolute value and a sign bit. The value distribution is similar to floating point, but the value-to-representation curve (i.e., the graph of the logarithm function) is smooth (except at 0). Conversely to floating-point arithmetic, in a logarithmic number system multiplication, division and exponentiation are simple to implement, but addition and subtraction are complex. The (symmetric) level-index arithmetic (LI and SLI) of Charles Clenshaw, Frank Olver and Peter Turner is a scheme based on a generalized logarithm representation. Tapered floating-point representation, which does not appear to be used in practice. Some simple rational numbers (e.g., 1/3 and 1/10) cannot be represented exactly in binary floating point, no matter what the precision is. Using a different radix allows one to represent some of them (e.g., 1/10 in decimal floating point), but the possibilities remain limited. Software packages that perform rational arithmetic represent numbers as fractions with integral numerator and denominator, and can therefore represent any rational number exactly. Such packages generally need to use "bignum" arithmetic for the individual integers. Interval arithmetic allows one to represent numbers as intervals and obtain guaranteed bounds on results. It is generally based on other arithmetics, in particular floating point. Computer algebra systems such as Mathematica, Maxima, and Maple can often handle irrational numbers like π {\displaystyle \pi } or 3 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {3}}} in a completely "formal" way (symbolic computation), without dealing with a specific encoding of the significand. Such a program can evaluate expressions like " sin ⁡ ( 3 π ) {\displaystyle \sin(3\pi )} " exactly, because it is programmed to process the underlying mathematics directly, instead of using approximate values for each intermediate calculation. History See also: IEEE 754 § History Leonardo Torres Quevedo, in 1914 published an analysis of floating point based on the analytical engine In 1914, the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo published Essays on Automatics, where he designed a special-purpose electromechanical calculator based on Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine and described a way to store floating-point numbers in a consistent manner. He stated that numbers will be stored in exponential format as n x 10 m {\displaystyle ^{m}} , and offered three rules by which consistent manipulation of floating-point numbers by machines could be implemented. For Torres, "n will always be the same number of digits (e.g. six), the first digit of n will be of order of tenths, the second of hundredths, etc, and one will write each quantity in the form: n; m." The format he proposed shows the need for a fixed-sized significand as is presently used for floating-point data, fixing the location of the decimal point in the significand so that each representation was unique, and how to format such numbers by specifying a syntax to be used that could be entered through a typewriter, as was the case of his Electromechanical Arithmometer in 1920. Konrad Zuse, architect of the Z3 computer, which uses a 22-bit binary floating-point representation In 1938, Konrad Zuse of Berlin completed the Z1, the first binary, programmable mechanical computer; it uses a 24-bit binary floating-point number representation with a 7-bit signed exponent, a 17-bit significand (including one implicit bit), and a sign bit. The more reliable relay-based Z3, completed in 1941, has representations for both positive and negative infinities; in particular, it implements defined operations with infinity, such as 1 / ∞ = 0 {\displaystyle ^{1}/_{\infty }=0} , and it stops on undefined operations, such as 0 × ∞ {\displaystyle 0\times \infty } . Zuse also proposed, but did not complete, carefully rounded floating-point arithmetic that includes ± ∞ {\displaystyle \pm \infty } and NaN representations, anticipating features of the IEEE Standard by four decades. In contrast, von Neumann recommended against floating-point numbers for the 1951 IAS machine, arguing that fixed-point arithmetic is preferable. The first commercial computer with floating-point hardware was Zuse's Z4 computer, designed in 1942–1945. In 1946, Bell Laboratories introduced the Model V, which implemented decimal floating-point numbers. The Pilot ACE has binary floating-point arithmetic, and it became operational in 1950 at National Physical Laboratory, UK. Thirty-three were later sold commercially as the English Electric DEUCE. The arithmetic is actually implemented in software, but with a one megahertz clock rate, the speed of floating-point and fixed-point operations in this machine were initially faster than those of many competing computers. The mass-produced IBM 704 followed in 1954; it introduced the use of a biased exponent. For many decades after that, floating-point hardware was typically an optional feature, and computers that had it were said to be "scientific computers", or to have "scientific computation" (SC) capability (see also Extensions for Scientific Computation (XSC)). It was not until the launch of the Intel i486 in 1989 that general-purpose personal computers had floating-point capability in hardware as a standard feature. The UNIVAC 1100/2200 series, introduced in 1962, supported two floating-point representations: Single precision: 36 bits, organized as a 1-bit sign, an 8-bit exponent, and a 27-bit significand. Double precision: 72 bits, organized as a 1-bit sign, an 11-bit exponent, and a 60-bit significand. The IBM 7094, also introduced in 1962, supported single-precision and double-precision representations, but with no relation to the UNIVAC's representations. Indeed, in 1964, IBM introduced hexadecimal floating-point representations in its System/360 mainframes; these same representations are still available for use in modern z/Architecture systems. In 1998, IBM implemented IEEE-compatible binary floating-point arithmetic in its mainframes; in 2005, IBM also added IEEE-compatible decimal floating-point arithmetic. Initially, computers used many different representations for floating-point numbers. The lack of standardization at the mainframe level was an ongoing problem by the early 1970s for those writing and maintaining higher-level source code; these manufacturer floating-point standards differed in the word sizes, the representations, and the rounding behavior and general accuracy of operations. Floating-point compatibility across multiple computing systems was in desperate need of standardization by the early 1980s, leading to the creation of the IEEE 754 standard once the 32-bit (or 64-bit) word had become commonplace. This standard was significantly based on a proposal from Intel, which was designing the i8087 numerical coprocessor; Motorola, which was designing the 68000 around the same time, gave significant input as well. William Kahan, principal architect of the IEEE 754 floating-point standard In 1989, mathematician and computer scientist William Kahan was honored with the Turing Award for being the primary architect behind this proposal; he was aided by his student Jerome Coonen and a visiting professor, Harold Stone. Among the x86 innovations are these: A precisely specified floating-point representation at the bit-string level, so that all compliant computers interpret bit patterns the same way. This makes it possible to accurately and efficiently transfer floating-point numbers from one computer to another (after accounting for endianness). A precisely specified behavior for the arithmetic operations: A result is required to be produced as if infinitely precise arithmetic were used to yield a value that is then rounded according to specific rules. This means that a compliant computer program would always produce the same result when given a particular input, thus mitigating the almost mystical reputation that floating-point computation had developed for its hitherto seemingly non-deterministic behavior. The ability of exceptional conditions (overflow, divide by zero, etc.) to propagate through a computation in a benign manner and then be handled by the software in a controlled fashion. Range of floating-point numbers A floating-point number consists of two fixed-point components, whose range depends exclusively on the number of bits or digits in their representation. Whereas components linearly depend on their range, the floating-point range linearly depends on the significand range and exponentially on the range of exponent component, which attaches outstandingly wider range to the number. On a typical computer system, a double-precision (64-bit) binary floating-point number has a coefficient of 53 bits (including 1 implied bit), an exponent of 11 bits, and 1 sign bit. Since 210 = 1024, the complete range of the positive normal floating-point numbers in this format is from 2−1022 ≈ 2 × 10−308 to approximately 21024 ≈ 2 × 10308. The number of normal floating-point numbers in a system (B, P, L, U) where B is the base of the system, P is the precision of the significand (in base B), L is the smallest exponent of the system, U is the largest exponent of the system, is 2 ( B − 1 ) ( B P − 1 ) ( U − L + 1 ) {\displaystyle 2\left(B-1\right)\left(B^{P-1}\right)\left(U-L+1\right)} . There is a smallest positive normal floating-point number, Underflow level = UFL = B L {\displaystyle B^{L}} , which has a 1 as the leading digit and 0 for the remaining digits of the significand, and the smallest possible value for the exponent. There is a largest floating-point number, Overflow level = OFL = ( 1 − B − P ) ( B U + 1 ) {\displaystyle \left(1-B^{-P}\right)\left(B^{U+1}\right)} , which has B − 1 as the value for each digit of the significand and the largest possible value for the exponent. In addition, there are representable values strictly between −UFL and UFL. Namely, positive and negative zeros, as well as subnormal numbers. IEEE 754: floating point in modern computers Main article: IEEE 754 Floating-point formats IEEE 754 16-bit: Half (binary16) 32-bit: Single (binary32), decimal32 64-bit: Double (binary64), decimal64 128-bit: Quadruple (binary128), decimal128 256-bit: Octuple (binary256) Extended precision Other Minifloat bfloat16 TensorFloat-32 Microsoft Binary Format IBM floating-point architecture PMBus Linear-11 G.711 8-bit floats Alternatives Arbitrary precision vte The IEEE standardized the computer representation for binary floating-point numbers in IEEE 754 (a.k.a. IEC 60559) in 1985. This first standard is followed by almost all modern machines. It was revised in 2008. IBM mainframes support IBM's own hexadecimal floating point format and IEEE 754-2008 decimal floating point in addition to the IEEE 754 binary format. The Cray T90 series had an IEEE version, but the SV1 still uses Cray floating-point format. The standard provides for many closely related formats, differing in only a few details. Five of these formats are called basic formats, and others are termed extended precision formats and extendable precision format. Three formats are especially widely used in computer hardware and languages: Single precision (binary32), usually used to represent the "float" type in the C language family. This is a binary format that occupies 32 bits (4 bytes) and its significand has a precision of 24 bits (about 7 decimal digits). Double precision (binary64), usually used to represent the "double" type in the C language family. This is a binary format that occupies 64 bits (8 bytes) and its significand has a precision of 53 bits (about 16 decimal digits). Double extended, also ambiguously called "extended precision" format. This is a binary format that occupies at least 79 bits (80 if the hidden/implicit bit rule is not used) and its significand has a precision of at least 64 bits (about 19 decimal digits). The C99 and C11 standards of the C language family, in their annex F ("IEC 60559 floating-point arithmetic"), recommend such an extended format to be provided as "long double". A format satisfying the minimal requirements (64-bit significand precision, 15-bit exponent, thus fitting on 80 bits) is provided by the x86 architecture. Often on such processors, this format can be used with "long double", though extended precision is not available with MSVC. For alignment purposes, many tools store this 80-bit value in a 96-bit or 128-bit space. On other processors, "long double" may stand for a larger format, such as quadruple precision, or just double precision, if any form of extended precision is not available. Increasing the precision of the floating-point representation generally reduces the amount of accumulated round-off error caused by intermediate calculations. Other IEEE formats include: Decimal64 and decimal128 floating-point formats. These formats (especially decimal128) are pervasive in financial transactions because, along with the decimal32 format, they allow correct decimal rounding. Quadruple precision (binary128). This is a binary format that occupies 128 bits (16 bytes) and its significand has a precision of 113 bits (about 34 decimal digits). Half precision, also called binary16, a 16-bit floating-point value. It is being used in the NVIDIA Cg graphics language, and in the openEXR standard (where it actually predates the introduction in the IEEE 754 standard). Any integer with absolute value less than 224 can be exactly represented in the single-precision format, and any integer with absolute value less than 253 can be exactly represented in the double-precision format. Furthermore, a wide range of powers of 2 times such a number can be represented. These properties are sometimes used for purely integer data, to get 53-bit integers on platforms that have double-precision floats but only 32-bit integers. The standard specifies some special values, and their representation: positive infinity (+∞), negative infinity (−∞), a negative zero (−0) distinct from ordinary ("positive") zero, and "not a number" values (NaNs). Comparison of floating-point numbers, as defined by the IEEE standard, is a bit different from usual integer comparison. Negative and positive zero compare equal, and every NaN compares unequal to every value, including itself. All finite floating-point numbers are strictly smaller than +∞ and strictly greater than −∞, and they are ordered in the same way as their values (in the set of real numbers). Internal representation Floating-point numbers are typically packed into a computer datum as the sign bit, the exponent field, and the significand or mantissa, from left to right. For the IEEE 754 binary formats (basic and extended) which have extant hardware implementations, they are apportioned as follows: Type Bits Exponentbias Bitsprecision Number ofdecimal digits Sign Exponent Significand Total Half (IEEE 754-2008) 1 5 10 16 15 11 ~3.3 Single 1 8 23 32 127 24 ~7.2 Double 1 11 52 64 1023 53 ~15.9 x86 extended precision 1 15 64 80 16383 64 ~19.2 Quad 1 15 112 128 16383 113 ~34.0 While the exponent can be positive or negative, in binary formats it is stored as an unsigned number that has a fixed "bias" added to it. Values of all 0s in this field are reserved for the zeros and subnormal numbers; values of all 1s are reserved for the infinities and NaNs. The exponent range for normal numbers is for single precision, for double, or for quad. Normal numbers exclude subnormal values, zeros, infinities, and NaNs. In the IEEE binary interchange formats the leading 1 bit of a normalized significand is not actually stored in the computer datum. It is called the "hidden" or "implicit" bit. Because of this, the single-precision format actually has a significand with 24 bits of precision, the double-precision format has 53, and quad has 113. For example, it was shown above that π, rounded to 24 bits of precision, has: sign = 0 ; e = 1 ; s = 110010010000111111011011 (including the hidden bit) The sum of the exponent bias (127) and the exponent (1) is 128, so this is represented in the single-precision format as 0 10000000 10010010000111111011011 (excluding the hidden bit) = 40490FDB as a hexadecimal number. An example of a layout for 32-bit floating point is and the 64-bit ("double") layout is similar. Other notable floating-point formats In addition to the widely used IEEE 754 standard formats, other floating-point formats are used, or have been used, in certain domain-specific areas. The Microsoft Binary Format (MBF) was developed for the Microsoft BASIC language products, including Microsoft's first ever product the Altair BASIC (1975), TRS-80 LEVEL II, CP/M's MBASIC, IBM PC 5150's BASICA, MS-DOS's GW-BASIC and QuickBASIC prior to version 4.00. QuickBASIC version 4.00 and 4.50 switched to the IEEE 754-1985 format but can revert to the MBF format using the /MBF command option. MBF was designed and developed on a simulated Intel 8080 by Monte Davidoff, a dormmate of Bill Gates, during spring of 1975 for the MITS Altair 8800. The initial release of July 1975 supported a single-precision (32 bits) format due to cost of the MITS Altair 8800 4-kilobytes memory. In December 1975, the 8-kilobytes version added a double-precision (64 bits) format. A single-precision (40 bits) variant format was adopted for other CPU's, notably the MOS 6502 (Apple //, Commodore PET, Atari), Motorola 6800 (MITS Altair 680) and Motorola 6809 (TRS-80 Color Computer). All Microsoft language products from 1975 through 1987 used the Microsoft Binary Format until Microsoft adopted the IEEE-754 standard format in all its products starting in 1988 to their current releases. MBF consists of the MBF single-precision format (32 bits, "6-digit BASIC"), the MBF extended-precision format (40 bits, "9-digit BASIC"), and the MBF double-precision format (64 bits); each of them is represented with an 8-bit exponent, followed by a sign bit, followed by a significand of respectively 23, 31, and 55 bits. The Bfloat16 format requires the same amount of memory (16 bits) as the IEEE 754 half-precision format, but allocates 8 bits to the exponent instead of 5, thus providing the same range as a IEEE 754 single-precision number. The tradeoff is a reduced precision, as the trailing significand field is reduced from 10 to 7 bits. This format is mainly used in the training of machine learning models, where range is more valuable than precision. Many machine learning accelerators provide hardware support for this format. The TensorFloat-32 format combines the 8 bits of exponent of the Bfloat16 with the 10 bits of trailing significand field of half-precision formats, resulting in a size of 19 bits. This format was introduced by Nvidia, which provides hardware support for it in the Tensor Cores of its GPUs based on the Nvidia Ampere architecture. The drawback of this format is its size, which is not a power of 2. However, according to Nvidia, this format should only be used internally by hardware to speed up computations, while inputs and outputs should be stored in the 32-bit single-precision IEEE 754 format. The Hopper architecture GPUs provide two FP8 formats: one with the same numerical range as half-precision (E5M2) and one with higher precision, but less range (E4M3). Bfloat16, TensorFloat-32, and the two FP8 formats, compared with IEEE 754 half-precision and single-precision formats Type Sign Exponent Trailing significand field Total bits FP8 (E4M3) 1 4 3 8 FP8 (E5M2) 1 5 2 8 Half-precision 1 5 10 16 Bfloat16 1 8 7 16 TensorFloat-32 1 8 10 19 Single-precision 1 8 23 32 Representable numbers, conversion and rounding By their nature, all numbers expressed in floating-point format are rational numbers with a terminating expansion in the relevant base (for example, a terminating decimal expansion in base-10, or a terminating binary expansion in base-2). Irrational numbers, such as π or √2, or non-terminating rational numbers, must be approximated. The number of digits (or bits) of precision also limits the set of rational numbers that can be represented exactly. For example, the decimal number 123456789 cannot be exactly represented if only eight decimal digits of precision are available (it would be rounded to one of the two straddling representable values, 12345678 × 101 or 12345679 × 101), the same applies to non-terminating digits (.5 to be rounded to either .55555555 or .55555556). When a number is represented in some format (such as a character string) which is not a native floating-point representation supported in a computer implementation, then it will require a conversion before it can be used in that implementation. If the number can be represented exactly in the floating-point format then the conversion is exact. If there is not an exact representation then the conversion requires a choice of which floating-point number to use to represent the original value. The representation chosen will have a different value from the original, and the value thus adjusted is called the rounded value. Whether or not a rational number has a terminating expansion depends on the base. For example, in base-10 the number 1/2 has a terminating expansion (0.5) while the number 1/3 does not (0.333...). In base-2 only rationals with denominators that are powers of 2 (such as 1/2 or 3/16) are terminating. Any rational with a denominator that has a prime factor other than 2 will have an infinite binary expansion. This means that numbers that appear to be short and exact when written in decimal format may need to be approximated when converted to binary floating-point. For example, the decimal number 0.1 is not representable in binary floating-point of any finite precision; the exact binary representation would have a "1100" sequence continuing endlessly: e = −4; s = 1100110011001100110011001100110011..., where, as previously, s is the significand and e is the exponent. When rounded to 24 bits this becomes e = −4; s = 110011001100110011001101, which is actually 0.100000001490116119384765625 in decimal. As a further example, the real number π, represented in binary as an infinite sequence of bits is 11.0010010000111111011010101000100010000101101000110000100011010011... but is 11.0010010000111111011011 when approximated by rounding to a precision of 24 bits. In binary single-precision floating-point, this is represented as s = 1.10010010000111111011011 with e = 1. This has a decimal value of 3.1415927410125732421875, whereas a more accurate approximation of the true value of π is 3.14159265358979323846264338327950... The result of rounding differs from the true value by about 0.03 parts per million, and matches the decimal representation of π in the first 7 digits. The difference is the discretization error and is limited by the machine epsilon. The arithmetical difference between two consecutive representable floating-point numbers which have the same exponent is called a unit in the last place (ULP). For example, if there is no representable number lying between the representable numbers 1.45a70c22hex and 1.45a70c24hex, the ULP is 2×16−8, or 2−31. For numbers with a base-2 exponent part of 0, i.e. numbers with an absolute value higher than or equal to 1 but lower than 2, an ULP is exactly 2−23 or about 10−7 in single precision, and exactly 2−53 or about 10−16 in double precision. The mandated behavior of IEEE-compliant hardware is that the result be within one-half of a ULP. Rounding modes Rounding is used when the exact result of a floating-point operation (or a conversion to floating-point format) would need more digits than there are digits in the significand. IEEE 754 requires correct rounding: that is, the rounded result is as if infinitely precise arithmetic was used to compute the value and then rounded (although in implementation only three extra bits are needed to ensure this). There are several different rounding schemes (or rounding modes). Historically, truncation was the typical approach. Since the introduction of IEEE 754, the default method (round to nearest, ties to even, sometimes called Banker's Rounding) is more commonly used. This method rounds the ideal (infinitely precise) result of an arithmetic operation to the nearest representable value, and gives that representation as the result. In the case of a tie, the value that would make the significand end in an even digit is chosen. The IEEE 754 standard requires the same rounding to be applied to all fundamental algebraic operations, including square root and conversions, when there is a numeric (non-NaN) result. It means that the results of IEEE 754 operations are completely determined in all bits of the result, except for the representation of NaNs. ("Library" functions such as cosine and log are not mandated.) Alternative rounding options are also available. IEEE 754 specifies the following rounding modes: round to nearest, where ties round to the nearest even digit in the required position (the default and by far the most common mode) round to nearest, where ties round away from zero (optional for binary floating-point and commonly used in decimal) round up (toward +∞; negative results thus round toward zero) round down (toward −∞; negative results thus round away from zero) round toward zero (truncation; it is similar to the common behavior of float-to-integer conversions, which convert −3.9 to −3 and 3.9 to 3) Alternative modes are useful when the amount of error being introduced must be bounded. Applications that require a bounded error are multi-precision floating-point, and interval arithmetic. The alternative rounding modes are also useful in diagnosing numerical instability: if the results of a subroutine vary substantially between rounding to + and − infinity then it is likely numerically unstable and affected by round-off error. Binary-to-decimal conversion with minimal number of digits Converting a double-precision binary floating-point number to a decimal string is a common operation, but an algorithm producing results that are both accurate and minimal did not appear in print until 1990, with Steele and White's Dragon4. Some of the improvements since then include: David M. Gay's dtoa.c, a practical open-source implementation of many ideas in Dragon4. Grisu3, with a 4× speedup as it removes the use of bignums. Must be used with a fallback, as it fails for ~0.5% of cases. Errol3, an always-succeeding algorithm similar to, but slower than, Grisu3. Apparently not as good as an early-terminating Grisu with fallback. Ryū, an always-succeeding algorithm that is faster and simpler than Grisu3. Schubfach, an always-succeeding algorithm that is based on a similar idea to Ryū, developed almost simultaneously and independently. Performs better than Ryū and Grisu3 in certain benchmarks. Many modern language runtimes use Grisu3 with a Dragon4 fallback. Decimal-to-binary conversion The problem of parsing a decimal string into a binary FP representation is complex, with an accurate parser not appearing until Clinger's 1990 work (implemented in dtoa.c). Further work has likewise progressed in the direction of faster parsing. Floating-point operations For ease of presentation and understanding, decimal radix with 7 digit precision will be used in the examples, as in the IEEE 754 decimal32 format. The fundamental principles are the same in any radix or precision, except that normalization is optional (it does not affect the numerical value of the result). Here, s denotes the significand and e denotes the exponent. Addition and subtraction A simple method to add floating-point numbers is to first represent them with the same exponent. In the example below, the second number is shifted right by three digits, and one then proceeds with the usual addition method: 123456.7 = 1.234567 × 10^5 101.7654 = 1.017654 × 10^2 = 0.001017654 × 10^5 Hence: 123456.7 + 101.7654 = (1.234567 × 10^5) + (1.017654 × 10^2) = (1.234567 × 10^5) + (0.001017654 × 10^5) = (1.234567 + 0.001017654) × 10^5 = 1.235584654 × 10^5 In detail: e=5; s=1.234567 (123456.7) + e=2; s=1.017654 (101.7654) e=5; s=1.234567 + e=5; s=0.001017654 (after shifting) -------------------- e=5; s=1.235584654 (true sum: 123558.4654) This is the true result, the exact sum of the operands. It will be rounded to seven digits and then normalized if necessary. The final result is e=5; s=1.235585 (final sum: 123558.5) The lowest three digits of the second operand (654) are essentially lost. This is round-off error. In extreme cases, the sum of two non-zero numbers may be equal to one of them: e=5; s=1.234567 + e=−3; s=9.876543 e=5; s=1.234567 + e=5; s=0.00000009876543 (after shifting) ---------------------- e=5; s=1.23456709876543 (true sum) e=5; s=1.234567 (after rounding and normalization) In the above conceptual examples it would appear that a large number of extra digits would need to be provided by the adder to ensure correct rounding; however, for binary addition or subtraction using careful implementation techniques only a guard bit, a rounding bit and one extra sticky bit need to be carried beyond the precision of the operands.: 218–220 Another problem of loss of significance occurs when approximations to two nearly equal numbers are subtracted. In the following example e = 5; s = 1.234571 and e = 5; s = 1.234567 are approximations to the rationals 123457.1467 and 123456.659. e=5; s=1.234571 − e=5; s=1.234567 ---------------- e=5; s=0.000004 e=−1; s=4.000000 (after rounding and normalization) The floating-point difference is computed exactly because the numbers are close—the Sterbenz lemma guarantees this, even in case of underflow when gradual underflow is supported. Despite this, the difference of the original numbers is e = −1; s = 4.877000, which differs more than 20% from the difference e = −1; s = 4.000000 of the approximations. In extreme cases, all significant digits of precision can be lost. This cancellation illustrates the danger in assuming that all of the digits of a computed result are meaningful. Dealing with the consequences of these errors is a topic in numerical analysis; see also Accuracy problems. Multiplication and division To multiply, the significands are multiplied while the exponents are added, and the result is rounded and normalized. e=3; s=4.734612 × e=5; s=5.417242 ----------------------- e=8; s=25.648538980104 (true product) e=8; s=25.64854 (after rounding) e=9; s=2.564854 (after normalization) Similarly, division is accomplished by subtracting the divisor's exponent from the dividend's exponent, and dividing the dividend's significand by the divisor's significand. There are no cancellation or absorption problems with multiplication or division, though small errors may accumulate as operations are performed in succession. In practice, the way these operations are carried out in digital logic can be quite complex (see Booth's multiplication algorithm and Division algorithm). For a fast, simple method, see the Horner method. Literal syntax Literals for floating-point numbers depend on languages. They typically use e or E to denote scientific notation. The C programming language and the IEEE 754 standard also define a hexadecimal literal syntax with a base-2 exponent instead of 10. In languages like C, when the decimal exponent is omitted, a decimal point is needed to differentiate them from integers. Other languages do not have an integer type (such as JavaScript), or allow overloading of numeric types (such as Haskell). In these cases, digit strings such as 123 may also be floating-point literals. Examples of floating-point literals are: 99.9 -5000.12 6.02e23 -3e-45 0x1.fffffep+127 in C and IEEE 754 Dealing with exceptional cases Further information: IEEE 754 § Exception handling Floating-point computation in a computer can run into three kinds of problems: An operation can be mathematically undefined, such as ∞/∞, or division by zero. An operation can be legal in principle, but not supported by the specific format, for example, calculating the square root of −1 or the inverse sine of 2 (both of which result in complex numbers). An operation can be legal in principle, but the result can be impossible to represent in the specified format, because the exponent is too large or too small to encode in the exponent field. Such an event is called an overflow (exponent too large), underflow (exponent too small) or denormalization (precision loss). Prior to the IEEE standard, such conditions usually caused the program to terminate, or triggered some kind of trap that the programmer might be able to catch. How this worked was system-dependent, meaning that floating-point programs were not portable. (The term "exception" as used in IEEE 754 is a general term meaning an exceptional condition, which is not necessarily an error, and is a different usage to that typically defined in programming languages such as a C++ or Java, in which an "exception" is an alternative flow of control, closer to what is termed a "trap" in IEEE 754 terminology.) Here, the required default method of handling exceptions according to IEEE 754 is discussed (the IEEE 754 optional trapping and other "alternate exception handling" modes are not discussed). Arithmetic exceptions are (by default) required to be recorded in "sticky" status flag bits. That they are "sticky" means that they are not reset by the next (arithmetic) operation, but stay set until explicitly reset. The use of "sticky" flags thus allows for testing of exceptional conditions to be delayed until after a full floating-point expression or subroutine: without them exceptional conditions that could not be otherwise ignored would require explicit testing immediately after every floating-point operation. By default, an operation always returns a result according to specification without interrupting computation. For instance, 1/0 returns +∞, while also setting the divide-by-zero flag bit (this default of ∞ is designed to often return a finite result when used in subsequent operations and so be safely ignored). The original IEEE 754 standard, however, failed to recommend operations to handle such sets of arithmetic exception flag bits. So while these were implemented in hardware, initially programming language implementations typically did not provide a means to access them (apart from assembler). Over time some programming language standards (e.g., C99/C11 and Fortran) have been updated to specify methods to access and change status flag bits. The 2008 version of the IEEE 754 standard now specifies a few operations for accessing and handling the arithmetic flag bits. The programming model is based on a single thread of execution and use of them by multiple threads has to be handled by a means outside of the standard (e.g. C11 specifies that the flags have thread-local storage). IEEE 754 specifies five arithmetic exceptions that are to be recorded in the status flags ("sticky bits"): inexact, set if the rounded (and returned) value is different from the mathematically exact result of the operation. underflow, set if the rounded value is tiny (as specified in IEEE 754) and inexact (or maybe limited to if it has denormalization loss, as per the 1985 version of IEEE 754), returning a subnormal value including the zeros. overflow, set if the absolute value of the rounded value is too large to be represented. An infinity or maximal finite value is returned, depending on which rounding is used. divide-by-zero, set if the result is infinite given finite operands, returning an infinity, either +∞ or −∞. invalid, set if a real-valued result cannot be returned e.g. sqrt(−1) or 0/0, returning a quiet NaN. Fig. 1: resistances in parallel, with total resistance R t o t {\displaystyle R_{tot}} The default return value for each of the exceptions is designed to give the correct result in the majority of cases such that the exceptions can be ignored in the majority of codes. inexact returns a correctly rounded result, and underflow returns a value less than or equal to the smallest positive normal number in magnitude and can almost always be ignored. divide-by-zero returns infinity exactly, which will typically then divide a finite number and so give zero, or else will give an invalid exception subsequently if not, and so can also typically be ignored. For example, the effective resistance of n resistors in parallel (see fig. 1) is given by R tot = 1 / ( 1 / R 1 + 1 / R 2 + ⋯ + 1 / R n ) {\displaystyle R_{\text{tot}}=1/(1/R_{1}+1/R_{2}+\cdots +1/R_{n})} . If a short-circuit develops with R 1 {\displaystyle R_{1}} set to 0, 1 / R 1 {\displaystyle 1/R_{1}} will return +infinity which will give a final R t o t {\displaystyle R_{tot}} of 0, as expected (see the continued fraction example of IEEE 754 design rationale for another example). Overflow and invalid exceptions can typically not be ignored, but do not necessarily represent errors: for example, a root-finding routine, as part of its normal operation, may evaluate a passed-in function at values outside of its domain, returning NaN and an invalid exception flag to be ignored until finding a useful start point. Accuracy problems The fact that floating-point numbers cannot accurately represent all real numbers, and that floating-point operations cannot accurately represent true arithmetic operations, leads to many surprising situations. This is related to the finite precision with which computers generally represent numbers. For example, the decimal numbers 0.1 and 0.01 cannot be represented exactly as binary floating-point numbers. In the IEEE 754 binary32 format with its 24-bit significand, the result of attempting to square the approximation to 0.1 is neither 0.01 nor the representable number closest to it. The decimal number 0.1 is represented in binary as e = −4; s = 110011001100110011001101, which is 0.100000001490116119384765625 exactly. Squaring this number gives 0.010000000298023226097399174250313080847263336181640625 exactly. Squaring it with rounding to the 24-bit precision gives 0.010000000707805156707763671875 exactly. But the representable number closest to 0.01 is 0.009999999776482582092285156250 exactly. Also, the non-representability of π (and π/2) means that an attempted computation of tan(π/2) will not yield a result of infinity, nor will it even overflow in the usual floating-point formats (assuming an accurate implementation of tan). It is simply not possible for standard floating-point hardware to attempt to compute tan(π/2), because π/2 cannot be represented exactly. This computation in C: /* Enough digits to be sure we get the correct approximation. / double pi = 3.1415926535897932384626433832795; double z = tan(pi/2.0); will give a result of 16331239353195370.0. In single precision (using the tanf function), the result will be −22877332.0. By the same token, an attempted computation of sin(π) will not yield zero. The result will be (approximately) 0.1225×10−15 in double precision, or −0.8742×10−7 in single precision. While floating-point addition and multiplication are both commutative (a + b = b + a and a × b = b × a), they are not necessarily associative. That is, (a + b) + c is not necessarily equal to a + (b + c). Using 7-digit significand decimal arithmetic: a = 1234.567, b = 45.67834, c = 0.0004 (a + b) + c: 1234.567 (a) + 45.67834 (b) ____________ 1280.24534 rounds to 1280.245 1280.245 (a + b) + 0.0004 (c) ____________ 1280.2454 rounds to 1280.245 ← (a + b) + c a + (b + c): 45.67834 (b) + 0.0004 (c) ____________ 45.67874 1234.567 (a) + 45.67874 (b + c) ____________ 1280.24574 rounds to 1280.246 ← a + (b + c) They are also not necessarily distributive. That is, (a + b) × c may not be the same as a × c + b × c: 1234.567 × 3.333333 = 4115.223 1.234567 × 3.333333 = 4.115223 4115.223 + 4.115223 = 4119.338 but 1234.567 + 1.234567 = 1235.802 1235.802 × 3.333333 = 4119.340 In addition to loss of significance, inability to represent numbers such as π and 0.1 exactly, and other slight inaccuracies, the following phenomena may occur: Cancellation: subtraction of nearly equal operands may cause extreme loss of accuracy. When we subtract two almost equal numbers we set the most significant digits to zero, leaving ourselves with just the insignificant, and most erroneous, digits.: 124 For example, when determining a derivative of a function the following formula is used: Q ( h ) = f ( a + h ) − f ( a ) h . {\displaystyle Q(h)={\frac {f(a+h)-f(a)}{h}}.} Intuitively one would want an h very close to zero; however, when using floating-point operations, the smallest number will not give the best approximation of a derivative. As h grows smaller, the difference between f(a + h) and f(a) grows smaller, cancelling out the most significant and least erroneous digits and making the most erroneous digits more important. As a result the smallest number of h possible will give a more erroneous approximation of a derivative than a somewhat larger number. This is perhaps the most common and serious accuracy problem.Conversions to integer are not intuitive: converting (63.0/9.0) to integer yields 7, but converting (0.63/0.09) may yield 6. This is because conversions generally truncate rather than round. Floor and ceiling functions may produce answers which are off by one from the intuitively expected value.Limited exponent range: results might overflow yielding infinity, or underflow yielding a subnormal number or zero. In these cases precision will be lost.Testing for safe division is problematic: Checking that the divisor is not zero does not guarantee that a division will not overflow.Testing for equality is problematic. Two computational sequences that are mathematically equal may well produce different floating-point values. Incidents On 25 February 1991, a loss of significance in a MIM-104 Patriot missile battery prevented it from intercepting an incoming Scud missile in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, contributing to the death of 28 soldiers from the U.S. Army's 14th Quartermaster Detachment. Machine precision and backward error analysis Machine precision is a quantity that characterizes the accuracy of a floating-point system, and is used in backward error analysis of floating-point algorithms. It is also known as unit roundoff or machine epsilon. Usually denoted Εmach, its value depends on the particular rounding being used. With rounding to zero, E mach = B 1 − P , {\displaystyle \mathrm {E} _{\text{mach}}=B^{1-P},\,} whereas rounding to nearest, E mach = 1 2 B 1 − P , {\displaystyle \mathrm {E} _{\text{mach}}={\tfrac {1}{2}}B^{1-P},} where B is the base of the system and P is the precision of the significand (in base B). This is important since it bounds the relative error in representing any non-zero real number x within the normalized range of a floating-point system: \| fl ⁡ ( x ) − x x \| ≤ E mach . {\displaystyle \left\|{\frac {\operatorname {fl} (x)-x}{x}}\right\|\leq \mathrm {E} _{\text{mach}}.} Backward error analysis, the theory of which was developed and popularized by James H. Wilkinson, can be used to establish that an algorithm implementing a numerical function is numerically stable. The basic approach is to show that although the calculated result, due to roundoff errors, will not be exactly correct, it is the exact solution to a nearby problem with slightly perturbed input data. If the perturbation required is small, on the order of the uncertainty in the input data, then the results are in some sense as accurate as the data "deserves". The algorithm is then defined as backward stable. Stability is a measure of the sensitivity to rounding errors of a given numerical procedure; by contrast, the condition number of a function for a given problem indicates the inherent sensitivity of the function to small perturbations in its input and is independent of the implementation used to solve the problem. As a trivial example, consider a simple expression giving the inner product of (length two) vectors x {\displaystyle x} and y {\displaystyle y} , then fl ⁡ ( x ⋅ y ) = fl ⁡ ( fl ⁡ ( x 1 ⋅ y 1 ) + fl ⁡ ( x 2 ⋅ y 2 ) ) , where fl ⁡ ( ) indicates correctly rounded floating-point arithmetic = fl ⁡ ( ( x 1 ⋅ y 1 ) ( 1 + δ 1 ) + ( x 2 ⋅ y 2 ) ( 1 + δ 2 ) ) , where δ n ≤ E mach , from above = ( ( x 1 ⋅ y 1 ) ( 1 + δ 1 ) + ( x 2 ⋅ y 2 ) ( 1 + δ 2 ) ) ( 1 + δ 3 ) = ( x 1 ⋅ y 1 ) ( 1 + δ 1 ) ( 1 + δ 3 ) + ( x 2 ⋅ y 2 ) ( 1 + δ 2 ) ( 1 + δ 3 ) , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\operatorname {fl} (x\cdot y)&=\operatorname {fl} {\big (}\operatorname {fl} (x_{1}\cdot y_{1})+\operatorname {fl} (x_{2}\cdot y_{2}){\big )},&&{\text{ where }}\operatorname {fl} (){\text{ indicates correctly rounded floating-point arithmetic}}\\&=\operatorname {fl} {\big (}(x_{1}\cdot y_{1})(1+\delta _{1})+(x_{2}\cdot y_{2})(1+\delta _{2}){\big )},&&{\text{ where }}\delta _{n}\leq \mathrm {E} _{\text{mach}},{\text{ from above}}\\&={\big (}(x_{1}\cdot y_{1})(1+\delta _{1})+(x_{2}\cdot y_{2})(1+\delta _{2}){\big )}(1+\delta _{3})\\&=(x_{1}\cdot y_{1})(1+\delta _{1})(1+\delta _{3})+(x_{2}\cdot y_{2})(1+\delta _{2})(1+\delta _{3}),\end{aligned}}} and so fl ⁡ ( x ⋅ y ) = x ^ ⋅ y ^ , {\displaystyle \operatorname {fl} (x\cdot y)={\hat {x}}\cdot {\hat {y}},} where x ^ 1 = x 1 ( 1 + δ 1 ) ; x ^ 2 = x 2 ( 1 + δ 2 ) ; y ^ 1 = y 1 ( 1 + δ 3 ) ; y ^ 2 = y 2 ( 1 + δ 3 ) , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\hat {x}}_{1}&=x_{1}(1+\delta _{1});&{\hat {x}}_{2}&=x_{2}(1+\delta _{2});\\{\hat {y}}_{1}&=y_{1}(1+\delta _{3});&{\hat {y}}_{2}&=y_{2}(1+\delta _{3}),\\\end{aligned}}} where δ n ≤ E mach {\displaystyle \delta _{n}\leq \mathrm {E} _{\text{mach}}} by definition, which is the sum of two slightly perturbed (on the order of Εmach) input data, and so is backward stable. For more realistic examples in numerical linear algebra, see Higham 2002 and other references below. Minimizing the effect of accuracy problems Although individual arithmetic operations of IEEE 754 are guaranteed accurate to within half a ULP, more complicated formulae can suffer from larger errors for a variety of reasons. The loss of accuracy can be substantial if a problem or its data are ill-conditioned, meaning that the correct result is hypersensitive to tiny perturbations in its data. However, even functions that are well-conditioned can suffer from large loss of accuracy if an algorithm numerically unstable for that data is used: apparently equivalent formulations of expressions in a programming language can differ markedly in their numerical stability. One approach to remove the risk of such loss of accuracy is the design and analysis of numerically stable algorithms, which is an aim of the branch of mathematics known as numerical analysis. Another approach that can protect against the risk of numerical instabilities is the computation of intermediate (scratch) values in an algorithm at a higher precision than the final result requires, which can remove, or reduce by orders of magnitude, such risk: IEEE 754 quadruple precision and extended precision are designed for this purpose when computing at double precision. For example, the following algorithm is a direct implementation to compute the function A(x) = (x−1) / (exp(x−1) − 1) which is well-conditioned at 1.0, however it can be shown to be numerically unstable and lose up to half the significant digits carried by the arithmetic when computed near 1.0. double A(double X) { double Y, Z; // Y = X - 1.0; Z = exp(Y); if (Z != 1.0) Z = Y / (Z - 1.0); // return Z; } If, however, intermediate computations are all performed in extended precision (e.g. by setting line to C99 long double), then up to full precision in the final double result can be maintained. Alternatively, a numerical analysis of the algorithm reveals that if the following non-obvious change to line is made: Z = log(Z) / (Z - 1.0); then the algorithm becomes numerically stable and can compute to full double precision. To maintain the properties of such carefully constructed numerically stable programs, careful handling by the compiler is required. Certain "optimizations" that compilers might make (for example, reordering operations) can work against the goals of well-behaved software. There is some controversy about the failings of compilers and language designs in this area: C99 is an example of a language where such optimizations are carefully specified to maintain numerical precision. See the external references at the bottom of this article. A detailed treatment of the techniques for writing high-quality floating-point software is beyond the scope of this article, and the reader is referred to, and the other references at the bottom of this article. Kahan suggests several rules of thumb that can substantially decrease by orders of magnitude the risk of numerical anomalies, in addition to, or in lieu of, a more careful numerical analysis. These include: as noted above, computing all expressions and intermediate results in the highest precision supported in hardware (a common rule of thumb is to carry twice the precision of the desired result, i.e. compute in double precision for a final single-precision result, or in double extended or quad precision for up to double-precision results); and rounding input data and results to only the precision required and supported by the input data (carrying excess precision in the final result beyond that required and supported by the input data can be misleading, increases storage cost and decreases speed, and the excess bits can affect convergence of numerical procedures: notably, the first form of the iterative example given below converges correctly when using this rule of thumb). Brief descriptions of several additional issues and techniques follow. As decimal fractions can often not be exactly represented in binary floating-point, such arithmetic is at its best when it is simply being used to measure real-world quantities over a wide range of scales (such as the orbital period of a moon around Saturn or the mass of a proton), and at its worst when it is expected to model the interactions of quantities expressed as decimal strings that are expected to be exact. An example of the latter case is financial calculations. For this reason, financial software tends not to use a binary floating-point number representation. The "decimal" data type of the C# and Python programming languages, and the decimal formats of the IEEE 754-2008 standard, are designed to avoid the problems of binary floating-point representations when applied to human-entered exact decimal values, and make the arithmetic always behave as expected when numbers are printed in decimal. Expectations from mathematics may not be realized in the field of floating-point computation. For example, it is known that ( x + y ) ( x − y ) = x 2 − y 2 {\displaystyle (x+y)(x-y)=x^{2}-y^{2}\,} , and that sin 2 ⁡ θ + cos 2 ⁡ θ = 1 {\displaystyle \sin ^{2}{\theta }+\cos ^{2}{\theta }=1\,} , however these facts cannot be relied on when the quantities involved are the result of floating-point computation. The use of the equality test (if (x==y) ...) requires care when dealing with floating-point numbers. Even simple expressions like 0.6/0.2-3==0 will, on most computers, fail to be true (in IEEE 754 double precision, for example, 0.6/0.2 - 3 is approximately equal to -4.44089209850063e-16). Consequently, such tests are sometimes replaced with "fuzzy" comparisons (if (abs(x-y) < epsilon) ..., where epsilon is sufficiently small and tailored to the application, such as 1.0E−13). The wisdom of doing this varies greatly, and can require numerical analysis to bound epsilon. Values derived from the primary data representation and their comparisons should be performed in a wider, extended, precision to minimize the risk of such inconsistencies due to round-off errors. It is often better to organize the code in such a way that such tests are unnecessary. For example, in computational geometry, exact tests of whether a point lies off or on a line or plane defined by other points can be performed using adaptive precision or exact arithmetic methods. Small errors in floating-point arithmetic can grow when mathematical algorithms perform operations an enormous number of times. A few examples are matrix inversion, eigenvector computation, and differential equation solving. These algorithms must be very carefully designed, using numerical approaches such as iterative refinement, if they are to work well. Summation of a vector of floating-point values is a basic algorithm in scientific computing, and so an awareness of when loss of significance can occur is essential. For example, if one is adding a very large number of numbers, the individual addends are very small compared with the sum. This can lead to loss of significance. A typical addition would then be something like 3253.671 + 3.141276 ----------- 3256.812 The low 3 digits of the addends are effectively lost. Suppose, for example, that one needs to add many numbers, all approximately equal to 3. After 1000 of them have been added, the running sum is about 3000; the lost digits are not regained. The Kahan summation algorithm may be used to reduce the errors. Round-off error can affect the convergence and accuracy of iterative numerical procedures. As an example, Archimedes approximated π by calculating the perimeters of polygons inscribing and circumscribing a circle, starting with hexagons, and successively doubling the number of sides. As noted above, computations may be rearranged in a way that is mathematically equivalent but less prone to error (numerical analysis). Two forms of the recurrence formula for the circumscribed polygon are: t 0 = 1 3 {\textstyle t_{0}={\frac {1}{\sqrt {3}}}} First form: t i + 1 = t i 2 + 1 − 1 t i {\textstyle t_{i+1}={\frac {{\sqrt {t_{i}^{2}+1}}-1}{t_{i}}}} second form: t i + 1 = t i t i 2 + 1 + 1 {\textstyle t_{i+1}={\frac {t_{i}}{{\sqrt {t_{i}^{2}+1}}+1}}} π ∼ 6 × 2 i × t i {\displaystyle \pi \sim 6\times 2^{i}\times t_{i}} , converging as i → ∞ {\displaystyle i\rightarrow \infty } Here is a computation using IEEE "double" (a significand with 53 bits of precision) arithmetic: i 6 × 2i × ti, first form 6 × 2i × ti, second form --------------------------------------------------------- 0 3.4641016151377543863 3.4641016151377543863 1 3.2153903091734710173 3.2153903091734723496 2 3.1596599420974940120 3.1596599420975006733 3 3.1460862151314012979 3.1460862151314352708 4 3.1427145996453136334 3.1427145996453689225 5 3.1418730499801259536 3.1418730499798241950 6 3.1416627470548084133 3.1416627470568494473 7 3.1416101765997805905 3.1416101766046906629 8 3.1415970343230776862 3.1415970343215275928 9 3.1415937488171150615 3.1415937487713536668 10 3.1415929278733740748 3.1415929273850979885 11 3.1415927256228504127 3.1415927220386148377 12 3.1415926717412858693 3.1415926707019992125 13 3.1415926189011456060 3.1415926578678454728 14 3.1415926717412858693 3.1415926546593073709 15 3.1415919358822321783 3.1415926538571730119 16 3.1415926717412858693 3.1415926536566394222 17 3.1415810075796233302 3.1415926536065061913 18 3.1415926717412858693 3.1415926535939728836 19 3.1414061547378810956 3.1415926535908393901 20 3.1405434924008406305 3.1415926535900560168 21 3.1400068646912273617 3.1415926535898608396 22 3.1349453756585929919 3.1415926535898122118 23 3.1400068646912273617 3.1415926535897995552 24 3.2245152435345525443 3.1415926535897968907 25 3.1415926535897962246 26 3.1415926535897962246 27 3.1415926535897962246 28 3.1415926535897962246 The true value is 3.14159265358979323846264338327... While the two forms of the recurrence formula are clearly mathematically equivalent, the first subtracts 1 from a number extremely close to 1, leading to an increasingly problematic loss of significant digits. As the recurrence is applied repeatedly, the accuracy improves at first, but then it deteriorates. It never gets better than about 8 digits, even though 53-bit arithmetic should be capable of about 16 digits of precision. When the second form of the recurrence is used, the value converges to 15 digits of precision. "Fast math" optimization The aforementioned lack of associativity of floating-point operations in general means that compilers cannot as effectively reorder arithmetic expressions as they could with integer and fixed-point arithmetic, presenting a roadblock in optimizations such as common subexpression elimination and auto-vectorization. The "fast math" option on many compilers (ICC, GCC, Clang, MSVC...) turns on reassociation along with unsafe assumptions such as a lack of NaN and infinite numbers in IEEE 754. Some compilers also offer more granular options to only turn on reassociation. In either case, the programmer is exposed to many of the precision pitfalls mentioned above for the portion of the program using "fast" math. In some compilers (GCC and Clang), turning on "fast" math may cause the program to disable subnormal floats at startup, affecting the floating-point behavior of not only the generated code, but also any program using such code as a library. In most Fortran compilers, as allowed by the ISO/IEC 1539-1:2004 Fortran standard, reassociation is the default, with breakage largely prevented by the "protect parens" setting (also on by default). This setting stops the compiler from reassociating beyond the boundaries of parentheses. Intel Fortran Compiler is a notable outlier. A common problem in "fast" math is that subexpressions may not be optimized identically from place to place, leading to unexpected differences. One interpretation of the issue is that "fast" math as implemented currently has a poorly defined semantics. One attempt at formalizing "fast" math optimizations is seen in Icing, a verified compiler. See also Arbitrary-precision arithmetic C99 for code examples demonstrating access and use of IEEE 754 features. Computable number Coprocessor Decimal floating point Double precision Experimental mathematics – utilizes high precision floating-point computations Fixed-point arithmetic Floating-point error mitigation FLOPS Gal's accurate tables GNU MPFR Half-precision floating-point format IEEE 754 – Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic IBM Floating Point Architecture Kahan summation algorithm Microsoft Binary Format (MBF) Minifloat Q (number format) for constant resolution Quadruple-precision floating-point format (including double-double) Significant figures Single-precision floating-point format Notes ^ The significand of a floating-point number is also called mantissa by some authors—not to be confused with the mantissa of a logarithm. Somewhat vague, terms such as coefficient or argument are also used by some. The usage of the term fraction by some authors is potentially misleading as well. The term characteristic (as used e.g. by CDC) is ambiguous, as it was historically also used to specify some form of exponent of floating-point numbers. ^ The exponent of a floating-point number is sometimes also referred to as scale. The term characteristic (for biased exponent, exponent bias, or excess n representation) is ambiguous, as it was historically also used to specify the significand of floating-point numbers. ^ Hexadecimal (base-16) floating-point arithmetic is used in the IBM System 360 (1964) and 370 (1970) as well as various newer IBM machines, in the RCA Spectra 70 (1964), the Siemens 4004 (1965), 7.700 (1974), 7.800, 7.500 (1977) series mainframes and successors, the Unidata 7.000 series mainframes, the Manchester MU5 (1972), the HEP (1982) computers, and in 360/370-compatible mainframe families made by Fujitsu, Amdahl and Hitachi. It is also used in the Illinois ILLIAC III (1966), Data General Eclipse S/200 (ca. 1974), Gould Powernode 9080 (1980s), Interdata 8/32 (1970s), the SEL Systems 85 and 86 as well as the SDS Sigma 5 (1967), 7 (1966) and Xerox Sigma 9 (1970). ^ Octal (base-8) floating-point arithmetic is used in the Ferranti Atlas (1962), Burroughs B5500 (1964), Burroughs B5700 (1971), Burroughs B6700 (1971) and Burroughs B7700 (1972) computers. ^ Quaternary (base-4) floating-point arithmetic is used in the Illinois ILLIAC II (1962) computer. It is also used in the Digital Field System DFS IV and V high-resolution site survey systems. ^ Base-256 floating-point arithmetic is used in the Rice Institute R1 computer (since 1958). ^ Base-65536 floating-point arithmetic is used in the MANIAC II (1956) computer. ^ Computer hardware doesn't necessarily compute the exact value; it simply has to produce the equivalent rounded result as though it had computed the infinitely precise result. ^ The enormous complexity of modern division algorithms once led to a famous error. An early version of the Intel Pentium chip was shipped with a division instruction that, on rare occasions, gave slightly incorrect results. Many computers had been shipped before the error was discovered. Until the defective computers were replaced, patched versions of compilers were developed that could avoid the failing cases. See Pentium FDIV bug. ^ But an attempted computation of cos(π) yields −1 exactly. Since the derivative is nearly zero near π, the effect of the inaccuracy in the argument is far smaller than the spacing of the floating-point numbers around −1, and the rounded result is exact. ^ William Kahan notes: "Except in extremely uncommon situations, extra-precise arithmetic generally attenuates risks due to roundoff at far less cost than the price of a competent error-analyst." ^ The Taylor expansion of this function demonstrates that it is well-conditioned near 1: A(x) = 1 − (x−1)/2 + (x−1)^2/12 − (x−1)^4/720 + (x−1)^6/30240 − (x−1)^8/1209600 + ... for \|x−1\| < π. ^ If long double is IEEE quad precision then full double precision is retained; if long double is IEEE double extended precision then additional, but not full precision is retained. ^ The equivalence of the two forms can be verified algebraically by noting that the denominator of the fraction in the second form is the conjugate of the numerator of the first. By multiplying the top and bottom of the first expression by this conjugate, one obtains the second expression. References ^ a b c d e f Muller, Jean-Michel; Brisebarre, Nicolas; de Dinechin, Florent; Jeannerod, Claude-Pierre; Lefèvre, Vincent; Melquiond, Guillaume; Revol, Nathalie; Stehlé, Damien; Torres, Serge (2010). Handbook of Floating-Point Arithmetic (1st ed.). Birkhäuser. doi:10.1007/978-0-8176-4705-6. ISBN 978-0-8176-4704-9. LCCN 2009939668. ^ a b Sterbenz, Pat H. (1974). Floating-Point Computation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, United States: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-322495-3. ^ Smith, Steven W. (1997). "Chapter 28, Fixed versus Floating Point". The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing. California Technical Pub. p. 514. ISBN 978-0-9660176-3-2. Retrieved 2012-12-31. ^ a b Zehendner, Eberhard (Summer 2008). "Rechnerarithmetik: Fest- und Gleitkommasysteme" (PDF) (Lecture script) (in German). Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-08-07. Retrieved 2018-08-07. (NB. This reference incorrectly gives the MANIAC II's floating point base as 256, whereas it actually is 65536.) ^ a b c d Beebe, Nelson H. F. (2017-08-22). "Chapter H. Historical floating-point architectures". The Mathematical-Function Computation Handbook - Programming Using the MathCW Portable Software Library (1st ed.). Salt Lake City, UT, USA: Springer International Publishing AG. p. 948. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-64110-2. ISBN 978-3-319-64109-6. LCCN 2017947446. S2CID 30244721. ^ Savard, John J. G. (2018) , "The Decimal Floating-Point Standard", quadibloc, archived from the original on 2018-07-03, retrieved 2018-07-16 ^ Parkinson, Roger (2000-12-07). "Chapter 2 - High resolution digital site survey systems - Chapter 2.1 - Digital field recording systems". High Resolution Site Surveys (1st ed.). CRC Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-20318604-6. Retrieved 2019-08-18. Systems such as the DFS IV and DFS V were quaternary floating-point systems and used gain steps of 12 dB. (256 pages) ^ Lazarus, Roger B. (1957-01-30) . "MANIAC II" (PDF). Los Alamos, NM, USA: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory of the University of California. p. 14. LA-2083. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-08-07. Retrieved 2018-08-07. the Maniac's floating base, which is 216 = 65,536. The Maniac's large base permits a considerable increase in the speed of floating point arithmetic. Although such a large base implies the possibility of as many as 15 lead zeros, the large word size of 48 bits guarantees adequate significance. ^ Torres Quevedo, Leonardo. Automática: Complemento de la Teoría de las Máquinas, (pdf), pp. 575–583, Revista de Obras Públicas, 19 November 1914. ^ Ronald T. Kneusel. Numbers and Computers, Springer, pp. 84–85, 2017. ISBN 978-3319505084 ^ Randell 1982, pp. 6, 11–13. ^ Randell, Brian. Digital Computers, History of Origins, (pdf), p. 545, Digital Computers: Origins, Encyclopedia of Computer Science, January 2003. ^ Rojas, Raúl (April–June 1997). "Konrad Zuse's Legacy: The Architecture of the Z1 and Z3" (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 19 (2): 5–16. doi:10.1109/85.586067. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-07-03. Retrieved 2022-07-03. (12 pages) ^ Rojas, Raúl (2014-06-07). "The Z1: Architecture and Algorithms of Konrad Zuse's First Computer". arXiv:1406.1886 . ^ a b Kahan, William Morton (1997-07-15). "The Baleful Effect of Computer Languages and Benchmarks upon Applied Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry. John von Neumann Lecture" (PDF). p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2008-09-05. ^ Randell, Brian, ed. (1982) . The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers (3rd ed.). Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag. p. 244. ISBN 978-3-540-11319-5. ^ Severance, Charles (1998-02-20). "An Interview with the Old Man of Floating-Point". ^ ISO/IEC 9899:1999 - Programming languages - C. Iso.org. §F.2, note 307. "Extended" is IEC 60559's double-extended data format. Extended refers to both the common 80-bit and quadruple 128-bit IEC 60559 formats. ^ "IEEE Floating-Point Representation". 2021-08-03. ^ Using the GNU Compiler Collection, i386 and x86-64 Options Archived 2015-01-16 at the Wayback Machine. ^ "long double (GCC specific) and __float128". StackOverflow. ^ "Procedure Call Standard for the ARM 64-bit Architecture (AArch64)" (PDF). 2013-05-22. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-07-31. Retrieved 2019-09-22. ^ "ARM Compiler toolchain Compiler Reference, Version 5.03" (PDF). 2013. Section 6.3 Basic data types. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-06-27. Retrieved 2019-11-08. ^ Kahan, William Morton (2004-11-20). "On the Cost of Floating-Point Computation Without Extra-Precise Arithmetic" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2006-05-25. Retrieved 2012-02-19. ^ "openEXR". openEXR. Archived from the original on 2013-05-08. Retrieved 2012-04-25. Since the IEEE-754 floating-point specification does not define a 16-bit format, ILM created the "half" format. Half values have 1 sign bit, 5 exponent bits, and 10 mantissa bits. ^ "Technical Introduction to OpenEXR – The half Data Type". openEXR. Retrieved 2024-04-16. ^ "IEEE-754 Analysis". ^ a b Borland staff (1998-07-02) . "Converting between Microsoft Binary and IEEE formats". Technical Information Database (TI1431C.txt). Embarcadero USA / Inprise (originally: Borland). ID 1400. Archived from the original on 2019-02-20. Retrieved 2016-05-30. _fmsbintoieee(float src4, float dest4) MS Binary Format byte order => m3 \| m2 \| m1 \| exponent m1 is most significant byte => sbbb\|bbbb m3 is the least significant byte m = mantissa byte s = sign bit b = bit MBF is bias 128 and IEEE is bias 127. MBF places the decimal point before the assumed bit, while IEEE places the decimal point after the assumed bit. ieee_exp = msbin - 2; / actually, msbin-1-128+127 / _dmsbintoieee(double src8, double *dest8) MS Binary Format byte order => m7 \| m6 \| m5 \| m4 \| m3 \| m2 \| m1 \| exponent m1 is most significant byte => smmm\|mmmm m7 is the least significant byte MBF is bias 128 and IEEE is bias 1023. MBF places the decimal point before the assumed bit, while IEEE places the decimal point after the assumed bit. ieee_exp = msbin - 128 - 1 + 1023; ^ a b Steil, Michael (2008-10-20). "Create your own Version of Microsoft BASIC for 6502". pagetable.com. Archived from the original on 2016-05-30. Retrieved 2016-05-30. ^ "IEEE vs. Microsoft Binary Format; Rounding Issues (Complete)". Microsoft Support. Microsoft. 2006-11-21. Article ID KB35826, Q35826. Archived from the original on 2020-08-28. Retrieved 2010-02-24. ^ a b Kharya, Paresh (2020-05-14). "TensorFloat-32 in the A100 GPU Accelerates AI Training, HPC up to 20x". Retrieved 2020-05-16. ^ "NVIDIA Hopper Architecture In-Depth". 2022-03-22. ^ Micikevicius, Paulius; Stosic, Dusan; Burgess, Neil; Cornea, Marius; Dubey, Pradeep; Grisenthwaite, Richard; Ha, Sangwon; Heinecke, Alexander; Judd, Patrick; Kamalu, John; Mellempudi, Naveen; Oberman, Stuart; Shoeybi, Mohammad; Siu, Michael; Wu, Hao (2022-09-12). "FP8 Formats for Deep Learning". arXiv:2209.05433 . ^ Kahan, William Morton (2006-01-11). "How Futile are Mindless Assessments of Roundoff in Floating-Point Computation?" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2004-12-21. ^ a b Gay, David M. (1990). Correctly Rounded Binary-Decimal and Decimal-Binary Conversions (Technical report). NUMERICAL ANALYSIS MANUSCRIPT 90-10, AT&T BELL LABORATORIES. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.31.4049. (dtoa.c in netlab) ^ Loitsch, Florian (2010). "Printing floating-point numbers quickly and accurately with integers" (PDF). Proceedings of the 31st ACM SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation. PLDI '10: ACM SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation. pp. 233–243. doi:10.1145/1806596.1806623. ISBN 978-1-45030019-3. S2CID 910409. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-07-29. ^ "Added Grisu3 algorithm support for double.ToString(). by mazong1123 · Pull Request #14646 · dotnet/coreclr". GitHub. ^ Adams, Ulf (2018-12-02). "Ryū: fast float-to-string conversion". ACM SIGPLAN Notices. 53 (4): 270–282. doi:10.1145/3296979.3192369. S2CID 218472153. ^ Giulietti, Rafaello. "The Schubfach way to render doubles". ^ "abolz/Drachennest". GitHub. 2022-11-10. ^ "google/double-conversion". GitHub. 2020-09-21. ^ Lemire, Daniel (2021-03-22). "Number parsing at a gigabyte per second". Software: Practice and Experience. 51 (8): 1700–1727. arXiv:2101.11408. doi:10.1002/spe.2984. S2CID 231718830. ^ a b c Goldberg, David (March 1991). "What Every Computer Scientist Should Know About Floating-Point Arithmetic" (PDF). ACM Computing Surveys. 23 (1): 5–48. doi:10.1145/103162.103163. S2CID 222008826. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2006-07-20. Retrieved 2016-01-20. (, , Archived 2017-10-11 at the Wayback Machine) ^ Patterson, David A.; Hennessy, John L. (2014). Computer Organization and Design, The Hardware/Software Interface. The Morgan Kaufmann series in computer architecture and design (5th ed.). Waltham, Massachusetts, USA: Elsevier. p. 793. ISBN 978-9-86605267-5. ^ a b US patent 3037701A, Huberto M Sierra, "Floating decimal point arithmetic control means for calculator", issued 1962-06-05 ^ a b Kahan, William Morton (1997-10-01). "Lecture Notes on the Status of IEEE Standard 754 for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic" (PDF). p. 9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2002-06-22. ^ "D.3.2.1". Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developers' Manuals. Vol. 1. ^ Harris, Richard (October 2010). "You're Going To Have To Think!". Overload (99): 5–10. ISSN 1354-3172. Retrieved 2011-09-24. Far more worrying is cancellation error which can yield catastrophic loss of precision. ^ Christopher Barker: PEP 485 -- A Function for testing approximate equality ^ "Patriot missile defense, Software problem led to system failure at Dharhan, Saudi Arabia". US Government Accounting Office. GAO report IMTEC 92-26. ^ Wilkinson, James Hardy (2003-09-08). "Error Analysis". In Ralston, Anthony; Reilly, Edwin D.; Hemmendinger, David (eds.). Encyclopedia of Computer Science. Wiley. pp. 669–674. ISBN 978-0-470-86412-8. Retrieved 2013-05-14. ^ Einarsson, Bo (2005). Accuracy and reliability in scientific computing. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM). pp. 50–. ISBN 978-0-89871-815-7. Retrieved 2013-05-14. ^ a b c d Higham, Nicholas John (2002). Accuracy and Stability of Numerical Algorithms (2nd ed.). Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM). pp. 27–28, 110–123, 493. ISBN 978-0-89871-521-7. 0-89871-355-2. ^ Oliveira, Suely; Stewart, David E. (2006-09-07). Writing Scientific Software: A Guide to Good Style. Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–. ISBN 978-1-139-45862-7. ^ a b Kahan, William Morton (2005-07-15). Floating-Point Arithmetic Besieged by "Business Decisions" (PDF). IEEE-sponsored ARITH 17, Symposium on Computer Arithmetic (Keynote Address). pp. 6, 18. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2006-03-17. Retrieved 2013-05-23. (NB. Kahan estimates that the incidence of excessively inaccurate results near singularities is reduced by a factor of approx. 1/2000 using the 11 extra bits of precision of double extended.) ^ Kahan, William Morton (2011-08-03). Desperately Needed Remedies for the Undebuggability of Large Floating-Point Computations in Science and Engineering (PDF). IFIP/SIAM/NIST Working Conference on Uncertainty Quantification in Scientific Computing, Boulder, CO. p. 33. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-06-20. ^ Kahan, William Morton; Darcy, Joseph (2001) . "How Java's floating-point hurts everyone everywhere" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2000-08-16. Retrieved 2003-09-05. ^ a b c d Kahan, William Morton (2000-08-27). "Marketing versus Mathematics" (PDF). pp. 15, 35, 47. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2003-08-15. ^ Kahan, William Morton (1981-02-12). "Why do we need a floating-point arithmetic standard?" (PDF). p. 26. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2004-12-04. ^ Kahan, William Morton (2001-06-04). Bindel, David (ed.). "Lecture notes of System Support for Scientific Computation" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-05-17. ^ "General Decimal Arithmetic". Speleotrove.com. Retrieved 2012-04-25. ^ Christiansen, Tom; Torkington, Nathan; et al. (2006). "perlfaq4 / Why is int() broken?". perldoc.perl.org. Retrieved 2011-01-11. ^ Shewchuk, Jonathan Richard (1997). "Adaptive Precision Floating-Point Arithmetic and Fast Robust Geometric Predicates". Discrete & Computational Geometry. 18 (3): 305–363. doi:10.1007/PL00009321. ^ Kahan, William Morton; Ivory, Melody Y. (1997-07-03). "Roundoff Degrades an Idealized Cantilever" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2003-12-05. ^ "Auto-Vectorization in LLVM". LLVM 13 documentation. We support floating point reduction operations when -ffast-math is used. ^ "FloatingPointMath". GCC Wiki. ^ "55522 – -funsafe-math-optimizations is unexpectedly harmful, especially w/ -shared". gcc.gnu.org. ^ "Code Gen Options (The GNU Fortran Compiler)". gcc.gnu.org. ^ "Bug in zheevd · Issue #43 · Reference-LAPACK/lapack". GitHub. ^ Becker, Heiko; Darulova, Eva; Myreen, Magnus O.; Tatlock, Zachary (2019). Icing: Supporting Fast-Math Style Optimizations in a Verified Compiler. CAV 2019: Computer Aided Verification. Vol. 11562. pp. 155–173. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-25543-5_10. Further reading Wilkinson, James Hardy (1963). Rounding Errors in Algebraic Processes (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 9780486679990. MR 0161456. (NB. Classic influential treatises on floating-point arithmetic.) Wilkinson, James Hardy (1965). The Algebraic Eigenvalue Problem. Monographs on Numerical Analysis (1st ed.). Oxford University Press / Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780198534037. Retrieved 2016-02-11. Sterbenz, Pat H. (1974). Floating-Point Computation. Prentice-Hall Series in Automatic Computation (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-322495-5. Golub, Gene F.; van Loan, Charles F. (1986). Matrix Computations (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5413-2. Press, William Henry; Teukolsky, Saul A.; Vetterling, William T.; Flannery, Brian P. (2007) . Numerical Recipes - The Art of Scientific Computing (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88407-5. (NB. Edition with source code CD-ROM.) Knuth, Donald Ervin (1997). "Section 4.2: Floating-Point Arithmetic". The Art of Computer Programming, Vol. 2: Seminumerical Algorithms (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley. pp. 214–264. ISBN 978-0-201-89684-8. Blaauw, Gerrit Anne; Brooks, Jr., Frederick Phillips (1997). Computer Architecture: Concepts and Evolution (1st ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-10557-8. (1213 pages) (NB. This is a single-volume edition. This work was also available in a two-volume version.) Savard, John J. G. (2018) , "Floating-Point Formats", quadibloc, archived from the original on 2018-07-03, retrieved 2018-07-16 Muller, Jean-Michel; Brunie, Nicolas; de Dinechin, Florent; Jeannerod, Claude-Pierre; Joldes, Mioara; Lefèvre, Vincent; Melquiond, Guillaume; Revol, Nathalie; Torres, Serge (2018) . Handbook of Floating-Point Arithmetic (2nd ed.). Birkhäuser. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-76526-6. ISBN 978-3-319-76525-9. LCCN 2018935254. External links "Survey of Floating-Point Formats". (NB. This page gives a very brief summary of floating-point formats that have been used over the years.) Monniaux, David (May 2008). "The pitfalls of verifying floating-point computations". ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems. 30 (3). Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Transactions on programming languages and systems (TOPLAS): 1–41. arXiv:cs/0701192. doi:10.1145/1353445.1353446. S2CID 218578808. (NB. A compendium of non-intuitive behaviors of floating point on popular architectures, with implications for program verification and testing.) OpenCores. (NB. This website contains open source floating-point IP cores for the implementation of floating-point operators in FPGA or ASIC devices. The project double_fpu contains verilog source code of a double-precision floating-point unit. The project fpuvhdl contains vhdl source code of a single-precision floating-point unit.) Fleegal, Eric (2004). "Microsoft Visual C++ Floating-Point Optimization". MSDN. vteData typesUninterpreted Bit Byte Trit Tryte Word Bit array Numeric Arbitrary-precision or bignum Complex Decimal Fixed point Floating point Reduced precision Minifloat Half precision bfloat16 Single precision Double precision Quadruple precision Octuple precision Extended precision Long double Integer signedness Interval Rational Pointer Address physical virtual Reference Text Character String null-terminated Composite Algebraic data type generalized Array Associative array Class Dependent Equality Inductive Intersection List Object metaobject Option type Product Record or Struct Refinement Set Union tagged Other Boolean Bottom type Collection Enumerated type Exception Function type Opaque data type Recursive data type Semaphore Stream Strongly typed identifier Top type Type class Empty type Unit type Void Relatedtopics Abstract data type Boxing Data structure Generic Kind metaclass Parametric polymorphism Primitive data type Interface Subtyping Type constructor Type conversion Type system Type theory Variable	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Floating point (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_point_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG"},{"link_name":"Z3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_(computer)"},{"link_name":"Deutsches Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsches_Museum"},{"link_name":"Munich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich"},{"link_name":"computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing"},{"link_name":"arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic"},{"link_name":"real numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number"},{"link_name":"integer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"significand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significand"},{"link_name":"exponent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponent"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Muller_2010-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sterbenz1974fpcomp-2"},{"link_name":"base two","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_number"},{"link_name":"decimal floating point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_floating_point"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Muller_2010-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sterbenz1974fpcomp-2"},{"link_name":"radix point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radix_point"},{"link_name":"scientific notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_notation"},{"link_name":"orders of magnitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)"},{"link_name":"between galaxies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(length)#100_zettametres"},{"link_name":"between protons in an atom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(length)#10_femtometres"},{"link_name":"dynamic range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_range"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith_1997-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_number_line_representing_single-precision_floating_point%27s_numbers_and_numbers_that_it_cannot_display.png"},{"link_name":"number line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_line"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FloatingPointPrecisionAugmented.png"},{"link_name":"signs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signed_number_representations"},{"link_name":"IEEE 754","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754"},{"link_name":"FLOPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLOPS"},{"link_name":"computer system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_system"},{"link_name":"floating-point unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point_unit"},{"link_name":"coprocessor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprocessor"}],"text":"\"Floating point\" redirects here. For other uses, see Floating point (disambiguation).Computer approximation for real numbersAn early electromechanical programmable computer, the Z3, included floating-point arithmetic (replica on display at Deutsches Museum in Munich).In computing, floating-point arithmetic (FP) is arithmetic that represents subsets of real numbers using an integer with a fixed precision, called the significand, scaled by an integer exponent of a fixed base.\nNumbers of this form are called floating-point numbers.[1]: 3 [2]: 10 \nFor example, 12.345 is a floating-point number in base ten with five digits of precision:12.345\n =\n \n \n \n \n 12345\n ⏟\n \n \n \n significand\n \n \n \n ×\n \n \n \n \n 10\n ⏟\n \n \n \n base\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n −\n 3\n \n \n ⏞\n \n \n \n exponent\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 12.345=\\!\\underbrace {12345} _{\\text{significand}}\\!\\times \\!\\underbrace {10} _{\\text{base}}\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\overbrace {{}^{-3}} ^{\\text{exponent}}}However, unlike 12.345, 12.3456 is not a floating-point number in base ten with five digits of precision—it needs six digits of precision; the nearest floating-point number with only five digits is 12.346.\nIn practice, most floating-point systems use base two, though base ten (decimal floating point) is also common.Floating-point arithmetic operations, such as addition and division, approximate the corresponding real number arithmetic operations by rounding any result that is not a floating-point number itself to a nearby floating-point number.[1]: 22 [2]: 10 \nFor example, in a floating-point arithmetic with five base-ten digits of precision, the sum 12.345 + 1.0001 = 13.3451 might be rounded to 13.345.The term floating point refers to the fact that the number's radix point can \"float\" anywhere to the left, right, or between the significant digits of the number. This position is indicated by the exponent, so floating point can be considered a form of scientific notation.A floating-point system can be used to represent, with a fixed number of digits, numbers of very different orders of magnitude — such as the number of meters between galaxies or between protons in an atom. For this reason, floating-point arithmetic is often used to allow very small and very large real numbers that require fast processing times. The result of this dynamic range is that the numbers that can be represented are not uniformly spaced; the difference between two consecutive representable numbers varies with their exponent.[3]Single-precision floating-point numbers on a number line: the green lines mark representable values.Augmented version above showing both signs of representable valuesOver the years, a variety of floating-point representations have been used in computers. In 1985, the IEEE 754 Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic was established, and since the 1990s, the most commonly encountered representations are those defined by the IEEE.The speed of floating-point operations, commonly measured in terms of FLOPS, is an important characteristic of a computer system, especially for applications that involve intensive mathematical calculations.A floating-point unit (FPU, colloquially a math coprocessor) is a part of a computer system specially designed to carry out operations on floating-point numbers.","title":"Floating-point arithmetic"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"number representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_representation"},{"link_name":"radix point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radix_point"},{"link_name":"\"point\" character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_separator"},{"link_name":"integer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer"},{"link_name":"fixed-point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-point_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"scientific notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_notation"},{"link_name":"power of 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation"},{"link_name":"Jupiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter"},{"link_name":"Io","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Io_(moon)"},{"link_name":"base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_(exponentiation)"},{"link_name":"radix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radix"},{"link_name":"significand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significand"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_Significand-4"},{"link_name":"exponent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponent"},{"link_name":"[nb 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_Exponent-5"},{"link_name":"decimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_representation"},{"link_name":"binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system"},{"link_name":"decimal floating point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_floating_point"},{"link_name":"hexadecimal floating point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal_floating_point"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zehendner_2008-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Beebe_2017-7"},{"link_name":"[nb 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_9-8"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Muller_2010-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Beebe_2017-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Savard_2018-9"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zehendner_2008-6"},{"link_name":"[nb 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_8-10"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parkinson_2000-11"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Beebe_2017-7"},{"link_name":"[nb 5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_11-12"},{"link_name":"balanced ternary floating point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balanced_ternary_floating_point"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Muller_2010-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Beebe_2017-7"},{"link_name":"[nb 6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_12-13"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lazarus_1956-14"},{"link_name":"[nb 7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_10-15"},{"link_name":"rational number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_number"},{"link_name":"base 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternary_numeral_system"},{"link_name":"depend on the base and its prime factors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positional_notation#Infinite_representations"},{"link_name":"bits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit"},{"link_name":"π","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi"},{"link_name":"specific rules for halfway values","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rounding#Tie-breaking"},{"link_name":"significand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significand"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Muller_2010-1"}],"sub_title":"Floating-point numbers","text":"A number representation specifies some way of encoding a number, usually as a string of digits.There are several mechanisms by which strings of digits can represent numbers. In standard mathematical notation, the digit string can be of any length, and the location of the radix point is indicated by placing an explicit \"point\" character (dot or comma) there. If the radix point is not specified, then the string implicitly represents an integer and the unstated radix point would be off the right-hand end of the string, next to the least significant digit. In fixed-point systems, a position in the string is specified for the radix point. So a fixed-point scheme might use a string of 8 decimal digits with the decimal point in the middle, whereby \"00012345\" would represent 0001.2345.In scientific notation, the given number is scaled by a power of 10, so that it lies within a specific range—typically between 1 and 10, with the radix point appearing immediately after the first digit. As a power of ten, the scaling factor is then indicated separately at the end of the number. For example, the orbital period of Jupiter's moon Io is 152,853.5047 seconds, a value that would be represented in standard-form scientific notation as 1.528535047×105 seconds.Floating-point representation is similar in concept to scientific notation. Logically, a floating-point number consists of:A signed (meaning positive or negative) digit string of a given length in a given base (or radix). This digit string is referred to as the significand, mantissa, or coefficient.[nb 1] The length of the significand determines the precision to which numbers can be represented. The radix point position is assumed always to be somewhere within the significand—often just after or just before the most significant digit, or to the right of the rightmost (least significant) digit. This article generally follows the convention that the radix point is set just after the most significant (leftmost) digit.\nA signed integer exponent (also referred to as the characteristic, or scale),[nb 2] which modifies the magnitude of the number.To derive the value of the floating-point number, the significand is multiplied by the base raised to the power of the exponent, equivalent to shifting the radix point from its implied position by a number of places equal to the value of the exponent—to the right if the exponent is positive or to the left if the exponent is negative.Using base-10 (the familiar decimal notation) as an example, the number 152,853.5047, which has ten decimal digits of precision, is represented as the significand 1,528,535,047 together with 5 as the exponent. To determine the actual value, a decimal point is placed after the first digit of the significand and the result is multiplied by 105 to give 1.528535047×105, or 152,853.5047. In storing such a number, the base (10) need not be stored, since it will be the same for the entire range of supported numbers, and can thus be inferred.Symbolically, this final value is:s\n \n b\n \n \n p\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n ×\n \n b\n \n e\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {s}{b^{\\,p-1}}}\\times b^{e},}where s is the significand (ignoring any implied decimal point), p is the precision (the number of digits in the significand), b is the base (in our example, this is the number ten), and e is the exponent.Historically, several number bases have been used for representing floating-point numbers, with base two (binary) being the most common, followed by base ten (decimal floating point), and other less common varieties, such as base sixteen (hexadecimal floating point[4][5][nb 3]), base eight (octal floating point[1][5][6][4][nb 4]), base four (quaternary floating point[7][5][nb 5]), base three (balanced ternary floating point[1]) and even base 256[5][nb 6] and base 65,536.[8][nb 7]A floating-point number is a rational number, because it can be represented as one integer divided by another; for example 1.45×103 is (145/100)×1000 or 145,000/100. The base determines the fractions that can be represented; for instance, 1/5 cannot be represented exactly as a floating-point number using a binary base, but 1/5 can be represented exactly using a decimal base (0.2, or 2×10−1). However, 1/3 cannot be represented exactly by either binary (0.010101...) or decimal (0.333...), but in base 3, it is trivial (0.1 or 1×3−1) . The occasions on which infinite expansions occur depend on the base and its prime factors.The way in which the significand (including its sign) and exponent are stored in a computer is implementation-dependent. The common IEEE formats are described in detail later and elsewhere, but as an example, in the binary single-precision (32-bit) floating-point representation, \n \n \n \n p\n =\n 24\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p=24}\n \n, and so the significand is a string of 24 bits. For instance, the number π's first 33 bits are:11001001\n \n 00001111\n \n 1101101\n \n \n 0\n _\n \n \n \n 10100010\n \n 0.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 11001001\\ 00001111\\ 1101101{\\underline {0}}\\ 10100010\\ 0.}In this binary expansion, let us denote the positions from 0 (leftmost bit, or most significant bit) to 32 (rightmost bit). The 24-bit significand will stop at position 23, shown as the underlined bit 0 above. The next bit, at position 24, is called the round bit or rounding bit. It is used to round the 33-bit approximation to the nearest 24-bit number (there are specific rules for halfway values, which is not the case here). This bit, which is 1 in this example, is added to the integer formed by the leftmost 24 bits, yielding:11001001\n \n 00001111\n \n 1101101\n \n \n 1\n _\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 11001001\\ 00001111\\ 1101101{\\underline {1}}.}When this is stored in memory using the IEEE 754 encoding, this becomes the significand s. The significand is assumed to have a binary point to the right of the leftmost bit. So, the binary representation of π is calculated from left-to-right as follows:(\n \n \n ∑\n \n n\n =\n 0\n \n \n p\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n bit\n \n \n n\n \n \n ×\n \n 2\n \n −\n n\n \n \n \n )\n \n ×\n \n 2\n \n e\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n 1\n ×\n \n 2\n \n −\n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n ×\n \n 2\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n +\n 0\n ×\n \n 2\n \n −\n 2\n \n \n +\n 0\n ×\n \n 2\n \n −\n 3\n \n \n +\n 1\n ×\n \n 2\n \n −\n 4\n \n \n +\n ⋯\n +\n 1\n ×\n \n 2\n \n −\n 23\n \n \n \n )\n \n ×\n \n 2\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ≈\n \n\n \n \n \n 1.5707964\n ×\n 2\n \n \n \n \n ≈\n \n\n \n \n \n 3.1415928\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}&\\left(\\sum _{n=0}^{p-1}{\\text{bit}}_{n}\\times 2^{-n}\\right)\\times 2^{e}\\\\={}&\\left(1\\times 2^{-0}+1\\times 2^{-1}+0\\times 2^{-2}+0\\times 2^{-3}+1\\times 2^{-4}+\\cdots +1\\times 2^{-23}\\right)\\times 2^{1}\\\\\\approx {}&1.5707964\\times 2\\\\\\approx {}&3.1415928\\end{aligned}}}where p is the precision (24 in this example), n is the position of the bit of the significand from the left (starting at 0 and finishing at 23 here) and e is the exponent (1 in this example).It can be required that the most significant digit of the significand of a non-zero number be non-zero (except when the corresponding exponent would be smaller than the minimum one). This process is called normalization. For binary formats (which uses only the digits 0 and 1), this non-zero digit is necessarily 1. Therefore, it does not need to be represented in memory, allowing the format to have one more bit of precision. This rule is variously called the leading bit convention, the implicit bit convention, the hidden bit convention,[1] or the assumed bit convention.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fixed-point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-point_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"Logarithmic number systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithmic_number_system"},{"link_name":"symmetric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_level-index_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"level-index arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level-index_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"Frank Olver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_William_John_Olver"},{"link_name":"generalized logarithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_logarithm"},{"link_name":"Tapered floating-point representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapered_floating-point_representation"},{"link_name":"rational arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraction"},{"link_name":"bignum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bignum"},{"link_name":"Interval arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interval_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"Computer algebra systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_algebra_system"},{"link_name":"Mathematica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematica"},{"link_name":"Maxima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxima_(software)"},{"link_name":"Maple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maple_(software)"},{"link_name":"symbolic computation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_computation"}],"sub_title":"Alternatives to floating-point numbers","text":"The floating-point representation is by far the most common way of representing in computers an approximation to real numbers. However, there are alternatives:Fixed-point representation uses integer hardware operations controlled by a software implementation of a specific convention about the location of the binary or decimal point, for example, 6 bits or digits from the right. The hardware to manipulate these representations is less costly than floating point, and it can be used to perform normal integer operations, too. Binary fixed point is usually used in special-purpose applications on embedded processors that can only do integer arithmetic, but decimal fixed point is common in commercial applications.\nLogarithmic number systems (LNSs) represent a real number by the logarithm of its absolute value and a sign bit. The value distribution is similar to floating point, but the value-to-representation curve (i.e., the graph of the logarithm function) is smooth (except at 0). Conversely to floating-point arithmetic, in a logarithmic number system multiplication, division and exponentiation are simple to implement, but addition and subtraction are complex. The (symmetric) level-index arithmetic (LI and SLI) of Charles Clenshaw, Frank Olver and Peter Turner is a scheme based on a generalized logarithm representation.\nTapered floating-point representation, which does not appear to be used in practice.\nSome simple rational numbers (e.g., 1/3 and 1/10) cannot be represented exactly in binary floating point, no matter what the precision is. Using a different radix allows one to represent some of them (e.g., 1/10 in decimal floating point), but the possibilities remain limited. Software packages that perform rational arithmetic represent numbers as fractions with integral numerator and denominator, and can therefore represent any rational number exactly. Such packages generally need to use \"bignum\" arithmetic for the individual integers.\nInterval arithmetic allows one to represent numbers as intervals and obtain guaranteed bounds on results. It is generally based on other arithmetics, in particular floating point.\nComputer algebra systems such as Mathematica, Maxima, and Maple can often handle irrational numbers like \n \n \n \n π\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\pi }\n \n or \n \n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt {3}}}\n \n in a completely \"formal\" way (symbolic computation), without dealing with a specific encoding of the significand. Such a program can evaluate expressions like \"\n \n \n \n sin\n ⁡\n (\n 3\n π\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sin(3\\pi )}\n \n\" exactly, because it is programmed to process the underlying mathematics directly, instead of using approximate values for each intermediate calculation.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IEEE 754 § History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754#History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quevedo_1917.jpg"},{"link_name":"Leonardo Torres Quevedo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo"},{"link_name":"Leonardo Torres Quevedo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Charles Babbage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage"},{"link_name":"Analytical Engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_engine"},{"link_name":"digits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_digit"},{"link_name":"typewriter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter"},{"link_name":"Electromechanical Arithmometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_Torres_y_Quevedo#Analytical_machines"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERandell19826,_11%E2%80%9313-18"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Konrad_Zuse_(1992).jpg"},{"link_name":"Konrad Zuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Zuse"},{"link_name":"Z3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_(computer)"},{"link_name":"Konrad Zuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Zuse"},{"link_name":"Z1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z1_(computer)"},{"link_name":"mechanical computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_computer"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rojas_1997-20"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rojas_2014-21"},{"link_name":"relay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relay"},{"link_name":"Z3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_(computer)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_1997_JVNL-22"},{"link_name":"von Neumann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_von_Neumann"},{"link_name":"IAS machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAS_machine"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_1997_JVNL-22"},{"link_name":"Z4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z4_(computer)"},{"link_name":"Model V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_V"},{"link_name":"decimal floating-point numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_floating_point"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Randell_1982_2-23"},{"link_name":"Pilot ACE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilot_ACE"},{"link_name":"National Physical Laboratory, UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory,_UK"},{"link_name":"English Electric DEUCE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Electric_DEUCE"},{"link_name":"IBM 704","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_704"},{"link_name":"biased exponent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponent_bias"},{"link_name":"scientific computation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_computation"},{"link_name":"Extensions for Scientific Computation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensions_for_Scientific_Computation"},{"link_name":"UNIVAC 1100/2200 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC_1100/2200_series"},{"link_name":"IBM 7094","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_7094"},{"link_name":"hexadecimal floating-point representations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_hexadecimal_floating-point"},{"link_name":"System/360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System/360"},{"link_name":"z/Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z/Architecture"},{"link_name":"IEEE 754","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754"},{"link_name":"word","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_(computer_architecture)"},{"link_name":"i8087","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8087"},{"link_name":"68000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/68000"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Kahan_2008.jpg"},{"link_name":"William Kahan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Kahan"},{"link_name":"IEEE 754","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754"},{"link_name":"William Kahan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Kahan"},{"link_name":"Turing Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_Award"},{"link_name":"Harold Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_S._Stone"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Severance_1998-24"},{"link_name":"endianness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness"},{"link_name":"exceptional conditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754#Exception_handling"},{"link_name":"divide by zero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_by_zero"}],"text":"See also: IEEE 754 § HistoryLeonardo Torres Quevedo, in 1914 published an analysis of floating point based on the analytical engineIn 1914, the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo published Essays on Automatics,[9] where he designed a special-purpose electromechanical calculator based on Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine and described a way to store floating-point numbers in a consistent manner. He stated that numbers will be stored in exponential format as n x 10\n \n \n \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle ^{m}}\n \n, and offered three rules by which consistent manipulation of floating-point numbers by machines could be implemented. For Torres, \"n will always be the same number of digits (e.g. six), the first digit of n will be of order of tenths, the second of hundredths, etc, and one will write each quantity in the form: n; m.\" The format he proposed shows the need for a fixed-sized significand as is presently used for floating-point data, fixing the location of the decimal point in the significand so that each representation was unique, and how to format such numbers by specifying a syntax to be used that could be entered through a typewriter, as was the case of his Electromechanical Arithmometer in 1920.[10][11][12]Konrad Zuse, architect of the Z3 computer, which uses a 22-bit binary floating-point representationIn 1938, Konrad Zuse of Berlin completed the Z1, the first binary, programmable mechanical computer;[13] it uses a 24-bit binary floating-point number representation with a 7-bit signed exponent, a 17-bit significand (including one implicit bit), and a sign bit.[14] The more reliable relay-based Z3, completed in 1941, has representations for both positive and negative infinities; in particular, it implements defined operations with infinity, such as \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n /\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ^{1}/_{\\infty }=0}\n \n, and it stops on undefined operations, such as \n \n \n \n 0\n ×\n ∞\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0\\times \\infty }\n \n.Zuse also proposed, but did not complete, carefully rounded floating-point arithmetic that includes \n \n \n \n ±\n ∞\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\pm \\infty }\n \n and NaN representations, anticipating features of the IEEE Standard by four decades.[15] In contrast, von Neumann recommended against floating-point numbers for the 1951 IAS machine, arguing that fixed-point arithmetic is preferable.[15]The first commercial computer with floating-point hardware was Zuse's Z4 computer, designed in 1942–1945. In 1946, Bell Laboratories introduced the Model V, which implemented decimal floating-point numbers.[16]The Pilot ACE has binary floating-point arithmetic, and it became operational in 1950 at National Physical Laboratory, UK. Thirty-three were later sold commercially as the English Electric DEUCE. The arithmetic is actually implemented in software, but with a one megahertz clock rate, the speed of floating-point and fixed-point operations in this machine were initially faster than those of many competing computers.The mass-produced IBM 704 followed in 1954; it introduced the use of a biased exponent. For many decades after that, floating-point hardware was typically an optional feature, and computers that had it were said to be \"scientific computers\", or to have \"scientific computation\" (SC) capability (see also Extensions for Scientific Computation (XSC)). It was not until the launch of the Intel i486 in 1989 that general-purpose personal computers had floating-point capability in hardware as a standard feature.The UNIVAC 1100/2200 series, introduced in 1962, supported two floating-point representations:Single precision: 36 bits, organized as a 1-bit sign, an 8-bit exponent, and a 27-bit significand.\nDouble precision: 72 bits, organized as a 1-bit sign, an 11-bit exponent, and a 60-bit significand.The IBM 7094, also introduced in 1962, supported single-precision and double-precision representations, but with no relation to the UNIVAC's representations. Indeed, in 1964, IBM introduced hexadecimal floating-point representations in its System/360 mainframes; these same representations are still available for use in modern z/Architecture systems. In 1998, IBM implemented IEEE-compatible binary floating-point arithmetic in its mainframes; in 2005, IBM also added IEEE-compatible decimal floating-point arithmetic.Initially, computers used many different representations for floating-point numbers. The lack of standardization at the mainframe level was an ongoing problem by the early 1970s for those writing and maintaining higher-level source code; these manufacturer floating-point standards differed in the word sizes, the representations, and the rounding behavior and general accuracy of operations. Floating-point compatibility across multiple computing systems was in desperate need of standardization by the early 1980s, leading to the creation of the IEEE 754 standard once the 32-bit (or 64-bit) word had become commonplace. This standard was significantly based on a proposal from Intel, which was designing the i8087 numerical coprocessor; Motorola, which was designing the 68000 around the same time, gave significant input as well.William Kahan, principal architect of the IEEE 754 floating-point standardIn 1989, mathematician and computer scientist William Kahan was honored with the Turing Award for being the primary architect behind this proposal; he was aided by his student Jerome Coonen and a visiting professor, Harold Stone.[17]Among the x86 innovations are these:A precisely specified floating-point representation at the bit-string level, so that all compliant computers interpret bit patterns the same way. This makes it possible to accurately and efficiently transfer floating-point numbers from one computer to another (after accounting for endianness).\nA precisely specified behavior for the arithmetic operations: A result is required to be produced as if infinitely precise arithmetic were used to yield a value that is then rounded according to specific rules. This means that a compliant computer program would always produce the same result when given a particular input, thus mitigating the almost mystical reputation that floating-point computation had developed for its hitherto seemingly non-deterministic behavior.\nThe ability of exceptional conditions (overflow, divide by zero, etc.) to propagate through a computation in a benign manner and then be handled by the software in a controlled fashion.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fixed-point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-point_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"double-precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-precision_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"positive and negative zeros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signed_zero"},{"link_name":"subnormal numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subnormal_number"}],"text":"A floating-point number consists of two fixed-point components, whose range depends exclusively on the number of bits or digits in their representation. Whereas components linearly depend on their range, the floating-point range linearly depends on the significand range and exponentially on the range of exponent component, which attaches outstandingly wider range to the number.On a typical computer system, a double-precision (64-bit) binary floating-point number has a coefficient of 53 bits (including 1 implied bit), an exponent of 11 bits, and 1 sign bit. Since 210 = 1024, the complete range of the positive normal floating-point numbers in this format is from 2−1022 ≈ 2 × 10−308 to approximately 21024 ≈ 2 × 10308.The number of normal floating-point numbers in a system (B, P, L, U) whereB is the base of the system,\nP is the precision of the significand (in base B),\nL is the smallest exponent of the system,\nU is the largest exponent of the system,is \n \n \n \n 2\n \n (\n \n B\n −\n 1\n \n )\n \n \n (\n \n B\n \n P\n −\n 1\n \n \n )\n \n \n (\n \n U\n −\n L\n +\n 1\n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2\\left(B-1\\right)\\left(B^{P-1}\\right)\\left(U-L+1\\right)}\n \n.There is a smallest positive normal floating-point number,Underflow level = UFL = \n \n \n \n \n B\n \n L\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle B^{L}}\n \n,which has a 1 as the leading digit and 0 for the remaining digits of the significand, and the smallest possible value for the exponent.There is a largest floating-point number,Overflow level = OFL = \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n 1\n −\n \n B\n \n −\n P\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n (\n \n B\n \n U\n +\n 1\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(1-B^{-P}\\right)\\left(B^{U+1}\\right)}\n \n,which has B − 1 as the value for each digit of the significand and the largest possible value for the exponent.In addition, there are representable values strictly between −UFL and UFL. Namely, positive and negative zeros, as well as subnormal numbers.","title":"Range of floating-point numbers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IEEE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers"},{"link_name":"IEEE 754","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754"},{"link_name":"revised in 2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754-2008_revision"},{"link_name":"IBM's own hexadecimal floating point format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_hexadecimal_floating_point"},{"link_name":"decimal floating point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_floating_point"},{"link_name":"Cray T90","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cray_T90"},{"link_name":"SV1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cray_SV1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Single precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-precision_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"type in the C language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_data_types#Basic_types"},{"link_name":"Double precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-precision_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"type in the C language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_data_types#Basic_types"},{"link_name":"Double extended","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_precision"},{"link_name":"C99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C99"},{"link_name":"C11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)"},{"link_name":"long double","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_double"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-C99-25"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MSVC-26"},{"link_name":"alignment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_structure_alignment"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GCC-27"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-float_128-28"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ARM_2013_AArch64-29"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ARM_2013_Compiler-30"},{"link_name":"round-off error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-off_error"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_2004-31"},{"link_name":"Decimal64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal64_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"decimal128","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal128_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"decimal32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal32_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"Quadruple precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadruple-precision_floating-point_format#IEEE_754_quadruple-precision_binary_floating-point_format:_binary128"},{"link_name":"Half precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-precision_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"Cg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cg_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OpenEXR-32"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OpenEXR-half-33"},{"link_name":"infinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinity"},{"link_name":"negative zero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_zero"},{"link_name":"NaNs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NaN"}],"text":"The IEEE standardized the computer representation for binary floating-point numbers in IEEE 754 (a.k.a. IEC 60559) in 1985. This first standard is followed by almost all modern machines. It was revised in 2008. IBM mainframes support IBM's own hexadecimal floating point format and IEEE 754-2008 decimal floating point in addition to the IEEE 754 binary format. The Cray T90 series had an IEEE version, but the SV1 still uses Cray floating-point format.[citation needed]The standard provides for many closely related formats, differing in only a few details. Five of these formats are called basic formats, and others are termed extended precision formats and extendable precision format. Three formats are especially widely used in computer hardware and languages:[citation needed]Single precision (binary32), usually used to represent the \"float\" type in the C language family. This is a binary format that occupies 32 bits (4 bytes) and its significand has a precision of 24 bits (about 7 decimal digits).\nDouble precision (binary64), usually used to represent the \"double\" type in the C language family. This is a binary format that occupies 64 bits (8 bytes) and its significand has a precision of 53 bits (about 16 decimal digits).\nDouble extended, also ambiguously called \"extended precision\" format. This is a binary format that occupies at least 79 bits (80 if the hidden/implicit bit rule is not used) and its significand has a precision of at least 64 bits (about 19 decimal digits). The C99 and C11 standards of the C language family, in their annex F (\"IEC 60559 floating-point arithmetic\"), recommend such an extended format to be provided as \"long double\".[18] A format satisfying the minimal requirements (64-bit significand precision, 15-bit exponent, thus fitting on 80 bits) is provided by the x86 architecture. Often on such processors, this format can be used with \"long double\", though extended precision is not available with MSVC.[19] For alignment purposes, many tools store this 80-bit value in a 96-bit or 128-bit space.[20][21] On other processors, \"long double\" may stand for a larger format, such as quadruple precision,[22] or just double precision, if any form of extended precision is not available.[23]Increasing the precision of the floating-point representation generally reduces the amount of accumulated round-off error caused by intermediate calculations.[24]\nOther IEEE formats include:Decimal64 and decimal128 floating-point formats. These formats (especially decimal128) are pervasive in financial transactions because, along with the decimal32 format, they allow correct decimal rounding.\nQuadruple precision (binary128). This is a binary format that occupies 128 bits (16 bytes) and its significand has a precision of 113 bits (about 34 decimal digits).\nHalf precision, also called binary16, a 16-bit floating-point value. It is being used in the NVIDIA Cg graphics language, and in the openEXR standard (where it actually predates the introduction in the IEEE 754 standard).[25][26]Any integer with absolute value less than 224 can be exactly represented in the single-precision format, and any integer with absolute value less than 253 can be exactly represented in the double-precision format. Furthermore, a wide range of powers of 2 times such a number can be represented. These properties are sometimes used for purely integer data, to get 53-bit integers on platforms that have double-precision floats but only 32-bit integers.The standard specifies some special values, and their representation: positive infinity (+∞), negative infinity (−∞), a negative zero (−0) distinct from ordinary (\"positive\") zero, and \"not a number\" values (NaNs).Comparison of floating-point numbers, as defined by the IEEE standard, is a bit different from usual integer comparison. Negative and positive zero compare equal, and every NaN compares unequal to every value, including itself. All finite floating-point numbers are strictly smaller than +∞ and strictly greater than −∞, and they are ordered in the same way as their values (in the set of real numbers).","title":"IEEE 754: floating point in modern computers "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"subnormal numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subnormal_numbers"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Babbage-34"},{"link_name":"hexadecimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal"},{"link_name":"32-bit floating point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-precision_floating-point_format"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Float_example.svg"},{"link_name":"64-bit (\"double\")","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-precision_floating-point_format"}],"sub_title":"Internal representation","text":"Floating-point numbers are typically packed into a computer datum as the sign bit, the exponent field, and the significand or mantissa, from left to right. For the IEEE 754 binary formats (basic and extended) which have extant hardware implementations, they are apportioned as follows:While the exponent can be positive or negative, in binary formats it is stored as an unsigned number that has a fixed \"bias\" added to it. Values of all 0s in this field are reserved for the zeros and subnormal numbers; values of all 1s are reserved for the infinities and NaNs. The exponent range for normal numbers is [−126, 127] for single precision, [−1022, 1023] for double, or [−16382, 16383] for quad. Normal numbers exclude subnormal values, zeros, infinities, and NaNs.In the IEEE binary interchange formats the leading 1 bit of a normalized significand is not actually stored in the computer datum. It is called the \"hidden\" or \"implicit\" bit. Because of this, the single-precision format actually has a significand with 24 bits of precision, the double-precision format has 53, and quad has 113.For example, it was shown above that π, rounded to 24 bits of precision, has:sign = 0 ; e = 1 ; s = 110010010000111111011011 (including the hidden bit)The sum of the exponent bias (127) and the exponent (1) is 128, so this is represented in the single-precision format as0 10000000 10010010000111111011011 (excluding the hidden bit) = 40490FDB[27] as a hexadecimal number.An example of a layout for 32-bit floating point isand the 64-bit (\"double\") layout is similar.","title":"IEEE 754: floating point in modern computers "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IEEE 754","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Binary Format (MBF)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Binary_Format"},{"link_name":"Altair BASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altair_BASIC"},{"link_name":"TRS-80 LEVEL II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRS-80"},{"link_name":"CP/M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP/M"},{"link_name":"MBASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBASIC"},{"link_name":"IBM PC 5150","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC_5150"},{"link_name":"BASICA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASICA"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS"},{"link_name":"GW-BASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GW-BASIC"},{"link_name":"QuickBASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QuickBASIC"},{"link_name":"Intel 8080","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8080"},{"link_name":"Monte Davidoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Davidoff"},{"link_name":"Bill Gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Gates"},{"link_name":"MITS Altair 8800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MITS_Altair_8800"},{"link_name":"MITS Altair 8800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MITS_Altair_8800"},{"link_name":"MOS 6502","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_6502"},{"link_name":"Apple //","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_//"},{"link_name":"Commodore PET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_PET"},{"link_name":"Atari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari"},{"link_name":"Motorola 6800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_6800"},{"link_name":"Motorola 6809","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_6809"},{"link_name":"TRS-80 Color Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRS-80_Color_Computer"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Binary Format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Binary_Format"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Borland_1994_MBF-35"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Steil_2008_6502-36"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Steil_2008_6502-36"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Borland_1994_MBF-35"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_2006_KB35826-37"},{"link_name":"Bfloat16 format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bfloat16_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"IEEE 754 half-precision format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-precision_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"IEEE 754 single-precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-precision_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"machine learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kharya_2020-38"},{"link_name":"Nvidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia"},{"link_name":"GPUs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kharya_2020-38"},{"link_name":"Hopper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopper_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NVIDIA_Hopper-39"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Micikevicius_2022-40"}],"text":"In addition to the widely used IEEE 754 standard formats, other floating-point formats are used, or have been used, in certain domain-specific areas.The Microsoft Binary Format (MBF) was developed for the Microsoft BASIC language products, including Microsoft's first ever product the Altair BASIC (1975), TRS-80 LEVEL II, CP/M's MBASIC, IBM PC 5150's BASICA, MS-DOS's GW-BASIC and QuickBASIC prior to version 4.00. QuickBASIC version 4.00 and 4.50 switched to the IEEE 754-1985 format but can revert to the MBF format using the /MBF command option. MBF was designed and developed on a simulated Intel 8080 by Monte Davidoff, a dormmate of Bill Gates, during spring of 1975 for the MITS Altair 8800. The initial release of July 1975 supported a single-precision (32 bits) format due to cost of the MITS Altair 8800 4-kilobytes memory. In December 1975, the 8-kilobytes version added a double-precision (64 bits) format. A single-precision (40 bits) variant format was adopted for other CPU's, notably the MOS 6502 (Apple //, Commodore PET, Atari), Motorola 6800 (MITS Altair 680) and Motorola 6809 (TRS-80 Color Computer). All Microsoft language products from 1975 through 1987 used the Microsoft Binary Format until Microsoft adopted the IEEE-754 standard format in all its products starting in 1988 to their current releases. MBF consists of the MBF single-precision format (32 bits, \"6-digit BASIC\"),[28][29] the MBF extended-precision format (40 bits, \"9-digit BASIC\"),[29] and the MBF double-precision format (64 bits);[28][30] each of them is represented with an 8-bit exponent, followed by a sign bit, followed by a significand of respectively 23, 31, and 55 bits.\nThe Bfloat16 format requires the same amount of memory (16 bits) as the IEEE 754 half-precision format, but allocates 8 bits to the exponent instead of 5, thus providing the same range as a IEEE 754 single-precision number. The tradeoff is a reduced precision, as the trailing significand field is reduced from 10 to 7 bits. This format is mainly used in the training of machine learning models, where range is more valuable than precision. Many machine learning accelerators provide hardware support for this format.\nThe TensorFloat-32[31] format combines the 8 bits of exponent of the Bfloat16 with the 10 bits of trailing significand field of half-precision formats, resulting in a size of 19 bits. This format was introduced by Nvidia, which provides hardware support for it in the Tensor Cores of its GPUs based on the Nvidia Ampere architecture. The drawback of this format is its size, which is not a power of 2. However, according to Nvidia, this format should only be used internally by hardware to speed up computations, while inputs and outputs should be stored in the 32-bit single-precision IEEE 754 format.[31]\nThe Hopper architecture GPUs provide two FP8 formats: one with the same numerical range as half-precision (E5M2) and one with higher precision, but less range (E4M3).[32][33]","title":"Other notable floating-point formats"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rational numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_number"},{"link_name":"π","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi"},{"link_name":"non-terminating digits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeating_decimal"},{"link_name":"π","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi"},{"link_name":"rounding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rounding"},{"link_name":"discretization error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discretization_error"},{"link_name":"machine epsilon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_epsilon"},{"link_name":"unit in the last place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_in_the_last_place"}],"text":"By their nature, all numbers expressed in floating-point format are rational numbers with a terminating expansion in the relevant base (for example, a terminating decimal expansion in base-10, or a terminating binary expansion in base-2). Irrational numbers, such as π or √2, or non-terminating rational numbers, must be approximated. The number of digits (or bits) of precision also limits the set of rational numbers that can be represented exactly. For example, the decimal number 123456789 cannot be exactly represented if only eight decimal digits of precision are available (it would be rounded to one of the two straddling representable values, 12345678 × 101 or 12345679 × 101), the same applies to non-terminating digits (.5 to be rounded to either .55555555 or .55555556).When a number is represented in some format (such as a character string) which is not a native floating-point representation supported in a computer implementation, then it will require a conversion before it can be used in that implementation. If the number can be represented exactly in the floating-point format then the conversion is exact. If there is not an exact representation then the conversion requires a choice of which floating-point number to use to represent the original value. The representation chosen will have a different value from the original, and the value thus adjusted is called the rounded value.Whether or not a rational number has a terminating expansion depends on the base. For example, in base-10 the number 1/2 has a terminating expansion (0.5) while the number 1/3 does not (0.333...). In base-2 only rationals with denominators that are powers of 2 (such as 1/2 or 3/16) are terminating. Any rational with a denominator that has a prime factor other than 2 will have an infinite binary expansion. This means that numbers that appear to be short and exact when written in decimal format may need to be approximated when converted to binary floating-point. For example, the decimal number 0.1 is not representable in binary floating-point of any finite precision; the exact binary representation would have a \"1100\" sequence continuing endlessly:e = −4; s = 1100110011001100110011001100110011...,where, as previously, s is the significand and e is the exponent.When rounded to 24 bits this becomese = −4; s = 110011001100110011001101,which is actually 0.100000001490116119384765625 in decimal.As a further example, the real number π, represented in binary as an infinite sequence of bits is11.0010010000111111011010101000100010000101101000110000100011010011...but is11.0010010000111111011011when approximated by rounding to a precision of 24 bits.In binary single-precision floating-point, this is represented as s = 1.10010010000111111011011 with e = 1.\nThis has a decimal value of3.1415927410125732421875,whereas a more accurate approximation of the true value of π is3.14159265358979323846264338327950...The result of rounding differs from the true value by about 0.03 parts per million, and matches the decimal representation of π in the first 7 digits. The difference is the discretization error and is limited by the machine epsilon.The arithmetical difference between two consecutive representable floating-point numbers which have the same exponent is called a unit in the last place (ULP). For example, if there is no representable number lying between the representable numbers 1.45a70c22hex and 1.45a70c24hex, the ULP is 2×16−8, or 2−31. For numbers with a base-2 exponent part of 0, i.e. numbers with an absolute value higher than or equal to 1 but lower than 2, an ULP is exactly 2−23 or about 10−7 in single precision, and exactly 2−53 or about 10−16 in double precision. The mandated behavior of IEEE-compliant hardware is that the result be within one-half of a ULP.","title":"Representable numbers, conversion and rounding "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rounding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rounding"},{"link_name":"truncation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truncation"},{"link_name":"round to nearest, ties to even","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rounding"},{"link_name":"[nb 8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_1-41"},{"link_name":"interval arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interval_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_2006_Mindless-42"}],"sub_title":"Rounding modes","text":"Rounding is used when the exact result of a floating-point operation (or a conversion to floating-point format) would need more digits than there are digits in the significand. IEEE 754 requires correct rounding: that is, the rounded result is as if infinitely precise arithmetic was used to compute the value and then rounded (although in implementation only three extra bits are needed to ensure this). There are several different rounding schemes (or rounding modes). Historically, truncation was the typical approach. Since the introduction of IEEE 754, the default method (round to nearest, ties to even, sometimes called Banker's Rounding) is more commonly used. This method rounds the ideal (infinitely precise) result of an arithmetic operation to the nearest representable value, and gives that representation as the result.[nb 8] In the case of a tie, the value that would make the significand end in an even digit is chosen. The IEEE 754 standard requires the same rounding to be applied to all fundamental algebraic operations, including square root and conversions, when there is a numeric (non-NaN) result. It means that the results of IEEE 754 operations are completely determined in all bits of the result, except for the representation of NaNs. (\"Library\" functions such as cosine and log are not mandated.)Alternative rounding options are also available. IEEE 754 specifies the following rounding modes:round to nearest, where ties round to the nearest even digit in the required position (the default and by far the most common mode)\nround to nearest, where ties round away from zero (optional for binary floating-point and commonly used in decimal)\nround up (toward +∞; negative results thus round toward zero)\nround down (toward −∞; negative results thus round away from zero)\nround toward zero (truncation; it is similar to the common behavior of float-to-integer conversions, which convert −3.9 to −3 and 3.9 to 3)Alternative modes are useful when the amount of error being introduced must be bounded. Applications that require a bounded error are multi-precision floating-point, and interval arithmetic.\nThe alternative rounding modes are also useful in diagnosing numerical instability: if the results of a subroutine vary substantially between rounding to + and − infinity then it is likely numerically unstable and affected by round-off error.[34]","title":"Representable numbers, conversion and rounding "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gay_1990-43"},{"link_name":"bignums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bignum"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Loitsch_2010-44"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mazong-45"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Adams_2018-46"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Giulietti-47"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abolz-48"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-double_conversion_2020-49"}],"sub_title":"Binary-to-decimal conversion with minimal number of digits","text":"Converting a double-precision binary floating-point number to a decimal string is a common operation, but an algorithm producing results that are both accurate and minimal did not appear in print until 1990, with Steele and White's Dragon4. Some of the improvements since then include:David M. Gay's dtoa.c, a practical open-source implementation of many ideas in Dragon4.[35]\nGrisu3, with a 4× speedup as it removes the use of bignums. Must be used with a fallback, as it fails for ~0.5% of cases.[36]\nErrol3, an always-succeeding algorithm similar to, but slower than, Grisu3. Apparently not as good as an early-terminating Grisu with fallback.[37]\nRyū, an always-succeeding algorithm that is faster and simpler than Grisu3.[38]\nSchubfach, an always-succeeding algorithm that is based on a similar idea to Ryū, developed almost simultaneously and independently.[39] Performs better than Ryū and Grisu3 in certain benchmarks.[40]Many modern language runtimes use Grisu3 with a Dragon4 fallback.[41]","title":"Representable numbers, conversion and rounding "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gay_1990-43"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lemire_2021-50"}],"sub_title":"Decimal-to-binary conversion","text":"The problem of parsing a decimal string into a binary FP representation is complex, with an accurate parser not appearing until Clinger's 1990 work (implemented in dtoa.c).[35] Further work has likewise progressed in the direction of faster parsing.[42]","title":"Representable numbers, conversion and rounding "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"radix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radix"},{"link_name":"radix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radix"}],"text":"For ease of presentation and understanding, decimal radix with 7 digit precision will be used in the examples, as in the IEEE 754 decimal32 format. The fundamental principles are the same in any radix or precision, except that normalization is optional (it does not affect the numerical value of the result). Here, s denotes the significand and e denotes the exponent.","title":"Floating-point operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"round-off error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-off_error"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Goldberg_1991-51"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Patterson-Hennessy_2014-52"},{"link_name":"Sterbenz lemma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterbenz_lemma"},{"link_name":"gradual underflow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradual_underflow"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Goldberg_1991-51"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sierra_1962-53"},{"link_name":"cancellation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophic_cancellation"},{"link_name":"numerical analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysis"},{"link_name":"Accuracy problems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Accuracy_problems"}],"sub_title":"Addition and subtraction","text":"A simple method to add floating-point numbers is to first represent them with the same exponent. In the example below, the second number is shifted right by three digits, and one then proceeds with the usual addition method:123456.7 = 1.234567 × 10^5\n 101.7654 = 1.017654 × 10^2 = 0.001017654 × 10^5Hence:\n 123456.7 + 101.7654 = (1.234567 × 10^5) + (1.017654 × 10^2)\n = (1.234567 × 10^5) + (0.001017654 × 10^5)\n = (1.234567 + 0.001017654) × 10^5\n = 1.235584654 × 10^5In detail:e=5; s=1.234567 (123456.7)\n+ e=2; s=1.017654 (101.7654)e=5; s=1.234567\n+ e=5; s=0.001017654 (after shifting)\n--------------------\n e=5; s=1.235584654 (true sum: 123558.4654)This is the true result, the exact sum of the operands. It will be rounded to seven digits and then normalized if necessary. The final result ise=5; s=1.235585 (final sum: 123558.5)The lowest three digits of the second operand (654) are essentially lost. This is round-off error. In extreme cases, the sum of two non-zero numbers may be equal to one of them:e=5; s=1.234567\n+ e=−3; s=9.876543e=5; s=1.234567\n+ e=5; s=0.00000009876543 (after shifting)\n----------------------\n e=5; s=1.23456709876543 (true sum)\n e=5; s=1.234567 (after rounding and normalization)In the above conceptual examples it would appear that a large number of extra digits would need to be provided by the adder to ensure correct rounding; however, for binary addition or subtraction using careful implementation techniques only a guard bit, a rounding bit and one extra sticky bit need to be carried beyond the precision of the operands.[43][44]: 218–220Another problem of loss of significance occurs when approximations to two nearly equal numbers are subtracted. In the following example e = 5; s = 1.234571 and e = 5; s = 1.234567 are approximations to the rationals 123457.1467 and 123456.659.e=5; s=1.234571\n− e=5; s=1.234567\n----------------\n e=5; s=0.000004\n e=−1; s=4.000000 (after rounding and normalization)The floating-point difference is computed exactly because the numbers are close—the Sterbenz lemma guarantees this, even in case of underflow when gradual underflow is supported. Despite this, the difference of the original numbers is e = −1; s = 4.877000, which differs more than 20% from the difference e = −1; s = 4.000000 of the approximations. In extreme cases, all significant digits of precision can be lost.[43][45] This cancellation illustrates the danger in assuming that all of the digits of a computed result are meaningful. Dealing with the consequences of these errors is a topic in numerical analysis; see also Accuracy problems.","title":"Floating-point operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Goldberg_1991-51"},{"link_name":"Booth's multiplication algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booth%27s_multiplication_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Division algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_algorithm"},{"link_name":"[nb 9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_2-54"},{"link_name":"Horner method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horner_scheme#Floating_point_multiplication_and_division"}],"sub_title":"Multiplication and division","text":"To multiply, the significands are multiplied while the exponents are added, and the result is rounded and normalized.e=3; s=4.734612\n× e=5; s=5.417242\n-----------------------\n e=8; s=25.648538980104 (true product)\n e=8; s=25.64854 (after rounding)\n e=9; s=2.564854 (after normalization)Similarly, division is accomplished by subtracting the divisor's exponent from the dividend's exponent, and dividing the dividend's significand by the divisor's significand.There are no cancellation or absorption problems with multiplication or division, though small errors may accumulate as operations are performed in succession.[43] In practice, the way these operations are carried out in digital logic can be quite complex (see Booth's multiplication algorithm and Division algorithm).[nb 9]\nFor a fast, simple method, see the Horner method.","title":"Floating-point operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"scientific notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_notation"},{"link_name":"C programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"IEEE 754","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754"},{"link_name":"hexadecimal literal syntax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754#Hexadecimal_literals"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"JavaScript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript"},{"link_name":"Haskell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haskell_(programming_language)"}],"sub_title":"Literal syntax","text":"Literals for floating-point numbers depend on languages. They typically use e or E to denote scientific notation. The C programming language and the IEEE 754 standard also define a hexadecimal literal syntax with a base-2 exponent instead of 10. In languages like C, when the decimal exponent is omitted, a decimal point is needed to differentiate them from integers. Other languages do not have an integer type (such as JavaScript), or allow overloading of numeric types (such as Haskell). In these cases, digit strings such as 123 may also be floating-point literals.Examples of floating-point literals are:99.9\n-5000.12\n6.02e23\n-3e-45\n0x1.fffffep+127 in C and IEEE 754","title":"Floating-point operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IEEE 754 § Exception handling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754#Exception_handling"},{"link_name":"division by zero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_by_zero"},{"link_name":"square root","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root"},{"link_name":"complex numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"underflow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_underflow"},{"link_name":"denormalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subnormal_number"},{"link_name":"trap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trap_(computing)"},{"link_name":"portable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porting"},{"link_name":"exception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exception_handling"},{"link_name":"C99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C99"},{"link_name":"means","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrency_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"C11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)"},{"link_name":"thread-local storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread-local_storage"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Resistors_in_Parallel.svg"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_1997_Status-55"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Intel-56"},{"link_name":"IEEE 754 design rationale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_point#IEEE_754:_floating_point_in_modern_computers"},{"link_name":"root-finding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_of_a_function"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_1997_Status-55"}],"text":"Further information: IEEE 754 § Exception handlingFloating-point computation in a computer can run into three kinds of problems:An operation can be mathematically undefined, such as ∞/∞, or division by zero.\nAn operation can be legal in principle, but not supported by the specific format, for example, calculating the square root of −1 or the inverse sine of 2 (both of which result in complex numbers).\nAn operation can be legal in principle, but the result can be impossible to represent in the specified format, because the exponent is too large or too small to encode in the exponent field. Such an event is called an overflow (exponent too large), underflow (exponent too small) or denormalization (precision loss).Prior to the IEEE standard, such conditions usually caused the program to terminate, or triggered some kind of trap that the programmer might be able to catch. How this worked was system-dependent, meaning that floating-point programs were not portable. (The term \"exception\" as used in IEEE 754 is a general term meaning an exceptional condition, which is not necessarily an error, and is a different usage to that typically defined in programming languages such as a C++ or Java, in which an \"exception\" is an alternative flow of control, closer to what is termed a \"trap\" in IEEE 754 terminology.)Here, the required default method of handling exceptions according to IEEE 754 is discussed (the IEEE 754 optional trapping and other \"alternate exception handling\" modes are not discussed). Arithmetic exceptions are (by default) required to be recorded in \"sticky\" status flag bits. That they are \"sticky\" means that they are not reset by the next (arithmetic) operation, but stay set until explicitly reset. The use of \"sticky\" flags thus allows for testing of exceptional conditions to be delayed until after a full floating-point expression or subroutine: without them exceptional conditions that could not be otherwise ignored would require explicit testing immediately after every floating-point operation. By default, an operation always returns a result according to specification without interrupting computation. For instance, 1/0 returns +∞, while also setting the divide-by-zero flag bit (this default of ∞ is designed to often return a finite result when used in subsequent operations and so be safely ignored).The original IEEE 754 standard, however, failed to recommend operations to handle such sets of arithmetic exception flag bits. So while these were implemented in hardware, initially programming language implementations typically did not provide a means to access them (apart from assembler). Over time some programming language standards (e.g., C99/C11 and Fortran) have been updated to specify methods to access and change status flag bits. The 2008 version of the IEEE 754 standard now specifies a few operations for accessing and handling the arithmetic flag bits. The programming model is based on a single thread of execution and use of them by multiple threads has to be handled by a means outside of the standard (e.g. C11 specifies that the flags have thread-local storage).IEEE 754 specifies five arithmetic exceptions that are to be recorded in the status flags (\"sticky bits\"):inexact, set if the rounded (and returned) value is different from the mathematically exact result of the operation.\nunderflow, set if the rounded value is tiny (as specified in IEEE 754) and inexact (or maybe limited to if it has denormalization loss, as per the 1985 version of IEEE 754), returning a subnormal value including the zeros.\noverflow, set if the absolute value of the rounded value is too large to be represented. An infinity or maximal finite value is returned, depending on which rounding is used.\ndivide-by-zero, set if the result is infinite given finite operands, returning an infinity, either +∞ or −∞.\ninvalid, set if a real-valued result cannot be returned e.g. sqrt(−1) or 0/0, returning a quiet NaN.Fig. 1: resistances in parallel, with total resistance \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n t\n o\n t\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{tot}}The default return value for each of the exceptions is designed to give the correct result in the majority of cases such that the exceptions can be ignored in the majority of codes. inexact returns a correctly rounded result, and underflow returns a value less than or equal to the smallest positive normal number in magnitude and can almost always be ignored.[46] divide-by-zero returns infinity exactly, which will typically then divide a finite number and so give zero, or else will give an invalid exception subsequently if not, and so can also typically be ignored. For example, the effective resistance of n resistors in parallel (see fig. 1) is given by \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n tot\n \n \n =\n 1\n \n /\n \n (\n 1\n \n /\n \n \n R\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n 1\n \n /\n \n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n ⋯\n +\n 1\n \n /\n \n \n R\n \n n\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{\\text{tot}}=1/(1/R_{1}+1/R_{2}+\\cdots +1/R_{n})}\n \n. If a short-circuit develops with \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{1}}\n \n set to 0, \n \n \n \n 1\n \n /\n \n \n R\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1/R_{1}}\n \n will return +infinity which will give a final \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n t\n o\n t\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{tot}}\n \n of 0, as expected[47] (see the continued fraction example of IEEE 754 design rationale for another example).Overflow and invalid exceptions can typically not be ignored, but do not necessarily represent errors: for example, a root-finding routine, as part of its normal operation, may evaluate a passed-in function at values outside of its domain, returning NaN and an invalid exception flag to be ignored until finding a useful start point.[46]","title":"Dealing with exceptional cases "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"[nb 10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_3-57"},{"link_name":"commutative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative"},{"link_name":"associative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associative_property"},{"link_name":"distributive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_property"},{"link_name":"Cancellation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophic_cancellation"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harris-58"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sierra_1962-53"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Muller_2010-1"},{"link_name":"derivative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative"},{"link_name":"Floor and ceiling functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floor_and_ceiling_functions"},{"link_name":"subnormal number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subnormal_number"},{"link_name":"safe division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_by_zero#Computer_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Barker-59"}],"text":"The fact that floating-point numbers cannot accurately represent all real numbers, and that floating-point operations cannot accurately represent true arithmetic operations, leads to many surprising situations. This is related to the finite precision with which computers generally represent numbers.For example, the decimal numbers 0.1 and 0.01 cannot be represented exactly as binary floating-point numbers. In the IEEE 754 binary32 format with its 24-bit significand, the result of attempting to square the approximation to 0.1 is neither 0.01 nor the representable number closest to it. The decimal number 0.1 is represented in binary as e = −4; s = 110011001100110011001101, which is0.100000001490116119384765625 exactly.Squaring this number gives0.010000000298023226097399174250313080847263336181640625 exactly.Squaring it with rounding to the 24-bit precision gives0.010000000707805156707763671875 exactly.But the representable number closest to 0.01 is0.009999999776482582092285156250 exactly.Also, the non-representability of π (and π/2) means that an attempted computation of tan(π/2) will not yield a result of infinity, nor will it even overflow in the usual floating-point formats (assuming an accurate implementation of tan). It is simply not possible for standard floating-point hardware to attempt to compute tan(π/2), because π/2 cannot be represented exactly. This computation in C:/* Enough digits to be sure we get the correct approximation. */\ndouble pi = 3.1415926535897932384626433832795;\ndouble z = tan(pi/2.0);will give a result of 16331239353195370.0. In single precision (using the tanf function), the result will be −22877332.0.By the same token, an attempted computation of sin(π) will not yield zero. The result will be (approximately) 0.1225×10−15 in double precision, or −0.8742×10−7 in single precision.[nb 10]While floating-point addition and multiplication are both commutative (a + b = b + a and a × b = b × a), they are not necessarily associative. That is, (a + b) + c is not necessarily equal to a + (b + c). Using 7-digit significand decimal arithmetic:a = 1234.567, b = 45.67834, c = 0.0004(a + b) + c:\n 1234.567 (a)\n + 45.67834 (b)\n ____________\n 1280.24534 rounds to 1280.2451280.245 (a + b)\n + 0.0004 (c)\n ____________\n 1280.2454 rounds to 1280.245 ← (a + b) + ca + (b + c):\n 45.67834 (b)\n + 0.0004 (c)\n ____________\n 45.678741234.567 (a)\n + 45.67874 (b + c)\n ____________\n 1280.24574 rounds to 1280.246 ← a + (b + c)They are also not necessarily distributive. That is, (a + b) × c may not be the same as a × c + b × c:1234.567 × 3.333333 = 4115.223\n 1.234567 × 3.333333 = 4.115223\n 4115.223 + 4.115223 = 4119.338\n but\n 1234.567 + 1.234567 = 1235.802\n 1235.802 × 3.333333 = 4119.340In addition to loss of significance, inability to represent numbers such as π and 0.1 exactly, and other slight inaccuracies, the following phenomena may occur:Cancellation: subtraction of nearly equal operands may cause extreme loss of accuracy.[48][45] When we subtract two almost equal numbers we set the most significant digits to zero, leaving ourselves with just the insignificant, and most erroneous, digits.[1]: 124 For example, when determining a derivative of a function the following formula is used:\n\n \n \n \n Q\n (\n h\n )\n =\n \n \n \n f\n (\n a\n +\n h\n )\n −\n f\n (\n a\n )\n \n h\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Q(h)={\\frac {f(a+h)-f(a)}{h}}.}\n \n\n\nIntuitively one would want an h very close to zero; however, when using floating-point operations, the smallest number will not give the best approximation of a derivative. As h grows smaller, the difference between f(a + h) and f(a) grows smaller, cancelling out the most significant and least erroneous digits and making the most erroneous digits more important. As a result the smallest number of h possible will give a more erroneous approximation of a derivative than a somewhat larger number. This is perhaps the most common and serious accuracy problem.Conversions to integer are not intuitive: converting (63.0/9.0) to integer yields 7, but converting (0.63/0.09) may yield 6. This is because conversions generally truncate rather than round. Floor and ceiling functions may produce answers which are off by one from the intuitively expected value.Limited exponent range: results might overflow yielding infinity, or underflow yielding a subnormal number or zero. In these cases precision will be lost.Testing for safe division is problematic: Checking that the divisor is not zero does not guarantee that a division will not overflow.Testing for equality is problematic. Two computational sequences that are mathematically equal may well produce different floating-point values.[49]","title":"Accuracy problems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"loss of significance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance"},{"link_name":"MIM-104 Patriot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIM-104_Patriot"},{"link_name":"prevented it from intercepting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIM-104_Patriot#Failure_at_Dhahran"},{"link_name":"Scud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Hussein_(missile)"},{"link_name":"Dhahran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhahran"},{"link_name":"Saudi Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"14th Quartermaster Detachment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14th_Quartermaster_Detachment"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GAO_report_IMTEC_92-26-60"}],"sub_title":"Incidents","text":"On 25 February 1991, a loss of significance in a MIM-104 Patriot missile battery prevented it from intercepting an incoming Scud missile in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, contributing to the death of 28 soldiers from the U.S. Army's 14th Quartermaster Detachment.[50]","title":"Accuracy problems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"backward error analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_analysis_(mathematics)#Error_analysis_in_numerical_modeling"},{"link_name":"machine epsilon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_epsilon"},{"link_name":"relative error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_error"},{"link_name":"James H. Wilkinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_H._Wilkinson"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RalstonReilly2003-61"},{"link_name":"backward stable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_stability#Forward,_backward,_and_mixed_stability"},{"link_name":"condition number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condition_number"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Einarsson_2005-62"},{"link_name":"numerical linear algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_linear_algebra"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Higham_2002-63"}],"sub_title":"Machine precision and backward error analysis","text":"Machine precision is a quantity that characterizes the accuracy of a floating-point system, and is used in backward error analysis of floating-point algorithms. It is also known as unit roundoff or machine epsilon. Usually denoted Εmach, its value depends on the particular rounding being used.With rounding to zero,E\n \n \n mach\n \n \n =\n \n B\n \n 1\n −\n P\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathrm {E} _{\\text{mach}}=B^{1-P},\\,}E\n \n \n mach\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n B\n \n 1\n −\n P\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathrm {E} _{\\text{mach}}={\\tfrac {1}{2}}B^{1-P},}BPBThis is important since it bounds the relative error in representing any non-zero real number x within the normalized range of a floating-point system:\|\n \n \n \n fl\n ⁡\n (\n x\n )\n −\n x\n \n x\n \n \n \|\n \n ≤\n \n \n E\n \n \n mach\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left\|{\\frac {\\operatorname {fl} (x)-x}{x}}\\right\|\\leq \\mathrm {E} _{\\text{mach}}.}Backward error analysis, the theory of which was developed and popularized by James H. Wilkinson, can be used to establish that an algorithm implementing a numerical function is numerically stable.[51] The basic approach is to show that although the calculated result, due to roundoff errors, will not be exactly correct, it is the exact solution to a nearby problem with slightly perturbed input data. If the perturbation required is small, on the order of the uncertainty in the input data, then the results are in some sense as accurate as the data \"deserves\". The algorithm is then defined as backward stable. Stability is a measure of the sensitivity to rounding errors of a given numerical procedure; by contrast, the condition number of a function for a given problem indicates the inherent sensitivity of the function to small perturbations in its input and is independent of the implementation used to solve the problem.[52]As a trivial example, consider a simple expression giving the inner product of (length two) vectors \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n and \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n, thenfl\n ⁡\n (\n x\n ⋅\n y\n )\n \n \n \n =\n fl\n ⁡\n \n \n (\n \n \n fl\n ⁡\n (\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ⋅\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n +\n fl\n ⁡\n (\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n ⋅\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n )\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n where \n \n fl\n ⁡\n (\n )\n \n indicates correctly rounded floating-point arithmetic\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n fl\n ⁡\n \n \n (\n \n \n (\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ⋅\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n (\n 1\n +\n \n δ\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n +\n (\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n ⋅\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n (\n 1\n +\n \n δ\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n )\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n where \n \n \n δ\n \n n\n \n \n ≤\n \n \n E\n \n \n mach\n \n \n ,\n \n from above\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n (\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ⋅\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n (\n 1\n +\n \n δ\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n +\n (\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n ⋅\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n (\n 1\n +\n \n δ\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n )\n \n \n (\n 1\n +\n \n δ\n \n 3\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n (\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ⋅\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n (\n 1\n +\n \n δ\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n (\n 1\n +\n \n δ\n \n 3\n \n \n )\n +\n (\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n ⋅\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n (\n 1\n +\n \n δ\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n (\n 1\n +\n \n δ\n \n 3\n \n \n )\n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\operatorname {fl} (x\\cdot y)&=\\operatorname {fl} {\\big (}\\operatorname {fl} (x_{1}\\cdot y_{1})+\\operatorname {fl} (x_{2}\\cdot y_{2}){\\big )},&&{\\text{ where }}\\operatorname {fl} (){\\text{ indicates correctly rounded floating-point arithmetic}}\\\\&=\\operatorname {fl} {\\big (}(x_{1}\\cdot y_{1})(1+\\delta _{1})+(x_{2}\\cdot y_{2})(1+\\delta _{2}){\\big )},&&{\\text{ where }}\\delta _{n}\\leq \\mathrm {E} _{\\text{mach}},{\\text{ from above}}\\\\&={\\big (}(x_{1}\\cdot y_{1})(1+\\delta _{1})+(x_{2}\\cdot y_{2})(1+\\delta _{2}){\\big )}(1+\\delta _{3})\\\\&=(x_{1}\\cdot y_{1})(1+\\delta _{1})(1+\\delta _{3})+(x_{2}\\cdot y_{2})(1+\\delta _{2})(1+\\delta _{3}),\\end{aligned}}}fl\n ⁡\n (\n x\n ⋅\n y\n )\n =\n \n \n \n x\n ^\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n y\n ^\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {fl} (x\\cdot y)={\\hat {x}}\\cdot {\\hat {y}},}wherex\n ^\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n 1\n +\n \n δ\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n ;\n \n \n \n \n \n \n x\n ^\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n 1\n +\n \n δ\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n ;\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n y\n ^\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n 1\n +\n \n δ\n \n 3\n \n \n )\n ;\n \n \n \n \n \n \n y\n ^\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n 1\n +\n \n δ\n \n 3\n \n \n )\n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}{\\hat {x}}_{1}&=x_{1}(1+\\delta _{1});&{\\hat {x}}_{2}&=x_{2}(1+\\delta _{2});\\\\{\\hat {y}}_{1}&=y_{1}(1+\\delta _{3});&{\\hat {y}}_{2}&=y_{2}(1+\\delta _{3}),\\\\\\end{aligned}}}whereδ\n \n n\n \n \n ≤\n \n \n E\n \n \n mach\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\delta _{n}\\leq \\mathrm {E} _{\\text{mach}}}by definition, which is the sum of two slightly perturbed (on the order of Εmach) input data, and so is backward stable. For more realistic examples in numerical linear algebra, see Higham 2002[53] and other references below.","title":"Accuracy problems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ULP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_in_the_last_place"},{"link_name":"ill-conditioned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condition_number"},{"link_name":"numerically unstable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_stability"},{"link_name":"numerical analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysis"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OliveiraStewart_2006-64"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_2005_ARITH17-65"},{"link_name":"IEEE 754 quadruple precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadruple-precision_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"extended precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_precision"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_2011_Debug-66"},{"link_name":"[nb 11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_4-67"},{"link_name":"[nb 12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_5-68"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_2001_JavaHurt-69"},{"link_name":"C99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C99"},{"link_name":"[nb 13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_6-70"},{"link_name":"compiler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Higham_2002-63"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_2000_Marketing-71"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_2000_Marketing-71"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_1981_WhyIEEE-72"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_2001_LN-73"},{"link_name":"proton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_2005_ARITH17-65"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_2000_Marketing-71"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Speleotrove_2012-74"},{"link_name":"C#","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"IEEE 754-2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754-2008"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Christiansen_Perl-75"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Higham_2002-63"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_2000_Marketing-71"},{"link_name":"computational geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_geometry"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shewchuk-76"},{"link_name":"matrix inversion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_inversion"},{"link_name":"eigenvector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenvector"},{"link_name":"iterative refinement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iterative_refinement"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kahan_1997_Cantilever-77"},{"link_name":"scientific computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_science"},{"link_name":"Kahan summation algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kahan_summation_algorithm"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Higham_2002-63"},{"link_name":"Archimedes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes"},{"link_name":"numerical analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysis"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[nb 14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_7-78"},{"link_name":"significant digits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significant_digit"}],"sub_title":"Minimizing the effect of accuracy problems","text":"Although individual arithmetic operations of IEEE 754 are guaranteed accurate to within half a ULP, more complicated formulae can suffer from larger errors for a variety of reasons. The loss of accuracy can be substantial if a problem or its data are ill-conditioned, meaning that the correct result is hypersensitive to tiny perturbations in its data. However, even functions that are well-conditioned can suffer from large loss of accuracy if an algorithm numerically unstable for that data is used: apparently equivalent formulations of expressions in a programming language can differ markedly in their numerical stability. One approach to remove the risk of such loss of accuracy is the design and analysis of numerically stable algorithms, which is an aim of the branch of mathematics known as numerical analysis. Another approach that can protect against the risk of numerical instabilities is the computation of intermediate (scratch) values in an algorithm at a higher precision than the final result requires,[54] which can remove, or reduce by orders of magnitude,[55] such risk: IEEE 754 quadruple precision and extended precision are designed for this purpose when computing at double precision.[56][nb 11]For example, the following algorithm is a direct implementation to compute the function A(x) = (x−1) / (exp(x−1) − 1) which is well-conditioned at 1.0,[nb 12] however it can be shown to be numerically unstable and lose up to half the significant digits carried by the arithmetic when computed near 1.0.[57]double A(double X)\n{\n double Y, Z; // [1]\n Y = X - 1.0;\n Z = exp(Y);\n if (Z != 1.0)\n Z = Y / (Z - 1.0); // [2]\n return Z;\n}If, however, intermediate computations are all performed in extended precision (e.g. by setting line [1] to C99 long double), then up to full precision in the final double result can be maintained.[nb 13] Alternatively, a numerical analysis of the algorithm reveals that if the following non-obvious change to line [2] is made:Z = log(Z) / (Z - 1.0);then the algorithm becomes numerically stable and can compute to full double precision.To maintain the properties of such carefully constructed numerically stable programs, careful handling by the compiler is required. Certain \"optimizations\" that compilers might make (for example, reordering operations) can work against the goals of well-behaved software. There is some controversy about the failings of compilers and language designs in this area: C99 is an example of a language where such optimizations are carefully specified to maintain numerical precision. See the external references at the bottom of this article.A detailed treatment of the techniques for writing high-quality floating-point software is beyond the scope of this article, and the reader is referred to,[53][58] and the other references at the bottom of this article. Kahan suggests several rules of thumb that can substantially decrease by orders of magnitude[58] the risk of numerical anomalies, in addition to, or in lieu of, a more careful numerical analysis. These include: as noted above, computing all expressions and intermediate results in the highest precision supported in hardware (a common rule of thumb is to carry twice the precision of the desired result, i.e. compute in double precision for a final single-precision result, or in double extended or quad precision for up to double-precision results[59]); and rounding input data and results to only the precision required and supported by the input data (carrying excess precision in the final result beyond that required and supported by the input data can be misleading, increases storage cost and decreases speed, and the excess bits can affect convergence of numerical procedures:[60] notably, the first form of the iterative example given below converges correctly when using this rule of thumb). Brief descriptions of several additional issues and techniques follow.As decimal fractions can often not be exactly represented in binary floating-point, such arithmetic is at its best when it is simply being used to measure real-world quantities over a wide range of scales (such as the orbital period of a moon around Saturn or the mass of a proton), and at its worst when it is expected to model the interactions of quantities expressed as decimal strings that are expected to be exact.[55][58] An example of the latter case is financial calculations. For this reason, financial software tends not to use a binary floating-point number representation.[61] The \"decimal\" data type of the C# and Python programming languages, and the decimal formats of the IEEE 754-2008 standard, are designed to avoid the problems of binary floating-point representations when applied to human-entered exact decimal values, and make the arithmetic always behave as expected when numbers are printed in decimal.Expectations from mathematics may not be realized in the field of floating-point computation. For example, it is known that \n \n \n \n (\n x\n +\n y\n )\n (\n x\n −\n y\n )\n =\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x+y)(x-y)=x^{2}-y^{2}\\,}\n \n, and that \n \n \n \n \n sin\n \n 2\n \n \n ⁡\n \n θ\n \n +\n \n cos\n \n 2\n \n \n ⁡\n \n θ\n \n =\n 1\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sin ^{2}{\\theta }+\\cos ^{2}{\\theta }=1\\,}\n \n, however these facts cannot be relied on when the quantities involved are the result of floating-point computation.The use of the equality test (if (x==y) ...) requires care when dealing with floating-point numbers. Even simple expressions like 0.6/0.2-3==0 will, on most computers, fail to be true[62] (in IEEE 754 double precision, for example, 0.6/0.2 - 3 is approximately equal to -4.44089209850063e-16). Consequently, such tests are sometimes replaced with \"fuzzy\" comparisons (if (abs(x-y) < epsilon) ..., where epsilon is sufficiently small and tailored to the application, such as 1.0E−13). The wisdom of doing this varies greatly, and can require numerical analysis to bound epsilon.[53] Values derived from the primary data representation and their comparisons should be performed in a wider, extended, precision to minimize the risk of such inconsistencies due to round-off errors.[58] It is often better to organize the code in such a way that such tests are unnecessary. For example, in computational geometry, exact tests of whether a point lies off or on a line or plane defined by other points can be performed using adaptive precision or exact arithmetic methods.[63]Small errors in floating-point arithmetic can grow when mathematical algorithms perform operations an enormous number of times. A few examples are matrix inversion, eigenvector computation, and differential equation solving. These algorithms must be very carefully designed, using numerical approaches such as iterative refinement, if they are to work well.[64]Summation of a vector of floating-point values is a basic algorithm in scientific computing, and so an awareness of when loss of significance can occur is essential. For example, if one is adding a very large number of numbers, the individual addends are very small compared with the sum. This can lead to loss of significance. A typical addition would then be something like3253.671\n+ 3.141276\n-----------\n3256.812The low 3 digits of the addends are effectively lost. Suppose, for example, that one needs to add many numbers, all approximately equal to 3. After 1000 of them have been added, the running sum is about 3000; the lost digits are not regained. The Kahan summation algorithm may be used to reduce the errors.[53]Round-off error can affect the convergence and accuracy of iterative numerical procedures. As an example, Archimedes approximated π by calculating the perimeters of polygons inscribing and circumscribing a circle, starting with hexagons, and successively doubling the number of sides. As noted above, computations may be rearranged in a way that is mathematically equivalent but less prone to error (numerical analysis). Two forms of the recurrence formula for the circumscribed polygon are:[citation needed]t\n \n 0\n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle t_{0}={\\frac {1}{\\sqrt {3}}}}\n \n\nFirst form: \n \n \n \n \n t\n \n i\n +\n 1\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n \n \n t\n \n i\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 1\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n t\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle t_{i+1}={\\frac {{\\sqrt {t_{i}^{2}+1}}-1}{t_{i}}}}\n \n\nsecond form: \n \n \n \n \n t\n \n i\n +\n 1\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n t\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n \n \n t\n \n i\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 1\n \n \n +\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle t_{i+1}={\\frac {t_{i}}{{\\sqrt {t_{i}^{2}+1}}+1}}}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n π\n ∼\n 6\n ×\n \n 2\n \n i\n \n \n ×\n \n t\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\pi \\sim 6\\times 2^{i}\\times t_{i}}\n \n, converging as \n \n \n \n i\n →\n ∞\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i\\rightarrow \\infty }Here is a computation using IEEE \"double\" (a significand with 53 bits of precision) arithmetic:i 6 × 2i × ti, first form 6 × 2i × ti, second form\n---------------------------------------------------------\n 0 3.4641016151377543863 3.4641016151377543863\n 1 3.2153903091734710173 3.2153903091734723496\n 2 3.1596599420974940120 3.1596599420975006733\n 3 3.1460862151314012979 3.1460862151314352708\n 4 3.1427145996453136334 3.1427145996453689225\n 5 3.1418730499801259536 3.1418730499798241950\n 6 3.1416627470548084133 3.1416627470568494473\n 7 3.1416101765997805905 3.1416101766046906629\n 8 3.1415970343230776862 3.1415970343215275928\n 9 3.1415937488171150615 3.1415937487713536668\n10 3.1415929278733740748 3.1415929273850979885\n11 3.1415927256228504127 3.1415927220386148377\n12 3.1415926717412858693 3.1415926707019992125\n13 3.1415926189011456060 3.1415926578678454728\n14 3.1415926717412858693 3.1415926546593073709\n15 3.1415919358822321783 3.1415926538571730119\n16 3.1415926717412858693 3.1415926536566394222\n17 3.1415810075796233302 3.1415926536065061913\n18 3.1415926717412858693 3.1415926535939728836\n19 3.1414061547378810956 3.1415926535908393901\n20 3.1405434924008406305 3.1415926535900560168\n21 3.1400068646912273617 3.1415926535898608396\n22 3.1349453756585929919 3.1415926535898122118\n23 3.1400068646912273617 3.1415926535897995552\n24 3.2245152435345525443 3.1415926535897968907\n25 3.1415926535897962246\n26 3.1415926535897962246\n27 3.1415926535897962246\n28 3.1415926535897962246\n The true value is 3.14159265358979323846264338327...While the two forms of the recurrence formula are clearly mathematically equivalent,[nb 14] the first subtracts 1 from a number extremely close to 1, leading to an increasingly problematic loss of significant digits. As the recurrence is applied repeatedly, the accuracy improves at first, but then it deteriorates. It never gets better than about 8 digits, even though 53-bit arithmetic should be capable of about 16 digits of precision. When the second form of the recurrence is used, the value converges to 15 digits of precision.","title":"Accuracy problems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"associativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associative_property"},{"link_name":"compilers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilers"},{"link_name":"common subexpression elimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_subexpression_elimination"},{"link_name":"vectorization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_instruction,_multiple_data"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vectorizers-79"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FPM-80"},{"link_name":"disable subnormal floats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subnormal_number#Disabling_subnormal_floats_at_the_code_level"},{"link_name":"library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-harmful-81"},{"link_name":"Fortran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gen-82"},{"link_name":"Intel Fortran Compiler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Fortran_Compiler"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zheevd-83"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Becker-Darulova-Myreen-Tatlock_2019-84"}],"sub_title":"\"Fast math\" optimization","text":"The aforementioned lack of associativity of floating-point operations in general means that compilers cannot as effectively reorder arithmetic expressions as they could with integer and fixed-point arithmetic, presenting a roadblock in optimizations such as common subexpression elimination and auto-vectorization.[65] The \"fast math\" option on many compilers (ICC, GCC, Clang, MSVC...) turns on reassociation along with unsafe assumptions such as a lack of NaN and infinite numbers in IEEE 754. Some compilers also offer more granular options to only turn on reassociation. In either case, the programmer is exposed to many of the precision pitfalls mentioned above for the portion of the program using \"fast\" math.[66]In some compilers (GCC and Clang), turning on \"fast\" math may cause the program to disable subnormal floats at startup, affecting the floating-point behavior of not only the generated code, but also any program using such code as a library.[67]In most Fortran compilers, as allowed by the ISO/IEC 1539-1:2004 Fortran standard, reassociation is the default, with breakage largely prevented by the \"protect parens\" setting (also on by default). This setting stops the compiler from reassociating beyond the boundaries of parentheses.[68] Intel Fortran Compiler is a notable outlier.[69]A common problem in \"fast\" math is that subexpressions may not be optimized identically from place to place, leading to unexpected differences. One interpretation of the issue is that \"fast\" math as implemented currently has a poorly defined semantics. One attempt at formalizing \"fast\" math optimizations is seen in Icing, a verified compiler.[70]","title":"Accuracy problems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Significand_4-0"},{"link_name":"significand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significand"},{"link_name":"mantissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantissa_(logarithm)"},{"link_name":"logarithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithm"},{"link_name":"CDC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_Data_Corporation"},{"link_name":"exponent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#NB-Exponent"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Exponent_5-0"},{"link_name":"exponent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponent"},{"link_name":"biased exponent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biased_exponent"},{"link_name":"significand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#NB-Significand"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_9_8-0"},{"link_name":"Hexadecimal (base-16) floating-point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal_floating-point"},{"link_name":"IBM System 360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System_360"},{"link_name":"370","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System_370"},{"link_name":"RCA Spectra 70","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA_Spectra_70"},{"link_name":"Manchester MU5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_MU5"},{"link_name":"HEP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterogeneous_Element_Processor"},{"link_name":"Illinois ILLIAC III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois_ILLIAC_III"},{"link_name":"Data General Eclipse S/200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_General_Eclipse_S/200"},{"link_name":"Gould Powernode 9080","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gould_Powernode_9080"},{"link_name":"Interdata 8/32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdata_8/32"},{"link_name":"SEL Systems 85","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SEL_System_85&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SEL_System_86&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"SDS Sigma 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDS_Sigma_5"},{"link_name":"7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDS_Sigma_7"},{"link_name":"Xerox Sigma 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerox_Sigma_9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_8_10-0"},{"link_name":"Ferranti Atlas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferranti_Atlas"},{"link_name":"Burroughs B5500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burroughs_B5500"},{"link_name":"Burroughs B5700","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burroughs_B5700"},{"link_name":"Burroughs B6700","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burroughs_B6700"},{"link_name":"Burroughs B7700","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burroughs_B7700"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_11_12-0"},{"link_name":"Illinois ILLIAC II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois_ILLIAC_II"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_12_13-0"},{"link_name":"Rice Institute R1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice_Institute_R1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_10_15-0"},{"link_name":"MANIAC II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MANIAC_II"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_1_41-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_2_54-0"},{"link_name":"division algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Intel Pentium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Pentium"},{"link_name":"division instruction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FDIV"},{"link_name":"Pentium FDIV bug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_FDIV_bug"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_3_57-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_4_67-0"},{"link_name":"William Kahan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Morton_Kahan"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_5_68-0"},{"link_name":"Taylor expansion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_expansion"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_6_70-0"},{"link_name":"long double","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_double"},{"link_name":"IEEE quad precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_quad_precision"},{"link_name":"IEEE double extended precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_double_extended_precision"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_7_78-0"},{"link_name":"denominator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denominator"},{"link_name":"conjugate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_(algebra)"},{"link_name":"numerator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerator"}],"text":"^ The significand of a floating-point number is also called mantissa by some authors—not to be confused with the mantissa of a logarithm. Somewhat vague, terms such as coefficient or argument are also used by some. The usage of the term fraction by some authors is potentially misleading as well. The term characteristic (as used e.g. by CDC) is ambiguous, as it was historically also used to specify some form of exponent of floating-point numbers.\n\n^ The exponent of a floating-point number is sometimes also referred to as scale. The term characteristic (for biased exponent, exponent bias, or excess n representation) is ambiguous, as it was historically also used to specify the significand of floating-point numbers.\n\n^ Hexadecimal (base-16) floating-point arithmetic is used in the IBM System 360 (1964) and 370 (1970) as well as various newer IBM machines, in the RCA Spectra 70 (1964), the Siemens 4004 (1965), 7.700 (1974), 7.800, 7.500 (1977) series mainframes and successors, the Unidata 7.000 series mainframes, the Manchester MU5 (1972), the HEP (1982) computers, and in 360/370-compatible mainframe families made by Fujitsu, Amdahl and Hitachi. It is also used in the Illinois ILLIAC III (1966), Data General Eclipse S/200 (ca. 1974), Gould Powernode 9080 (1980s), Interdata 8/32 (1970s), the SEL Systems 85 and 86 as well as the SDS Sigma 5 (1967), 7 (1966) and Xerox Sigma 9 (1970).\n\n^ Octal (base-8) floating-point arithmetic is used in the Ferranti Atlas (1962), Burroughs B5500 (1964), Burroughs B5700 (1971), Burroughs B6700 (1971) and Burroughs B7700 (1972) computers.\n\n^ Quaternary (base-4) floating-point arithmetic is used in the Illinois ILLIAC II (1962) computer. It is also used in the Digital Field System DFS IV and V high-resolution site survey systems.\n\n^ Base-256 floating-point arithmetic is used in the Rice Institute R1 computer (since 1958).\n\n^ Base-65536 floating-point arithmetic is used in the MANIAC II (1956) computer.\n\n^ Computer hardware doesn't necessarily compute the exact value; it simply has to produce the equivalent rounded result as though it had computed the infinitely precise result.\n\n^ The enormous complexity of modern division algorithms once led to a famous error. An early version of the Intel Pentium chip was shipped with a division instruction that, on rare occasions, gave slightly incorrect results. Many computers had been shipped before the error was discovered. Until the defective computers were replaced, patched versions of compilers were developed that could avoid the failing cases. See Pentium FDIV bug.\n\n^ But an attempted computation of cos(π) yields −1 exactly. Since the derivative is nearly zero near π, the effect of the inaccuracy in the argument is far smaller than the spacing of the floating-point numbers around −1, and the rounded result is exact.\n\n^ William Kahan notes: \"Except in extremely uncommon situations, extra-precise arithmetic generally attenuates risks due to roundoff at far less cost than the price of a competent error-analyst.\"\n\n^ The Taylor expansion of this function demonstrates that it is well-conditioned near 1: A(x) = 1 − (x−1)/2 + (x−1)^2/12 − (x−1)^4/720 + (x−1)^6/30240 − (x−1)^8/1209600 + ... for \|x−1\| < π.\n\n^ If long double is IEEE quad precision then full double precision is retained; if long double is IEEE double extended precision then additional, but not full precision is retained.\n\n^ The equivalence of the two forms can be verified algebraically by noting that the denominator of the fraction in the second form is the conjugate of the numerator of the first. By multiplying the top and bottom of the first expression by this conjugate, one obtains the second expression.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wilkinson, James Hardy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hardy_Wilkinson"},{"link_name":"Rounding Errors in Algebraic Processes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=yFogU9Ot-qsC"},{"link_name":"Prentice-Hall, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prentice-Hall,_Inc."},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780486679990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486679990"},{"link_name":"MR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0161456","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0161456"},{"link_name":"Wilkinson, James Hardy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hardy_Wilkinson"},{"link_name":"The Algebraic Eigenvalue Problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=N98IAQAAIAAJ&q=editions:ISBN0198534183"},{"link_name":"Oxford University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press"},{"link_name":"Clarendon Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarendon_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780198534037","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198534037"},{"link_name":"Prentice Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prentice_Hall"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-13-322495-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-322495-5"},{"link_name":"Johns Hopkins University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8018-5413-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5413-2"},{"link_name":"Press, William Henry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Press"},{"link_name":"Teukolsky, Saul A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul_A._Teukolsky"},{"link_name":"Vetterling, William T.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_T._Vetterling"},{"link_name":"Flannery, Brian P.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_P._Flannery"},{"link_name":"Numerical Recipes - The Art of Scientific Computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_Recipes"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-88407-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88407-5"},{"link_name":"Knuth, Donald Ervin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Ervin_Knuth"},{"link_name":"The Art of Computer Programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Computer_Programming"},{"link_name":"Addison-Wesley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison-Wesley"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-201-89684-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-89684-8"},{"link_name":"Blaauw, Gerrit Anne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerrit_Anne_Blaauw"},{"link_name":"Brooks, Jr., Frederick Phillips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Phillips_Brooks,_Jr."},{"link_name":"Addison-Wesley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison-Wesley"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-201-10557-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-10557-8"},{"link_name":"\"Floating-Point Formats\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.quadibloc.com/comp/cp0201.htm"},{"link_name":"archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20180703001709/http://www.quadibloc.com/comp/cp0201.htm"},{"link_name":"Revol, Nathalie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathalie_Revol"},{"link_name":"Handbook of Floating-Point Arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=h3ZZDwAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"Birkhäuser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birkh%C3%A4user"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/978-3-319-76526-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-76526-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-319-76525-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76525-9"},{"link_name":"LCCN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2018935254","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//lccn.loc.gov/2018935254"}],"text":"Wilkinson, James Hardy (1963). Rounding Errors in Algebraic Processes (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 9780486679990. MR 0161456. (NB. Classic influential treatises on floating-point arithmetic.)\nWilkinson, James Hardy (1965). The Algebraic Eigenvalue Problem. Monographs on Numerical Analysis (1st ed.). Oxford University Press / Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780198534037. Retrieved 2016-02-11.\nSterbenz, Pat H. (1974). Floating-Point Computation. Prentice-Hall Series in Automatic Computation (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-322495-5.\nGolub, Gene F.; van Loan, Charles F. (1986). Matrix Computations (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5413-2.\nPress, William Henry; Teukolsky, Saul A.; Vetterling, William T.; Flannery, Brian P. (2007) [1986]. Numerical Recipes - The Art of Scientific Computing (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88407-5. (NB. Edition with source code CD-ROM.)\nKnuth, Donald Ervin (1997). \"Section 4.2: Floating-Point Arithmetic\". The Art of Computer Programming, Vol. 2: Seminumerical Algorithms (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley. pp. 214–264. ISBN 978-0-201-89684-8.\nBlaauw, Gerrit Anne; Brooks, Jr., Frederick Phillips (1997). Computer Architecture: Concepts and Evolution (1st ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-10557-8. (1213 pages) (NB. This is a single-volume edition. This work was also available in a two-volume version.)\nSavard, John J. G. (2018) [2005], \"Floating-Point Formats\", quadibloc, archived from the original on 2018-07-03, retrieved 2018-07-16\nMuller, Jean-Michel; Brunie, Nicolas; de Dinechin, Florent; Jeannerod, Claude-Pierre; Joldes, Mioara; Lefèvre, Vincent; Melquiond, Guillaume; Revol, Nathalie; Torres, Serge (2018) [2010]. Handbook of Floating-Point Arithmetic (2nd ed.). Birkhäuser. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-76526-6. ISBN 978-3-319-76525-9. LCCN 2018935254.","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"An early electromechanical programmable computer, the Z3, included floating-point arithmetic (replica on display at Deutsches Museum in Munich).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG/200px-Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG"},{"image_text":"Single-precision floating-point numbers on a number line: the green lines mark representable values.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/A_number_line_representing_single-precision_floating_point%27s_numbers_and_numbers_that_it_cannot_display.png/500px-A_number_line_representing_single-precision_floating_point%27s_numbers_and_numbers_that_it_cannot_display.png"},{"image_text":"Augmented version above showing both signs of representable values","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/FloatingPointPrecisionAugmented.png/500px-FloatingPointPrecisionAugmented.png"},{"image_text":"Leonardo Torres Quevedo, in 1914 published an analysis of floating point based on the analytical engine","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Quevedo_1917.jpg/150px-Quevedo_1917.jpg"},{"image_text":"Konrad Zuse, architect of the Z3 computer, which uses a 22-bit binary floating-point representation","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Konrad_Zuse_%281992%29.jpg/150px-Konrad_Zuse_%281992%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"William Kahan, principal architect of the IEEE 754 floating-point standard","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/William_Kahan_2008.jpg/150px-William_Kahan_2008.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Float_example.svg/590px-Float_example.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Fig. 1: resistances in parallel, with total resistance \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n t\n o\n t\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{tot}}\n \n","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Resistors_in_Parallel.svg/200px-Resistors_in_Parallel.svg.png"}]	[{"title":"Arbitrary-precision arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitrary-precision_arithmetic"},{"title":"C99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C99#IEEE_754_floating-point_support"},{"title":"Computable number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computable_number"},{"title":"Coprocessor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprocessor"},{"title":"Decimal floating point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_floating_point"},{"title":"Double precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_precision"},{"title":"Experimental mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_mathematics"},{"title":"Fixed-point arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-point_arithmetic"},{"title":"Floating-point error mitigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point_error_mitigation"},{"title":"FLOPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLOPS"},{"title":"Gal's accurate tables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%27s_accurate_tables"},{"title":"GNU MPFR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_MPFR"},{"title":"Half-precision floating-point format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-precision_floating-point_format"},{"title":"IEEE 754","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754"},{"title":"IBM Floating Point Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_hexadecimal_floating-point"},{"title":"Kahan summation algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kahan_summation_algorithm"},{"title":"Microsoft Binary Format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Binary_Format"},{"title":"Minifloat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minifloat"},{"title":"Q (number format)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q_(number_format)"},{"title":"Quadruple-precision floating-point format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadruple-precision_floating-point_format"},{"title":"Significant figures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significant_figures"},{"title":"Single-precision floating-point format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-precision_floating-point_format"}]	[{"reference":"Muller, Jean-Michel; Brisebarre, Nicolas; de Dinechin, Florent; Jeannerod, Claude-Pierre; Lefèvre, Vincent; Melquiond, Guillaume; Revol, Nathalie; Stehlé, Damien; Torres, Serge (2010). Handbook of Floating-Point Arithmetic (1st ed.). Birkhäuser. doi:10.1007/978-0-8176-4705-6. ISBN 978-0-8176-4704-9. LCCN 2009939668.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathalie_Revol","url_text":"Revol, Nathalie"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=baFvrIOPvncC&pg=PA16","url_text":"Handbook of Floating-Point Arithmetic"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birkh%C3%A4user","url_text":"Birkhäuser"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-8176-4705-6","url_text":"10.1007/978-0-8176-4705-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8176-4704-9","url_text":"978-0-8176-4704-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/2009939668","url_text":"2009939668"}]},{"reference":"Sterbenz, Pat H. (1974). Floating-Point Computation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, United States: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-322495-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/SterbenzFloatingPointComputation/mode/2up","url_text":"Floating-Point Computation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-322495-3","url_text":"0-13-322495-3"}]},{"reference":"Smith, Steven W. (1997). \"Chapter 28, Fixed versus Floating Point\". The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing. California Technical Pub. p. 514. ISBN 978-0-9660176-3-2. Retrieved 2012-12-31.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dspguide.com/ch28/4.htm","url_text":"\"Chapter 28, Fixed versus Floating Point\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9660176-3-2","url_text":"978-0-9660176-3-2"}]},{"reference":"Zehendner, Eberhard (Summer 2008). \"Rechnerarithmetik: Fest- und Gleitkommasysteme\" (PDF) (Lecture script) (in German). Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-08-07. Retrieved 2018-08-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://users.fmi.uni-jena.de/~nez/rechnerarithmetik_5/folien/Rechnerarithmetik.2008.05.handout.pdf","url_text":"\"Rechnerarithmetik: Fest- und Gleitkommasysteme\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich-Schiller-Universit%C3%A4t_Jena","url_text":"Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180807062449/https://users.fmi.uni-jena.de/~nez/rechnerarithmetik_5/folien/Rechnerarithmetik.2008.05.handout.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Beebe, Nelson H. F. (2017-08-22). \"Chapter H. Historical floating-point architectures\". The Mathematical-Function Computation Handbook - Programming Using the MathCW Portable Software Library (1st ed.). Salt Lake City, UT, USA: Springer International Publishing AG. p. 948. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-64110-2. ISBN 978-3-319-64109-6. LCCN 2017947446. S2CID 30244721.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_International_Publishing_AG","url_text":"Springer International Publishing AG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-64110-2","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-319-64110-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-64109-6","url_text":"978-3-319-64109-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/2017947446","url_text":"2017947446"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30244721","url_text":"30244721"}]},{"reference":"Savard, John J. G. (2018) [2007], \"The Decimal Floating-Point Standard\", quadibloc, archived from the original on 2018-07-03, retrieved 2018-07-16","urls":[{"url":"http://www.quadibloc.com/comp/cp020302.htm","url_text":"\"The Decimal Floating-Point Standard\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180703002322/http://www.quadibloc.com/comp/cp020302.htm","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"Parkinson, Roger (2000-12-07). \"Chapter 2 - High resolution digital site survey systems - Chapter 2.1 - Digital field recording systems\". High Resolution Site Surveys (1st ed.). CRC Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-20318604-6. Retrieved 2019-08-18. […] Systems such as the [Digital Field System] DFS IV and DFS V were quaternary floating-point systems and used gain steps of 12 dB. 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The Morgan Kaufmann series in computer architecture and design (5th ed.). Waltham, Massachusetts, USA: Elsevier. p. 793. ISBN 978-9-86605267-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-86605267-5","url_text":"978-9-86605267-5"}]},{"reference":"Kahan, William Morton (1997-10-01). \"Lecture Notes on the Status of IEEE Standard 754 for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic\" (PDF). p. 9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2002-06-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Morton_Kahan","url_text":"Kahan, William Morton"},{"url":"http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/ieee754status/IEEE754.PDF","url_text":"\"Lecture Notes on the Status of IEEE Standard 754 for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20020622093102/http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/ieee754status/IEEE754.PDF","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"D.3.2.1\". 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Retrieved 2013-05-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Morton_Kahan","url_text":"Kahan, William Morton"},{"url":"http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/ARITH_17.pdf","url_text":"Floating-Point Arithmetic Besieged by \"Business Decisions\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARITH_17","url_text":"ARITH 17"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060317103619/http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/ARITH_17.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kahan, William Morton (2011-08-03). Desperately Needed Remedies for the Undebuggability of Large Floating-Point Computations in Science and Engineering (PDF). IFIP/SIAM/NIST Working Conference on Uncertainty Quantification in Scientific Computing, Boulder, CO. p. 33. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-06-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Morton_Kahan","url_text":"Kahan, William Morton"},{"url":"http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/Boulder.pdf","url_text":"Desperately Needed Remedies for the Undebuggability of Large Floating-Point Computations in Science and Engineering"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130620140729/http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/Boulder.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kahan, William Morton; Darcy, Joseph (2001) [1998-03-01]. \"How Java's floating-point hurts everyone everywhere\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2000-08-16. 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CAV 2019: Computer Aided Verification. Vol. 11562. pp. 155–173. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-25543-5_10.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-25543-5_10","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-030-25543-5_10"}]},{"reference":"Wilkinson, James Hardy (1963). Rounding Errors in Algebraic Processes (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 9780486679990. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule_scale	Slide rule scale	["1 Slide rule design","1.1 History","2 Scales","2.1 Notes about table","3 Gauge marks","4 Notes","5 References","5.1 Citations","5.2 Works cited","6 Further reading"]	Graduated markings, generally logarithmic, on slide rule Keuffel and Esser 7" slide rule (5" scale, 1954) A slide rule scale is a line with graduated markings inscribed along the length of a slide rule used for mathematical calculations. The earliest such device had a single logarithmic scale for performing multiplication and division, but soon an improved technique was developed which involved two such scales sliding alongside each other. Later, multiple scales were provided with the most basic being logarithmic but with others graduated according to the mathematical function required. Few slide rules have been designed for addition and subtraction, rather the main scales are used for multiplication and division and the other scales are for mathematical calculations involving trigonometric, exponential and, generally, transcendental functions. Before they were superseded by electronic calculators in the 1970s, slide rules were an important type of portable calculating instrument. Slide rule design Further information: Slide rule § Physical design A slide rule consists of a body and a slider that can be slid along within the body and both of these have numerical scales inscribed on them. On duplex rules the body and/or the slider have scales on the back as well as the front. The slider's scales may be visible from the back or the slider may need to be slid right out and replaced facing the other way round. A cursor (also called runner or glass) containing one (or more) hairlines may be slid along the whole rule so that corresponding readings, front and back, can be taken from the various scales on the body and slider. History In about 1620, Edmund Gunter introduced what is now known as Gunter's line as one element of the Gunter's sector he invented for mariners. The line, inscribed on wood, was a single logarithmic scale going from 1 to 100. It had no sliding parts but by using a pair of dividers it was possible to multiply and divide numbers. The form with a single logarithmic scale eventually developed into such instruments as Fuller's cylindrical slide rule. In about 1622, but not published until 1632, William Oughtred invented linear and circular slide rules which had two logarithmic scales that slid beside each other to perform calculations. In 1654 the linear design was developed into a wooden body within which a slider could be fitted and adjusted. Scales Front and back of Aristo 0972 HyperLog duplex rule (1973) Simple slide rules will have a C and D scale for multiplication and division, most likely an A and B for squares and square roots, and possibly CI and K for reciprocals and cubes. In the early days of slide rules few scales were provided and no labelling was necessary. However, gradually the number of scales tended to increase. Amédée Mannheim introduced the A, B, C and D labels in 1859 and, after that, manufacturers began to adopt a somewhat standardised, though idiosyncratic, system of labels so the various scales could be quickly identified. Advanced slide rules have many scales and they are often designed with particular types of user in mind, for example electrical engineers or surveyors. There are rarely scales for addition and subtraction but a workaround is possible. The rule illustrated is an Aristo 0972 HyperLog, which has 31 scales. The scales in the table below are those appropriate for general mathematical use rather than for specific professions. Slide rule scales Label formula scale type range of x range on scale numerical range (approx) Increase / decrease comment C x fundamental scale 1 to 10 1 to 10 1 to 10 increase On slider D x fundamental scale used with C 1 to 10 1 to 10 1 to 10 increase On body A x2 square 1 to 10 1 to 100 1 to 100 increase On body. Two log cycles at half the scale of C/D. B x2 square 1 to 10 1 to 100 1 to 100 increase On slider. Two log cycles at half the scale of C/D. CF x C folded π to 10π π to 10π 3.142 to 31.42 increase On slider Ch arccosh(x) hyperbolic cosine 1 to 10 arccosh(1.0) to arccosh(10) 0 to 2.993 increase note: cosh(x)=√(1-sinh2(x)) (P) CI 1/x reciprocal C 1 to 10 1/0.1 to 1/1.0 10 to 1 decrease On slider. C scale in reverse direction DF x D folded π to 10π π to 10π 3.142 to 31.42 increase On body DI 1/x reciprocal D 1 to 10 1/0.1 to 1/1.0 10 to 1 decrease On body. D scale in reverse direction K x3 cube 1 to 10 1 to 103 1 to 1000 increase Three cycles at one third the scale of D L, Lg or M log10x Mantissa of log10 1 to 10 0 to 1.0 0 to 1.0 increase hence a linear scale LL0 e0.001x log-log 1 to 10 e0.001 to e0.01 1.001 to 1.010 increase LL1 e0.01x log-log 1 to 10 e0.01 to e0.1 1.010 to 1.105 increase LL2 e0.1x log-log 1 to 10 e0.1 to e 1.105 to 2.718 increase LL3, LL or E ex log-log 1 to 10 e to e10 2.718 to 22026 increase LL00 or LL/0 e-0.001x log-log 1 to 10 e-0.001to e-0.01 0.999 to 0.990 decrease LL01 or LL/1 e-0.01x log-log 1 to 10 e-0.01to e-0.1 0.990 to 0.905 decrease LL02 or LL/2 e-0.1x log-log 1 to 10 e-0.1to 1/e 0.905 to 0.368 decrease LL03 or LL/3 e−x log-log 1 to 10 1/eto e−10 0.368 to 0.00045 decrease P √(1-x2) Pythagorean 0.1 to 1.0 √(1-0.12) to 0 0.995 to 0 decrease calculating cosine from sine at small angles (ST) H1 √(1+x2) Hyperbolic 0.1 to 1.0 √(1+0.12) to √(1+1.02) 1.005 to 1.414 increase Set x on C or D scale. H2 √(1+x2) Hyperbolic 1 to 10 √(1+12) to √(1+102) 1.414 to 10.05 increase Set x on C or D scale. R1, W1 or Sq1 √x square root 1 to 10 1 to √10 1 to 3.162 increase for numbers with odd number of digits R2, W2 or Sq2 √x square root 10 to 100 √10 to 10 3.162 to 10 increase for numbers with even number of digits S arcsin(x) sine 0.1 to 1 arcsin(0.1) to arcsin(1.0) 5.74° to 90° increase and decrease (red) also with reverse angles in red for cosine. See S scale in detail image. Sh1 arcsinh(x) hyperbolic sine 0.1 to 1.0 arcsinh(0.1) to arcsinh(1.0) 0.0998 to 0.881 increase note: cosh(x)=√(1-sinh2(x)) (P) Sh2 arcsinh(x) hyperbolic sine 1 to 10 arcsinh(1.0) to arcsinh(10) 0.881 to 3.0 increase note: cosh(x)=√(1-sinh2(x)) (P) ST arcsin(x) and arctan(x) sine and tan of small angles 0.01 to 0.1 arcsin(0.01) to arcsin(0.1) 0.573° to 5.73° increase also arctan of same x values T, T1 or T3 arctan(x) tangent 0.1 to 1.0 arctan(0.1) to arctan(1.0) 5.71° to 45° increase used with C or D. T arctan(x) tangent 1.0 to 10.0 arctan(1.0) to arctan(10) 45° to 84.3° increase Used with CI or DI. Also with reverse angles in red for cotangent. T2 arctan(x) tangent 1.0 to 10.0 arctan(1.0) to arctan(10) 45° to 84.3° increase used with C or D Th arctanh(x) hyperbolic tangent 1 to <10 arctanh(0.1) to arctanh(1.0) 0.1 to 3.0 increase used with C or D Notes about table Some scales have high values at the left and low on the right. These are marked as "decrease" in the table above. On slide rules these are often inscribed in red rather than black or they may have arrows pointing left along the scale. See P and DI scales in detail image. In slide rule terminology, "folded" means a scale that starts and finishes at values offset from a power of 10. Often folded scales start at π but may be extended lengthways to, say, 3.0 and 35.0. Folded scales with the code subscripted with "M" start and finish at log10 e to simplify conversion between base-10 and natural logarithms. When subscripted "/M", they fold at ln(10). For mathematical reasons some scales either stop short of or extend beyond the D = 1 and 10 points. For example, arctanh(x) approaches ∞ (infinity) as x approaches 1, so the scale stops short. In slide rule terminology "log-log" means the scale is logarithmic applied over an inherently logarithmic scale. Slide rule annotation generally ignores powers of 10. However, for some scales, such as log-log, decimal points are relevant and are likely to be marked. Gauge marks Detail of some scale labels and gauge marks Gauge marks are often added to the scales either marking important constants (e.g. π at 3.14159) or useful conversion coefficients (e.g. ρ" at 1806060/π or 206.3x103 to find sine and tan of small angles). A cursor may have subsidiary hairlines beside the main one. For example, when one is over kilowatts the other indicates horsepower. See π on the A and B scales and ρ" on the C scale in the detail image. The Aristo 0972 has multiple cursor hairlines on its reverse side, as shown in the image above. Gauge marks Symbol value function purpose comment e 2.718 Euler's number exponential functions base of natural logarithms π 3.142 π areas/volumes/circumferences of circles/cylinders c or C 1.128 √(4/π) ratio diameter to √(area of circle) (different scales) C' or C1 3.568 √(40/π) ' 0.785 π/4 ratio area of circle to diameter2 M 0.318 1/π reciprocal π ρ, ρ0 or 1° 0.0175 π/180 radians per degree R 57.29 180/π degrees per radian ρ' 3.438x103 60x180/π arc minutes per radian ρ" 206.3x103 60x60x180/π arc seconds per radian c 2.154 10 3 {\displaystyle {\sqrt{10}}} if no K scale 1n, L or U 2.303 1/log10e ratio loge to log10 N 1.341 HP per kW mechanical horsepower Notes ^ The body can also be called frame, base, stock or stator. ^ A hairline is a very finely drawn line. ^ To multiply two numbers, a and b, a point of the dividers is placed on the 1 marking and the dividers are adjusted so the other point is at a (or a multiple of 10 of a). Keeping the separation of the dividers fixed, one point is moved to b and the second point will indicate axb (or b/a if the second point is placed towards the 1 marking. ^ Note that (u+v)=v⋅(u/v+1) and (u-v)=v⋅(u/v-1) To implement this requires adding or subtracting 1 mentally. ^ The Aristo 0952 HyperLog was being manufactured in 1973 and is 37.4 centimetres (14.7 in) in length overall with scales as follows. Front: LL00, LL01, LL02, LL03, DF (on the slider CF, CIF, L, CI, C) D, LL3, LL2, LL1 and LL00. Back: H2, Sh2, Th, K, A (on the slider B, T, ST, S, P, C) D, DI, Ch, Sh1, H1. Its gauge marks are π, ρ', ρ, e, 1/e, √2. ^ Whether annotations increase or decrease from left to right. ^ a b R1/R2 often easier to use for square root than A and B. ^ The Polish firm Skala had an "M" scale used in right triangle solutions. ^ a b c See Savard for special considerations. ^ See image above of the back of the Aristo slide rule. References Citations ^ "Slide Rule and Planimeter Sections". K&E Catalog 42nd Edition. Keuffel and Esser. 1954. p. 279. Archived from the original on 7 April 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021. ^ Johnson (1949), Preface. ^ a b Savard, John J. G. "Types of Slide Rules". www.quadibloc.com. Quadribloc. Archived from the original on 28 September 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2021. ^ "Slide Rules". Museum of HP Calculators. Hewlett Packard. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021. ^ Sangwin (2003), p. 4. ^ Smith, David E. (1958). History of Mathematics, Vol. II. Dover Publications. p. 205. ISBN 9780486204307.Stoll, Cliff (May 2006). "When Slide Rules Ruled". Scientific American. 294 (5): 80–87. Bibcode:2006SciAm.294e..80S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0506-80. PMID 16708492.Cajori, Florian (1920). On the history of Gunter's scale and the slide rule during the seventeenth century. University of California press. ^ Sangwin (2003). ^ a b c d Marcotte, Eric. "Types of Slide Rules and their Scales". Eric's Slide Rule Site. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 24 June 2021. ^ Johnson (1949), pp. 1–6. ^ Johnson (1949), pp. 85, 105–106, 133–135, 136–138, 182–184, 189–190. ^ Nikitin, Andrey. "Addition and subtraction with slide rule". nsg.upor.net. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2021. ^ Seale, Steve K. "Aristo 0972 Hyperlog". Steve's Slide Rules. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020. Retrieved 24 June 2021. ^ Hamann, Christian M. "Aristo - Hyperlog ( 25 cm scales )". public.beuth-hochschule.de. Archived from the original on 4 April 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2021. ^ Hamman, Christian-M. "The Principle of Slide Rules Appendix D". Beuth University of Applied Sciences. Archived from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2021.International Slide Rule Museum. "Illustrated Self-Guided Course On How To Use The Slide Rule". sliderulemuseum.com. International Slide Rule Museum. Archived from the original on 23 May 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.Sphere Research. "Slide Rule Scales Page". www.sphere.bc.ca. Sphere Research. Archived from the original on 6 April 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021. ^ a b c d e Savard, John J. G. "How Did a Slide Rule Work?". www.quadibloc.com. Quadribloc. Archived from the original on 10 October 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2021. ^ Carrasco, Angel (1 May 2021). "The "M" Scale in Polish Skala Slide Rules" (PDF). Translated by González, Alvaro; Fernández-Raventós, José Gabriel. ^ Savard, John J. G. "Special Scales". www.quadibloc.com. Quadribloc. Archived from the original on 13 June 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2021. ^ a b c Manley, Ron. "Gauge points for small angles". www.sliderules.info. Archived from the original on 18 March 2021. Retrieved 26 June 2021. ^ Johnson (1949), pp. 144–145, 219. ^ a b c Seale, Steve K. "Gauge marks". Steve's Slide Rules. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 23 June 2021. ^ Fernández, J.G. (30 April 2009). "Peripheral Hairlines in FaberCastell Cursors Layout and uses". slidetodoc.com. Archived from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.Manley, Ron. "Cursor hair lines". www.sliderules.info. Archived from the original on 18 March 2021. Retrieved 26 June 2021. ^ Hamman, Christian-M. "Slide Rules & Slide Calculators: (F) Marks on Slide Rules and their Meaning". Pre-Computer Technical Museum. Archived from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 24 June 2021. Works cited Johnson, Lee Harnie (1949). The Slide Rule. D. Van Nostrand. LCCN 49009467. OCLC 1450486. OL 6049479M. Retrieved 14 June 2022 – via Internet Archive. Sangwin, Christopher J. (21 January 2003). Edmund Gunter and the Sector (PDF) (Report). School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Birmingham School of Mathematics. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.524.1614. S2CID 204765145. Retrieved 14 June 2022. Further reading Alfeld, Peter. "What Can You Do With A Slide Rule?". www.math.utah.edu. University of Utah. Archived from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021. Davis, Richard; Hume, Ted; Koppany, Bob, eds. (2012). Oughtred Society Slide Rule Reference Manual (PDF). Oughtred Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 April 2021. Harris, Charles Overton (1972). Slide Rule Simplified. Chicago: American Technical Society. ISBN 978-0-8269-2342-4. Young, Neville W. (1972). A Complete Slide Rule Manual. David M. Peterson. Archived from the original on 25 June 2021.	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Keuffel_and_Esser-Model_4181-1_Log_log_Duplex_Decitrig_slide_rule-IMG_5821-white_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"graduated markings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduation_(scale)"},{"link_name":"slide rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule"},{"link_name":"logarithmic scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithmic_scale"},{"link_name":"trigonometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometric_functions"},{"link_name":"exponential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_functions"},{"link_name":"transcendental functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_function"},{"link_name":"electronic calculators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_calculator"}],"text":"Keuffel and Esser 7\" slide rule (5\" scale, 1954)[1]A slide rule scale is a line with graduated markings inscribed along the length of a slide rule used for mathematical calculations. The earliest such device had a single logarithmic scale for performing multiplication and division, but soon an improved technique was developed which involved two such scales sliding alongside each other. Later, multiple scales were provided with the most basic being logarithmic but with others graduated according to the mathematical function required.Few slide rules have been designed for addition and subtraction, rather the main scales are used for multiplication and division and the other scales are for mathematical calculations involving trigonometric, exponential and, generally, transcendental functions. Before they were superseded by electronic calculators in the 1970s, slide rules were an important type of portable calculating instrument.","title":"Slide rule scale"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Slide rule § Physical design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule#Physical_design"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"scales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_of_measurement"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1949Preface-3"},{"link_name":"cursor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursor_(slide_rule)"},{"link_name":"[note 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-savard-5"}],"text":"Further information: Slide rule § Physical designA slide rule consists of a body[note 1] and a slider that can be slid along within the body and both of these have numerical scales inscribed on them. On duplex rules the body and/or the slider have scales on the back as well as the front.[2] The slider's scales may be visible from the back or the slider may need to be slid right out and replaced facing the other way round. A cursor (also called runner or glass) containing one (or more) hairlines[note 2] may be slid along the whole rule so that corresponding readings, front and back, can be taken from the various scales on the body and slider.[3]","title":"Slide rule design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Edmund Gunter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Gunter"},{"link_name":"logarithmic scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithmic_scale"},{"link_name":"pair of dividers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pair_of_dividers"},{"link_name":"[note 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Fuller's cylindrical slide rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuller%27s_cylindrical_slide_rule"},{"link_name":"William Oughtred","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Oughtred"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESangwin2003-10"}],"sub_title":"History","text":"In about 1620, Edmund Gunter introduced what is now known as Gunter's line as one element of the Gunter's sector he invented for mariners. The line, inscribed on wood, was a single logarithmic scale going from 1 to 100. It had no sliding parts but by using a pair of dividers it was possible to multiply and divide numbers.[note 3] The form with a single logarithmic scale eventually developed into such instruments as Fuller's cylindrical slide rule. In about 1622, but not published until 1632, William Oughtred invented linear and circular slide rules which had two logarithmic scales that slid beside each other to perform calculations. In 1654 the linear design was developed into a wooden body within which a slider could be fitted and adjusted.[6][7]","title":"Slide rule design"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aristo_0972_HyperLog_front.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aristo_0972_HyperLog_back.jpg"},{"link_name":"multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplication"},{"link_name":"division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_(algebra)"},{"link_name":"square roots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root"},{"link_name":"reciprocals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplicative_inverse"},{"link_name":"cubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_(algebra)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-erictypes-11"},{"link_name":"Amédée Mannheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9e_Mannheim"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-erictypes-11"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-savard-5"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson19491%E2%80%936-12"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson194985,_105%E2%80%93106,_133%E2%80%93135,_136%E2%80%93138,_182%E2%80%93184,_189%E2%80%93190-13"},{"link_name":"[note 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[note 5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"Front and back of Aristo 0972 HyperLog duplex rule (1973)Simple slide rules will have a C and D scale for multiplication and division, most likely an A and B for squares and square roots, and possibly CI and K for reciprocals and cubes.[8] In the early days of slide rules few scales were provided and no labelling was necessary. However, gradually the number of scales tended to increase. Amédée Mannheim introduced the A, B, C and D labels in 1859 and, after that, manufacturers began to adopt a somewhat standardised, though idiosyncratic, system of labels so the various scales could be quickly identified.[8][3]Advanced slide rules have many scales and they are often designed with particular types of user in mind, for example electrical engineers or surveyors.[9][10] \nThere are rarely scales for addition and subtraction but a workaround is possible.[note 4][11]\nThe rule illustrated is an Aristo 0972 HyperLog, which has 31 scales.[note 5] The scales in the table below are those appropriate for general mathematical use rather than for specific professions.","title":"Scales"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"power of 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_of_10"},{"link_name":"π","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi"},{"link_name":"infinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinity"},{"link_name":"logarithmic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithmic_scale"},{"link_name":"powers of 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_of_10"}],"sub_title":"Notes about table","text":"Some scales have high values at the left and low on the right. These are marked as \"decrease\" in the table above. On slide rules these are often inscribed in red rather than black or they may have arrows pointing left along the scale. See P and DI scales in detail image.\nIn slide rule terminology, \"folded\" means a scale that starts and finishes at values offset from a power of 10. Often folded scales start at π but may be extended lengthways to, say, 3.0 and 35.0. Folded scales with the code subscripted with \"M\" start and finish at log10 e to simplify conversion between base-10 and natural logarithms. When subscripted \"/M\", they fold at ln(10).\nFor mathematical reasons some scales either stop short of or extend beyond the D = 1 and 10 points. For example, arctanh(x) approaches ∞ (infinity) as x approaches 1, so the scale stops short.\nIn slide rule terminology \"log-log\" means the scale is logarithmic applied over an inherently logarithmic scale.\nSlide rule annotation generally ignores powers of 10. However, for some scales, such as log-log, decimal points are relevant and are likely to be marked.","title":"Scales"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aristo_0972_HyperLog_(detail_of_labels).jpg"},{"link_name":"π","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi"},{"link_name":"\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotation_marks_in_English"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-manley-27"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1949144%E2%80%93145,_219-28"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaugemarks-29"},{"link_name":"[note 10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaugemarks-29"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"image above","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Scales"}],"text":"Detail of some scale labels and gauge marksGauge marks are often added to the scales either marking important constants (e.g. π at 3.14159) or useful conversion coefficients (e.g. ρ\" at 1806060/π or 206.3x103 to find sine and tan of small angles[18]).[19][20] A cursor may have subsidiary hairlines beside the main one. For example, when one is over kilowatts the other indicates horsepower.[note 10][20][21] See π on the A and B scales and ρ\" on the C scale in the detail image. The Aristo 0972 has multiple cursor hairlines on its reverse side, as shown in the image above.","title":"Gauge marks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESangwin20034-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stevearisto-16"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-r1r2_22-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-r1r2_22-1"},{"link_name":"square root","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-erictypes-11"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Mskala_24-0"},{"link_name":"right triangle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_triangle"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mskalaref-23"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-savardsp_26-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-savardsp_26-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-savardsp_26-2"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-savardspecial-25"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-30"}],"text":"^ The body can also be called frame, base, stock or stator.\n\n^ A hairline is a very finely drawn line.\n\n^ To multiply two numbers, a and b, a point of the dividers is placed on the 1 marking and the dividers are adjusted so the other point is at a (or a multiple of 10 of a). Keeping the separation of the dividers fixed, one point is moved to b and the second point will indicate axb (or b/a if the second point is placed towards the 1 marking.[4][5]\n\n^ Note that (u+v)=v⋅(u/v+1) and (u-v)=v⋅(u/v-1) To implement this requires adding or subtracting 1 mentally.\n\n^ The Aristo 0952 HyperLog was being manufactured in 1973 and is 37.4 centimetres (14.7 in) in length overall with scales as follows. Front: LL00, LL01, LL02, LL03, DF (on the slider CF, CIF, L, CI, C) D, LL3, LL2, LL1 and LL00. Back: H2, Sh2, Th, K, A (on the slider B, T, ST, S, P, C) D, DI, Ch, Sh1, H1. Its gauge marks are π, ρ', ρ, e, 1/e, √2.[12][13]\n\n^ Whether annotations increase or decrease from left to right.\n\n^ a b R1/R2 often easier to use for square root than A and B.[8]\n\n^ The Polish firm Skala had an \"M\" scale used in right triangle solutions.[16]\n\n^ a b c See Savard for special considerations.[17]\n\n^ See image above of the back of the Aristo slide rule.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"What Can You Do With A Slide Rule?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.math.utah.edu/~alfeld/sliderules/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210625195930/https://www.math.utah.edu/~alfeld/sliderules/"},{"link_name":"Oughtred Society Slide Rule Reference Manual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.oughtred.org/books/OSSlideRuleReferenceManualrevA.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210426121808/http://www.oughtred.org/books/OSSlideRuleReferenceManualrevA.pdf"},{"link_name":"Slide Rule Simplified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/sliderulesimplif0000harr/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8269-2342-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8269-2342-4"},{"link_name":"A Complete Slide Rule Manual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.qsl.net/ke4qdm/pdfmanual.htm"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210625200858/https://www.qsl.net/ke4qdm/pdfmanual.htm"}],"text":"Alfeld, Peter. \"What Can You Do With A Slide Rule?\". www.math.utah.edu. University of Utah. Archived from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.\nDavis, Richard; Hume, Ted; Koppany, Bob, eds. (2012). Oughtred Society Slide Rule Reference Manual (PDF). Oughtred Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 April 2021.\nHarris, Charles Overton (1972). Slide Rule Simplified. Chicago: American Technical Society. ISBN 978-0-8269-2342-4.\nYoung, Neville W. (1972). A Complete Slide Rule Manual. David M. Peterson. Archived from the original on 25 June 2021.","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"Keuffel and Esser 7\" slide rule (5\" scale, 1954)[1]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Keuffel_and_Esser-Model_4181-1_Log_log_Duplex_Decitrig_slide_rule-IMG_5821-white_%28cropped%29.jpg/360px-Keuffel_and_Esser-Model_4181-1_Log_log_Duplex_Decitrig_slide_rule-IMG_5821-white_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Detail of some scale labels and gauge marks","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Aristo_0972_HyperLog_%28detail_of_labels%29.jpg/350px-Aristo_0972_HyperLog_%28detail_of_labels%29.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"\"Slide Rule and Planimeter Sections\". K&E Catalog 42nd Edition. Keuffel and Esser. 1954. p. 279. Archived from the original on 7 April 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mccoys-kecatalogs.com/KECatalogs/1954/1954kecatp278.htm","url_text":"K&E Catalog 42nd Edition"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210407131817/http://www.mccoys-kecatalogs.com/KECatalogs/1954/1954kecatp278.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Savard, John J. G. \"Types of Slide Rules\". www.quadibloc.com. Quadribloc. Archived from the original on 28 September 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.quadibloc.com/math/sr03.htm","url_text":"\"Types of Slide Rules\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200928212105/http://www.quadibloc.com/math/sr03.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Slide Rules\". Museum of HP Calculators. Hewlett Packard. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hpmuseum.org/sliderul.htm","url_text":"\"Slide Rules\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210507055204/https://www.hpmuseum.org/sliderul.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Smith, David E. (1958). History of Mathematics, Vol. II. Dover Publications. p. 205. ISBN 9780486204307.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486204307","url_text":"9780486204307"}]},{"reference":"Stoll, Cliff (May 2006). \"When Slide Rules Ruled\". Scientific American. 294 (5): 80–87. Bibcode:2006SciAm.294e..80S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0506-80. PMID 16708492.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006SciAm.294e..80S","url_text":"2006SciAm.294e..80S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0506-80","url_text":"10.1038/scientificamerican0506-80"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16708492","url_text":"16708492"}]},{"reference":"Cajori, Florian (1920). On the history of Gunter's scale and the slide rule during the seventeenth century. University of California press.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/113597_001_009/page/n3/mode/2up","url_text":"On the history of Gunter's scale and the slide rule during the seventeenth century"}]},{"reference":"Marcotte, Eric. \"Types of Slide Rules and their Scales\". Eric's Slide Rule Site. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 24 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sliderule.ca/scales.htm","url_text":"\"Types of Slide Rules and their Scales\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210331032653/http://www.sliderule.ca/scales.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Nikitin, Andrey. \"Addition and subtraction with slide rule\". nsg.upor.net. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://nsg.upor.net/slide/sradd.htm","url_text":"\"Addition and subtraction with slide rule\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201111193530/http://www.nsg.upor.net/slide/sradd.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Seale, Steve K. \"Aristo 0972 Hyperlog\". Steve's Slide Rules. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020. Retrieved 24 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.steves-sliderules.info/rule%20code/Aristo%200972.html","url_text":"\"Aristo 0972 Hyperlog\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200125184211/http://www.steves-sliderules.info/rule%20code/Aristo%200972.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hamann, Christian M. \"Aristo - Hyperlog ( 25 cm scales )\". public.beuth-hochschule.de. Archived from the original on 4 April 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://public.beuth-hochschule.de/hamann/sliderules/arihyp.html","url_text":"\"Aristo - Hyperlog ( 25 cm scales )\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160404175313/http://public.beuth-hochschule.de/hamann/sliderules/arihyp.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hamman, Christian-M. \"The Principle of Slide Rules Appendix D\". Beuth University of Applied Sciences. Archived from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://public.beuth-hochschule.de/hamann/sliderules","url_text":"\"The Principle of Slide Rules Appendix D\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200919122400/http://public.beuth-hochschule.de/hamann/sliderules/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"International Slide Rule Museum. \"Illustrated Self-Guided Course On How To Use The Slide Rule\". sliderulemuseum.com. International Slide Rule Museum. Archived from the original on 23 May 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://sliderulemuseum.com/SR_Course.htm#Scales","url_text":"\"Illustrated Self-Guided Course On How To Use The Slide Rule\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210523042758/https://www.sliderulemuseum.com/SR_Course.htm#Scales","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sphere Research. \"Slide Rule Scales Page\". www.sphere.bc.ca. Sphere Research. Archived from the original on 6 April 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sphere.bc.ca/test/scales.html","url_text":"\"Slide Rule Scales Page\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210406220008/https://www.sphere.bc.ca/test/scales.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Savard, John J. G. \"How Did a Slide Rule Work?\". www.quadibloc.com. Quadribloc. Archived from the original on 10 October 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.quadibloc.com/math/slrint.htm","url_text":"\"How Did a Slide Rule Work?\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201010032114/http://www.quadibloc.com/math/slrint.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Carrasco, Angel (1 May 2021). \"The \"M\" Scale in Polish Skala Slide Rules\" (PDF). Translated by González, Alvaro; Fernández-Raventós, José Gabriel.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reglasdecalculo.com/presentaciones/escala_m/m_scale_uk.pdf","url_text":"\"The \"M\" Scale in Polish Skala Slide Rules\""}]},{"reference":"Savard, John J. G. \"Special Scales\". www.quadibloc.com. Quadribloc. Archived from the original on 13 June 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.quadibloc.com/math/sr02.htm","url_text":"\"Special Scales\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210613151701/http://www.quadibloc.com/math/sr02.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Manley, Ron. \"Gauge points for small angles\". www.sliderules.info. Archived from the original on 18 March 2021. Retrieved 26 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sliderules.info/a-to-z/trig/gaugepoints.htm","url_text":"\"Gauge points for small angles\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210318192130/http://www.sliderules.info/a-to-z/trig/gaugepoints.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Seale, Steve K. \"Gauge marks\". Steve's Slide Rules. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 23 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.steves-sliderules.info/rule%20code/Gaugepoints.html","url_text":"\"Gauge marks\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200121224604/http://www.steves-sliderules.info/rule%20code/Gaugepoints.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Fernández, J.G. (30 April 2009). \"Peripheral Hairlines in FaberCastell Cursors Layout and uses\". slidetodoc.com. Archived from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://slidetodoc.com/peripheral-hairlines-in-fabercastell-cursors-layout-and-uses/","url_text":"\"Peripheral Hairlines in FaberCastell Cursors Layout and uses\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210625195426/https://slidetodoc.com/peripheral-hairlines-in-fabercastell-cursors-layout-and-uses/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Manley, Ron. \"Cursor hair lines\". www.sliderules.info. Archived from the original on 18 March 2021. Retrieved 26 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sliderules.info/a-to-z/cursor.htm","url_text":"\"Cursor hair lines\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210318185253/http://www.sliderules.info/a-to-z/cursor.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hamman, Christian-M. \"Slide Rules & Slide Calculators: (F) Marks on Slide Rules and their Meaning\". Pre-Computer Technical Museum. Archived from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 24 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://public.beuth-hochschule.de/hamann/sliderules/srmain.html#88","url_text":"\"Slide Rules & Slide Calculators: (F) Marks on Slide Rules and their Meaning\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210104123446/http://public.beuth-hochschule.de/hamann/sliderules/srmain.html#88","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Johnson, Lee Harnie (1949). The Slide Rule. D. Van Nostrand. LCCN 49009467. OCLC 1450486. OL 6049479M. Retrieved 14 June 2022 – via Internet Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/sliderule00john","url_text":"The Slide Rule"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Van_Nostrand","url_text":"D. Van Nostrand"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/49009467","url_text":"49009467"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1450486","url_text":"1450486"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OL_(identifier)","url_text":"OL"},{"url":"https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6049479M","url_text":"6049479M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive","url_text":"Internet Archive"}]},{"reference":"Sangwin, Christopher J. (21 January 2003). Edmund Gunter and the Sector (PDF) (Report). School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Birmingham School of Mathematics. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.524.1614. S2CID 204765145. Retrieved 14 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sliderulemuseum.com/Papers/EdmundGunterAndTheSector_ByCJSangwin.pdf","url_text":"Edmund Gunter and the Sector"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Birmingham","url_text":"School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Birmingham School of Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.524.1614","url_text":"10.1.1.524.1614"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:204765145","url_text":"204765145"}]},{"reference":"Alfeld, Peter. \"What Can You Do With A Slide Rule?\". www.math.utah.edu. University of Utah. Archived from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.math.utah.edu/~alfeld/sliderules/","url_text":"\"What Can You Do With A Slide Rule?\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210625195930/https://www.math.utah.edu/~alfeld/sliderules/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Davis, Richard; Hume, Ted; Koppany, Bob, eds. (2012). Oughtred Society Slide Rule Reference Manual (PDF). Oughtred Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.oughtred.org/books/OSSlideRuleReferenceManualrevA.pdf","url_text":"Oughtred Society Slide Rule Reference Manual"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210426121808/http://www.oughtred.org/books/OSSlideRuleReferenceManualrevA.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Harris, Charles Overton (1972). Slide Rule Simplified. Chicago: American Technical Society. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAP_NetWeaver_Application_Server	SAP NetWeaver Application Server	["1 Architecture","2 Security","2.1 Authentication","2.2 Communications","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]	Component of SAP NetWeaver SAP NetWeaver Application Server or SAP Web Application Server is a component of SAP NetWeaver which works as a web application server for SAP products. All ABAP application servers including the message server represent the application layer of the multitier architecture of an ABAP-based SAP system. These application servers execute ABAP applications and communicate with the presentation components, the database, and also with each other, using the message server. Architecture The architecture of SAP Web Application Server can be separated into 5 areas: Presentation layer In the presentation layer, the user interface can be developed with JavaServer Pages (JSP), Business Server Pages (BSP), or with Web Dynpro technology. The underlying business layer provides the business content in Java or ABAP. Business layer The business layer consists of a J2EE certified run-time environment that processes the requests passed from the Internet Communication Manager (ICM) and dynamically generates the responses. The business logic can be written either in ABAP or in Java based on the J2EE standard. Developers can implement business logic and persistence with Enterprise JavaBeans (EJB) using the J2EE environment. Developers can also access the business objects of applications running in the ABAP environment to benefit from their business logic and persistence. Integration layer The local integration engine is an integral part of SAP Web AS and allows instant connection to SAP NetWeaver Process Integration (SAP PI; formerly called SAP Exchange Infrastructure). The local integration engine provides messaging services that exchange messages between the components that are connected in SAP PI. Connectivity layer The Internet Communication Manager (ICM) dispatches user interface requests to the presentation layer and provides a single framework for connectivity using various communication protocols. Currently, modules are available for Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), HTTPS (extension of HTTP running under the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP), and Fast Common Gateway Interface (FastCGI). Persistence layer The persistence layer supports database independence and scalable transaction handling. Business logic can be developed completely independent of the underlying database and operating system. Database independence is also made possible by support for open standards. The database interface ensures optimized data access from within the ABAP environment through Open SQL. SAP propagates the outstanding capabilities of Open SQL for ABAP to Open SQL for Java and offers a variety of standard Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) to application programmers, such as SQLJ. Other technologies, such as Java Data Objects (JDO) and Container-Managed Persistence (CMP) for EJB, or the direct use of the Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) API, are also supported. Security Authentication The SAP NetWeaver AS can accept multiple forms of authentication: SAP Logon Ticket with appropriate configuration. Other single sign-on technology that utilizes x.509 certificates and the combination of Secure Network Communications (SNC) and Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) for one standardize authentication platform. Communications The SAP NetWeaver Application Server's connectivity layer supports HTTPS which is required for encrypted communications via Secure Sockets Layer. It is possible to enable SSL using the SAP Cryptographic Library. If a company is running with traditional SAP systems that only uses RFC and DIAG protocols, Secure Network Communications is required for encrypted communications as well See also Comparison of application servers Secure Network Communications Secure Sockets Layer x.509 Single Sign-On References ^ Configuring SAP Web AS ABAP to Accept Logon Tickets from the J2EE Engine ^ Enabling SSL in the SAP NetWeaver Application Server ^ Secure Network Communications External links ABAP Development discussions, blogs, documents and videos on the SAP Community Network (SCN) SAP Netweaver Capabilities - Java Development discussions, blogs, documents and videos on the SAP Community Network (SCN)	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SAP NetWeaver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAP_NetWeaver"},{"link_name":"SAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAP_AG"},{"link_name":"ABAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABAP"},{"link_name":"multitier architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multitier_architecture"}],"text":"SAP NetWeaver Application Server or SAP Web Application Server is a component of SAP NetWeaver which works as a web application server for SAP products.\nAll ABAP application servers including the message server represent the application layer of the multitier architecture of an ABAP-based SAP system. These application servers execute ABAP applications and communicate with the presentation components, the database, and also with each other, using the message server.","title":"SAP NetWeaver Application Server"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"JavaServer Pages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaServer_Pages"},{"link_name":"Web Dynpro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Dynpro"},{"link_name":"J2EE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J2EE"},{"link_name":"Enterprise JavaBeans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_JavaBeans"},{"link_name":"SAP NetWeaver Process Integration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAP_NetWeaver_Process_Integration"},{"link_name":"Hypertext Transfer Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol"},{"link_name":"HTTPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS"},{"link_name":"Secure Sockets Layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Sockets_Layer"},{"link_name":"Simple Mail Transfer Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol"},{"link_name":"Simple Object Access Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Object_Access_Protocol"},{"link_name":"Fast Common Gateway Interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FastCGI"},{"link_name":"transaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_transaction"},{"link_name":"Open SQL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Open_SQL&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Application Programming Interfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_Programming_Interface"},{"link_name":"SQLJ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQLJ"},{"link_name":"Java Data Objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_Data_Objects"},{"link_name":"Container-Managed Persistence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container-Managed_Persistence"},{"link_name":"CMP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container-Managed_Persistence"},{"link_name":"Java Database Connectivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_Database_Connectivity"}],"text":"The architecture of SAP Web Application Server can be separated into 5 areas:Presentation layer\nIn the presentation layer, the user interface can be developed with JavaServer Pages (JSP), Business Server Pages (BSP), or with Web Dynpro technology. 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The local integration engine provides messaging services that exchange messages between the components that are connected in SAP PI.\nConnectivity layer\nThe Internet Communication Manager (ICM) dispatches user interface requests to the presentation layer and provides a single framework for connectivity using various communication protocols. Currently, modules are available for Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), HTTPS (extension of HTTP running under the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP), and Fast Common Gateway Interface (FastCGI).\nPersistence layer\nThe persistence layer supports database independence and scalable transaction handling. Business logic can be developed completely independent of the underlying database and operating system. Database independence is also made possible by support for open standards. The database interface ensures optimized data access from within the ABAP environment through Open SQL. SAP propagates the outstanding capabilities of Open SQL for ABAP to Open SQL for Java and offers a variety of standard Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) to application programmers, such as SQLJ. Other technologies, such as Java Data Objects (JDO) and Container-Managed Persistence (CMP) for EJB, or the direct use of the Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) API, are also supported.","title":"Architecture"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Security"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SAP Logon Ticket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAP_Logon_Ticket"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"single sign-on","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_sign-on"},{"link_name":"x.509","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.509"},{"link_name":"Secure Network Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Network_Communications"},{"link_name":"Secure Sockets Layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Sockets_Layer"}],"sub_title":"Authentication","text":"The SAP NetWeaver AS can accept multiple forms of authentication:SAP Logon Ticket with appropriate configuration.[1]\nOther single sign-on technology that utilizes x.509 certificates and the combination of Secure Network Communications (SNC) and Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) for one standardize authentication platform.","title":"Security"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"HTTPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS"},{"link_name":"Secure Sockets Layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Sockets_Layer"},{"link_name":"SAP Cryptographic Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SAP_Cryptographic_Library&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_function_call"},{"link_name":"DIAG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DIAG&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Secure Network Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Network_Communications"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Communications","text":"The SAP NetWeaver Application Server's connectivity layer supports HTTPS which is required for encrypted communications via Secure Sockets Layer. It is possible to enable SSL using the SAP Cryptographic Library.[2] If a company is running with traditional SAP systems that only uses RFC and DIAG protocols, Secure Network Communications is required for encrypted communications as well[3]","title":"Security"}]	[]	[{"title":"Comparison of application servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_application_servers"},{"title":"Secure Network Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Network_Communications"},{"title":"Secure Sockets Layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Sockets_Layer"},{"title":"x.509","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.509"},{"title":"Single Sign-On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_Sign-On"}]	[]	[{"Link":"http://help.sap.com/erp2005_ehp_04/helpdata/EN/61/42897de269cf44b35f9395978cc9cb/frameset.htm","external_links_name":"Configuring SAP Web AS ABAP to Accept Logon Tickets from the J2EE Engine"},{"Link":"https://cw.sdn.sap.com/cw/docs/DOC-27593?treeid=DOC-8319","external_links_name":"Enabling SSL in the SAP NetWeaver Application Server"},{"Link":"http://help.sap.com/saphelp_46c/helpdata/EN/4f/992d65446d11d189700000e8322d00/content.htm","external_links_name":"Secure Network Communications"},{"Link":"http://scn.sap.com/community/abap","external_links_name":"ABAP Development"},{"Link":"http://scn.sap.com/welcome","external_links_name":"SAP Community Network (SCN)"},{"Link":"http://scn.sap.com/community/java","external_links_name":"SAP Netweaver Capabilities - Java Development"},{"Link":"http://scn.sap.com/welcome","external_links_name":"SAP Community Network (SCN)"}]

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