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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetware_(brain)
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Wetware (brain)
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["1 Usage","2 History","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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Term drawn from the idea of hardware or software
For other uses, see Wetware.
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Look up wetware in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wetware is a term drawn from the computer-related idea of hardware or software, but applied to biological life forms.
Usage
The prefix "wet" is a reference to the water found in living creatures. Wetware is used to describe the elements equivalent to hardware and software found in a person, especially the central nervous system (CNS) and the human mind. The term wetware finds use in works of fiction, in scholarly publications and in popularizations.
The "hardware" component of wetware concerns the bioelectric and biochemical properties of the CNS, specifically the brain. If the sequence of impulses traveling across the various neurons are thought of symbolically as software, then the physical neurons would be the hardware. The amalgamated interaction of this software and hardware is manifested through continuously changing physical connections, and chemical and electrical influences that spread across the body. The process by which the mind and brain interact to produce the collection of experiences that we define as self-awareness is in question.
History
Although the exact definition has shifted over time, the term Wetware and its fundamental reference to "the physical mind" has been around at least since the mid-1950s. Mostly used in relatively obscure articles and papers, it was not until the heyday of cyberpunk, however, that the term found broad adoption. Among the first uses of the term in popular culture was the Bruce Sterling novel Schismatrix (1985) and the Michael Swanwick novel Vacuum Flowers (1987).
Rudy Rucker references the term in a number of books, including one entitled Wetware (1988): ... all sparks and tastes and tangles, all its stimulus/response patterns – the whole bio-cybernetic software of mind. Rucker did not use the word to simply mean a brain, nor in the human-resources sense of employees. He used wetware to stand for the data found in any biological system, analogous perhaps to the firmware that is found in a ROM chip. In Rucker's sense, a seed, a plant graft, an embryo, or a biological virus are all wetware. DNA, the immune system, and the evolved neural architecture of the brain are further examples of wetware in this sense.
Rucker describes his conception in a 1992 compendium The Mondo 2000 User's Guide to the New Edge, which he quotes in a 2007 blog entry.
Early cyber-guru Arthur Kroker used the term in his blog.
With the term getting traction in trendsetting publications, it became a buzzword in the early 1990s. In 1991, Dutch media theorist Geert Lovink organized the Wetware Convention in Amsterdam, which was supposed to be an antidote to the "out-of-body" experiments conducted in high-tech laboratories, such as experiments in virtual reality.
Timothy Leary, in an appendix to Info-Psychology originally written in 1975–76 and published in 1989, used the term wetware, writing that "psychedelic neuro-transmitters were the hot new technology for booting-up the 'wetware' of the brain". Another common reference is: "Wetware has 7 plus or minus 2 temporary registers." The numerical allusion is to a classic 1957 article by George A. Miller, The magical number 7 plus or minus two: some limits in our capacity for processing information, which later gave way to the Miller's law.
See also
Biohacker
Grindhouse Wetware
Biopunk
Brain–computer interface
Cybernetics
Cyberware
Intelligence amplification
Liveware
Meatspace
Neurotechnology
Philosophy of mind
Wetware computer
References
^ Russell, Stephen; Abdelzaher, Tarek (2018). "The Internet of Battlefield Things: The Next Generation of Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence (C3I) Decision-Making". MILCOM 2018 - 2018 IEEE Military Communications Conference (MILCOM). pp. 737–742. doi:10.1109/MILCOM.2018.8599853. ISBN 978-1-5386-7185-6. S2CID 57377070.
^ Dennett, Daniel (May 13, 2015). Information, Evolution, and intelligent Design. Royal Institution. Event occurs at 7m16s. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
^ Rucker, Rudy (1988). Wetware. Ware Tetralogy. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 0-380-70178-2. LCCN 87-91688. OL 7432394M.
^ Rucker, Rudy (August 25, 2007). "What is Wetware?". Rudy’s Blog. Rudy Rucker Portal. Retrieved 2021-08-09.
^ Kroker, Arthur (August 22, 1993). "RU Wetware?". Reviews. CTheory. Archived from the original on 2020-05-28.
External links
Rat-brain robot aids memory study
"Illegal Knowledge" A text about wetware written by the writers' collective of which Lovink was a part
|
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Wetware is used to describe the elements equivalent to hardware and software found in a person, especially the central nervous system (CNS) and the human mind. The term wetware finds use in works of fiction, in scholarly publications[1] and in popularizations.[2]The \"hardware\" component of wetware concerns the bioelectric and biochemical properties of the CNS, specifically the brain. If the sequence of impulses traveling across the various neurons are thought of symbolically as software, then the physical neurons would be the hardware. The amalgamated interaction of this software and hardware is manifested through continuously changing physical connections, and chemical and electrical influences that spread across the body. The process by which the mind and brain interact to produce the collection of experiences that we define as self-awareness is in question.[citation needed]","title":"Usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cyberpunk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberpunk"},{"link_name":"Bruce Sterling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Sterling"},{"link_name":"Schismatrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schismatrix"},{"link_name":"1985","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985_in_literature"},{"link_name":"Michael Swanwick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Swanwick"},{"link_name":"Vacuum Flowers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_Flowers"},{"link_name":"1987","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987_in_literature"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Rudy Rucker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudy_Rucker"},{"link_name":"Wetware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetware_(novel)"},{"link_name":"1988","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988_in_literature"},{"link_name":"ROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Arthur Kroker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Kroker"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Geert Lovink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geert_Lovink"},{"link_name":"Amsterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"virtual reality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Timothy Leary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Leary"},{"link_name":"George A. Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller"},{"link_name":"The magical number 7 plus or minus two: some limits in our capacity for processing information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Magical_Number_Seven,_Plus_or_Minus_Two"},{"link_name":"Miller's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller%27s_law#In_psychology"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Although the exact definition has shifted over time, the term Wetware and its fundamental reference to \"the physical mind\" has been around at least since the mid-1950s. Mostly used in relatively obscure articles and papers, it was not until the heyday of cyberpunk, however, that the term found broad adoption. Among the first uses of the term in popular culture was the Bruce Sterling novel Schismatrix (1985) and the Michael Swanwick novel Vacuum Flowers (1987).[citation needed]Rudy Rucker references the term in a number of books, including one entitled Wetware (1988):... all sparks and tastes and tangles, all its stimulus/response patterns – the whole bio-cybernetic software of mind.Rucker did not use the word to simply mean a brain, nor in the human-resources sense of employees. He used wetware to stand for the data found in any biological system, analogous perhaps to the firmware that is found in a ROM chip. In Rucker's sense, a seed, a plant graft, an embryo, or a biological virus are all wetware. DNA, the immune system, and the evolved neural architecture of the brain are further examples of wetware in this sense.[3]Rucker describes his conception in a 1992 compendium The Mondo 2000 User's Guide to the New Edge, which he quotes in a 2007 blog entry.[4]Early cyber-guru Arthur Kroker used the term in his blog.[5]With the term getting traction in trendsetting publications, it became a buzzword in the early 1990s. In 1991, Dutch media theorist Geert Lovink organized the Wetware Convention in Amsterdam, which was supposed to be an antidote to the \"out-of-body\" experiments conducted in high-tech laboratories, such as experiments in virtual reality.[citation needed]Timothy Leary, in an appendix to Info-Psychology originally written in 1975–76 and published in 1989, used the term wetware, writing that \"psychedelic neuro-transmitters were the hot new technology for booting-up the 'wetware' of the brain\". Another common reference is: \"Wetware has 7 plus or minus 2 temporary registers.\" The numerical allusion is to a classic 1957 article by George A. Miller, The magical number 7 plus or minus two: some limits in our capacity for processing information, which later gave way to the Miller's law.[citation needed]","title":"History"}]
|
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oulu_Botanical_Gardens
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University of Oulu Botanical Gardens
|
["1 References","2 External links"]
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Coordinates: 65°3′47″N 25°27′55″E / 65.06306°N 25.46528°E / 65.06306; 25.46528Botanical garden in Oulu, Finland
Botanical garden greenhouses.
The Botanical Garden of the University of Oulu is one of the northernmost scientific gardens in the world. Botanical Garden collection of plants is maintained for teaching and research purposes and it is open to the public.
Collections include more than 4,000 different plant species and provide an overview of global vegetation diversity. Botanical Garden is also a testing and experimental area for many new and rare plants.
The landmark of the Oulu Botanical Garden are the pyramid-shaped greenhouses Romeo and Julia where about 1,200 exotic plant species are presented.
The University of Oulu Botanical Gardens are located on the main campus of the University of Oulu in Linnanmaa district in Oulu, Finland on the shore of Lake Kuivasjärvi. Botanical gardens were moved to Linnanmaa from the Hupisaaret Islands park near the city centre in the summer of 1983.
In the same premises with the Botanical Garden are also located University of Oulu Botanical and Zoological Museums.
The Botanical Museum is responsible for species information in a large part of Northern Finland and acts as an expert in its field. The activities of the museum are coordinated with the Central Museum of Natural History.
The Zoological Museum conducts high-level international research in the field of animal taxonomy and systematics and biogeography. Areas of research include evolutionary biology, conservation biology, and issues related to endangered species.
Museum collections are currently not available to public.
References
University of Oulu Botanical Garden Retrieved 21 January 2021.
University of Oulu Botanical Museum Retrieved 21 January 2021.
University of Oulu Zoological Museum Retrieved 21 January 2021.
External links
Media related to Botanical Gardens of Oulu University at Wikimedia Commons
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
United States
65°3′47″N 25°27′55″E / 65.06306°N 25.46528°E / 65.06306; 25.46528
|
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|
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQLAlchemy
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SQLAlchemy
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["1 Description","2 History","3 Example","3.1 Schema definition","3.2 Data insertion","3.3 Querying","4 See also","5 References"]
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SQL toolkit and object-relational mapper
This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Abbreviated SQLAlchemy LogoOriginal author(s)Michael BayerInitial releaseFebruary 14, 2006; 18 years ago (2006-02-14)Stable release2.0.30
/ 5 May 2024; 41 days ago (5 May 2024)
Repositorygithub.com/sqlalchemy/sqlalchemy
Written inPythonOperating systemCross-platformTypeObject-relational mappingLicenseMIT LicenseWebsitewww.sqlalchemy.org
Mike Bayer talking about SQLAlchemy at PyCon 2012
SQLAlchemy is an open-source SQL toolkit and object-relational mapper (ORM) for the Python programming language released under the MIT License.
Description
SQLAlchemy's philosophy is that relational databases behave less like object collections as the scale gets larger and performance starts being a concern, while object collections behave less like tables and rows as more abstraction is designed into them. For this reason it has adopted the data mapper pattern (similar to Hibernate for Java) rather than the active record pattern used by a number of other object-relational mappers.
History
SQLAlchemy was first released in February 2006. SQLAlchemy beta 2.0 was released in October 2022, and the full 2.0 release in early 2023. The current release, 2.0.28, was released in March, 2024.
Example
The following example represents an n-to-1 relationship between movies and their directors. It is shown how user-defined Python classes create corresponding database tables, how instances with relationships are created from either side of the relationship, and finally how the data can be queried — illustrating automatically generated SQL queries for both lazy and eager loading.
Schema definition
Creating two Python classes and corresponding database tables in the DBMS:
from sqlalchemy import *
from sqlalchemy.ext.declarative import declarative_base
from sqlalchemy.orm import relation, sessionmaker
Base = declarative_base()
class Movie(Base):
__tablename__ = "movies"
id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
title = Column(String(255), nullable=False)
year = Column(Integer)
directed_by = Column(Integer, ForeignKey("directors.id"))
director = relation("Director", backref="movies", lazy=False)
def __init__(self, title=None, year=None):
self.title = title
self.year = year
def __repr__(self):
return f"Movie({self.title}, {self.year}, {self.director})"
class Director(Base):
__tablename__ = "directors"
id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
name = Column(String(50), nullable=False, unique=True)
def __init__(self, name=None):
self.name = name
def __repr__(self):
return f"Director({self.name})"
engine = create_engine("dbms://user:pwd@host/dbname")
Base.metadata.create_all(engine)
Data insertion
One can insert a director-movie relationship via either entity:
Session = sessionmaker(bind=engine)
session = Session()
m1 = Movie("Robocop", 1987)
m1.director = Director("Paul Verhoeven")
d2 = Director("George Lucas")
d2.movies =
try:
session.add(m1)
session.add(d2)
session.commit()
except:
session.rollback()
Querying
alldata = session.query(Movie).all()
for somedata in alldata:
print(somedata)
SQLAlchemy issues the following query to the DBMS (omitting aliases):
SELECT movies.id, movies.title, movies.year, movies.directed_by, directors.id, directors.name
FROM movies LEFT OUTER JOIN directors ON directors.id = movies.directed_by
The output:
Movie('Robocop', 1987L, Director('Paul Verhoeven'))
Movie('Star Wars', 1977L, Director('George Lucas'))
Movie('THX 1138', 1971L, Director('George Lucas'))
Setting lazy=True (default) instead, SQLAlchemy would first issue a query to get the list of movies and only when needed (lazy) for each director a query to get the name of the corresponding director:
SELECT movies.id, movies.title, movies.year, movies.directed_by
FROM movies
SELECT directors.id, directors.name
FROM directors
WHERE directors.id = %s
See also
Free and open-source software portal
SQLObject
Storm
Pylons
TurboGears
Cubes (OLAP server)
References
^ Mike Bayer is the creator of SQLAlchemy and Mako Templates for Python.
^ Interview Mike Bayer SQLAlchemy #pydata #python
^ a b "Download - SQLAlchemy". SQLAlchemy. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
^ "Release 2.0.30". 5 May 2024. Retrieved 25 May 2024.
^ a b "zzzeek / sqlalchemy / source / LICENSE". BitBucket. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
^ in The architecture of open source applications
^ Zaczyński, Bartosz. "Python News: What's New From October 2022". realpython.com.
^ Yegulalp, Serdar. "The best ORMs for database-powered Python apps". www.arnnet.com.au.
^ "SQLAlchemy Documentation — SQLAlchemy 2.0 Documentation". docs.sqlalchemy.org. Retrieved 2024-03-04.
Notes
Gift, Noah (12 Aug 2008). "Using SQLAlchemy". Developerworks. IBM. Retrieved 8 Feb 2011.
Rick Copeland, Essential SQLAlchemy, O'Reilly, 2008, ISBN 0-596-51614-2
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For this reason it has adopted the data mapper pattern (similar to Hibernate for Java) rather than the active record pattern used by a number of other object-relational mappers.[6]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-releases-3"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"SQLAlchemy was first released in February 2006. [3] SQLAlchemy beta 2.0 was released in October 2022, and the full 2.0 release in early 2023.[7][8] The current release, 2.0.28, was released in March, 2024.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lazy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazy_loading"}],"text":"The following example represents an n-to-1 relationship between movies and their directors. It is shown how user-defined Python classes create corresponding database tables, how instances with relationships are created from either side of the relationship, and finally how the data can be queried — illustrating automatically generated SQL queries for both lazy and eager loading.","title":"Example"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Schema definition","text":"Creating two Python classes and corresponding database tables in the DBMS:from sqlalchemy import *\nfrom sqlalchemy.ext.declarative import declarative_base\nfrom sqlalchemy.orm import relation, sessionmaker\n\nBase = declarative_base()\n\nclass Movie(Base):\n __tablename__ = \"movies\"\n\n id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)\n title = Column(String(255), nullable=False)\n year = Column(Integer)\n directed_by = Column(Integer, ForeignKey(\"directors.id\"))\n\n director = relation(\"Director\", backref=\"movies\", lazy=False)\n\n def __init__(self, title=None, year=None):\n self.title = title\n self.year = year\n\n def __repr__(self):\n return f\"Movie({self.title}, {self.year}, {self.director})\"\n\nclass Director(Base):\n __tablename__ = \"directors\"\n\n id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)\n name = Column(String(50), nullable=False, unique=True)\n\n def __init__(self, name=None):\n self.name = name\n\n def __repr__(self):\n return f\"Director({self.name})\"\n\nengine = create_engine(\"dbms://user:pwd@host/dbname\")\nBase.metadata.create_all(engine)","title":"Example"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Data insertion","text":"One can insert a director-movie relationship via either entity:Session = sessionmaker(bind=engine)\nsession = Session()\n\nm1 = Movie(\"Robocop\", 1987)\nm1.director = Director(\"Paul Verhoeven\")\n\nd2 = Director(\"George Lucas\")\nd2.movies = [Movie(\"Star Wars\", 1977), Movie(\"THX 1138\", 1971)]\n\ntry:\n session.add(m1)\n session.add(d2)\n session.commit()\nexcept:\n session.rollback()","title":"Example"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Querying","text":"alldata = session.query(Movie).all()\nfor somedata in alldata:\n print(somedata)SQLAlchemy issues the following query to the DBMS (omitting aliases):SELECT movies.id, movies.title, movies.year, movies.directed_by, directors.id, directors.name\nFROM movies LEFT OUTER JOIN directors ON directors.id = movies.directed_byThe output:Movie('Robocop', 1987L, Director('Paul Verhoeven'))\nMovie('Star Wars', 1977L, Director('George Lucas'))\nMovie('THX 1138', 1971L, Director('George Lucas'))Setting lazy=True (default) instead, SQLAlchemy would first issue a query to get the list of movies and only when needed (lazy) for each director a query to get the name of the corresponding director:SELECT movies.id, movies.title, movies.year, movies.directed_by\nFROM movies\n\nSELECT directors.id, directors.name\nFROM directors\nWHERE directors.id = %s","title":"Example"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Mike Bayer talking about SQLAlchemy at PyCon 2012","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Mike_Bayer_talking_about_SQLAlchemy_at_PyCon_2012_a.jpg/220px-Mike_Bayer_talking_about_SQLAlchemy_at_PyCon_2012_a.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Free and open-source software portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Free_and_open-source_software"},{"title":"SQLObject","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQLObject"},{"title":"Storm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_(software)"},{"title":"Pylons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pylons_project"},{"title":"TurboGears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TurboGears"},{"title":"Cubes (OLAP server)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubes_(OLAP_server)"}]
|
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|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bennett%27s_laws
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Bennett's laws
|
["1 References"]
|
For the economic law, see Bennett's law.
This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: "Bennett's laws" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2024)
Bennett's laws of quantum information are:
1 qubit
⩾
{\displaystyle \geqslant }
1 bit (classical),
1 qubit
⩾
{\displaystyle \geqslant }
1 ebit (entanglement bit),
1 ebit + 1 qubit
⩾
{\displaystyle \geqslant }
2 bits (i.e. superdense coding),
1 ebit + 2 bits
⩾
{\displaystyle \geqslant }
1 qubit (i.e. quantum teleportation),
where
⩾
{\displaystyle \geqslant }
indicates "can do the job of".
These principles were formulated around 1993 by Charles H. Bennett.
References
Quantum Mechanics: The Physics of the Microscopic World, Benjamin Schumacher, The Teaching Company, lecture 21
This quantum mechanics-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This computing article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bennett's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bennett%27s_law"},{"link_name":"quantum information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_information"},{"link_name":"qubit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qubit"},{"link_name":"bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit"},{"link_name":"ebit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_state"},{"link_name":"entanglement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_entanglement"},{"link_name":"superdense coding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superdense_coding"},{"link_name":"quantum teleportation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_teleportation"},{"link_name":"Charles H. Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_H._Bennett_(computer_scientist)"}],"text":"For the economic law, see Bennett's law.Bennett's laws of quantum information are:1 qubit \n \n \n \n ⩾\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\geqslant }\n \n 1 bit (classical),\n1 qubit \n \n \n \n ⩾\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\geqslant }\n \n 1 ebit (entanglement bit),\n1 ebit + 1 qubit \n \n \n \n ⩾\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\geqslant }\n \n 2 bits (i.e. superdense coding),\n1 ebit + 2 bits \n \n \n \n ⩾\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\geqslant }\n \n 1 qubit (i.e. quantum teleportation),where \n \n \n \n ⩾\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\geqslant }\n \n indicates \"can do the job of\".These principles were formulated around 1993 by Charles H. Bennett.","title":"Bennett's laws"}]
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[]
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[]
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[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bennett%27s_laws&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve this article"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Bennett%27s+laws%22","external_links_name":"\"Bennett's laws\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Bennett%27s+laws%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Bennett%27s+laws%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Bennett%27s+laws%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Bennett%27s+laws%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Bennett%27s+laws%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bennett%27s_laws&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bennett%27s_laws&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Ministry_of_Education_and_Research_(Germany)
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Federal Ministry of Education and Research (Germany)
|
["1 History","2 Organization","3 Federal Ministers","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
|
Coordinates: 50°42′12″N 7°08′21″E / 50.70342°N 7.13917°E / 50.70342; 7.13917Ministry of Education and Research of Germany
"BMBF" redirects here. For another use, see British Mountain Bike Federation.
Federal Ministry of Education and ResearchBundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF)Agency overviewFormed20 October 1955 as Bundesministerium für AtomfragenJurisdictionGovernment of GermanyHeadquartersHeinemannstraße 253175 Bonn50°42′12″N 7°08′21″E / 50.70342°N 7.13917°E / 50.70342; 7.13917Employees1000Annual budget€20.799 billion (2021)Minister responsibleBettina Stark-Watzinger, Federal Minister of Education and ResearchAgency executivesJens Brandenburg, Parliamentary State SecretaryThomas Sattelberger, Parliamentary State SecretaryKornelia Haugg, Permanent State SecretaryJudith Pirscher, Permanent State SecretaryWebsitewww.bmbf.de
The Federal Ministry of Education and Research (German: Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, pronounced ⓘ), abbreviated BMBF, is a cabinet-level ministry of Germany. It is headquartered in Bonn, with an office in Berlin. The Ministry provides funding for research projects and institutions (aiming for "research excellence") and sets general educational policy. It also provides student loans in Germany. However, a large part of educational policy in Germany is decided at the state level, strongly limiting the influence of the ministry in educational matters.
History
The Federal Ministry for Atomic Issues was established in 1955, concentrating on research in the peaceful use of nuclear energy. The ministry was renamed in 1962 to Federal Ministry of Scientific Research, with a broader scope; it was renamed again, to Federal Ministry of Education and Science, in 1969.
A separate ministry, the Federal Ministry of Research and Technology, was established in 1972. The two Ministries merged in 1994 to form the Federal Ministry for Education, Science, Research and Technology; this title was shortened to Federal Ministry for Education and Research in 1998.
Organization
Ministry of Education and Research headquarters building, Bonn
The BMBF currently has eight directorates-general (as at November 2020). These are in addition to the central directorate-general that is responsible for administrative tasks:
Directorate-General 1: Policy Issues and Strategies
Directorate-General 2: European and International Cooperation in Education and Research
Directorate-General 3: General Education and Vocational Training; Lifelong Learning
Directorate-General 4: Higher Education and Research System
Directorate-General 5: Research for Technological Sovereignty and Innovation
Directorate-General 6: Life Sciences
Directorate-General 7: Provision for the Future - Basic Research and Research for Sustainable Development
Each directorate-general consists of one or two subdivisions and 10 to 15 units. The greater part of the subdivisions is located in Bonn, the smaller part in Berlin. The BMBF has around 1000 employees. The head of the BMBF is formed by two parliamentary secretaries and two permanent state secretaries in addition to the minister.
Federal Ministers
Political Party:
CDU
SPD
FDP
Name(Born-Died)
Portrait
Party
Term of Office
Chancellor(Cabinet)
Federal Minister for Atomic Affairs (1955–1957)Federal Minister for Nuclear Energy and Water Management (1957–1961)Federal Minister for Nuclear Energy (1961–1962)Federal Minister for Scientific Research (1962–1969) Federal Minister for Education and Science (1969–1994)
1
Franz Josef Strauß(1915–1988)
CSU
20 October 1955
16 October 1956
Adenauer(II)
2
Siegfried Balke(1902–1984)
CDU
16 October 1956
14 December 1962
Adenauer(II • III • IV)
3
Hans Lenz(1907–1968)
FDP
14 December 1962
26 October 1965
Adenauer(IV)Erhard(I)
4
Gerhard Stoltenberg(1928–2001)
CDU
26 October 1965
22 October 1969
Erhard(II)Kiesinger(I)
5
Hans Leussink(1912–2008)
None
22 October 1969
15 March 1972
Brandt(I)
6
Klaus von Dohnanyi(born 1928)
SPD
15 March 1972
17 May 1974
Brandt(I • II)
7
Helmut Rohde(1925–2016)
SPD
17 May 1974
16 February 1978
Schmidt(I • II)
8
Jürgen Schmude(born 1936)
SPD
16 February 1978
28 January 1981
Schmidt(II • III)
9
Björn Engholm(born 1939)
SPD
28 January 1981
4 October 1982
Schmidt(III)
10
Dorothee Wilms(born 1929)
CDU
4 October 1982
12 March 1987
Kohl(I • II)
11
Jürgen Möllemann(1945–2003)
FDP
12 March 1987
18 January 1991
Kohl(III)
12
Rainer Ortleb(born 1944)
FDP
18 January 1991
4 February 1994
Kohl(IV)
13
Karl-Hans Laermann(born 1929)
FDP
4 February 1994
17 November 1994
Kohl(IV)
Federal Minister for Education, Science, Research and Technology
1
Horst Ehmke(1927–2017)
SPD
15 December 1972
17 May 1974
Brandt(II)
2
Hans Matthöfer(1925–2009)
SPD
17 May 1974
16 February 1978
Schmidt(I • II)
3
Volker Hauff(born 1940)
SPD
16 February 1978
5 November 1980
Schmidt(II)
4
Andreas von Bülow(born 1937)
SPD
5 November 1980
4 October 1982
Schmidt(III)
5
Heinz Riesenhuber(born 1935)
CDU
4 October 1982
21 January 1993
Kohl(I • II • III • IV)
6
Matthias Wissmann(born 1949)
CDU
21 January 1993
13 May 1993
Kohl(IV)
7
Paul Krüger (born 1950)
CDU
13 May 1993
17 November 1994
Kohl(IV)
Federal Minister for Education, Science, Research and Technology (1994–1998)Federal Minister for Education and Research (1998–present)
14/8
Jürgen Rüttgers(born 1951)
CDU
17 November 1994
26 October 1998
Kohl(V)
15/9
Edelgard Bulmahn(born 1951)
SPD
26 October 1998
22 November 2005
Schröder(I • II)
16/10
Annette Schavan(born 1955)
CDU
22 November 2005
14 February 2013
Merkel(I • II)
17/11
Johanna Wanka(born 1951)
CDU
14 February 2013
14 March 2018
Merkel(II • III)
18/12
Anja Karliczek(born 1971)
CDU
14 March 2018
8 December 2021
Merkel(IV)
19/13
Bettina Stark-Watzinger(born 1968)
FDP
8 December 2021
Incumbent
Scholz(I)
See also
Bio-economy Research and Technology Council
German Historical Institutes
Kultusministerkonferenz (Conference of Ministers of Education (State Government in Germany))
Open access in Germany
Perspectivia.net
References
^ "Bundeshaushalt". www.bundeshaushalt.de. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
^ "Research excellence is a must in a country whose prosperity is built on the innovative strength of its industry. The aim of the High-Tech Strategy is to make Germany a leader in providing scientific and technical solutions to the challenges in the fields of climate/energy, health/nutrition, mobility, security, and communication." Ministry: Objectives and Tasks Archived 2018-09-04 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Atomminister" (in German). Retrieved 1 April 2022.
^ "Die Dienstsitze in Bonn und Berlin" (in German). Retrieved 1 April 2022.
^ "Organizational Chart of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research". BMBF. p. 1. Archived from the original (pdf) on 2020-11-25. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
External links
Official English website
vteFederal Ministries of Germany
Defence
Justice
Finance
Interior
Foreign
Economic Affairs and Climate Action
Labour and Social Affairs
Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth
Environment, Nature Conservation, Nuclear Safety and Consumer Protection
Food and Agriculture
Economic Cooperation and Development
Health
Digital and Transport
Education and Research
Housing, Urban Development and Building
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
National
Germany
Israel
United States
This article about government in Germany is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"British Mountain Bike Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Mountain_Bike_Federation"},{"link_name":"[ˈbʊndəsminɪsˌteːʁiʊm fyːɐ̯ ˈbɪldʊŋ ʊnt ˈfɔʁʃʊŋ]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/06/De-Bundesministerium_f%C3%BCr_Bildung_und_Forschung.ogg/De-Bundesministerium_f%C3%BCr_Bildung_und_Forschung.ogg.mp3"},{"link_name":"ⓘ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:De-Bundesministerium_f%C3%BCr_Bildung_und_Forschung.ogg"},{"link_name":"cabinet-level ministry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_Germany"},{"link_name":"Bonn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonn"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"student loans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_loans"},{"link_name":"state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_of_Germany"}],"text":"Ministry of Education and Research of Germany\"BMBF\" redirects here. For another use, see British Mountain Bike Federation.The Federal Ministry of Education and Research (German: Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsminɪsˌteːʁiʊm fyːɐ̯ ˈbɪldʊŋ ʊnt ˈfɔʁʃʊŋ] ⓘ), abbreviated BMBF, is a cabinet-level ministry of Germany. It is headquartered in Bonn, with an office in Berlin. The Ministry provides funding for research projects and institutions (aiming for \"research excellence\"[2]) and sets general educational policy. It also provides student loans in Germany. However, a large part of educational policy in Germany is decided at the state level, strongly limiting the influence of the ministry in educational matters.","title":"Federal Ministry of Education and Research (Germany)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The Federal Ministry for Atomic Issues was established in 1955, concentrating on research in the peaceful use of nuclear energy.[3] The ministry was renamed in 1962 to Federal Ministry of Scientific Research, with a broader scope; it was renamed again, to Federal Ministry of Education and Science, in 1969.[4]A separate ministry, the Federal Ministry of Research and Technology, was established in 1972. The two Ministries merged in 1994 to form the Federal Ministry for Education, Science, Research and Technology; this title was shortened to Federal Ministry for Education and Research in 1998.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesministerium_f%C3%BCr_Bildung_und_Forschung_Bonn.jpg"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Ministry of Education and Research headquarters building, BonnThe BMBF currently has eight directorates-general (as at November 2020). These are in addition to the central directorate-general that is responsible for administrative tasks:[5]Directorate-General 1: Policy Issues and Strategies\nDirectorate-General 2: European and International Cooperation in Education and Research\nDirectorate-General 3: General Education and Vocational Training; Lifelong Learning\nDirectorate-General 4: Higher Education and Research System\nDirectorate-General 5: Research for Technological Sovereignty and Innovation\nDirectorate-General 6: Life Sciences\nDirectorate-General 7: Provision for the Future - Basic Research and Research for Sustainable DevelopmentEach directorate-general consists of one or two subdivisions and 10 to 15 units. The greater part of the subdivisions is located in Bonn, the smaller part in Berlin. The BMBF has around 1000 employees. The head of the BMBF is formed by two parliamentary secretaries and two permanent state secretaries in addition to the minister.","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CDU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_(Germany)"},{"link_name":"SPD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany"},{"link_name":"FDP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_(Germany)"}],"text":"Political Party:\n CDU\n SPD\n FDP","title":"Federal Ministers"}]
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[{"image_text":"Ministry of Education and Research headquarters building, Bonn","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Bundesministerium_f%C3%BCr_Bildung_und_Forschung_Bonn.jpg/220px-Bundesministerium_f%C3%BCr_Bildung_und_Forschung_Bonn.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Bio-economy Research and Technology Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio-economy_Research_and_Technology_Council"},{"title":"German Historical Institutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Historical_Institute"},{"title":"Kultusministerkonferenz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultusministerkonferenz"},{"title":"Open access in Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_access_in_Germany"},{"title":"Perspectivia.net","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspectivia.net"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Bundeshaushalt\". www.bundeshaushalt.de. Retrieved 10 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bundeshaushalt.de/#/2021/soll/ausgaben/einzelplan/30.html","url_text":"\"Bundeshaushalt\""}]},{"reference":"\"Atomminister\" (in German). Retrieved 1 April 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fjs.de/der-politiker/aemter-funktionen/atomminister/","url_text":"\"Atomminister\""}]},{"reference":"\"Die Dienstsitze in Bonn und Berlin\" (in German). Retrieved 1 April 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bmbf.de/bmbf/de/ueber-uns/das-bundesministerium-in-bonn-und-berlin/das-bundesministerium-in-bonn-und-berlin_node.html","url_text":"\"Die Dienstsitze in Bonn und Berlin\""}]},{"reference":"\"Organizational Chart of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research\". BMBF. p. 1. Archived from the original (pdf) on 2020-11-25. Retrieved 2020-11-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201125172253/https://www.bmbf.de/en/political-staff-and-organization-1403.html","url_text":"\"Organizational Chart of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research\""},{"url":"https://www.bmbf.de/en/political-staff-and-organization-1403.html","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biased_exponent
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Exponent bias
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["1 History","2 See also","3 References"]
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In IEEE 754 floating-point numbers, the exponent is biased in the engineering sense of the word – the value stored is offset from the actual value by the exponent bias, also called a biased exponent.
Biasing is done because exponents have to be signed values in order to be able to represent both tiny and huge values, but two's complement, the usual representation for signed values, would make comparison harder.
To solve this problem the exponent is stored as an unsigned value which is suitable for comparison, and when being interpreted it is converted into an exponent within a signed range by subtracting the bias.
By arranging the fields such that the sign bit takes the most significant bit position, the biased exponent takes the middle position, then the significand will be the least significant bits and the resulting value will be ordered properly. This is the case whether or not it is interpreted as a floating-point or integer value. The purpose of this is to enable high speed comparisons between floating-point numbers using fixed-point hardware.
If there are
e
{\displaystyle e}
bits in the exponent, the bias
is typically set as
b
=
2
e
−
1
−
1
{\displaystyle b=2^{e-1}-1}
.
Therefore, the possible integer values that the biased exponent can express lie in the range
[
1
−
b
,
b
]
{\displaystyle }
.
To understand this range, with
e
{\displaystyle e}
bits in the exponent, the possible unsigned integers lie in the range
[
0
,
2
e
−
1
]
{\displaystyle }
.
However, the strings containing all zeros and all ones are reserved for special values, so the expressible integers lie in the range
[
1
,
2
e
−
2
]
{\displaystyle }
.
It follows that:
The maximum biased value is
(
2
e
−
2
)
−
b
=
2
b
−
b
=
b
{\displaystyle (2^{e}-2)-b=2b-b=b}
.
The minimum biased value is
1
−
b
{\displaystyle 1-b}
.
When interpreting the floating-point number, the bias is subtracted to retrieve the actual exponent.
For a half-precision number, the exponent is stored in the range 1 .. 30 (0 and 31 have special meanings), and is interpreted by subtracting the bias for an 5-bit exponent (15) to get an exponent value in the range −14 .. +15.
For a single-precision number, the exponent is stored in the range 1 .. 254 (0 and 255 have special meanings), and is interpreted by subtracting the bias for an 8-bit exponent (127) to get an exponent value in the range −126 .. +127.
For a double-precision number, the exponent is stored in the range 1 .. 2046 (0 and 2047 have special meanings), and is interpreted by subtracting the bias for an 11-bit exponent (1023) to get an exponent value in the range −1022 .. +1023.
For a quad-precision number, the exponent is stored in the range 1 .. 32766 (0 and 32767 have special meanings), and is interpreted by subtracting the bias for a 15-bit exponent (16383) to get an exponent value in the range −16382 .. +16383.
History
The floating-point format of the IBM 704 introduced the use of a biased exponent in 1954.
See also
Offset binary (also referred to as excess-K)
References
^ Gosling, John B. (1980). "6.1 Floating-Point Notation / 6.8.5 Exponent Representation". In Sumner, Frank H. (ed.). Design of Arithmetic Units for Digital Computers. Macmillan Computer Science Series (1 ed.). Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK: The Macmillan Press Ltd. pp. 74, 91, 137. ISBN 0-333-26397-9. In floating-point representation, a number x is represented by two signed numbers m and e such that x = m · be where m is the mantissa, e the exponent and b the base. The mantissa is sometimes termed the characteristic and a version of the exponent also has this title from some authors. It is hoped that the terms here will be unambiguous. e use a value which is shifted by half the binary range of the number. This special form is sometimes referred to as a biased exponent, since it is the conventional value plus a constant. Some authors have called it a characteristic, but this term should not be used, since CDC and others use this term for the mantissa. It is also referred to as an 'excess -' representation, where, for example, - is 64 for a 7-bit exponent (27−1 = 64).
^ O'Hallaron, David R.; Bryant, Randal E. (2010). Computer systems: a programmer's perspective (2 ed.). Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-610804-7.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"significand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significand"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bryant_2010-2"},{"link_name":"half-precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-precision_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"single-precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-precision_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"double-precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-precision_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"quad-precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadruple-precision_floating-point_format"}],"text":"To solve this problem the exponent is stored as an unsigned value which is suitable for comparison, and when being interpreted it is converted into an exponent within a signed range by subtracting the bias.By arranging the fields such that the sign bit takes the most significant bit position, the biased exponent takes the middle position, then the significand will be the least significant bits and the resulting value will be ordered properly. This is the case whether or not it is interpreted as a floating-point or integer value. The purpose of this is to enable high speed comparisons between floating-point numbers using fixed-point hardware.If there are \n \n \n \n e\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e}\n \n bits in the exponent, the bias\nis typically set as \n \n \n \n b\n =\n \n 2\n \n e\n −\n 1\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle b=2^{e-1}-1}\n \n.[2]Therefore, the possible integer values that the biased exponent can express lie in the range \n \n \n \n [\n 1\n −\n b\n ,\n b\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle [1-b,b]}\n \n.\nTo understand this range, with \n \n \n \n e\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e}\n \n bits in the exponent, the possible unsigned integers lie in the range \n \n \n \n [\n 0\n ,\n \n 2\n \n e\n \n \n −\n 1\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle [0,2^{e}-1]}\n \n.\nHowever, the strings containing all zeros and all ones are reserved for special values, so the expressible integers lie in the range \n \n \n \n [\n 1\n ,\n \n 2\n \n e\n \n \n −\n 2\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle [1,2^{e}-2]}\n \n.\nIt follows that:The maximum biased value is \n \n \n \n (\n \n 2\n \n e\n \n \n −\n 2\n )\n −\n b\n =\n 2\n b\n −\n b\n =\n b\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (2^{e}-2)-b=2b-b=b}\n \n.\nThe minimum biased value is \n \n \n \n 1\n −\n b\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1-b}\n \n.When interpreting the floating-point number, the bias is subtracted to retrieve the actual exponent.For a half-precision number, the exponent is stored in the range 1 .. 30 (0 and 31 have special meanings), and is interpreted by subtracting the bias for an 5-bit exponent (15) to get an exponent value in the range −14 .. +15.\nFor a single-precision number, the exponent is stored in the range 1 .. 254 (0 and 255 have special meanings), and is interpreted by subtracting the bias for an 8-bit exponent (127) to get an exponent value in the range −126 .. +127.\nFor a double-precision number, the exponent is stored in the range 1 .. 2046 (0 and 2047 have special meanings), and is interpreted by subtracting the bias for an 11-bit exponent (1023) to get an exponent value in the range −1022 .. +1023.\nFor a quad-precision number, the exponent is stored in the range 1 .. 32766 (0 and 32767 have special meanings), and is interpreted by subtracting the bias for a 15-bit exponent (16383) to get an exponent value in the range −16382 .. +16383.","title":"Exponent bias"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IBM 704","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_704"}],"text":"The floating-point format of the IBM 704 introduced the use of a biased exponent in 1954.","title":"History"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Offset binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offset_binary"}]
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[{"reference":"Gosling, John B. (1980). \"6.1 Floating-Point Notation / 6.8.5 Exponent Representation\". In Sumner, Frank H. (ed.). Design of Arithmetic Units for Digital Computers. Macmillan Computer Science Series (1 ed.). Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK: The Macmillan Press Ltd. pp. 74, 91, 137. ISBN 0-333-26397-9. […] In floating-point representation, a number x is represented by two signed numbers m and e such that x = m · be where m is the mantissa, e the exponent and b the base. […] The mantissa is sometimes termed the characteristic and a version of the exponent also has this title from some authors. It is hoped that the terms here will be unambiguous. […] [w]e use a[n exponent] value which is shifted by half the binary range of the number. […] This special form is sometimes referred to as a biased exponent, since it is the conventional value plus a constant. Some authors have called it a characteristic, but this term should not be used, since CDC and others use this term for the mantissa. It is also referred to as an 'excess -' representation, where, for example, - is 64 for a 7-bit exponent (27−1 = 64). […]","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Manchester","url_text":"University of Manchester"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Macmillan_Press_Ltd","url_text":"The Macmillan Press Ltd"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-26397-9","url_text":"0-333-26397-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point_representation","url_text":"floating-point representation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significand","url_text":"mantissa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponent","url_text":"exponent"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_(exponentiation)","url_text":"base"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_Data_Corporation","url_text":"CDC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excess-K","url_text":"excess -"}]},{"reference":"O'Hallaron, David R.; Bryant, Randal E. (2010). Computer systems: a programmer's perspective (2 ed.). Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-610804-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randal_E._Bryant","url_text":"Bryant, Randal E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prentice_Hall","url_text":"Prentice Hall"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-610804-7","url_text":"978-0-13-610804-7"}]}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald_Veblen
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Oswald Veblen
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["1 Early life","2 Career","3 Accomplishments","4 Personal life","5 Veblen Research Instructorship","6 Books by O. Veblen","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]
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American mathematician (1880–1960)
Oswald VeblenOswald Veblen (photograph c. 1915)Born(1880-06-24)June 24, 1880Decorah, Iowa, U.S.DiedAugust 10, 1960(1960-08-10) (aged 80)Brooklin, Maine, U.S.Alma materUniversity of IowaHarvard UniversityUniversity of ChicagoKnown forVeblen functionVeblen hierarchyVeblen ordinalVeblen's theoremVeblen–Young theoremVeblen–Wedderburn systemsFixed-point lemma for normal functionsScientific careerInstitutionsPrinceton UniversityInstitute for Advanced StudyThesisA System of Axioms for Geometry (1903)Doctoral advisorE. H. MooreDoctoral studentsJ. W. AlexanderH. Roy BrahanaAlonzo ChurchPhilip FranklinWallace GivensHarold HotellingHoward H. MitchellRobert Lee MooreTracy ThomasJ. H. C. Whitehead
Oswald Veblen (June 24, 1880 – August 10, 1960) was an American mathematician, geometer and topologist, whose work found application in atomic physics and the theory of relativity. He proved the Jordan curve theorem in 1905; while this was long considered the first rigorous proof of the theorem, many now also consider Camille Jordan's original proof rigorous.
Early life
Veblen was born in Decorah, Iowa. His parents were Andrew Anderson Veblen (1848–1932), Professor of Physics at the University of Iowa, and Kirsti (Hougen) Veblen (1851–1908). Veblen's uncle was Thorstein Veblen, noted economist and sociologist.
Oswald went to school in Iowa City. He did his undergraduate studies at the University of Iowa, where he received an AB in 1898, and Harvard University, where he was awarded a second BA in 1900. For his graduate studies, he went to study mathematics at the University of Chicago, where he obtained a PhD in 1903. His dissertation, A System of Axioms for Geometry was written under the supervision of E. H. Moore. During World War I, Veblen served first as a captain, later as a major in the United States Army.
Career
Veblen taught mathematics at Princeton University from 1905 to 1932. In 1926, he was named Henry B. Fine Professor of Mathematics. In 1932, he helped organize the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, resigning his professorship to become the first professor at the Institute that same year. He kept his professorship at the Institute until he was made emeritus in 1950.
During his years in Princeton, Veblen and his wife, Elizabeth M D Richardson, accumulated land along the Princeton Ridge. In 1957 they donated 82 acres (33 ha) to establish the Herrontown Woods Arboretum, the first and one of the largest nature preserves in Princeton, New Jersey.
Veblen was a Plenary Speaker of the ICM in 1928 in Bologna and in 1936 in Oslo.
Veblen died in Brooklin, Maine, in 1960 at age 80. After his death the American Mathematical Society created an award in his name, called the Oswald Veblen Prize in Geometry. It is awarded every three years, and is the most prestigious award in recognition of outstanding research in geometry.
Accomplishments
During his career, Veblen made important contributions in topology and in projective and differential geometries, including results important in modern physics. He introduced the Veblen axioms for projective geometry and proved the Veblen–Young theorem. He introduced the Veblen functions of ordinals and used an extension of them to define the small and large Veblen ordinals. In World War II he was involved in overseeing ballistics work at the Aberdeen Proving Ground that involved early modern computing machines, in particular supporting the proposal for creation of the pioneering ENIAC electronic digital computer. He also published a paper in 1912 on the four-color conjecture.
Veblen was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1912, the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1919, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1923.
Personal life
In 1908, he married Elizabeth Richardson, the sister of British physicist Owen Willans Richardson and sister-in-law of American physicist Clinton Joseph Davisson.
Veblen Research Instructorship
The Veblen Research Instructorship is a three-year position offered by the Department of Mathematics at Princeton University and the Institute for Advanced Study. This position was established in 1998 and offered each year to outstanding candidates in pure and applied mathematics who have received their PhD within the last three years.
The Veblen instructors are Members of the Institute for Advanced Study and regular faculty members at Princeton University. The first and third year of the instructorship are spent at Princeton University and carry regular teaching responsibilities. The second year is spent at the Institute and dedicated to independent research of the instructor's choice.
Books by O. Veblen
Introduction to infinitesimal analysis; functions of one real variable with N. J. Lennes (John Wiley & Sons, 1907)
Projective geometry with John Wesley Young (Ginn and Co., Vol. 1, 1910; Vol. 2, 1918)
Analysis Situs (American Mathematical Society, 1922; 2nd edn. 1931)
Invariants of Quadratic Differential Forms (Cambridge University Press, 1927)
The Foundations of Differential Geometry with J. H. C. Whitehead (Cambridge University Press, 1932)
Projektive Relativitätstheorie (Springer Verlag, 1933)
See also
Hughes plane
Finite geometry
Ordered geometry
Hall plane of order 9
References
^ Mac Lane, Saunders (1964). "Oswald Veblen June 24, 1880—August 10, 1960" (PDF). Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences. Washington, D.C.
^ O'Connor, J. J.; E F Robertson. "Oswald Veblen". School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Retrieved April 20, 2016.
^ Batterson, Steve (May 2007). "The Vision, Insight, and Influence of Oswald Veblen" (PDF). Notices of the American Mathematical Society. 54 (5). Retrieved April 20, 2016.
^ "Large Tract Donated". The Town Topics. 28 July 1957. Retrieved 19 April 2014.
^ Veblen, Oswald (1937). "Spinors and projective geometry". In: Comptes rendus du Congrès international des mathématiciens: Oslo, 1936. Vol. 1. pp. 111–127.
^ Mac Lane (1964), pg 333.
^ "ARL Computing History". The Computer, from Pascal to von Neumann. Arl.Army.mil. 2010. Retrieved 2019-09-09.
^ "The History of Computing at BRL" Archived 2005-04-19 at the Wayback Machine,
^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 2023-11-22.
^ "Oswald Veblen". www.nasonline.org. Retrieved 2023-11-22.
^ "Oswald Veblen". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. 2023-02-09. Retrieved 2023-11-22.
^ Nobel Foundation (1928). "Owen Willans Richardson: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1928". Les Prix Nobel. Retrieved April 25, 2016.
^ Nobel Foundation (1937). "Clinton Joseph Davisson: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1937". Les Prix Nobel. Retrieved April 25, 2016.
^ "Veblen Research Instructorships". Institute for Advanced Studies. 8 November 2018. Retrieved 15 October 2021.
^ Pierpont, James (1908). "Review: Introduction to infinitesimal analysis, functions of one real variable". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 15 (3): 133–134. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1908-01710-5.
^ Coolidge, Julian Lowell (1911). "Review: Projective Geometry, Vol. 1". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 18 (2): 70–81. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1911-02156-5.
^ Moore, R. L. (1920). "Review: Projective Geometry, Vol. 2". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 26 (9): 412–425. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1920-03332-x.
^ Lefschetz, S. (1924). "Review: Analysis Situs, by O. Veblen". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 30 (7): 357–358. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1924-03901-9.
^ Taylor, J. H. (1929). "Review: Invariants of Quadratic Differential Forms, by O. Veblen". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 35 (3): 416. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1929-04779-7.
^ MacDuffee, C. C. (1933). "Review: The Foundations of Differential Geometry, by O. Veblen and J. H. C. Whitehead". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 39 (5): 322–324. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1933-05600-8.
^ Struik, D. J. (1934). "Review: Projektive Relativitätstheorie, by O. Veblen". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 40 (3): 191–193. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1934-05803-8.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to Oswald Veblen.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oswald Veblen.
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Oswald Veblen", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
Obituary and Bibliography of Oswald Veblen (also available here.)
Works by Oswald Veblen at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Oswald Veblen at Internet Archive
"Projective relativity theory," transl. by D. H. Delphenich
Oswald Veblen at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
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Emory McClintock (1891–1894)
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E. H. Moore (1901–1902)
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Leonard Eugene Dickson (1917–1918)
Frank Morley (1919–1920)
Gilbert Ames Bliss (1921–1922)
Oswald Veblen (1923–1924)
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George David Birkhoff (1925–1926)
Virgil Snyder (1927–1928)
Earle Raymond Hedrick (1929–1930)
Luther P. Eisenhart (1931–1932)
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Solomon Lefschetz (1935–1936)
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mathematician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematician"},{"link_name":"geometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometer"},{"link_name":"topologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topologist"},{"link_name":"atomic physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_physics"},{"link_name":"theory of relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_relativity"},{"link_name":"Jordan curve theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan_curve_theorem"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Camille Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Jordan"}],"text":"Oswald Veblen (June 24, 1880 – August 10, 1960) was an American mathematician, geometer and topologist, whose work found application in atomic physics and the theory of relativity. He proved the Jordan curve theorem in 1905;[1] while this was long considered the first rigorous proof of the theorem, many now also consider Camille Jordan's original proof rigorous.","title":"Oswald Veblen"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Decorah, Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decorah,_Iowa"},{"link_name":"University of Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Iowa"},{"link_name":"Thorstein Veblen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen"},{"link_name":"Iowa City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa_City"},{"link_name":"AB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"BA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts"},{"link_name":"University of Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago"},{"link_name":"PhD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhD"},{"link_name":"E. H. Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._H._Moore"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"United States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Veblen was born in Decorah, Iowa. His parents were Andrew Anderson Veblen (1848–1932), Professor of Physics at the University of Iowa, and Kirsti (Hougen) Veblen (1851–1908). Veblen's uncle was Thorstein Veblen, noted economist and sociologist.Oswald went to school in Iowa City. He did his undergraduate studies at the University of Iowa, where he received an AB in 1898, and Harvard University, where he was awarded a second BA in 1900. For his graduate studies, he went to study mathematics at the University of Chicago, where he obtained a PhD in 1903. His dissertation, A System of Axioms for Geometry was written under the supervision of E. H. Moore. During World War I, Veblen served first as a captain, later as a major in the United States Army.[2]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Princeton University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University"},{"link_name":"Henry B. Fine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Burchard_Fine"},{"link_name":"Institute for Advanced Study","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Princeton Ridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Hill_Ridge"},{"link_name":"Herrontown Woods Arboretum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herrontown_Woods_Arboretum"},{"link_name":"Princeton, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"ICM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Congress_of_Mathematicians"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Brooklin, Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklin,_Maine"},{"link_name":"American Mathematical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mathematical_Society"},{"link_name":"Oswald Veblen Prize in Geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald_Veblen_Prize_in_Geometry"}],"text":"Veblen taught mathematics at Princeton University from 1905 to 1932. In 1926, he was named Henry B. Fine Professor of Mathematics. In 1932, he helped organize the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, resigning his professorship to become the first professor at the Institute that same year. He kept his professorship at the Institute until he was made emeritus in 1950.[3]During his years in Princeton, Veblen and his wife, Elizabeth M D Richardson, accumulated land along the Princeton Ridge. In 1957 they donated 82 acres (33 ha) to establish the Herrontown Woods Arboretum, the first and one of the largest nature preserves in Princeton, New Jersey.[4]Veblen was a Plenary Speaker of the ICM in 1928 in Bologna and in 1936 in Oslo.[5]Veblen died in Brooklin, Maine, in 1960 at age 80. After his death the American Mathematical Society created an award in his name, called the Oswald Veblen Prize in Geometry. It is awarded every three years, and is the most prestigious award in recognition of outstanding research in geometry.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"projective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projective_geometry"},{"link_name":"differential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_geometry"},{"link_name":"modern physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_physics"},{"link_name":"Veblen–Young theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veblen%E2%80%93Young_theorem"},{"link_name":"Veblen functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veblen_function"},{"link_name":"Veblen ordinals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_countable_ordinal"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Aberdeen Proving Ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Proving_Ground"},{"link_name":"computing machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing_machine"},{"link_name":"ENIAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENIAC"},{"link_name":"digital computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_computer"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"four-color conjecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-color_conjecture"},{"link_name":"American Philosophical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society"},{"link_name":"National Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"American Academy of Arts and Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"During his career, Veblen made important contributions in topology and in projective and differential geometries, including results important in modern physics. He introduced the Veblen axioms for projective geometry and proved the Veblen–Young theorem. He introduced the Veblen functions of ordinals and used an extension of them to define the small and large Veblen ordinals. In World War II he was involved in overseeing ballistics work at the Aberdeen Proving Ground that involved early modern computing machines, in particular supporting the proposal for creation of the pioneering ENIAC electronic digital computer.[6][7][8] He also published a paper in 1912 on the four-color conjecture.Veblen was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1912, the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1919, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1923.[9][10][11]","title":"Accomplishments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Owen Willans Richardson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owen_Willans_Richardson"},{"link_name":"Clinton Joseph Davisson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton_Joseph_Davisson"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"In 1908, he married Elizabeth Richardson, the sister of British physicist Owen Willans Richardson and sister-in-law of American physicist Clinton Joseph Davisson.[12][13]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Princeton University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University"},{"link_name":"Institute for Advanced Study","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"The Veblen Research Instructorship is a three-year position offered by the Department of Mathematics at Princeton University and the Institute for Advanced Study. This position was established in 1998 and offered each year to outstanding candidates in pure and applied mathematics who have received their PhD within the last three years.The Veblen instructors are Members of the Institute for Advanced Study and regular faculty members at Princeton University. The first and third year of the instructorship are spent at Princeton University and carry regular teaching responsibilities. The second year is spent at the Institute and dedicated to independent research of the instructor's choice.[14]","title":"Veblen Research Instructorship"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Introduction to infinitesimal analysis; functions of one real variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//historical.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/cul.math/docviewer?did=00420002&view=50&frames=0&seq=5"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Projective geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//name.umdl.umich.edu/ACV5447.0001.001"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Introduction to infinitesimal analysis; functions of one real variable with N. J. Lennes (John Wiley & Sons, 1907)[15]\nProjective geometry with John Wesley Young (Ginn and Co., Vol. 1, 1910;[16] Vol. 2, 1918[17])\nAnalysis Situs (American Mathematical Society, 1922;[18] 2nd edn. 1931)\nInvariants of Quadratic Differential Forms (Cambridge University Press, 1927)[19]\nThe Foundations of Differential Geometry with J. H. C. Whitehead (Cambridge University Press, 1932)[20]\nProjektive Relativitätstheorie (Springer Verlag, 1933)[21]","title":"Books by O. Veblen"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Hughes plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hughes_plane"},{"title":"Finite geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_geometry"},{"title":"Ordered geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordered_geometry"},{"title":"Hall plane of order 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_plane#The_Hall_plane_of_order_9"}]
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[{"reference":"Mac Lane, Saunders (1964). \"Oswald Veblen June 24, 1880—August 10, 1960\" (PDF). Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences. Washington, D.C.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saunders_Mac_Lane","url_text":"Mac Lane, Saunders"},{"url":"http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/veblen-oswald.pdf","url_text":"\"Oswald Veblen June 24, 1880—August 10, 1960\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biographical_Memoirs_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences","url_text":"Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences"}]},{"reference":"O'Connor, J. J.; E F Robertson. \"Oswald Veblen\". School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Retrieved April 20, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Veblen.html","url_text":"\"Oswald Veblen\""}]},{"reference":"Batterson, Steve (May 2007). \"The Vision, Insight, and Influence of Oswald Veblen\" (PDF). Notices of the American Mathematical Society. 54 (5). Retrieved April 20, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ams.org/notices/200705/fea-batterson-web.pdf","url_text":"\"The Vision, Insight, and Influence of Oswald Veblen\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notices_of_the_American_Mathematical_Society","url_text":"Notices of the American Mathematical Society"}]},{"reference":"\"Large Tract Donated\". The Town Topics. 28 July 1957. Retrieved 19 April 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://papersofprinceton.princeton.edu/princetonperiodicals/cgi-bin/princetonperiodicals?a=d&d=TownTopics19570728-01.2.4&srpos=6&e=-------en-20--1-byDA-txt-IN-Arboretum----#","url_text":"\"Large Tract Donated\""}]},{"reference":"Veblen, Oswald (1937). \"Spinors and projective geometry\". In: Comptes rendus du Congrès international des mathématiciens: Oslo, 1936. Vol. 1. pp. 111–127.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"ARL Computing History\". The Computer, from Pascal to von Neumann. Arl.Army.mil. 2010. Retrieved 2019-09-09.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.arl.army.mil/www/default.cfm?page=148","url_text":"\"ARL Computing History\""}]},{"reference":"\"APS Member History\". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 2023-11-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Oswald+Veblen&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced","url_text":"\"APS Member History\""}]},{"reference":"\"Oswald Veblen\". www.nasonline.org. Retrieved 2023-11-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20001672.html","url_text":"\"Oswald Veblen\""}]},{"reference":"\"Oswald Veblen\". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. 2023-02-09. Retrieved 2023-11-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amacad.org/person/oswald-veblen","url_text":"\"Oswald Veblen\""}]},{"reference":"Nobel Foundation (1928). \"Owen Willans Richardson: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1928\". Les Prix Nobel. Retrieved April 25, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1928/richardson-bio.html","url_text":"\"Owen Willans Richardson: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1928\""}]},{"reference":"Nobel Foundation (1937). \"Clinton Joseph Davisson: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1937\". Les Prix Nobel. Retrieved April 25, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1937/davisson-bio.html","url_text":"\"Clinton Joseph Davisson: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1937\""}]},{"reference":"\"Veblen Research Instructorships\". Institute for Advanced Studies. 8 November 2018. Retrieved 15 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ias.edu/math/vri","url_text":"\"Veblen Research Instructorships\""}]},{"reference":"Pierpont, James (1908). \"Review: Introduction to infinitesimal analysis, functions of one real variable\". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 15 (3): 133–134. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1908-01710-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Pierpont_(mathematician)","url_text":"Pierpont, James"},{"url":"https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1908-15-03/S0002-9904-1908-01710-5/","url_text":"\"Review: Introduction to infinitesimal analysis, functions of one real variable\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fs0002-9904-1908-01710-5","url_text":"10.1090/s0002-9904-1908-01710-5"}]},{"reference":"Coolidge, Julian Lowell (1911). \"Review: Projective Geometry, Vol. 1\". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 18 (2): 70–81. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1911-02156-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Coolidge","url_text":"Coolidge, Julian Lowell"},{"url":"https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1911-18-02/S0002-9904-1911-02156-5","url_text":"\"Review: Projective Geometry, Vol. 1\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fs0002-9904-1911-02156-5","url_text":"10.1090/s0002-9904-1911-02156-5"}]},{"reference":"Moore, R. L. (1920). \"Review: Projective Geometry, Vol. 2\". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 26 (9): 412–425. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1920-03332-x.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lee_Moore","url_text":"Moore, R. L."},{"url":"https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1920-26-09/S0002-9904-1920-03332-X","url_text":"\"Review: Projective Geometry, Vol. 2\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fs0002-9904-1920-03332-x","url_text":"10.1090/s0002-9904-1920-03332-x"}]},{"reference":"Lefschetz, S. (1924). \"Review: Analysis Situs, by O. Veblen\". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 30 (7): 357–358. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1924-03901-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Lefschetz","url_text":"Lefschetz, S."},{"url":"https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1924-30-07/S0002-9904-1924-03901-9/","url_text":"\"Review: Analysis Situs, by O. Veblen\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fs0002-9904-1924-03901-9","url_text":"10.1090/s0002-9904-1924-03901-9"}]},{"reference":"Taylor, J. H. (1929). \"Review: Invariants of Quadratic Differential Forms, by O. Veblen\". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 35 (3): 416. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1929-04779-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Henry_Taylor","url_text":"Taylor, J. H."},{"url":"https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1929-35-03/S0002-9904-1929-04779-7","url_text":"\"Review: Invariants of Quadratic Differential Forms, by O. Veblen\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fs0002-9904-1929-04779-7","url_text":"10.1090/s0002-9904-1929-04779-7"}]},{"reference":"MacDuffee, C. C. (1933). \"Review: The Foundations of Differential Geometry, by O. Veblen and J. H. C. Whitehead\". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 39 (5): 322–324. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1933-05600-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_Colton_MacDuffee","url_text":"MacDuffee, C. C."},{"url":"https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1933-39-05/S0002-9904-1933-05600-8/","url_text":"\"Review: The Foundations of Differential Geometry, by O. Veblen and J. H. C. Whitehead\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fs0002-9904-1933-05600-8","url_text":"10.1090/s0002-9904-1933-05600-8"}]},{"reference":"Struik, D. J. (1934). \"Review: Projektive Relativitätstheorie, by O. Veblen\". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 40 (3): 191–193. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1934-05803-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirk_Jan_Struik","url_text":"Struik, D. J."},{"url":"https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1934-40-03/S0002-9904-1934-05803-8/","url_text":"\"Review: Projektive Relativitätstheorie, by O. Veblen\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fs0002-9904-1934-05803-8","url_text":"10.1090/s0002-9904-1934-05803-8"}]},{"reference":"O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., \"Oswald Veblen\", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson","url_text":"Robertson, Edmund F."},{"url":"https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Veblen.html","url_text":"\"Oswald Veblen\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive","url_text":"MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews","url_text":"University of St Andrews"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_refugees
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Afghan refugees
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["1 Internal displacement","2 Causes of displacement","2.1 United States War in Afghanistan","3 Major host countries","3.1 Pakistan","3.2 Iran","3.3 India","4 Other host countries","4.1 Canada","4.2 Uganda","4.3 United States","4.4 United Kingdom","5 Statistics","6 Human rights abuses","7 See also","8 References","8.1 Sources","9 External links"]
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Nationals of Afghanistan who left their country as a result of major wars or persecution
Parts of this article (those related to 2021 evacuation from Afghanistan) need to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2021)
Map showing the flow of Afghan refugees following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979
Afghan evacuees boarding American aircraft during Operation Allies Refuge in 2021
Afghan refugees are citizens of Afghanistan who were forced to flee from their country as a result the continuous wars that the country has suffered since the Afghan-Soviet war, the Afghan civil war, the Afghanistan war (2001–2021) or either political or religious persecution. The 1978 Saur Revolution, followed by the 1979 Soviet invasion, marked the first major wave of internal displacement and international migration to neighboring Iran and Pakistan; smaller numbers also went to India or to countries of the former Soviet Union. Between 1979 and 1992, more than 20% of Afghanistan's population fled the country as refugees. Following the Soviet withdrawal in 1989, many returned to Afghanistan, however many Afghans were again forced to flee during the civil war in the 90s. Over 6 million Afghan refugees were residing in Iran and Pakistan by 2000. Most refugees returned to Afghanistan following the 2001 United States invasion and overthrow of the Taliban regime. Between 2002 and 2012, 5.7 million refugees returned to Afghanistan, increasing the country's population by 25%.
Afghanistan is one of the largest refugee-producing countries in the world. A total of 6.3 million Afghan refugees were allocated in Pakistan and Iran in 1990. It is considered to be amongst the 4 nations with the highest number of refugees. There are more than 8 million Afghans who have been forced to flee their homes as a result of violence, potential persecution, and poverty, which has created a diasporic population of more than 8.2 million Afghans across a total of 103 separate countries. Of these 8.2 million refugees, just under 6 million are deemed to have been displaced as a result of the United States' War in Afghanistan. Along with this, approximately 3.2 millions Afghan nationals have been driven from their homes and into the status of internally displaced person (IDP).
Some countries that were part of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) established special programs to allow thousands of Afghans to resettle in North America or Europe. As stateless refugees or asylum seekers, they are protected by the well-established non-refoulement principle and the U.N. Convention Against Torture. They receive the maximum government benefits and protections in countries such as Australia, Canada, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States. For example, those that receive green cards under 8 U.S.C. § 1159 can immediately become "non-citizen nationals of the United States" pursuant to 8 U.S.C. § 1452(b), without needing to meet the requirements of 8 U.S.C. § 1427(a). This allows them to travel with distinct United States passports. Australia provides a similar benefit to admitted refugees.
Internal displacement
According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), there are over five million internally displaced people in Afghanistan as of late 2021. Military actions and violence by the warring factions usually play a major part in the displacement, although there are also reasons of major natural disasters. The Soviet invasion caused approximately 2 million Afghans to be internally displaced, mostly from rural areas into urban areas. The Afghan Civil War (1992–1996) caused a new wave of internal displacement, with many citizens moving to northern areas in order to avoid the Taliban totalitarianism. Afghanistan has long suffered from insecurity and conflict, which has led to an increase in internal displacement.
Causes of displacement
External influence over the past 50 years by both the Soviet Union and later the United States, along with actions of the currently ruling Taliban regime, have led to continued trends of displacement.
United States War in Afghanistan
The American invasion of Afghanistan (as well as the 20 years of occupation by the United States military) has contributed to the displacement of Afghan nationals. While many justifications were given for the invasion of Afghanistan (from revenge for the September 11th terrorist attacks, to democratization & the liberation of Afghan women), the war has led to both internal and external displacement of the Afghan population. According to the Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (an organization which played a large role in showcasing the excess & violence of the Taliban), the American bombing of Afghanistan was not seen locally as "salvation," but instead caused fear that the American military would confuse civilians with members of the Taliban.
Major host countries
Further information: Afghan diaspora
Native people of Afghanistan and their children lawfully reside in at least 96 countries around the world. About three in four Afghans have gone through internal and/or external displacement in their life. Unlike in certain other countries, all admitted refugees and those granted asylum in the United States are statutorily eligible for permanent residency (green card) and then U.S. nationality or U.S. citizenship. All of their children automatically become Americans if they fulfill all of the requirements of 8 U.S.C. § 1408(4), 8 U.S.C. § 1431(a) or 8 U.S.C. § 1433(a). This extends their privileges, and gives all of them additional international protection against any unlawful threat or harm.
Pakistan
See also: Deportation of undocumented Afghans from Pakistan
Approximately 1,438,432 registered Afghan refugees and asylum seekers temporarily reside in Pakistan under the care and protection of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Of these, 58.1% reside and work in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 22.8% in Balochistan, 11.7% in Punjab, 4.6% in Sindh, 2.4% in the capital Islamabad and 0.3% in Azad Kashmir. Most were born and raised in Pakistan in the last four decades but are considered citizens of Afghanistan. They are free to return to Afghanistan under a voluntary repatriation program or move to any other country of the world and be firmly resettled there.
Since 2002, around 4.4 million Afghan citizens have been repatriated through the UNHCR from Pakistan to Afghanistan. Some members of the Taliban and their family have long been residing among the Afghan refugees in Pakistan. Others such as the Special Immigrant Visa (SIV) applicants and their family members, who are awaiting to be firmly settled in the United States, are also residing in Pakistan. Regarding the Taliban, Prime Minister of Pakistan stated the following: What the Taliban are doing or are not doing has nothing to do with us. We are neither responsible, nor the spokesperson for the Taliban.— Imran Khan, July 2021
On 3 October 2023, Pakistan's Interior Minister Sarfraz Bugti ordered that all undocumented immigrants, particularly the nearly 1.73 million Afghan nationals, voluntarily leave the country by 1 November 2023 or face deportation in a crackdown. Taliban authorities condemned the deportations of Afghans as an "inhuman act."
Iran
Main article: Afghans in Iran
Afghan children at Naqsh-e Jahan Square in Esfahan, Iran. (2007)
As of October 2020, there are 780,000 registered Afghan refugees and asylum seekers temporarily residing in Iran under the care and protection of the UNHCR. The majority of them were born in Iran during the last four decades but are still considered citizens of Afghanistan. According to Iranian officials, 2 million citizens of Afghanistan who have no legal documents and over half a million Iranian visa holders also reside in various parts of the country. Iran has long been used by Afghans to reach Turkey and then Europe where they apply for political asylum. As in Pakistan, the Afghan refugees are not firmly settled but reside there on a temporary basis.
Iran's initial response towards Afghan refugees, driven by religious solidarity, was an open door policy where Afghans in Iran had freedom of movement to travel or work in any city in addition to subsidies for propane, gasoline, certain food items and even health coverage. In the early 2000s, Iran's Bureau for Aliens and Foreign Immigrants Affairs (BAFIA) initiated registration of all foreigners, including refugees. It began issuing temporary residence cards to certain Afghans. In 2000, the Iranian government also initiated a joint repatriation program with the UNHCR. Laws were passed in order to encourage the repatriation of Afghan refugees, such as limits on employment, areas of residence, and access to services including education. In 2021, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) found that just over one million Afghans have been sent back. In 2023, Iran along with Pakistan decided to deport more refugees.
India
Main article: Afghans in India
India hosts approximately 15,816 Afghan refugees within its borders. The majority of them reside in the nation's capital Delhi, specifically in the neighborhoods of Lajpat Nagar, Bhogal and Malviya Nagar. Some of them operate "shops, restaurants and pharmacies." Afghan refugees were admitted to India during and after the Soviet–Afghan War (1979–1989). A lot of the once-vibrant Sikhs in Afghanistan and Afghan Hindus have become refugees in India following the wars. Also much of Afghanistan's Christian community thrives within India. In 2021, following the end of the latest war in Afghanistan, India has offered an emergency visa (the 'e-Emergency X-Misc Visa') to some citizens of Afghanistan.
Other host countries
Canada
See also: Immigration to Canada
When the Taliban seized control of Afghanistan in August 2021, the Canadian Government announced it would resettle 40,000 vulnerable Afghans such as women and girls, members of Afghanistan's LGBTQ community, human rights workers and journalists. This was in addition to an earlier initiative to resettle thousands of Afghans who had worked for the Canadian Government, such as interpreters and embassy employees, as well as their families. By March 2022, Canada resettled 8,580 Afghan refugees. By August 2022, the first anniversary of the fall of Kabul, that number had risen to 17,375. Ahmed Hussen, Minister of International Development, on 27 September 2023 announced that Canada initiated an aid of providing $14 million in development funding for 2 projects in support of health and essential services for Afghan refugees and host communities in Pakistan impacted by last year's flooding. Of this $14 million, $10 million is being allocated to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees for essential services and recovery efforts, such as the rehabilitation of schools and health facilities, the provision of livelihood training and services associated with gender-based violence. The remaining $4 million will go to the World Health Organization for health services, including sexual, reproductive, maternal, neonatal, child and adolescent health care and for gender-based violence services.
Uganda
On 17 August, after the fall of Kabul, Ugandan Government announced that based on United States' request, they will be temporarily hosting 2000 Afghan refugees. The refugees were expected to be brought in batches of 500 to Entebbe where UNHCR has secured Imperial Hotels for their arrival and screening. The number of refugees currently residing in Uganda is unclear, but according to reports, Ugandan officials had confirmed the arrival of 145 refugees on Sunday, 22 August 2021. Another 51 Afghans were received at the Entebbe International Airport by the Government of the Republic of Uganda on 25 August 2021.
United States
Over the past 40 years, the number of Afghan immigrants living in the United States has risen from roughly 4,000 to nearly 195,000. The majority of this population increase has occurred between two periods: 2010-2019 and from 2021 forward. Between the 10 year periods in the 2010s, the Afghan population rose from 54,000 in 2010 to roughly 132,000 in 2019. Additionally, that population jumped again in 2021 in the midst of the American military withdrawal from Afghanistan, when it surged by an additional 76,000.Afghan refugees resettled per 100K residents after the 2021 Afghan withdrawal and evacuation in each U.S. state and the District of Columbia according to CBS News
U.S. soldiers board a C-17 during final departures from Kabul Airport, 30 August 2021.
On 7 August 2021, due to the threat from the Taliban, the US. Embassy Kabul announced to all American citizens living in Afghanistan to begin evacuating themselves from the country and that all employees of the embassy leave immediately if "their function could be performed from elsewhere."
Although, the Department of State, on April 27, 2021, had ordered American troops to withdraw from Afghanistan by September 11, it was not until early August 2021 that the security situation of Kabul deteriorated drastically. This was a time when Taliban militia were taking over Afghanistan one city and/or province at a time. On August 12, the US. Embassy Kabul issued a security alert directing all US citizen to leave Afghanistan immediately using commercial flights if they can, and if they could not afford it, they could contact the embassy to get information regarding repatriation loan.
On August 18, 2021, the Embassy issued another alert to US citizen and LPRs (lawful permanent residents) with their spouse and unmarried children to travel to the Hamid Karzai International Airport and enter the airport at Camp Sullivan. When news of this reached the ears of the many Afghan citizens trying to escape the rule of Taliban, they rushed to HKIA.
In 2021 Afghanistan started its largest humanitarian evacuations in history, involving more than 80,000 people.(Urban.org)
And thus began, the second phase of Operation Allies Refuge from 15 August to 31 August 2021. On August 21 and August 25, the US. Embassy once again issued security alerts advising US citizen to avoid travelling to the airport and to evacuate the Abbey Gate, East Gate and North Gate immediately.
On August 26, 2021, CNN reported two explosions at the HKIA that killed 13 US Marines and approximately 60 Afghans outside the airport walls.
The US admitted more than 10,000 Afghan refugees from the United Arab Emirates, which became a temporary host to them on behalf of other nations. However, nearly 12,000 refugees remained in the Abu Dhabi facility as of August 2022. Refugees began to protest the slow and opaque resettlement process and the living conditions. The protests resurfaced in October 2022. A refugee who moved to Canada said they are “psychologically suffering” in the Emirati facility.
Throughout the course of Operation Allies Welcome, the United States issued humanitarian parole status to more than 76,000 evacuated Afghan nationals. Humanitarian parole serves as a method for individuals otherwise ineligible for admission into the United States to be given temporary permission to enter the country by the Secretary of Homeland Security. These individuals are paroled into the country as a result of "urgent humanitarian reasons or significant public benefit" In the case of Afghan nationals, this status was given for a period of 2 years, additionally granting these parolees employment authorization in the country. Individuals granted humanitarian parole status differ from their counterparts admitted through Special Immigrant Visa (SIV) or the standard immigration process, in that they lack set pathway to achieve Lawful Permanent Residency (or Green Card) status.
In June 2023, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the UN World Food Programme (WFP) discussed the current situation in Afghanistan. “In Afghanistan, approximately 15.3 million people (35 percent of the population analysed) are estimated to face high acute food insecurity … including just under 2.8 million people in Emergency … Over 3.2 million children and 804,000 pregnant and breastfeeding women are acutely malnourished.”
In the same month, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) opened up a new program for Afghan nationals residing in the United States. This program allowed for Afghan Humanitarian Parolees to re-apply to the United States Customs and Immigration Services (USCIS) for parole status if they fell into eligible categories, particularly if they had been initially paroled into the United States as part of the initial Operation Allies Refuge. The policy was put into place by the administration of President Joe Biden, and additionally allowed for the extension of employment authorization for any individual whose re-parole was approved.
Afghan parolees residing in the United States continue to face an unclear future when it comes to permanent residency. Efforts such as the Afghan Adjustment Act have been introduced into both the 117th & 118th US Congressional sessions in an effort to provide a pathway to citizenship for Afghan nationals, however the bill has yet to pass both Houses of Congress, partly as a result of its key omission from the 2022 omnibus spending bill (the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2022). Opposition to the Act has largely come from Republican lawmakers, particularly Senator Chuck Grassley, who stated in 2022 that he would not stand behind the bill "as long as the vetting process is not improved." Multiple Republicans have echoed this point of view, after 2 individuals of the more than 76,000 admitted were found to potentially pose a threat to National Security as a result of a report from the Office of the Inspector General.
United Kingdom
Hundreds of former Afghan special forces who fought alongside British troops in Afghanistan have been refused resettlement to the UK. One former UK Special Forces officer told the BBC that "At a time when certain actions by UK Special Forces are under investigation by a public inquiry, their headquarters also had the power to prevent former Afghan Special Forces colleagues and potential witnesses to these actions from getting safely to the UK."
Statistics
As shown in the chart below, Afghan refugees were admitted to other countries during the following periods:
Soviet–Afghan War (1979–1989)
Afghan Civil War (1992–96)
Taliban Rule (1996–2001)
War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
Country
Soviet–Afghan War (1979–89)
Civil War (1992–96)
Taliban Rule (1996–2001)
War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
Pakistan
3,100,000
1,438,432
Iran
3,100,000
780,000
Germany
147,994
Turkey
129,323
United States
132,000
89,500
Austria
40,096
France
31,546
Sweden
29,927
Greece
21,456
India
60,000
15,806
Switzerland
14,523
Italy
12,096
Australia
10,659
United Kingdom
9,351
Indonesia
7,629
Tajikistan
1,161
15,336
5,573
Netherlands
5,212
Belgium
4,689
Norway
4,007
Finland
3,331
Malaysia
2,661
Romania
2,384
Canada
2,261
Denmark
2,134
Portugal
883
Human rights abuses
See also: Deportation of Afghan refugees from the United States and Drowning of Afghan refugees in the Hari River
Human rights abuses against admitted Afghan refugees and asylum seekers have been widely documented. They include mistreatment, persecution or torture in Pakistan, Iran, Turkey, Greece, Romania, Serbia, Hungary, Germany, the United States and several other NATO-members states. Afghans living in Iran, for example, were deliberately restricted from attending public schools. As the price of citizenship for their family members, Afghan children as young as 14 were recruited to fight in Iraq and Syria for a six-month tour.
Afghan refugees were regularly denied visas to travel between countries to visit their family members, faced long delays (usually a few years) in processing of their visa applications to visit family members for purposes such as weddings, gravely ill family member, burial ceremonies, and university graduation ceremonies; potentially violating rights including free movement, right to family life and the right to an effective remedy. Racism, low wage jobs including below minimum wage jobs, lower than inflation rate salary increases, were commonly practiced in Europe and elsewhere. Unsanitary conditions have been reported at US air bases, and one Afghan refugee's online post of his food portion at Fort Bliss in 2021 drew some hateful responses. Many Afghan refugees were not permitted to visit their family members for a decade or two. Studies have shown abnormally high mental health issues and suicide rates among Afghan refugees and their children.
See also
Afghan diaspora
International Organization for Migration (IOM)
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
United States of Al (TV show about Afghan refugee residing with an American family)
Anti-Afghan sentiment
References
^ Amstutz, J. Bruce (1994). Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation. Diane Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7881-1111-2. OCLC 948347893.
^ "Refugees From Afghanistan: The world's largest single refugee group" (PDF). www.refworld.org. November 16, 1999. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-11-11. Retrieved December 11, 2021.
^ "Afghanistan 10 years after Soviet pull-out". UNHCR. February 12, 1999. Retrieved November 5, 2013.
^ "USCR Country Report Afghanistan: Statistics on refugees and other uprooted people". ReliefWeb. June 19, 2001. Retrieved 2021-08-01.
^ a b c d e "Registered Afghan Refugees in Pakistan". UNHCR. December 31, 2020. Retrieved 2021-07-31.
^ "Over 1.1m Afghans repatriated from Iran, Pakistan last year". Pajhwok Afghan News. January 3, 2022. Retrieved 2022-01-03.
^ a b "IOM Afghanistan Highlights" (PDF). International Organization for Migration. January 5, 2022. Retrieved 2022-01-06.
^ UNHCR country operations profile – Afghanistan Archived 4 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine unhcr.org
^ "More than seven million refugees displaced in 2012". BBC News. June 19, 2013. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
^ "Afghan households in Iran:Profile and impact" (PDF). UNHCR. Retrieved 2024-04-16.
^ a b "Afghanistan Refugee Crisis Explained". www.unrefugees.org. 2023-07-18. Retrieved 2024-03-21.
^ Vine, David; Coffman, Cala; Khoury, Kataline; Lovasz, Madison; Bush, Helen; Leduc, Rachael; Walkup, Jennifer (September 21, 2020). "Creating Refugees: Displacement Caused by the United States' Post-9/11 Wars" (PDF). Retrieved March 20, 2024.
^ a b "US Expands Eligibility for Afghan Refugee Resettlement". Voice of America. August 2, 2021. Retrieved 2021-08-03.
^ a b "US Announces New Refugee Program for Afghans". TOLOnews. August 2, 2021. Retrieved 2021-08-02.
^ "Afghan who aided U.S. arrive at Virginia base, but many others remain in peril". Los Angeles Times. July 30, 2021. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
^ a b "Joe Biden approves $300 million for Afghan refugees". Khaama Press. July 24, 2021. Retrieved 2021-07-29.
^ a b "House votes to expand and speed up visa process for Afghans who helped the U.S. during war". CNBC. July 22, 2021. Retrieved 2021-07-29.
^ See generally
8 U.S.C. § 1157(c)(3)
8 U.S.C. § 1158(c)(3)
8 U.S.C. § 1181(c)
8 U.S.C. § 1231(b)(3)(A)
"Matter of Izatula, 20 I&N Dec. 149" (PDF). Board of Immigration Appeals. U.S. Dept. of Justice. February 6, 1990. p. 154.
"Matter of B, 21 I&N Dec. 66" (PDF). Board of Immigration Appeals. U.S. Dept. of Justice. May 19, 1995. p. 72.
^ a b "Mashiri v. Ashcroft, 383 F.3d 1112". U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Harvard Law School. November 2, 2004. pp. 1115–19. Retrieved 2021-08-01.
^ a b See generally 8 U.S.C. § 1427; 8 U.S.C. § 1436; 8 U.S.C. § 1452; 8 U.S.C. § 1503;
"Ricketts v. Attorney General, 897 F.3d 491". U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit. July 30, 2018. p. 494 n.3. While all citizens are nationals, not all nationals are citizens.
^ 22 U.S.C. § 212 ("Persons entitled to passport")
^ a b c d Schmeidl, Susanne (2014). "Sources of Tension in Afghanistan and Pakistan: A Regional Perspective" (PDF). CIDOB Policy Research Project.
^ "Afghanistan: 270,000 newly displaced this year, warns UNHCR". UN News. July 13, 2021. Retrieved 2021-07-29.
^ "Millions of Afghans Displaced After More Than Four Decades of War". Voice of America. December 14, 2019. Retrieved 2021-07-29.
^ Abu-Lughod, Lila (September 2002). "Do Muslim Women Really Need Saving? Anthropological Reflections on Cultural Relativism and Its Others". Ethics Forum: September 11 and Ethnographic Responsibility.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w "How the US and the UK accept far fewer Afghan refugees than other countries". New Statesman. August 19, 2021. Retrieved 2021-08-20.
^ "High-Level Segment of the 66th session of the Executive Committee of the High Commissioner's Programme on the Afghan refugee situation". UNHCR. October 6, 2015. Retrieved 2017-04-03.
^ See, e.g., generally
"Fernandez v. Keisler, 502 F.3d 337". U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit. Harvard Law School. September 26, 2007. pp. 349–50.
"Gomez-Diaz v. Ashcroft, 324 F.3d 913". U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit. Harvard Law School. April 7, 2003. p. 915. Retrieved 2021-08-02. The Child Citizenship Act of 2000, Pub.L. No. 106-395, 114 Stat. 1631, revised the manner in which children of non-citizens born outside the United States are eligible to become U.S. citizens.
"Belleri v. United States, 712 F.3d 543". U.S. Court of Appeals for the 11th Circuit. Harvard Law School. March 14, 2013. p. 545. Retrieved 2021-08-02. A child acquires derivative citizenship by operation of law, not by adjudication.
"In re Fuentes-Martinez, 21 I&N Dec. 893" (PDF). Board of Immigration Appeals. U.S. Dept. of Justice. April 25, 1997. p. 896 n.4. Retrieved 2021-08-02. A person who claims to have derived United States citizenship by naturalization of a parent may apply to the Attorney General for a certificate, but a certificate is not required.
"Robertson-Dewar v. Mukasey, 599 F. Supp. 2d 772". U.S. District Court for the Western District of Texas. Harvard Law School. February 25, 2009. p. 779 n.3. Retrieved 2021-08-02. The Immigration and Nationality Act defines naturalization as 'conferring of nationality of a state upon a person after birth, by any means whatsoever.'
"Petition for Naturalization of Tubig ex rel. Tubig, 559 F. Supp. 2". U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California. Harvard Law School. October 7, 1981. p. 3. Retrieved 2021-08-02. A person naturalized under § 1433(a) need not meet many of the requirements for naturalization—such as language, residence, and physical presence requirements—imposed upon those who seek naturalization under other provisions.... Thus, qualifying for naturalization under § 1433(a) can be of substantial importance to applicants for naturalization.
^ See, e.g., generally 18 U.S.C. § 249; 18 U.S.C. § 876; 18 U.S.C. § 1958; 18 U.S.C. § 2332; 18 U.S.C. § 2441; "United States v. Morin, 80 F.3d 124". U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit. Harvard Law School. April 5, 1996. p. 126. Retrieved 2021-08-02.
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External links
Colombia to Host Afghans Making Their Way to the United States (U.S. News & World Report, Aug. 20, 2021)
Afghanistan: Pakistan fences off from Afghan refugees (BBC News, Aug. 18, 2021)
After 20 years of destruction, the US has a moral obligation to let in 1 million Afghan refugees (Business Insider, Aug. 16, 2021)
Delhi’s Little Kabul: A culinary reminder of home for Afghans in the capital (The Times of India, August 25, 2021)
Pakistan considers 'Iran model' to tackle Afghan refugee spillover (TRT World, July 20, 2021)
Senate agrees to spend $2.1 billion on Capitol security and Afghan refugee aid (Washington Examiner, April 29, 2021)
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Valletta Summit on Migration
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Afghanese_refugees_following_the_Soviet_invasion.png"},{"link_name":"Soviet invasion of Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Afghanistan_Evacuation_210821-A-AB999-0019.jpg"},{"link_name":"Operation Allies Refuge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Allies_Refuge"},{"link_name":"Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"Saur Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saur_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Soviet invasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War"},{"link_name":"international migration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_migration"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghans_in_Iran"},{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghans_in_Pakistan"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghans_in_India"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"former Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Soviet_states"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"civil war in the 90s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1992%E2%80%931996)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"United States invasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"Taliban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taliban"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-data2.unhcr.org-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IOM_Afghanistan_Highlights-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"poverty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UNHCR-20223-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UNHCR-20223-11"},{"link_name":"International Security Assistance Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Security_Assistance_Force"},{"link_name":"resettle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_country_resettlement"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-US_Expands_Eligibility_for_Afghan_Refugee_Resettlement-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-US_Announces_New_Refugee_Program_for_Afghans-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Joe_Biden_approves_$300_million_for_Afghan_refugees-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-House_votes_to_expand_and_speed_up_visa_process_for_Afghans_who_helped_the_U.S._during_war-17"},{"link_name":"stateless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statelessness"},{"link_name":"refugees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugee"},{"link_name":"asylum seekers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asylum_seeker"},{"link_name":"non-refoulement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-refoulement"},{"link_name":"U.N. Convention Against Torture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_against_Torture"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Australians"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Canadians"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghans_in_Germany"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghans_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mashiri-19"},{"link_name":"green cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_card"},{"link_name":"8 U.S.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_8_of_the_United_States_Code"},{"link_name":"§ 1159","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1159"},{"link_name":"non-citizen nationals of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_nationality_law"},{"link_name":"8 U.S.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_8_of_the_United_States_Code"},{"link_name":"§ 1452(b)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1452#b"},{"link_name":"8 U.S.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_8_of_the_United_States_Code"},{"link_name":"§ 1427(a)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1427#a"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nationals_but_not_citizens_of_the_United_States-20"},{"link_name":"United States passports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_passport#Non-citizen_nationals"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Map showing the flow of Afghan refugees following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979Afghan evacuees boarding American aircraft during Operation Allies Refuge in 2021Afghan refugees are citizens of Afghanistan who were forced to flee from their country as a result the continuous wars that the country has suffered since the Afghan-Soviet war, the Afghan civil war, the Afghanistan war (2001–2021) or either political or religious persecution. The 1978 Saur Revolution, followed by the 1979 Soviet invasion, marked the first major wave of internal displacement and international migration to neighboring Iran and Pakistan; smaller numbers also went to India[1] or to countries of the former Soviet Union. Between 1979 and 1992, more than 20% of Afghanistan's population fled the country as refugees.[2] Following the Soviet withdrawal in 1989, many returned to Afghanistan,[3] however many Afghans were again forced to flee during the civil war in the 90s. Over 6 million Afghan refugees were residing in Iran and Pakistan by 2000.[4] Most refugees returned to Afghanistan following the 2001 United States invasion and overthrow of the Taliban regime.[5][6][7] Between 2002 and 2012, 5.7 million refugees returned to Afghanistan, increasing the country's population by 25%.[8]Afghanistan is one of the largest refugee-producing countries in the world.[9] A total of 6.3 million Afghan refugees were allocated in Pakistan and Iran in 1990.[10] It is considered to be amongst the 4 nations with the highest number of refugees. There are more than 8 million Afghans who have been forced to flee their homes as a result of violence, potential persecution, and poverty, which has created a diasporic population of more than 8.2 million Afghans across a total of 103 separate countries.[11] Of these 8.2 million refugees, just under 6 million are deemed to have been displaced as a result of the United States' War in Afghanistan.[12] Along with this, approximately 3.2 millions Afghan nationals have been driven from their homes and into the status of internally displaced person (IDP).[11]Some countries that were part of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) established special programs to allow thousands of Afghans to resettle in North America or Europe.[13][14][15][16][17] As stateless refugees or asylum seekers, they are protected by the well-established non-refoulement principle and the U.N. Convention Against Torture. They receive the maximum government benefits and protections in countries such as Australia, Canada, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States.[18][19] For example, those that receive green cards under 8 U.S.C. § 1159 can immediately become \"non-citizen nationals of the United States\" pursuant to 8 U.S.C. § 1452(b), without needing to meet the requirements of 8 U.S.C. § 1427(a).[20] This allows them to travel with distinct United States passports.[21] Australia provides a similar benefit to admitted refugees.","title":"Afghan refugees"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International Organization for Migration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Migration"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IOM_Afghanistan_Highlights-7"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-22"},{"link_name":"Soviet invasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-22"},{"link_name":"Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1992%E2%80%931996)"},{"link_name":"totalitarianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarianism"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), there are over five million internally displaced people in Afghanistan as of late 2021.[7] Military actions and violence by the warring factions usually play a major part in the displacement, although there are also reasons of major natural disasters.[22] The Soviet invasion caused approximately 2 million Afghans to be internally displaced, mostly from rural areas into urban areas.[22] The Afghan Civil War (1992–1996) caused a new wave of internal displacement, with many citizens moving to northern areas in order to avoid the Taliban totalitarianism.[22] Afghanistan has long suffered from insecurity and conflict, which has led to an increase in internal displacement.[23][24]","title":"Internal displacement"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"External influence over the past 50 years by both the Soviet Union and later the United States, along with actions of the currently ruling Taliban regime, have led to continued trends of displacement.","title":"Causes of displacement"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"United States War in Afghanistan","text":"The American invasion of Afghanistan (as well as the 20 years of occupation by the United States military) has contributed to the displacement of Afghan nationals. While many justifications were given for the invasion of Afghanistan (from revenge for the September 11th terrorist attacks, to democratization & the liberation of Afghan women), the war has led to both internal and external displacement of the Afghan population. According to the Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (an organization which played a large role in showcasing the excess & violence of the Taliban), the American bombing of Afghanistan was not seen locally as \"salvation,\" but instead caused fear that the American military would confuse civilians with members of the Taliban.[25]","title":"Causes of displacement"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Afghan diaspora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_diaspora"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_Statesman-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Refugees-27"},{"link_name":"Afghans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghans"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-22"},{"link_name":"permanent residency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_residency"},{"link_name":"green card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_card"},{"link_name":"U.S. nationality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_nationality_law"},{"link_name":"U.S. citizenship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nationals_but_not_citizens_of_the_United_States-20"},{"link_name":"Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americans"},{"link_name":"8 U.S.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_8_of_the_United_States_Code"},{"link_name":"§ 1408(4)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1408#4"},{"link_name":"8 U.S.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_8_of_the_United_States_Code"},{"link_name":"§ 1431(a)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1431#a"},{"link_name":"8 U.S.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_8_of_the_United_States_Code"},{"link_name":"§ 1433(a)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1433#a"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"text":"Further information: Afghan diasporaNative people of Afghanistan and their children lawfully reside in at least 96 countries around the world.[26][27] About three in four Afghans have gone through internal and/or external displacement in their life.[22] Unlike in certain other countries, all admitted refugees and those granted asylum in the United States are statutorily eligible for permanent residency (green card) and then U.S. nationality or U.S. citizenship.[20] All of their children automatically become Americans if they fulfill all of the requirements of 8 U.S.C. § 1408(4), 8 U.S.C. § 1431(a) or 8 U.S.C. § 1433(a).[28] This extends their privileges, and gives all of them additional international protection against any unlawful threat or harm.[29]","title":"Major host countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Deportation of undocumented Afghans from Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_undocumented_Afghans_from_Pakistan"},{"link_name":"asylum seekers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asylum_seeker"},{"link_name":"United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UN_praises_Pakistan_for_carrying_out_registration_of_1.4m_Afghan_refugees-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_Statesman-26"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Onward_Movements_of_Afghan_Refugees-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pakistan:_Overview_of_Afghan_Refugee_Population-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Khyber Pakhtunkhwa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa"},{"link_name":"Balochistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochistan,_Pakistan"},{"link_name":"Punjab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab,_Pakistan"},{"link_name":"Sindh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindh"},{"link_name":"Islamabad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamabad"},{"link_name":"Azad Kashmir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azad_Kashmir"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-data2.unhcr.org-5"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pakistan:_Overview_of_Afghan_Refugee_Population-33"},{"link_name":"citizens of Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_identity_card"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-irin-35"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-data2.unhcr.org-5"},{"link_name":"repatriation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repatriation"},{"link_name":"resettled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_country_resettlement"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-data2.unhcr.org-5"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Taliban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Special Immigrant Visa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Immigrant_Visa"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-US_Expands_Eligibility_for_Afghan_Refugee_Resettlement-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-US_Announces_New_Refugee_Program_for_Afghans-14"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Joe_Biden_approves_$300_million_for_Afghan_refugees-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-House_votes_to_expand_and_speed_up_visa_process_for_Afghans_who_helped_the_U.S._during_war-17"},{"link_name":"Prime Minister of Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Most_Afghan_refugees_support_Taliban-42"},{"link_name":"Imran Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imran_Khan"},{"link_name":"Sarfraz Bugti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarfraz_Bugti"},{"link_name":"deportation in a crackdown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expulsion_of_Afghans_from_Pakistan"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"Pakistan","text":"See also: Deportation of undocumented Afghans from PakistanApproximately 1,438,432 registered Afghan refugees and asylum seekers temporarily reside in Pakistan under the care and protection of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).[30][31][26][32][33][34] Of these, 58.1% reside and work in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 22.8% in Balochistan, 11.7% in Punjab, 4.6% in Sindh, 2.4% in the capital Islamabad and 0.3% in Azad Kashmir.[5][33] Most were born and raised in Pakistan in the last four decades but are considered citizens of Afghanistan.[35][5] They are free to return to Afghanistan under a voluntary repatriation program or move to any other country of the world and be firmly resettled there.Since 2002, around 4.4 million Afghan citizens have been repatriated through the UNHCR from Pakistan to Afghanistan.[5][36] Some members of the Taliban and their family have long been residing among the Afghan refugees in Pakistan.[37][38][39][40][41] Others such as the Special Immigrant Visa (SIV) applicants and their family members, who are awaiting to be firmly settled in the United States,[13][14][16][17] are also residing in Pakistan. Regarding the Taliban, Prime Minister of Pakistan stated the following:What the Taliban are doing or are not doing has nothing to do with us. We are neither responsible, nor the spokesperson for the Taliban.[42]— Imran Khan, July 2021On 3 October 2023, Pakistan's Interior Minister Sarfraz Bugti ordered that all undocumented immigrants, particularly the nearly 1.73 million Afghan nationals, voluntarily leave the country by 1 November 2023 or face deportation in a crackdown.[43][44] Taliban authorities condemned the deportations of Afghans as an \"inhuman act.\"[45]","title":"Major host countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Afghanistani_boys_in_Esfahan,_Iran_12-3-2007.jpg"},{"link_name":"Afghan children","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_identity_card"},{"link_name":"Naqsh-e Jahan Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naqsh-e_Jahan_Square"},{"link_name":"Esfahan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esfahan"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_Statesman-26"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Onward_Movements_of_Afghan_Refugees-32"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Refugees_in_Iran-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CIAWFIR-47"},{"link_name":"citizens of Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_identity_card"},{"link_name":"Iranian visa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visa_policy_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Refugees_in_Iran-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CIAWFIR-47"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"political asylum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_asylum"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"religious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam"},{"link_name":"propane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propane"},{"link_name":"gasoline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-53"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-53"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"}],"sub_title":"Iran","text":"Afghan children at Naqsh-e Jahan Square in Esfahan, Iran. (2007)As of October 2020, there are 780,000 registered Afghan refugees and asylum seekers temporarily residing in Iran under the care and protection of the UNHCR.[26][32][46][47] The majority of them were born in Iran during the last four decades but are still considered citizens of Afghanistan. According to Iranian officials, 2 million citizens of Afghanistan who have no legal documents and over half a million Iranian visa holders also reside in various parts of the country.[46][47] Iran has long been used by Afghans to reach Turkey and then Europe where they apply for political asylum.[48][49][50] As in Pakistan, the Afghan refugees are not firmly settled but reside there on a temporary basis.Iran's initial response towards Afghan refugees, driven by religious solidarity, was an open door policy where Afghans in Iran had freedom of movement to travel or work in any city in addition to subsidies for propane, gasoline, certain food items and even health coverage.[51][52] In the early 2000s, Iran's Bureau for Aliens and Foreign Immigrants Affairs (BAFIA) initiated registration of all foreigners, including refugees. It began issuing temporary residence cards to certain Afghans.[53] In 2000, the Iranian government also initiated a joint repatriation program with the UNHCR.[53] Laws were passed in order to encourage the repatriation of Afghan refugees, such as limits on employment, areas of residence, and access to services including education.[53] In 2021, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) found that just over one million Afghans have been sent back.[54] In 2023, Iran along with Pakistan decided to deport more refugees.[55][56]","title":"Major host countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Onward_Movements_of_Afghan_Refugees-32"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aafaq2021-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lalwani2021-58"},{"link_name":"Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi"},{"link_name":"Lajpat Nagar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lajpat_Nagar"},{"link_name":"Bhogal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhogal"},{"link_name":"Malviya Nagar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malviya_Nagar_(Delhi)"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aafaq2021-57"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aafaq2021-57"},{"link_name":"Soviet–Afghan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alam2021-59"},{"link_name":"Sikhs in Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhism_in_Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"Afghan Hindus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism_in_Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Afghanistan's Christian community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Iyengar2018-61"},{"link_name":"war in Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alam2021-59"}],"sub_title":"India","text":"India hosts approximately 15,816 Afghan refugees within its borders.[32][57][58] The majority of them reside in the nation's capital Delhi, specifically in the neighborhoods of Lajpat Nagar, Bhogal and Malviya Nagar.[57] Some of them operate \"shops, restaurants and pharmacies.\"[57] Afghan refugees were admitted to India during and after the Soviet–Afghan War (1979–1989).[59] A lot of the once-vibrant Sikhs in Afghanistan and Afghan Hindus have become refugees in India following the wars.[60] Also much of Afghanistan's Christian community thrives within India.[61] In 2021, following the end of the latest war in Afghanistan, India has offered an emergency visa (the 'e-Emergency X-Misc Visa') to some citizens of Afghanistan.[62][63][59]","title":"Major host countries"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Other host countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Immigration to Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_to_Canada"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Canada-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Canada-64"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"Ahmed Hussen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_Hussen"},{"link_name":"United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"}],"sub_title":"Canada","text":"See also: Immigration to CanadaWhen the Taliban seized control of Afghanistan in August 2021, the Canadian Government announced it would resettle 40,000 vulnerable Afghans such as women and girls, members of Afghanistan's LGBTQ community, human rights workers and journalists.[64] This was in addition to an earlier initiative to resettle thousands of Afghans who had worked for the Canadian Government, such as interpreters and embassy employees, as well as their families.[65] By March 2022, Canada resettled 8,580 Afghan refugees.[64] By August 2022, the first anniversary of the fall of Kabul, that number had risen to 17,375.[66] Ahmed Hussen, Minister of International Development, on 27 September 2023 announced that Canada initiated an aid of providing $14 million in development funding for 2 projects in support of health and essential services for Afghan refugees and host communities in Pakistan impacted by last year's flooding. Of this $14 million, $10 million is being allocated to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees for essential services and recovery efforts, such as the rehabilitation of schools and health facilities, the provision of livelihood training and services associated with gender-based violence. The remaining $4 million will go to the World Health Organization for health services, including sexual, reproductive, maternal, neonatal, child and adolescent health care and for gender-based violence services.[67]","title":"Other host countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"UNHCR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"sub_title":"Uganda","text":"On 17 August, after the fall of Kabul, Ugandan Government announced that based on United States' request, they will be temporarily hosting 2000 Afghan refugees. The refugees were expected to be brought in batches of 500 to Entebbe where UNHCR has secured Imperial Hotels for their arrival and screening.[68] The number of refugees currently residing in Uganda is unclear, but according to reports, Ugandan officials had confirmed the arrival of 145 refugees on Sunday, 22 August 2021.[69] Another 51 Afghans were received at the Entebbe International Airport by the Government of the Republic of Uganda on 25 August 2021.[70]","title":"Other host countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Afghan_refugees_resettled_after_2021_Afghan_withdrawal_by_state.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Massachusetts_National_Guard_Unit_board_C-17_in_Kabul_Airport,_August_2021.jpg"},{"link_name":"Taliban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taliban"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"HKIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamid_Karzai_International"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"Operation Allies Refuge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Allies_Refuge"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"CNN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN_International"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"United Arab Emirates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates"},{"link_name":"Abu Dhabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Dhabi"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-88"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-88"}],"sub_title":"United States","text":"Over the past 40 years, the number of Afghan immigrants living in the United States has risen from roughly 4,000 to nearly 195,000. The majority of this population increase has occurred between two periods: 2010-2019 and from 2021 forward. Between the 10 year periods in the 2010s, the Afghan population rose from 54,000 in 2010 to roughly 132,000 in 2019. Additionally, that population jumped again in 2021 in the midst of the American military withdrawal from Afghanistan, when it surged by an additional 76,000.[71]Afghan refugees resettled per 100K residents after the 2021 Afghan withdrawal and evacuation in each U.S. state and the District of Columbia according to CBS NewsU.S. soldiers board a C-17 during final departures from Kabul Airport, 30 August 2021.On 7 August 2021, due to the threat from the Taliban, the US. Embassy Kabul announced to all American citizens living in Afghanistan to begin evacuating themselves from the country and that all employees of the embassy leave immediately if \"their function could be performed from elsewhere.\"[72]Although, the Department of State, on April 27, 2021, had ordered American troops to withdraw from Afghanistan by September 11,[73] it was not until early August 2021 that the security situation of Kabul deteriorated drastically. This was a time when Taliban militia were taking over Afghanistan one city and/or province at a time.[74] On August 12, the US. Embassy Kabul issued a security alert directing all US citizen to leave Afghanistan immediately using commercial flights if they can, and if they could not afford it, they could contact the embassy to get information regarding repatriation loan.[75]On August 18, 2021, the Embassy issued another alert to US citizen and LPRs (lawful permanent residents) with their spouse and unmarried children to travel to the Hamid Karzai International Airport and enter the airport at Camp Sullivan.[76] When news of this reached the ears of the many Afghan citizens trying to escape the rule of Taliban, they rushed to HKIA.[77]In 2021 Afghanistan started its largest humanitarian evacuations in history, involving more than 80,000 people.(Urban.org)[78]And thus began, the second phase of Operation Allies Refuge from 15 August to 31 August 2021. On August 21 and August 25, the US. Embassy once again issued security alerts advising US citizen to avoid travelling to the airport and to evacuate the Abbey Gate, East Gate and North Gate immediately.[79]On August 26, 2021, CNN reported two explosions at the HKIA that killed 13 US Marines and approximately 60 Afghans outside the airport walls.[80]The US admitted more than 10,000 Afghan refugees from the United Arab Emirates, which became a temporary host to them on behalf of other nations. However, nearly 12,000 refugees remained in the Abu Dhabi facility as of August 2022. Refugees began to protest the slow and opaque resettlement process and the living conditions.[81] The protests resurfaced in October 2022. A refugee who moved to Canada said they are “psychologically suffering” in the Emirati facility.[82]Throughout the course of Operation Allies Welcome, the United States issued humanitarian parole status to more than 76,000 evacuated Afghan nationals. Humanitarian parole serves as a method for individuals otherwise ineligible for admission into the United States to be given temporary permission to enter the country by the Secretary of Homeland Security.[83] These individuals are paroled into the country as a result of \"urgent humanitarian reasons or [for] significant public benefit\" [84] In the case of Afghan nationals, this status was given for a period of 2 years, additionally granting these parolees employment authorization in the country. Individuals granted humanitarian parole status differ from their counterparts admitted through Special Immigrant Visa (SIV) or the standard immigration process, in that they lack set pathway to achieve Lawful Permanent Residency (or Green Card) status.[85]In June 2023, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the UN World Food Programme (WFP) discussed the current situation in Afghanistan. “In Afghanistan, approximately 15.3 million people (35 percent of the population analysed) are estimated to face high acute food insecurity … including just under 2.8 million people in Emergency … Over 3.2 million children and 804,000 pregnant and breastfeeding women are acutely malnourished.”[86]In the same month, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) opened up a new program for Afghan nationals residing in the United States. This program allowed for Afghan Humanitarian Parolees to re-apply to the United States Customs and Immigration Services (USCIS) for parole status if they fell into eligible categories, particularly if they had been initially paroled into the United States as part of the initial Operation Allies Refuge. The policy was put into place by the administration of President Joe Biden, and additionally allowed for the extension of employment authorization for any individual whose re-parole was approved.[87]Afghan parolees residing in the United States continue to face an unclear future when it comes to permanent residency. Efforts such as the Afghan Adjustment Act have been introduced into both the 117th & 118th US Congressional sessions in an effort to provide a pathway to citizenship for Afghan nationals, however the bill has yet to pass both Houses of Congress, partly as a result of its key omission from the 2022 omnibus spending bill (the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2022). Opposition to the Act has largely come from Republican lawmakers, particularly Senator Chuck Grassley, who stated in 2022 that he would not stand behind the bill \"as long as the vetting process is not improved.\"[88] Multiple Republicans have echoed this point of view, after 2 individuals of the more than 76,000 admitted were found to potentially pose a threat to National Security as a result of a report from the Office of the Inspector General.[89][88]","title":"Other host countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"public inquiry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Unlawful_Killings_inquiry"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"}],"sub_title":"United Kingdom","text":"Hundreds of former Afghan special forces who fought alongside British troops in Afghanistan have been refused resettlement to the UK.[90][91] One former UK Special Forces officer told the BBC that \"At a time when certain actions by UK Special Forces are under investigation by a public inquiry, their headquarters also had the power to prevent former Afghan Special Forces colleagues and potential witnesses to these actions from getting safely to the UK.\"[92]","title":"Other host countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Soviet–Afghan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War"},{"link_name":"Afghan Civil War (1992–96)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1992%E2%80%9396)"},{"link_name":"Taliban Rule (1996–2001)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1996%E2%80%932001)"},{"link_name":"War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)"}],"text":"As shown in the chart below, Afghan refugees were admitted to other countries during the following periods:Soviet–Afghan War (1979–1989)\nAfghan Civil War (1992–96)\nTaliban Rule (1996–2001)\nWar in Afghanistan (2001–2021)","title":"Statistics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Deportation of Afghan refugees from the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_Afghan_refugees_from_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Drowning of Afghan refugees in the Hari River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drowning_of_Afghan_refugees_in_the_Hari_River"},{"link_name":"Human rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights"},{"link_name":"refugees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugee"},{"link_name":"asylum seekers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asylum_seeker"},{"link_name":"mistreatment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mistreatment"},{"link_name":"persecution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution"},{"link_name":"torture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torture"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mashiri-19"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Iran-Right-to-Education-112"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guardian-Iran-HumanRight-113"},{"link_name":"fight in Iraq and Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_military_intervention_against_ISIL"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"free movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_movement"},{"link_name":"right to family life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_family_life"},{"link_name":"right to an effective remedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_an_effective_remedy"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"Fort Bliss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Bliss"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"mental health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_health"},{"link_name":"suicide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"}],"text":"See also: Deportation of Afghan refugees from the United States and Drowning of Afghan refugees in the Hari RiverHuman rights abuses against admitted Afghan refugees and asylum seekers have been widely documented. They include mistreatment, persecution or torture in Pakistan, Iran, Turkey, Greece, Romania, Serbia, Hungary, Germany, the United States and several other NATO-members states.[106][107][108][109][110][19] Afghans living in Iran, for example, were deliberately restricted from attending public schools.[111][112][113] As the price of citizenship for their family members, Afghan children as young as 14 were recruited to fight in Iraq and Syria for a six-month tour.[114]Afghan refugees were regularly denied visas to travel between countries to visit their family members, faced long delays (usually a few years)[115] in processing of their visa applications to visit family members for purposes such as weddings, gravely ill family member, burial ceremonies, and university graduation ceremonies; potentially violating rights including free movement, right to family life and the right to an effective remedy.[116][117][118] Racism, low wage jobs including below minimum wage jobs, lower than inflation rate salary increases, were commonly practiced in Europe and elsewhere. Unsanitary conditions have been reported at US air bases,[119][120] and one Afghan refugee's online post of his food portion at Fort Bliss in 2021 drew some hateful responses.[121][122] Many Afghan refugees were not permitted to visit their family members for a decade or two. Studies have shown abnormally high mental health issues and suicide rates among Afghan refugees and their children.[123][124][125][126][127]","title":"Human rights abuses"}]
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[{"image_text":"Map showing the flow of Afghan refugees following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Map_of_Afghanese_refugees_following_the_Soviet_invasion.png/220px-Map_of_Afghanese_refugees_following_the_Soviet_invasion.png"},{"image_text":"Afghan evacuees boarding American aircraft during Operation Allies Refuge in 2021","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Afghanistan_Evacuation_210821-A-AB999-0019.jpg/220px-Afghanistan_Evacuation_210821-A-AB999-0019.jpg"},{"image_text":"Afghan children at Naqsh-e Jahan Square in Esfahan, Iran. (2007)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Afghanistani_boys_in_Esfahan%2C_Iran_12-3-2007.jpg/220px-Afghanistani_boys_in_Esfahan%2C_Iran_12-3-2007.jpg"},{"image_text":"Afghan refugees resettled per 100K residents after the 2021 Afghan withdrawal and evacuation in each U.S. state and the District of Columbia according to CBS News","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Afghan_refugees_resettled_after_2021_Afghan_withdrawal_by_state.svg/550px-Afghan_refugees_resettled_after_2021_Afghan_withdrawal_by_state.svg.png"},{"image_text":"U.S. soldiers board a C-17 during final departures from Kabul Airport, 30 August 2021.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Massachusetts_National_Guard_Unit_board_C-17_in_Kabul_Airport%2C_August_2021.jpg/220px-Massachusetts_National_Guard_Unit_board_C-17_in_Kabul_Airport%2C_August_2021.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Afghan diaspora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_diaspora"},{"title":"International Organization for Migration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Migration"},{"title":"United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees"},{"title":"United States of Al","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_Al"},{"title":"Anti-Afghan sentiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment"}]
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[{"reference":"Amstutz, J. Bruce (1994). Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation. Diane Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7881-1111-2. OCLC 948347893.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQC","url_text":"Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7881-1111-2","url_text":"978-0-7881-1111-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/948347893","url_text":"948347893"}]},{"reference":"\"Refugees From Afghanistan: The world's largest single refugee group\" (PDF). www.refworld.org. November 16, 1999. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-11-11. Retrieved December 11, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/3ae6a9d110.pdf","url_text":"\"Refugees From Afghanistan: The world's largest single refugee group\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201111214654/https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/3ae6a9d110.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Afghanistan 10 years after Soviet pull-out\". UNHCR. February 12, 1999. Retrieved November 5, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid=3ae6b81cf0&query=Return%20to%20Afghanistan","url_text":"\"Afghanistan 10 years after Soviet pull-out\""}]},{"reference":"\"USCR Country Report Afghanistan: Statistics on refugees and other uprooted people\". ReliefWeb. June 19, 2001. Retrieved 2021-08-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/uscr-country-report-afghanistan-statistics-refugees-and-other-uprooted-people-jun","url_text":"\"USCR Country Report Afghanistan: Statistics on refugees and other uprooted people\""}]},{"reference":"\"Registered Afghan Refugees in Pakistan\". UNHCR. December 31, 2020. Retrieved 2021-07-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://data2.unhcr.org/en/country/pak","url_text":"\"Registered Afghan Refugees in Pakistan\""}]},{"reference":"\"Over 1.1m Afghans repatriated from Iran, Pakistan last year\". Pajhwok Afghan News. January 3, 2022. Retrieved 2022-01-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://pajhwok.com/2022/01/03/over-1-1-million-afghans-repatriated-from-iran-pakistan-last-year/","url_text":"\"Over 1.1m Afghans repatriated from Iran, Pakistan last year\""}]},{"reference":"\"IOM Afghanistan Highlights\" (PDF). International Organization for Migration. January 5, 2022. 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Retrieved 2024-03-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unrefugees.org/news/afghanistan-refugee-crisis-explained/","url_text":"\"Afghanistan Refugee Crisis Explained\""}]},{"reference":"Vine, David; Coffman, Cala; Khoury, Kataline; Lovasz, Madison; Bush, Helen; Leduc, Rachael; Walkup, Jennifer (September 21, 2020). \"Creating Refugees: Displacement Caused by the United States' Post-9/11 Wars\" (PDF). Retrieved March 20, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/files/cow/imce/papers/2020/Displacement_Vine%20et%20al_Costs%20of%20War%202020%2009%2008.pdf","url_text":"\"Creating Refugees: Displacement Caused by the United States' Post-9/11 Wars\""}]},{"reference":"\"US Expands Eligibility for Afghan Refugee Resettlement\". Voice of America. August 2, 2021. 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May 19, 1995. p. 72.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/07/25/3251.pdf","url_text":"\"Matter of B, 21 I&N Dec. 66\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mashiri v. Ashcroft, 383 F.3d 1112\". U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Harvard Law School. November 2, 2004. pp. 1115–19. Retrieved 2021-08-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://cite.case.law/f3d/383/1112/#p1115","url_text":"\"Mashiri v. Ashcroft, 383 F.3d 1112\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ricketts v. Attorney General, 897 F.3d 491\". U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit. July 30, 2018. p. 494 n.3. While all citizens are nationals, not all nationals are citizens.","urls":[{"url":"https://casetext.com/case/ricketts-v-attorney-gen-united-states#p494","url_text":"\"Ricketts v. Attorney General, 897 F.3d 491\""}]},{"reference":"Schmeidl, Susanne (2014). \"Sources of Tension in Afghanistan and Pakistan: A Regional Perspective\" (PDF). CIDOB Policy Research Project.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/184639/SEPT%202014_SUSANNE%20SCHMEIDL.pdf","url_text":"\"Sources of Tension in Afghanistan and Pakistan: A Regional Perspective\""}]},{"reference":"\"Afghanistan: 270,000 newly displaced this year, warns UNHCR\". UN News. July 13, 2021. Retrieved 2021-07-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/07/1095782","url_text":"\"Afghanistan: 270,000 newly displaced this year, warns UNHCR\""}]},{"reference":"\"Millions of Afghans Displaced After More Than Four Decades of War\". Voice of America. December 14, 2019. Retrieved 2021-07-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.voanews.com/south-central-asia/millions-afghans-displaced-after-more-four-decades-war","url_text":"\"Millions of Afghans Displaced After More Than Four Decades of War\""}]},{"reference":"Abu-Lughod, Lila (September 2002). \"Do Muslim Women Really Need Saving? Anthropological Reflections on Cultural Relativism and Its Others\". Ethics Forum: September 11 and Ethnographic Responsibility.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"How the US and the UK accept far fewer Afghan refugees than other countries\". New Statesman. August 19, 2021. Retrieved 2021-08-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newstatesman.com/world/2021/08/how-us-and-uk-accept-far-fewer-afghan-refugees-other-countries","url_text":"\"How the US and the UK accept far fewer Afghan refugees than other countries\""}]},{"reference":"\"High-Level Segment of the 66th session of the Executive Committee of the High Commissioner's Programme on the Afghan refugee situation\". UNHCR. October 6, 2015. Retrieved 2017-04-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/admin/hcspeeches/5613bd406/high-level-segment-66th-session-executive-committee-high-commissioners.html","url_text":"\"High-Level Segment of the 66th session of the Executive Committee of the High Commissioner's Programme on the Afghan refugee situation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Fernandez v. Keisler, 502 F.3d 337\". U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit. Harvard Law School. September 26, 2007. pp. 349–50.","urls":[{"url":"https://cite.case.law/f3d/502/337/#p349","url_text":"\"Fernandez v. Keisler, 502 F.3d 337\""}]},{"reference":"\"Gomez-Diaz v. Ashcroft, 324 F.3d 913\". U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit. Harvard Law School. April 7, 2003. p. 915. Retrieved 2021-08-02. The Child Citizenship Act of 2000, Pub.L. No. 106-395, 114 Stat. 1631, revised the manner in which children of non-citizens born outside the United States are eligible to become U.S. citizens.","urls":[{"url":"https://cite.case.law/f3d/324/913/#p915","url_text":"\"Gomez-Diaz v. Ashcroft, 324 F.3d 913\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_Citizenship_Act_of_2000","url_text":"Child Citizenship Act of 2000"}]},{"reference":"\"Belleri v. United States, 712 F.3d 543\". U.S. Court of Appeals for the 11th Circuit. Harvard Law School. March 14, 2013. p. 545. Retrieved 2021-08-02. A child acquires derivative citizenship by operation of law, not by adjudication.","urls":[{"url":"https://cite.case.law/f3d/712/543/#p545","url_text":"\"Belleri v. United States, 712 F.3d 543\""}]},{"reference":"\"In re Fuentes-Martinez, 21 I&N Dec. 893\" (PDF). Board of Immigration Appeals. U.S. Dept. of Justice. April 25, 1997. p. 896 n.4. Retrieved 2021-08-02. A person who claims to have derived United States citizenship by naturalization of a parent may apply to the Attorney General for a certificate, but a certificate is not required.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/07/25/3316.pdf","url_text":"\"In re Fuentes-Martinez, 21 I&N Dec. 893\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General","url_text":"Attorney General"}]},{"reference":"\"Robertson-Dewar v. Mukasey, 599 F. Supp. 2d 772\". U.S. District Court for the Western District of Texas. Harvard Law School. February 25, 2009. p. 779 n.3. Retrieved 2021-08-02. The Immigration and Nationality Act defines naturalization as 'conferring of nationality of a state upon a person after birth, by any means whatsoever.'","urls":[{"url":"https://cite.case.law/f-supp-2d/599/772/#p779","url_text":"\"Robertson-Dewar v. Mukasey, 599 F. Supp. 2d 772\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1952","url_text":"Immigration and Nationality Act"}]},{"reference":"\"Petition for Naturalization of Tubig ex rel. Tubig, 559 F. Supp. 2\". U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California. Harvard Law School. October 7, 1981. p. 3. Retrieved 2021-08-02. A person naturalized under § 1433(a) need not meet many of the requirements for naturalization—such as language, residence, and physical presence requirements—imposed upon those who seek naturalization under other provisions.... Thus, qualifying for naturalization under § 1433(a) can be of substantial importance to applicants for naturalization.","urls":[{"url":"https://cite.case.law/f-supp/559/2/#p3","url_text":"\"Petition for Naturalization of Tubig ex rel. Tubig, 559 F. Supp. 2\""}]},{"reference":"\"United States v. Morin, 80 F.3d 124\". U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit. Harvard Law School. April 5, 1996. p. 126. Retrieved 2021-08-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://cite.case.law/f3d/80/124/#p126","url_text":"\"United States v. Morin, 80 F.3d 124\""}]},{"reference":"\"UN praises Pakistan for carrying out registration of 1.4m Afghan refugees\". Dawn News. January 5, 2022. Retrieved 2022-01-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dawn.com/news/1667682","url_text":"\"UN praises Pakistan for carrying out registration of 1.4m Afghan refugees\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pakistan concludes 'drive' to issue smartcards to registered Afghan refugees\". UNHCR. January 4, 2022. 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PMID 27073412.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4828823","url_text":"\"Beliefs and knowledge about post-traumatic stress disorder amongst resettled Afghan refugees in Australia\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs13033-016-0065-7","url_text":"10.1186/s13033-016-0065-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1752-4458","url_text":"1752-4458"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4828823","url_text":"4828823"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27073412","url_text":"27073412"}]},{"reference":"Stempel, Carl; Sami, Nilofar; Koga, Patrick Marius; Alemi, Qais; Smith, Valerie; Shirazi, Aida (28 December 2016). \"Gendered Sources of Distress and Resilience among Afghan Refugees in Northern California: A Cross-Sectional Study\". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 14 (1): 25. doi:10.3390/ijerph14010025. PMC 5295276. PMID 28036054.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5295276","url_text":"\"Gendered Sources of Distress and Resilience among Afghan Refugees in Northern California: A Cross-Sectional Study\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijerph14010025","url_text":"10.3390/ijerph14010025"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5295276","url_text":"5295276"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28036054","url_text":"28036054"}]},{"reference":"\"Afghanistan 10 years after Soviet pull-out\". UNHCR. February 12, 1999. 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Morin, 80 F.3d 124\""},{"Link":"https://www.dawn.com/news/1667682","external_links_name":"\"UN praises Pakistan for carrying out registration of 1.4m Afghan refugees\""},{"Link":"https://www.unhcr.org/news/briefing/2022/1/61d419634/pakistan-concludes-drive-issue-smartcards-registered-afghan-refugees.html","external_links_name":"\"Pakistan concludes 'drive' to issue smartcards to registered Afghan refugees\""},{"Link":"https://reporting.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/Statistical%20Factsheet%20Onward%20movements%20of%20Afghan%20refugees%20March-April%202021.pdf","external_links_name":"Onward Movements of Afghan Refugees"},{"Link":"https://reliefweb.int/map/pakistan/pakistan-overview-afghan-refugee-population-31-january-2021","external_links_name":"\"Pakistan: Overview of Afghan Refugee Population\""},{"Link":"https://www.unhcr.org/pk/asylum-system-in-pakistan","external_links_name":"\"Asylum system in 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Now These Veterans Are Fighting to Bring Them to the US\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180613031750/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/military/combat-translators-saved-their-lives-now-these-veterans-are-fighting-n796731","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/13/world/asia/visa-denials-afghan-girls-robotics-us.html","external_links_name":"\"After Visa Denials, Afghan Girls Can Attend Robotics Contest in US\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180612171618/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/13/world/asia/visa-denials-afghan-girls-robotics-us.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.irishtimes.com/news/crime-and-law/courts/high-court/visa-delays-of-more-than-a-year-may-breach-european-directive-1.3370156","external_links_name":"\"Visa delays of more than a year may breach European directive\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180126235710/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/crime-and-law/courts/high-court/visa-delays-of-more-than-a-year-may-breach-european-directive-1.3370156","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/jun/01/the-refugees-who-gave-up-on-britain-new-arrivals","external_links_name":"\"The refugees who gave up on Britain\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180607213547/https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/jun/01/the-refugees-who-gave-up-on-britain-new-arrivals","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/politics/afghan-refugees-living-in-dire-conditions-at-us-air-base-report/ar-AANGx4N","external_links_name":"\"Afghan refugees living in 'dire conditions' at US air base: 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Camp Met With Vicious Online Hate\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210906114502/https://www.news18.com/news/buzz/afghan-refugees-photo-of-food-served-at-us-camp-met-with-vicious-online-hate-4170653.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs15006-017-9653-y","external_links_name":"10.1007/s15006-017-9653-y"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28509013","external_links_name":"28509013"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:195341301","external_links_name":"195341301"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002076409904500104","external_links_name":"10.1177/002076409904500104"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10443247","external_links_name":"10443247"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22780561","external_links_name":"22780561"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5571658","external_links_name":"\"The mental health and help-seeking behaviour of resettled Afghan refugees in Australia\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs13033-017-0157-z","external_links_name":"10.1186/s13033-017-0157-z"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5571658","external_links_name":"5571658"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28855961","external_links_name":"28855961"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4828823","external_links_name":"\"Beliefs and knowledge about post-traumatic stress disorder amongst resettled Afghan refugees in Australia\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs13033-016-0065-7","external_links_name":"10.1186/s13033-016-0065-7"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1752-4458","external_links_name":"1752-4458"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4828823","external_links_name":"4828823"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27073412","external_links_name":"27073412"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5295276","external_links_name":"\"Gendered Sources of Distress and Resilience 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauren_Bacall
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Lauren Bacall
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["1 Early life and education","2 Early career and modeling","3 Hollywood","3.1 1944–1959: Hollywood contract and leading roles","3.2 1960–1989: Return to Broadway and musicals","3.3 1990–1999: Film resurgence and West End debut","3.4 2000–2009: Dramatic films and final roles","4 Acting credits and accolades","5 Personal life","5.1 Relationships and family","5.2 Political views","5.3 Death","6 Bibliography","7 In popular culture","8 See also","9 Explanatory notes","10 Citations","11 General and cited sources","12 External links"]
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American actress (1924–2014)
"Bacall" redirects here. For the surname, see Bacall (surname).
Lauren BacallBacall in 1945BornBetty Joan Perske(1924-09-16)September 16, 1924New York City, U.S.DiedAugust 12, 2014(2014-08-12) (aged 89)New York City, U.S.Resting placeForest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale, California, U.S.Other namesBetty BogartAlma materAmerican Academy of Dramatic ArtsOccupations
Actress
model
spokeswoman
Years active1942–2014WorksPerformancesSpouses
Humphrey Bogart
(m. 1945; died 1957)
Jason Robards
(m. 1961; div. 1969)Children3, including Stephen Humphrey Bogart and Sam RobardsRelativesShimon Peres (cousin)AwardsFull listSignature
Betty Joan Perske (September 16, 1924 – August 12, 2014), professionally known as Lauren Bacall (/bəˈkɔːl/ bə-KAWL), was an American actress. She was named the 20th-greatest female star of classic Hollywood cinema by the American Film Institute and received an Academy Honorary Award in 2009 in recognition of her contribution to the Golden Age of motion pictures. She was known for her alluring, sultry presence and her distinctive, husky voice. Bacall was one of the last surviving major stars from the Golden Age of Hollywood cinema.
Bacall began a career as a model for the Walter Thornton Model Agency before making her film debut at the age of 20 as the leading lady opposite her future husband Humphrey Bogart in To Have and Have Not (1944). She continued in the film noir genre with appearances alongside her new husband in The Big Sleep (1946), Dark Passage (1947), and Key Largo (1948), and she starred in the romantic comedies How to Marry a Millionaire (1953) and Designing Woman (1957). She portrayed the female lead in Written on the Wind (1956) which is considered one of Douglas Sirk's seminal films. She later acted in Harper (1966), Murder on the Orient Express (1974), and The Shootist (1976).
She found a career resurgence for her role in the romantic comedy The Mirror Has Two Faces (1996) for which she earned the Golden Globe Award and the Screen Actors Guild Award, in addition to nominations for the Academy Award and the BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actress. During the final stage of her career, she gained newfound success with a younger audience for major supporting roles in the films Misery (1990), Dogville (2003), Birth (2004), and the English dubs of the animated films Howl's Moving Castle (2004) and Ernest & Celestine (2012).
For her work on theatre, she made her Broadway debut in Johnny 2x4 (1942). She went on to win two Tony Awards for Best Actress in a Musical for her performances in Applause (1970) and Woman of the Year (1981). She also acted in the play Goodbye Charlie (1959), the farce Cactus Flower (1965), and Wonderful Town (1977). She made her West End debut in The Applause (1970) followed by Sweet Bird of Youth (1985).
Early life and education
Lauren Bacall was born Betty Joan Perske on September 16, 1924, in the Bronx, New York City, the only child of Natalie (née Weinstein-Bacal; 1901–1969), a secretary who later legally changed her surname to Bacal, and William Perske (1889–1982), who worked in sales. Both of her parents were Jewish. Her mother emigrated from Iași, Romania through Ellis Island. Her father was born in New Jersey to parents who were born in Valozhyn, a predominantly Jewish community in present-day Belarus.
Bacall's parents divorced when she was five, after which she no longer saw her father. She later took the Romanian form of her mother's last name, Bacall. She was close to her mother, who remarried Lee Goldberg and moved to California after Bacall became a star. Through her father, Bacall was related to Shimon Peres (born Szymon Perski), the eighth prime minister and ninth president of Israel. Peres did not know about the relationship until Bacall told him.
Bacall's family moved soon after her birth to Brooklyn's Ocean Parkway. Money from a wealthy family allowed Bacall to attend school at the Highland Manor Boarding School for Girls in Tarrytown, New York, a private boarding school founded by philanthropist Eugene Heitler Lehman, and Julia Richman High School in Manhattan.
Early career and modeling
Bacall by László Willinger
In 1941, Bacall took lessons at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York, where she dated classmate Kirk Douglas. She worked as a theatre usher at the St. James Theatre and as a fashion model in department stores.
She made her acting debut on Broadway in 1942 at age 17 as a walk-on in Johnny 2 X 4. By then, she lived with her mother at 75 Bank Street, and in 1942, she was crowned Miss Greenwich Village. As a teenage fashion model, Bacall appeared on the cover of Harper's Bazaar and in magazines such as Vogue. A 1948 article in Life magazine referred to her "cat-like grace, tawny blonde hair, and blue-green eyes."
Though Diana Vreeland is often credited with discovering Bacall for Harper's Bazaar, it was in fact Nicolas de Gunzburg who introduced Bacall to Vreeland. He had first met Bacall at a New York club called Tony's, where de Gunzburg suggested that Bacall visit his Harper's Bazaar office the next day. He then turned her over to Vreeland, who arranged for Louise Dahl-Wolfe to shoot Bacall in Kodachrome for the March 1943 cover.
The Harper's Bazaar cover caught the attention of "Slim" Keith, the wife of Hollywood producer and director Howard Hawks. Keith urged her husband to invite Bacall to take a screen test for his forthcoming film To Have and Have Not. Hawks asked his secretary to find more information about Bacall, but the secretary misunderstood and sent Bacall a ticket to travel to Hollywood for the audition.
Hollywood
1944–1959: Hollywood contract and leading roles
Howard Hawks and Bacall c. 1943
After meeting Bacall in Hollywood, Hawks immediately signed her to a seven-year contract with a weekly salary of $100 and personally began to manage her career. He changed her first name to Lauren, and she chose Bacall, a variant of her mother's maiden name, as her screen surname. Slim Hawks also took Bacall under her wing, dressing Bacall stylishly and guiding her in matters of elegance, manners and taste. At Hawks's suggestion, Bacall was trained by a voice coach to speak with a lower and deeper voice instead of her normally high-pitched, nasal voice. As part of her training, Bacall was required to shout verses of Shakespeare for hours every day. Her voice was characterized as a "smoky, sexual growl" by most critics and a "throaty purr". Bacall stood 5 feet 8+1⁄2 inches (1.74 meters), unusually tall for actresses of the era, and was only an inch shorter than Humphrey Bogart.
Bacall with Humphrey Bogart in To Have and Have Not
During her screen tests for To Have and Have Not (1944), Bacall was so nervous that, to minimize her quivering, she pressed her chin against her chest, faced the camera and tilted her eyes upward. This effect, which came to be known as "The Look", became another Bacall trademark, along with her sultry voice. Bacall's character in the film used Slim Hawks's nickname, "Slim", and Bogart used Howard Hawks's nickname "Steve". The on-set chemistry between the two was immediate, according to Bacall. She and Bogart, who was married to Mayo Methot, began a romantic relationship several weeks into shooting. Bacall's role in the script was originally much smaller, but during production, the part was revised and extended several times.
After its release, To Have and Have Not catapulted Bacall into instant stardom, and her performance became the cornerstone of her star image that extended into popular culture at large, even influencing fashion as well as filmmakers and other actors. Warner Bros. launched an extensive marketing campaign to promote the picture and to establish Bacall as a movie star. As part of the public-relations push, Bacall visited the National Press Club in Washington, D.C., on February 10, 1945, and sat on a piano as Vice President Harry S. Truman played it.
20-year-old Bacall lounges on top of the piano while Vice President Harry S. Truman plays for servicemen at the National Press Club Canteen in Washington, D.C. (February 10, 1945)
After To Have and Have Not, Bacall appeared with Charles Boyer in Confidential Agent (1945), which was poorly received by critics. By her own estimation, she had been terribly miscast and the film could have caused considerable damage to her career, but her next performance as the mysterious, acid-tongued Vivian Rutledge in Hawks's film noir The Big Sleep (1946), co-starring Bogart, provided a quick career resurgence. The Big Sleep laid the foundation for Bacall's status as an icon of film noir, with which she would be strongly associated for the rest of her career. She was often cast in roles that were variations of the independent and sultry femme fatale character of Vivian. As described by film scholar Joe McElhaney, "Vivian displays an almost total command of movement and gesture. She never crawls."
Bacall was cast with Bogart in two more films. In the film noir Dark Passage (1947), she played an enigmatic San Francisco artist. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote: "Miss Bacall ... generates quite a lot of pressure as a sharp-eyed, knows-what-she-wants girl." Bacall appeared in John Huston's melodramatic suspense film Key Largo (1948) with Bogart, Edward G. Robinson and Lionel Barrymore. In the film, according to film critic Jessica Kiang, "Bacall brings an edge of ambivalence and independence to the role that makes her character much more interesting than was written."
Bacall alongside Kirk Douglas in the film Young Man with a Horn (1950)
Bacall rejected scripts that she did not find interesting, and thereby earned a reputation of being difficult. However, she further solidified her star status in the 1950s by appearing as the leading lady in a string of films that won favorable reviews. Bacall was cast with Gary Cooper in Bright Leaf (1950) and as a two-faced femme fatale in Young Man with a Horn (1950), a jazz musical co-starring Kirk Douglas, Doris Day and Hoagy Carmichael. From 1951 to 1952, Bacall costarred with Bogart in the syndicated action-adventure radio series Bold Venture.
Bacall starred in the first CinemaScope comedy, How to Marry a Millionaire (1953), a runaway hit among critics and at the box office that was directed by Jean Negulesco. She received positive notices for her turn as witty gold-digger Schatze Page. "First honors in spreading mirth go to Miss Bacall," wrote Alton Cook in the New York World-Telegram & Sun, "The most intelligent and predatory of the trio, she takes complete control of every scene with her acid delivery of viciously witty lines." After the success of How to Marry a Millionaire, Bacall declined the opportunity to press her handprints and footprints in the Grauman's Chinese Theatre's famed cement forecourt. She felt that "anyone with a picture opening could be represented there, standards had been so lowered" and did not feel that she had yet achieved the status of a major star, and was thereby unworthy of the honor: "I want to feel I've earned my place with the best my business has produced.": 236
Marilyn Monroe, Betty Grable and Bacall in How to Marry a Millionaire
Bacall was under contract to 20th Century-Fox. Following How to Marry a Millionaire, she appeared in yet another CinemaScope comedy directed by Negulesco, Woman's World (1954), which failed to match its predecessor's success at the box office. A television version of Bogart's early film success The Petrified Forest was performed as a 1955 live installment of the weekly dramatic anthology Producers' Showcase, featuring Bogart in his original role of Duke Mantee and starring Bacall and Henry Fonda. In the late 1990s, Bacall donated the only known kinescope of the performance to the Museum of Television & Radio (now the Paley Center for Media), where it remains archived for viewing in New York City and Los Angeles. Bacall starred in two feature films, The Cobweb and Blood Alley, both released in 1955. Directed by Vincente Minnelli, The Cobweb takes place at a mental institution where Bacall's character works as a therapist. It was her second collaboration with Charles Boyer, and the film also stars Richard Widmark and Lillian Gish. A New York Times critic wrote: "In the only two really sympathetic roles, Mr. Widmark is excellent and Miss Bacall shrewdly underplays."
Bacall in the film Written on the Wind (1956)
Many film scholars consider Written on the Wind (1956), directed by Douglas Sirk, a landmark melodrama. Appearing with Rock Hudson, Dorothy Malone and Robert Stack, Bacall plays a career woman whose life is unexpectedly turned around by a family of oil magnates. Bacall wrote in her autobiography that she did not think much of her role, but reviews were favorable. Variety wrote: "Bacall registers strongly as a sensible girl swept into the madness of the oil family." While supporting Bogart as he suffered from terminal esophageal cancer, Bacall starred with Gregory Peck in Designing Woman (1957) to solid reviews. The comedy was her second feature directed by Minnelli and was released in New York on May 16, 1957, four months after Bogart's death on January 14. Bacall appeared in two more films in the 1950s: the Negulesco-directed melodrama The Gift of Love (1958) with Robert Stack and the British adventure film North West Frontier (1959), which was a box-office hit.
1960–1989: Return to Broadway and musicals
Bacall was seen in only a handful of films in the 1960s. She starred on Broadway in Goodbye, Charlie in 1959, and went on to a successful stage career. She played Stephanie in the farce Cactus Flower (1965). She won her first Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical for her role as Margo Channing in Applause (1970). The musical was written by Betty Comden and Adolph Green. She performed the role both on Broadway and the West End. Walter Kerr of The New York Times praised her performance declaring, "Take your breath away? Indeed. What's more, she never gives it back." Applause was a musical version of the film All About Eve (1950), starring Bette Davis, Bacall's idol as a child. A young and unknown Bacall had met Davis years earlier in New York. After a performance of Applause, Davis visited Bacall backstage and told her, "You're the only one who could have played the part." Bacall would later win the Sarah Siddons Award in 1972 and 1984, an award inspired by the fictional trophy in All About Eve.
She returned to Broadway in the musical Woman of the Year (1981) with book by Peter Stone and music and lyrics by Kander and Ebb. The musical is based on the 1944 film of the same name starring Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy. Frank Rich of The New York Times gave the production a mixed review but praised Bacall writing, "The people who concocted this musical know what their show is really about. Miss Bacall is on hand virtually the whole time, and she's vibrant whether no-nonsense or tipsy, domineering or moony, dry or wet. If Woman of the Year is tired around the edges, it is always smart enough to keep its live wire center stage." She went on to win her second Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical.
The few films in which Bacall appeared during this period were all-star vehicles such as Sex and the Single Girl (1964) with Henry Fonda, Tony Curtis and Natalie Wood; Harper (1966) with Paul Newman, Shelley Winters, Julie Harris, Robert Wagner and Janet Leigh; and Murder on the Orient Express (1974), with Ingrid Bergman, Albert Finney, Vanessa Redgrave, Martin Balsam and Sean Connery. In 1964, Bacall appeared in two episodes of Craig Stevens's Mr. Broadway: first in "Take a Walk Through a Cemetery" with husband Jason Robards, Jr., and later as Barbara Lake in the episode "Something to Sing About" with Balsam. In 1976, Bacall costarred in The Shootist with John Wayne, with whom she had worked in Blood Alley (1955).
Bacall was featured in Robert Altman's comedy Health (1980), which underwent a troubled process of release after the change of the top management at 20th Century-Fox and saw a very limited release in theaters. The following year, she appeared in the thriller The Fan (1981). The film received mixed reviews, especially following the recent murder of John Lennon and the similarities of the plot to the real event, but Bacall's performance gained a favorable reception. Variety magazine wrote that Bacall and director Edward Bianchi "make the audience care what happens" to her character. Bacall took a seven-year hiatus from films to perform on stage in Woman of the Year (1981) with costar Harry Guardino, for which she won her second Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical, and other shows such as a 1985 adaptation of Tennessee Williams's Sweet Bird of Youth under the direction of Harold Pinter. She returned to film in 1988 with supporting roles in Danny Huston's Mr. North and Michael Winner's Appointment with Death. She also starred in the British thriller Tree of Hands (1989), based on a novel by Ruth Rendell, and in a television adaptation of the 1933 classic Dinner at Eight for Turner Television.
Bacall in Washington, D.C., in 1998
1990–1999: Film resurgence and West End debut
In 1990, Bacall took a small but central role as James Caan's agent in Rob Reiner's Misery, based on the novel by Stephen King, and an important role in the British television movie A Little Piece of Sunshine, based on a novel by Frederick Forsyth. The following year, Bacall played the lead in the independent film A Star for Two (1991) with Anthony Quinn, Lila Kedrova and Jean-Pierre Aumont, and played a supporting role in All I Want for Christmas (1991).
In 1993, Bacall was very active in television, pairing again with her lifelong friend Gregory Peck and his daughter Cecilia Peck in Arthur Penn's television movie The Portrait, and costarring with an all-star European cast in A Foreign Field. She appeared in Robert Altman's Prêt-à-Porter (1994), an ensemble film set in Paris during fashion week. In 1995, she was cast in her friend Ingrid Bergman's role in From the Mixed-Up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler, a television remake of the 1973 movie by the same title. Years earlier, Bergman had played the role in the film version of Cactus Flower (1969) that Bacall had played on Broadway in 1965. In 1995 portrayed Claire Zachanassian in the Terrence McNally play The Visit at the Chichester Festival.
1996 was a pivotal year for Bacall's career. She was chosen by Barbra Streisand to play her mother in the romantic comedy The Mirror Has Two Faces, also starring Jeff Bridges, George Segal and Brenda Vaccaro. Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote of her performance "Bacall, posing, rolling her eyes and snapping out the one-liners with consummate skill, is in to play the source of all of Rose’s insecurities, the mother who was drop-dead gorgeous and who never told her kind of funny-looking daughter she was pretty." She received widespread critical acclaim, and at age 72, she earned her first nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, which she was widely expected to win, but lost to Juliette Binoche for The English Patient. She also won the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role, and a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role.
Bacall received the Kennedy Center Honors in 1997, and she was voted one of the 25 most significant female movie stars in history in 1999 by the American Film Institute. In 1999, Bacall starred on Broadway in a revival of Noël Coward's Waiting in the Wings. She portrayed American billionaire heiress Doris Duke in the four part CBS miniseries Too Rich: The Secret Life of Doris Duke (1999). In the 2000s, she acted as a spokesman for the Tuesday Morning discount chain and produced a jewelry line. She was also a celebrity spokesman for High Point coffee and Fancy Feast cat food.
2000–2009: Dramatic films and final roles
Bacall at a press conference for The Walker in February 2007
Her film career saw something of a renaissance taking dramatic roles in independent films. She attracted positive notices for her performances in high-profile psychological dramas such as Lars von Trier's Dogville (2003) and Jonathan Glazer's Birth (2004), both with Nicole Kidman. She voiced Witch of the Waste in Hayao Miyazaki's acclaimed animated film Howl's Moving Castle (2004). She was a leading actress in Paul Schrader's The Walker (2007). In March 2006, she introduced a film montage dedicated to film noir at the 78th Academy Awards. She made a cameo appearance as herself on The Sopranos in the April 2006 episode "Luxury Lounge", during which her character was mugged by Christopher Moltisanti (Michael Imperioli).
In September 2006, Bryn Mawr College awarded Bacall their Katharine Hepburn Medal, which recognizes "women whose lives, work, and contributions embody the intelligence, drive, and independence" of Hepburn. She delivered an address at the memorial service of Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. at the Reform Club in London in June 2007. She finished her role in The Forger in 2009. The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences bestowed an honorary Academy Award upon Bacall at the inaugural Governors Awards on November 14, 2009. In July 2013, Bacall expressed interest in the film Trouble Is My Business. In November, she joined the English-dubbed voice cast for StudioCanal's animated film Ernest & Celestine. Her final role was in 2014 as a guest voice appearance in the Family Guy episode "Mom's the Word".
Acting credits and accolades
Main articles: Lauren Bacall on screen and stage and List of awards and nominations received by Lauren Bacall
Personal life
Relationships and family
Best man Louis Bromfield (center) at the wedding of Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall at Malabar Farm (May 21, 1945)
On May 21, 1945, Bacall married Humphrey Bogart. She was 20 and Bogart was 25 years older. Their wedding and honeymoon took place at Malabar Farm, Lucas, Ohio, the country home of Pulitzer Prize–winning author Louis Bromfield, a close friend of Bogart. At the time of the 1950 United States census, the couple was living at 2707 Benedict Canyon Drive in Beverly Hills with their son and their nursemaid. Bacall is listed as Betty Bogart. She was married to Bogart until he died in 1957.
During the filming of The African Queen (1951), Bacall and Bogart became friends with Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy. She began to mix in non-acting circles, becoming friends with the historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. and the journalist Alistair Cooke. In 1952, she gave campaign speeches for Democratic presidential contender Adlai Stevenson. Along with other Hollywood figures, Bacall was a strong opponent of McCarthyism.
Bacall had a relationship with Frank Sinatra after Bogart's death. During an interview with Turner Classic Movies's Robert Osborne, Bacall stated that she had ended the romance, but, in her autobiography Lauren Bacall by Myself, she wrote that Sinatra ended the relationship abruptly after becoming upset that his marriage proposal had been leaked to the press, believing Bacall to be responsible. However, Bacall states in Lauren Bacall by Myself that when she was out with her friend Irving "Swifty" Lazar, they encountered the gossip columnist Louella Parsons, to whom Lazar revealed the news. Bacall wrote in By Myself that Sinatra only found out the truth years later.
Lauren Bacall with Humphrey Bogart and their two children, Stephen Humphrey Bogart and Leslie, in 1956
Bacall then met and began a relationship with Jason Robards. Their wedding was originally scheduled to take place in Vienna, Austria, on June 16, 1961. The wedding plans were shelved after Austrian authorities refused to grant the couple a marriage license, due to Robards being unable to produce divorce documents from his previous marriage, and Bacall being unable to produce Humphrey Bogart's death certificate. They were also refused a marriage in Las Vegas, Nevada, due to similar documentation issues. On July 4, 1961, the couple drove to Ensenada, Mexico, where they wed. The couple divorced in 1969. According to Bacall's autobiography, she divorced Robards mainly because of his alcoholism.
Bacall had a romantic relationship with her Woman of the Year costar Harry Guardino in the early 1980s.
Bacall at the Deauville American Film Festival in 1989
Bacall had two children with Bogart and one with Robards. Son Stephen Humphrey Bogart (born January 6, 1949) is a news producer, documentary film maker, and author who is named after Bogart's character in To Have and Have Not. Their daughter Leslie Howard Bogart (born August 23, 1952) is named after the actor Leslie Howard. A nurse and yoga instructor, she is married to Erich Schiffmann. In his 1995 memoir, Stephen Bogart wrote, "My mother was a lapsed Jew, and my father was a lapsed Episcopalian", and that he and his sister were raised Episcopalian "because my mother felt that would make life easier for Leslie and me during those post-World War II years". Sam Robards (born December 16, 1961), Bacall's son with Robards, is an actor.
Bacall wrote two autobiographies, Lauren Bacall by Myself (1978) and Now (1994). In 2006, the first volume of Lauren Bacall by Myself was reprinted as By Myself and Then Some with an extra chapter.
In a 1996 interview, Bacall, reflecting on her life, told the interviewer Jeremy Isaacs that she had been lucky:
I had one great marriage, I have three great children and four grandchildren. I am still alive. I still can function. I still can work ... You just learn to cope with whatever you have to cope with. I spent my childhood in New York, riding on subways and buses. And you know what you learn if you're a New Yorker? The world doesn't owe you a damn thing.
Political views
Bacall, Humphrey Bogart and Henry Fonda in a live color television version of The Petrified Forest in 1955
Bacall was a staunch liberal Democrat, and proclaimed her political views on numerous occasions. Bacall and Bogart were among about 80 Hollywood personalities to send a telegram protesting the House Un-American Activities Committee's investigations of Americans suspected of adhering to communism. The telegram said that investigating individuals' political beliefs violated the basic principles of American democracy. In October 1947, Bacall and Bogart traveled to Washington, D.C., along with a number of other Hollywood stars in a group that called itself the Committee for the First Amendment (CFA), which also included Danny Kaye, John Garfield, Gene Kelly, John Huston, Groucho Marx, Olivia De Havilland, Ira Gershwin, and Jane Wyatt.
She appeared alongside Humphrey Bogart in a photograph printed at the end of an article he wrote, titled "I'm No Communist", in the May 1948 edition of Photoplay magazine, written to counteract negative publicity resulting from his appearance before the House Committee. Bogart and Bacall distanced themselves from the Hollywood Ten, and said: "We're about as much in favor of Communism as J. Edgar Hoover."
Bacall campaigned for Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson in the 1952 presidential election, accompanying him on motorcades along with Bogart, and flying east to help in the final laps of Stevenson's campaign in New York and Chicago. She campaigned for Robert F. Kennedy in his 1964 run for the U.S. Senate and was part of a Hollywood committee that endorsed his presidential campaign.
In a 2005 interview with Larry King, Bacall described herself as "anti-Republican... A liberal. The L-word". She added that "being a liberal is the best thing on Earth you can be. You are welcoming to everyone when you're a liberal. You do not have a small mind."
Death
On August 12, 2014, Bacall died after suffering a stroke at her apartment in The Dakota, the Upper West Side building near Central Park in Manhattan. She was confirmed dead at New York–Presbyterian Hospital, at the age of 89.
Bacall was interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California. At the time of her death, Bacall had an estimated $26.6 million estate. The bulk of her estate was divided among her three children: Leslie Bogart, Stephen Humphrey Bogart, and Sam Robards. Additionally, Bacall left $250,000 each to her youngest grandsons, the sons of Sam Robards, for college.
Bibliography
By Myself (1978)
Now (1994)
By Myself and Then Some (2005)
In popular culture
This section contains a list of miscellaneous information. Please relocate any relevant information into other sections or articles. (August 2023)
Film
The 1980 television film Bogie, directed by Vincent Sherman and based on a book by Joe Hyams, tells the story of Bogart meeting Bacall while making To Have and Have Not in 1943, and beginning the affair with her that led to the dissolution of Bogart's marriage to Mayo Methot. Bacall is portrayed by Kathryn Harrold in the film; Kevin O'Connor plays Bogart; and Methot is played by Ann Wedgeworth.
Television
She appeared in The Sopranos season six, episode 7 "Luxury Lounge" as herself.
Theatre
The 1978 musical Evita, music by Andrew Lloyd Webber and lyrics by Tim Rice, tells the story of Argentina's infamous first lady Eva Peron. In the song "Rainbow High", Eva sings the lyrics "I'm their savior. That's what they call me. So, Lauren Bacall me. Anything goes."
Animation
Bacall and Bogart are parodied in the Warner Brothers Merrie Melodies shorts Bacall to Arms (1946) and Slick Hare (1947).
Marshall Islands namesake
The town of Laura—on the island of Majuro in the Marshall Islands—is one of several island towns code-named after the troops' favorite actresses by World War II U.S. forces.
See also
Bogart and Bacall
Bogart–Bacall syndrome
List of actors with Academy Award nominations
List of actors with Hollywood Walk of Fame motion picture stars
Explanatory notes
^ In a 1995 interview with Jeremy Isaacs, Bacall claimed to have never lived in the Bronx, though numerous sources state that she was born in the borough.
Citations
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^ "BBC – The Late Show – Face to Face: Lauren Bacall", Interview with Jeremy Isaacs, BBC, March 20, 1995
^ Bogart, Humphrey (March 1948). "I'm No Communist". Photoplay. Google Docs. Retrieved August 13, 2014. I'm no communist
^ Gordon, Lois G.; Gordon, Alan (1987). American Chronicle: Six Decades in American Life, 1920–1980. Atheneum. p. 267. ISBN 9780689118999. Retrieved August 13, 2014.
^ Kengor, Dr. Paul (August 15, 2014). "Bogie and Bacall and Hollywood's Communists". American Spectator. Human Events. Archived from the original on August 20, 2014. Retrieved August 25, 2014.
^ Tomasky, Michael (August 13, 2014). "Lauren Bacall was deeply liberal and deeply anti-communist". The Daily Beast. Retrieved October 19, 2015.
^ Palermo, Joseph A. (January 10, 2008). "Here's What RFK Did in California in 1968". HuffPost. Archived from the original on January 19, 2024.
^ "Interview with Lauren Bacall". Larry King Live. May 6, 2005. CNN. Retrieved August 13, 2014.
^ Barnes, Mike; Byrge, Duane (August 12, 2014). "Lauren Bacall, Hollywood's Icon of Cool, Dies at 89". Yahoo! Movies. Retrieved August 13, 2014.
^ "Legendary Actress Lauren Bacall Dies at 89". New York Telegraph. Voice of America. August 13, 2014. Retrieved August 13, 2014.
^ Creason, Glen (October 28, 2015). "CityDig: The Glendale Graveyard That's Anything but Spooky". Los Angeles Magazine. ISSN 1522-9149. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023.
^ "Lauren Bacall leaves $10,000 for her beloved dog in will". Fox News. Retrieved August 25, 2014.
^ Kristen (September 9, 2012). "Bogie". Journeys in Classic Film. Archived from the original on September 11, 2015. Retrieved October 19, 2015.
^ Goudas, John N. (February 29, 1980). "Kathryn Harrold cast as Bacall in 'Bogie'". The Boca Raton News. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
^ "Bacall to Arms (1946)". Archived from the original on August 14, 2014. Retrieved August 31, 2015.
^ "Marshall Islands". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved December 31, 2015. The inhabited islands along the southern side of Majuro Atoll have been joined over time by landfill and a bridge to form a 30-mile road from Rita, on the extreme eastern end, to Laura, at the western end. Both villages were so code-named by U.S. forces in World War II after favorite pinups Rita Hayworth and Lauren Bacall.
General and cited sources
Bacall, Lauren (1979). By Myself. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-41308-2.
By Myself and Then Some (Revised ed.). New York: HarperCollins. 2005. ISBN 978-0-061-12791-5.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lauren Bacall.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Lauren Bacall.
Lauren Bacall at IMDb
Lauren Bacall at the Internet Broadway Database
Lauren Bacall at the TCM Movie Database
Lauren Bacall at aenigma
Lauren Bacall at AllMovie
Awards for Lauren Bacall
vteAcademy Honorary Award1928–1950
Warner Bros. / Charlie Chaplin (1928)
Walt Disney (1932)
Shirley Temple (1934)
D. W. Griffith (1935)
The March of Time / W. Howard Greene and Harold Rosson (1936)
Edgar Bergen / W. Howard Greene / Museum of Modern Art Film Library / Mack Sennett (1937)
J. Arthur Ball / Walt Disney / Deanna Durbin and Mickey Rooney / Gordon Jennings, Jan Domela, Devereaux Jennings, Irmin Roberts, Art Smith, Farciot Edouart, Loyal Griggs, Loren L. Ryder, Harry D. Mills, Louis Mesenkop, Walter Oberst / Oliver T. Marsh and Allen Davey / Harry Warner (1938)
Douglas Fairbanks / Judy Garland / William Cameron Menzies / Motion Picture Relief Fund (Jean Hersholt, Ralph Morgan, Ralph Block, Conrad Nagel)/ Technicolor SA (1939)
Bob Hope / Nathan Levinson (1940)
Walt Disney, William Garity, John N. A. Hawkins, and the RCA Manufacturing Company / Leopold Stokowski and his associates / Rey Scott / British Ministry of Information (1941)
Charles Boyer / Noël Coward / Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (1942)
George Pal (1943)
Bob Hope / Margaret O'Brien (1944)
Republic Studio, Daniel J. Bloomberg, and the Republic Studio Sound Department / Walter Wanger / The House I Live In / Peggy Ann Garner (1945)
Harold Russell / Laurence Olivier / Ernst Lubitsch / Claude Jarman Jr. (1946)
James Baskett / Thomas Armat, William Nicholas Selig, Albert E. Smith, and George Kirke Spoor / Bill and Coo / Shoeshine (1947)
Walter Wanger / Monsieur Vincent / Sid Grauman / Adolph Zukor (1948)
Jean Hersholt / Fred Astaire / Cecil B. DeMille / The Bicycle Thief (1949)
Louis B. Mayer / George Murphy / The Walls of Malapaga (1950)
1951–1975
Gene Kelly / Rashomon (1951)
Merian C. Cooper / Bob Hope / Harold Lloyd / George Mitchell / Joseph M. Schenck / Forbidden Games (1952)
20th Century-Fox Film Corporation / Bell & Howell Company / Joseph Breen / Pete Smith (1953)
Bausch & Lomb Optical Company / Danny Kaye / Kemp Niver / Greta Garbo / Jon Whiteley / Vincent Winter / Gate of Hell (1954)
Samurai I: Musashi Miyamoto (1955)
Eddie Cantor (1956)
Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers / Gilbert M. "Broncho Billy" Anderson / Charles Brackett / B. B. Kahane (1957)
Maurice Chevalier (1958)
Buster Keaton / Lee de Forest (1959)
Gary Cooper / Stan Laurel / Hayley Mills (1960)
William L. Hendricks / Fred L. Metzler / Jerome Robbins (1961)
William J. Tuttle (1964)
Bob Hope (1965)
Yakima Canutt / Y. Frank Freeman (1966)
Arthur Freed (1967)
John Chambers / Onna White (1968)
Cary Grant (1969)
Lillian Gish / Orson Welles (1970)
Charlie Chaplin (1971)
Charles S. Boren / Edward G. Robinson (1972)
Henri Langlois / Groucho Marx (1973)
Howard Hawks / Jean Renoir (1974)
Mary Pickford (1975)
1976–2000
Margaret Booth (1977)
Walter Lantz / Laurence Olivier / King Vidor / Museum of Modern Art Department of Film (1978)
Hal Elias / Alec Guinness (1979)
Henry Fonda (1980)
Barbara Stanwyck (1981)
Mickey Rooney (1982)
Hal Roach (1983)
James Stewart / National Endowment for the Arts (1984)
Paul Newman / Alex North (1985)
Ralph Bellamy (1986)
Eastman Kodak Company / National Film Board of Canada (1988)
Akira Kurosawa (1989)
Sophia Loren / Myrna Loy (1990)
Satyajit Ray (1991)
Federico Fellini (1992)
Deborah Kerr (1993)
Michelangelo Antonioni (1994)
Kirk Douglas / Chuck Jones (1995)
Michael Kidd (1996)
Stanley Donen (1997)
Elia Kazan (1998)
Andrzej Wajda (1999)
Jack Cardiff / Ernest Lehman (2000)
2001–present
Sidney Poitier / Robert Redford (2001)
Peter O'Toole (2002)
Blake Edwards (2003)
Sidney Lumet (2004)
Robert Altman (2005)
Ennio Morricone (2006)
Robert F. Boyle (2007)
Lauren Bacall / Roger Corman / Gordon Willis (2009)
Kevin Brownlow / Jean-Luc Godard / Eli Wallach (2010)
James Earl Jones / Dick Smith (2011)
D. A. Pennebaker / Hal Needham / George Stevens Jr. (2012)
Angela Lansbury / Steve Martin / Piero Tosi (2013)
Jean-Claude Carrière / Hayao Miyazaki / Maureen O'Hara (2014)
Spike Lee / Gena Rowlands (2015)
Jackie Chan / Lynn Stalmaster / Anne V. Coates / Frederick Wiseman (2016)
Charles Burnett / Owen Roizman / Donald Sutherland / Agnès Varda (2017)
Marvin Levy / Lalo Schifrin / Cicely Tyson (2018)
David Lynch / Wes Studi / Lina Wertmüller (2019)
Samuel L. Jackson / Elaine May / Liv Ullmann (2021)
Euzhan Palcy / Diane Warren / Peter Weir (2022)
Angela Bassett / Mel Brooks / Carol Littleton (2023)
Quincy Jones / Juliet Taylor (2024)
vteCecil B. DeMille Award
Cecil B. DeMille (1952)
Walt Disney (1953)
Darryl F. Zanuck (1954)
Jean Hersholt (1955)
Jack L. Warner (1956)
Mervyn LeRoy (1957)
Buddy Adler (1958)
Maurice Chevalier (1959)
Bing Crosby (1960)
Fred Astaire (1961)
Judy Garland (1962)
Bob Hope (1963)
Joseph E. Levine (1964)
James Stewart (1965)
John Wayne (1966)
Charlton Heston (1967)
Kirk Douglas (1968)
Gregory Peck (1969)
Joan Crawford (1970)
Frank Sinatra (1971)
Alfred Hitchcock (1972)
Samuel Goldwyn (1973)
Bette Davis (1974)
Hal B. Wallis (1975)
No Award (1976)
Walter Mirisch (1977)
Red Skelton (1978)
Lucille Ball (1979)
Henry Fonda (1980)
Gene Kelly (1981)
Sidney Poitier (1982)
Laurence Olivier (1983)
Paul Newman (1984)
Elizabeth Taylor (1985)
Barbara Stanwyck (1986)
Anthony Quinn (1987)
Clint Eastwood (1988)
Doris Day (1989)
Audrey Hepburn (1990)
Jack Lemmon (1991)
Robert Mitchum (1992)
Lauren Bacall (1993)
Robert Redford (1994)
Sophia Loren (1995)
Sean Connery (1996)
Dustin Hoffman (1997)
Shirley MacLaine (1998)
Jack Nicholson (1999)
Barbra Streisand (2000)
Al Pacino (2001)
Harrison Ford (2002)
Gene Hackman (2003)
Michael Douglas (2004)
Robin Williams (2005)
Anthony Hopkins (2006)
Warren Beatty (2007)
No Award (2008)
Steven Spielberg (2009)
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Robert De Niro (2011)
Morgan Freeman (2012)
Jodie Foster (2013)
Woody Allen (2014)
George Clooney (2015)
Denzel Washington (2016)
Meryl Streep (2017)
Oprah Winfrey (2018)
Jeff Bridges (2019)
Tom Hanks (2020)
Jane Fonda (2021)
No Award (2022)
Eddie Murphy (2023)
No Award (2024)
vteDonostia AwardLifetime Achievement Award at the San Sebastián International Film Festival1980s
1986: Gregory Peck / Gene Tierney
1987: Glenn Ford
1988: Vittorio Gassman
1989: Bette Davis
1990s
1990: Claudette Colbert
1991: Anthony Perkins
1992: Lauren Bacall
1993: Robert Mitchum
1994: Lana Turner
1995: Susan Sarandon / Catherine Deneuve
1996: Al Pacino
1997: Michael Douglas / Jeremy Irons
1998: Jeanne Moreau / Anthony Hopkins / John Malkovich
1999: Anjelica Huston / Fernando Fernán Gómez / Vanessa Redgrave
2000s
2000: Michael Caine / Robert De Niro
2001: Julie Andrews / Warren Beatty / Francisco Rabal
2002: Jessica Lange / Bob Hoskins / Dennis Hopper / Francis Ford Coppola
2003: Robert Duvall / Sean Penn / Isabelle Huppert
2004: Annette Bening / Jeff Bridges / Woody Allen
2005: Willem Dafoe / Ben Gazzara
2006: Max von Sydow / Matt Dillon
2007: Liv Ullmann / Richard Gere
2008: Meryl Streep / Antonio Banderas
2009: Ian McKellen
2010s
2010: Julia Roberts
2011: Glenn Close
2012: Oliver Stone / Ewan McGregor / Tommy Lee Jones / John Travolta / Dustin Hoffman
2013: Carmen Maura / Hugh Jackman
2014: Denzel Washington / Benicio del Toro
2015: Emily Watson
2016: Sigourney Weaver / Ethan Hawke
2017: Ricardo Darín / Monica Bellucci / Agnès Varda
2018: Hirokazu Kore-eda / Danny DeVito / Judi Dench
2019: Penélope Cruz / Costa-Gavras / Donald Sutherland
2020s
2020: Viggo Mortensen
2021: Johnny Depp / Marion Cotillard
2022: Juliette Binoche / David Cronenberg
2023: Javier Bardem / Víctor Erice / Hayao Miyazaki
2024: Cate Blanchett
vteDrama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Musical1964–1975
Imelda de Martin (1964)
No Awards (1965–1968)
Dorothy Loudon / Bernadette Peters (1969)
Lauren Bacall / Sandy Duncan / Ethel Merman (1970)
Helen Gallagher / Alexis Smith (1971)
Jonelle Allen (1972)
Glynis Johns / Michele Lee (1973)
Ruby Lynn Reyner (1974)
Angela Lansbury (1975)
1976–2000
Donna McKechnie (1976)
Clamma Dale (1977)
Nell Carter (1978)
Angela Lansbury (1979)
Patti LuPone (1980)
Lena Horne (1981)
Jennifer Holliday (1982)
Natalia Makarova (1983)
Chita Rivera (1984)
No Award (1985)
Bernadette Peters (1986)
Teresa Stratas (1987)
Patti LuPone (1988)
Toni DiBuono (1989)
Tyne Daly (1990)
Lea Salonga (1991)
Faith Prince (1992)
Chita Rivera (1993)
Donna Murphy (1994)
Glenn Close (1995)
Julie Andrews (1996)
Bebe Neuwirth (1997)
Natasha Richardson (1998)
Carolee Carmello / Bernadette Peters (1999)
Heather Headley (2000)
2001–2022
Marla Schaffel (2001)
Sutton Foster (2002)
Marissa Jaret Winokur (2003)
Donna Murphy (2004)
Victoria Clark (2005)
Christine Ebersole (2006)
Audra McDonald / Donna Murphy (2007)
Patti LuPone (2008)
Allison Janney (2009)
Catherine Zeta-Jones / Montego Glover (2010)
Sutton Foster (2011)
Audra McDonald (2012)
Laura Osnes (2013)
Jessie Mueller (2014)
Kristin Chenoweth (2015)
Cynthia Erivo (2016)
Bette Midler (2017)
Jessie Mueller (2018)
Stephanie J. Block (2019)
Adrienne Warren (2020)
No Award (2021)
Joaquina Kalukango (2022)
vteGolden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture1943–1975
Katina Paxinou (1943)
Agnes Moorehead (1944)
Angela Lansbury (1945)
Anne Baxter (1946)
Celeste Holm (1947)
Ellen Corby (1948)
Mercedes McCambridge (1949)
Josephine Hull (1950)
Kim Hunter (1951)
Katy Jurado (1952)
Grace Kelly (1953)
Jan Sterling (1954)
Marisa Pavan (1955)
Eileen Heckart (1956)
Elsa Lanchester (1957)
Hermione Gingold (1958)
Susan Kohner (1959)
Janet Leigh (1960)
Rita Moreno (1961)
Angela Lansbury (1962)
Margaret Rutherford (1963)
Agnes Moorehead (1964)
Ruth Gordon (1965)
Jocelyne LaGarde (1966)
Carol Channing (1967)
Ruth Gordon (1968)
Goldie Hawn (1969)
Karen Black / Maureen Stapleton (1970)
Ann-Margret (1971)
Shelley Winters (1972)
Linda Blair (1973)
Karen Black (1974)
Brenda Vaccaro (1975)
1976–2000
Katharine Ross (1976)
Vanessa Redgrave (1977)
Dyan Cannon (1978)
Meryl Streep (1979)
Mary Steenburgen (1980)
Joan Hackett (1981)
Jessica Lange (1982)
Cher (1983)
Peggy Ashcroft (1984)
Meg Tilly (1985)
Maggie Smith (1986)
Olympia Dukakis (1987)
Sigourney Weaver (1988)
Julia Roberts (1989)
Whoopi Goldberg (1990)
Mercedes Ruehl (1991)
Joan Plowright (1992)
Winona Ryder (1993)
Dianne Wiest (1994)
Mira Sorvino (1995)
Lauren Bacall (1996)
Kim Basinger (1997)
Lynn Redgrave (1998)
Angelina Jolie (1999)
Kate Hudson (2000)
2001–present
Jennifer Connelly (2001)
Meryl Streep (2002)
Renée Zellweger (2003)
Natalie Portman (2004)
Rachel Weisz (2005)
Jennifer Hudson (2006)
Cate Blanchett (2007)
Kate Winslet (2008)
Mo'Nique (2009)
Melissa Leo (2010)
Octavia Spencer (2011)
Anne Hathaway (2012)
Jennifer Lawrence (2013)
Patricia Arquette (2014)
Kate Winslet (2015)
Viola Davis (2016)
Allison Janney (2017)
Regina King (2018)
Laura Dern (2019)
Jodie Foster (2020)
Ariana DeBose (2021)
Angela Bassett (2022)
Da'Vine Joy Randolph (2023)
vteHasty Pudding Woman of the Year1951–1975
Gertrude Lawrence (1951)
Barbara Bel Geddes (1952)
Mamie Eisenhower (1953)
Shirley Booth (1954)
Debbie Reynolds (1955)
Peggy Ann Garner (1956)
Carroll Baker (1957)
Katharine Hepburn (1958)
Joanne Woodward (1959)
Carol Lawrence (1960)
Jane Fonda (1961)
Piper Laurie (1962)
Shirley MacLaine (1963)
Rosalind Russell (1964)
Lee Remick (1965)
Ethel Merman (1966)
Lauren Bacall (1967)
Angela Lansbury (1968)
Carol Burnett (1969)
Dionne Warwick (1970)
Carol Channing (1971)
Ruby Keeler (1972)
Liza Minnelli (1973)
Faye Dunaway (1974)
Valerie Harper (1975)
1976–2000
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Elizabeth Taylor (1977)
Beverly Sills (1978)
Candice Bergen (1979)
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Mary Tyler Moore (1981)
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Julie Andrews (1983)
Joan Rivers (1984)
Cher (1985)
Sally Field (1986)
Bernadette Peters (1987)
Lucille Ball (1988)
Kathleen Turner (1989)
Glenn Close (1990)
Diane Keaton (1991)
Jodie Foster (1992)
Whoopi Goldberg (1993)
Meg Ryan (1994)
Michelle Pfeiffer (1995)
Susan Sarandon (1996)
Julia Roberts (1997)
Sigourney Weaver (1998)
Goldie Hawn (1999)
Jamie Lee Curtis (2000)
2001–present
Drew Barrymore (2001)
Sarah Jessica Parker (2002)
Anjelica Huston (2003)
Sandra Bullock (2004)
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Scarlett Johansson (2007)
Charlize Theron (2008)
Renée Zellweger (2009)
Anne Hathaway (2010)
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Claire Danes (2012)
Marion Cotillard (2013)
Helen Mirren (2014)
Amy Poehler (2015)
Kerry Washington (2016)
Octavia Spencer (2017)
Mila Kunis (2018)
Bryce Dallas Howard (2019)
Elizabeth Banks (2020)
Viola Davis (2021)
Jennifer Garner (2022)
Jennifer Coolidge (2023)
Annette Bening (2024)
vteHonorary César1976–2000
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Robert Dorfmann (1978)
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Charles Vanel (1979)
Walt Disney (1979)
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Georges Dancigers (1982)
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Jean Nény (1982)
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Raimu (1983)
René Clément (1984)
Georges de Beauregard (1984)
Edwige Feuillère (1984)
Christian-Jaque (1985)
Danielle Darrieux (1985)
Christine Gouze-Rénal (1985)
Alain Poiré (1985)
Maurice Jarre (1986)
Bette Davis (1986)
Jean Delannoy (1986)
René Ferracci (1986)
Claude Lanzmann (1986)
Jean-Luc Godard (1987)
Serge Silberman (1988)
Bernard Blier (1989)
Paul Grimault (1989)
Gérard Philipe (1990)
Jean-Pierre Aumont (1991)
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Michèle Morgan (1992)
Sylvester Stallone (1992)
Jean Marais (1993)
Marcello Mastroianni (1993)
Gérard Oury (1993)
Jean Carmet (1994)
Jeanne Moreau (1995)
Gregory Peck (1995)
Steven Spielberg (1995)
Lauren Bacall (1996)
Henri Verneuil (1996)
Charles Aznavour (1997)
Andie MacDowell (1997)
Michael Douglas (1998)
Clint Eastwood (1998)
Jean-Luc Godard (1998)
Pedro Almodóvar (1999)
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Harrison Ford (2010)
Quentin Tarantino (2011)
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vteKennedy Center Honorees (1990s)1990
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1991
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1992
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1993
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1994
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1995
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1996
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1997
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1998
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1999
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Complete list
1970s
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vteSan Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actress
Lauren Bacall (1996)
Jurnee Smollett (1997)
Kathy Bates (1998)
Thora Birch (1999)
Frances McDormand (2000)
Naomi Watts (2001)
Michelle Pfeiffer (2002)
Renée Zellweger (2003)
Natalie Portman (2004)
Rachel Weisz (2005)
Lili Taylor (2006)
Amy Ryan (2007)
Marisa Tomei (2008)
Samantha Morton (2009)
Lesley Manville (2010)
Shailene Woodley (2011)
Emma Watson (2012)
Shailene Woodley (2013)
Rene Russo (2014)
Jennifer Jason Leigh (2015)
Michelle Williams (2016)
Allison Janney / Laurie Metcalf (2017)
Nicole Kidman (2018)
Zhao Shu-zhen (2019)
Youn Yuh-jung (2020)
Ruth Negga (2021)
Kerry Condon (2022)
Rachel McAdams (2023)
vteScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role
Dianne Wiest (1994)
Kate Winslet (1995)
Lauren Bacall (1996)
Kim Basinger / Gloria Stuart (1997)
Kathy Bates (1998)
Angelina Jolie (1999)
Judi Dench (2000)
Helen Mirren (2001)
Catherine Zeta-Jones (2002)
Renée Zellweger (2003)
Cate Blanchett (2004)
Rachel Weisz (2005)
Jennifer Hudson (2006)
Ruby Dee (2007)
Kate Winslet (2008)
Mo'Nique (2009)
Melissa Leo (2010)
Octavia Spencer (2011)
Anne Hathaway (2012)
Lupita Nyong'o (2013)
Patricia Arquette (2014)
Alicia Vikander (2015)
Viola Davis (2016)
Allison Janney (2017)
Emily Blunt (2018)
Laura Dern (2019)
Youn Yuh-jung (2020)
Ariana DeBose (2021)
Jamie Lee Curtis (2022)
Da'Vine Joy Randolph (2023)
vteTony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical1948–1975
Grace Hartman (1948)
Nanette Fabray (1949)
Mary Martin (1950)
Ethel Merman (1951)
Gertrude Lawrence (1952)
Rosalind Russell (1953)
Dolores Gray (1954)
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Alexis Smith (1972)
Glynis Johns (1973)
Virginia Capers (1974)
Angela Lansbury (1975)
1976–2000
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Donna Murphy (1994)
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bacall (surname)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacall_(surname)"},{"link_name":"/bəˈkɔːl/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"bə-KAWL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"},{"link_name":"20th-greatest female star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFI%27s_100_Years...100_Stars"},{"link_name":"American Film Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Film_Institute"},{"link_name":"Academy Honorary Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Honorary_Award"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Academy-2"},{"link_name":"Golden Age of Hollywood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Hollywood_cinema"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CNNDeath-3"},{"link_name":"Walter Thornton Model Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Clarence_Thornton"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Humphrey Bogart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey_Bogart"},{"link_name":"To Have and Have Not","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_Have_and_Have_Not_(film)"},{"link_name":"film noir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_noir"},{"link_name":"The Big Sleep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Sleep_(1946_film)"},{"link_name":"Dark Passage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Passage_(film)"},{"link_name":"Key Largo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_Largo_(film)"},{"link_name":"How to Marry a Millionaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Marry_a_Millionaire"},{"link_name":"Designing Woman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Designing_Woman"},{"link_name":"Written on the Wind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Written_on_the_Wind"},{"link_name":"Douglas Sirk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Sirk"},{"link_name":"Harper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harper_(film)"},{"link_name":"Murder on the Orient Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_on_the_Orient_Express_(1974_film)"},{"link_name":"The Shootist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Shootist"},{"link_name":"The Mirror Has Two Faces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mirror_Has_Two_Faces"},{"link_name":"Golden Globe Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actress_%E2%80%93_Motion_Picture"},{"link_name":"Screen Actors Guild Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_Actors_Guild_Award_for_Outstanding_Performance_by_a_Female_Actor_in_a_Supporting_Role"},{"link_name":"Academy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actress"},{"link_name":"BAFTA Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAFTA_Award_for_Best_Actress_in_a_Supporting_Role"},{"link_name":"Misery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misery_(film)"},{"link_name":"Dogville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogville"},{"link_name":"Birth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_(2004_film)"},{"link_name":"Howl's Moving Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howl%27s_Moving_Castle_(film)"},{"link_name":"Ernest & Celestine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_%26_Celestine"},{"link_name":"Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadway_(theatre)"},{"link_name":"Tony Awards for Best Actress in a Musical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Actress_in_a_Musical"},{"link_name":"Applause","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applause_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Woman of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman_of_the_Year_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Goodbye Charlie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodbye_Charlie_(play)"},{"link_name":"farce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farce"},{"link_name":"Cactus Flower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cactus_Flower_(play)"},{"link_name":"Wonderful Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonderful_Town"},{"link_name":"West End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_(theatre)"},{"link_name":"Sweet Bird of Youth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet_Bird_of_Youth"}],"text":"\"Bacall\" redirects here. For the surname, see Bacall (surname).Betty Joan Perske (September 16, 1924 – August 12, 2014), professionally known as Lauren Bacall (/bəˈkɔːl/ bə-KAWL), was an American actress. She was named the 20th-greatest female star of classic Hollywood cinema by the American Film Institute and received an Academy Honorary Award in 2009 in recognition of her contribution to the Golden Age of motion pictures.[2] She was known for her alluring, sultry presence and her distinctive, husky voice. Bacall was one of the last surviving major stars from the Golden Age of Hollywood cinema.Bacall began a career as a model[3] for the Walter Thornton Model Agency[4] before making her film debut at the age of 20 as the leading lady opposite her future husband Humphrey Bogart in To Have and Have Not (1944). She continued in the film noir genre with appearances alongside her new husband in The Big Sleep (1946), Dark Passage (1947), and Key Largo (1948), and she starred in the romantic comedies How to Marry a Millionaire (1953) and Designing Woman (1957). She portrayed the female lead in Written on the Wind (1956) which is considered one of Douglas Sirk's seminal films. She later acted in Harper (1966), Murder on the Orient Express (1974), and The Shootist (1976).She found a career resurgence for her role in the romantic comedy The Mirror Has Two Faces (1996) for which she earned the Golden Globe Award and the Screen Actors Guild Award, in addition to nominations for the Academy Award and the BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actress. During the final stage of her career, she gained newfound success with a younger audience for major supporting roles in the films Misery (1990), Dogville (2003), Birth (2004), and the English dubs of the animated films Howl's Moving Castle (2004) and Ernest & Celestine (2012).For her work on theatre, she made her Broadway debut in Johnny 2x4 (1942). She went on to win two Tony Awards for Best Actress in a Musical for her performances in Applause (1970) and Woman of the Year (1981). She also acted in the play Goodbye Charlie (1959), the farce Cactus Flower (1965), and Wonderful Town (1977). She made her West End debut in The Applause (1970) followed by Sweet Bird of Youth (1985).","title":"Lauren Bacall"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"the Bronx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bronx"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish"},{"link_name":"Iași","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ia%C8%99i"},{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"Ellis Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellis_Island"},{"link_name":"New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Valozhyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valozhyn"},{"link_name":"Belarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bacall-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kwidna-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LIFE-12"},{"link_name":"Shimon Peres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimon_Peres"},{"link_name":"prime minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Israel"},{"link_name":"president of Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Israel"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-haaretz-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-haaretz-13"},{"link_name":"Brooklyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn"},{"link_name":"Ocean Parkway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_Parkway_(Brooklyn)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bacall-10"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Tarrytown, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarrytown,_New_York"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Julia Richman High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Richman_High_School"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"Lauren Bacall was born Betty Joan Perske on September 16, 1924, in the Bronx, New York City,[a] the only child of Natalie (née Weinstein-Bacal; 1901–1969), a secretary who later legally changed her surname to Bacal, and William Perske (1889–1982), who worked in sales. Both of her parents were Jewish. Her mother emigrated from Iași, Romania through Ellis Island. Her father was born in New Jersey to parents who were born in Valozhyn, a predominantly Jewish community in present-day Belarus.[9]Bacall's parents divorced when she was five, after which she no longer saw her father. She later took the Romanian form of her mother's last name, Bacall.[10] She was close to her mother, who remarried Lee Goldberg and moved to California after Bacall became a star.[11] Through her father, Bacall was related to Shimon Peres (born Szymon Perski), the eighth prime minister and ninth president of Israel.[12][13][14] Peres did not know about the relationship until Bacall told him.[12]Bacall's family moved soon after her birth to Brooklyn's Ocean Parkway.[9][15] Money from a wealthy family allowed Bacall to attend school at the Highland Manor Boarding School for Girls in Tarrytown, New York, a private boarding school founded by philanthropist Eugene Heitler Lehman,[16] and Julia Richman High School in Manhattan.[17]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lauren_Bacall_by_L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Willinger,_1946.jpg"},{"link_name":"László Willinger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Willinger"},{"link_name":"American Academy of Dramatic Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Dramatic_Arts"},{"link_name":"Kirk Douglas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_Douglas"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thomas18-19"},{"link_name":"usher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usherette"},{"link_name":"St. James Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._James_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FactsCNN-6"},{"link_name":"Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadway_theater"},{"link_name":"Bank Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_Street_(Manhattan)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Harper's Bazaar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harper%27s_Bazaar"},{"link_name":"Vogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vogue_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LIFE-12"},{"link_name":"Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Diana Vreeland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana_Vreeland"},{"link_name":"Nicolas de Gunzburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_de_Gunzburg"},{"link_name":"Louise Dahl-Wolfe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louise_Dahl-Wolfe"},{"link_name":"Kodachrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodachrome"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"\"Slim\" Keith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slim_Keith"},{"link_name":"Howard Hawks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Hawks"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-independent1-23"},{"link_name":"screen test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_test"},{"link_name":"To Have and Have Not","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_Have_and_Have_Not_(film)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-24"}],"text":"Bacall by László WillingerIn 1941, Bacall took lessons at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York, where she dated classmate Kirk Douglas.[18] She worked as a theatre usher at the St. James Theatre and as a fashion model in department stores.[6]She made her acting debut on Broadway in 1942 at age 17 as a walk-on in Johnny 2 X 4. By then, she lived with her mother at 75 Bank Street, and in 1942, she was crowned Miss Greenwich Village.[19] As a teenage fashion model, Bacall appeared on the cover of Harper's Bazaar and in magazines such as Vogue.[11] A 1948 article in Life magazine referred to her \"cat-like grace, tawny blonde hair, and blue-green eyes.\"[20]Though Diana Vreeland is often credited with discovering Bacall for Harper's Bazaar, it was in fact Nicolas de Gunzburg who introduced Bacall to Vreeland. He had first met Bacall at a New York club called Tony's, where de Gunzburg suggested that Bacall visit his Harper's Bazaar office the next day. He then turned her over to Vreeland, who arranged for Louise Dahl-Wolfe to shoot Bacall in Kodachrome for the March 1943 cover.[21]The Harper's Bazaar cover caught the attention of \"Slim\" Keith, the wife of Hollywood producer and director Howard Hawks.[22] Keith urged her husband to invite Bacall to take a screen test for his forthcoming film To Have and Have Not. Hawks asked his secretary to find more information about Bacall, but the secretary misunderstood and sent Bacall a ticket to travel to Hollywood for the audition.[23]","title":"Early career and modeling"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Hollywood"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bacall%26Hawks.jpg"},{"link_name":"Howard Hawks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Hawks"},{"link_name":"screen surname","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_name"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sperber-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brody-26"},{"link_name":"Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sperber-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Height-28"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brody-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Height-28"},{"link_name":"Humphrey Bogart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey_Bogart"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bogart_and_Bacall_To_Have_and_Have_Not.jpg"},{"link_name":"Humphrey Bogart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey_Bogart"},{"link_name":"To Have and Have Not","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_Have_and_Have_Not_(film)"},{"link_name":"To Have and Have Not","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_Have_and_Have_Not_(film)"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bacall-10"},{"link_name":"Mayo Methot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayo_Methot"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-independent1-23"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT0814-31"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT0814-31"},{"link_name":"Warner Bros.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warner_Bros."},{"link_name":"National Press Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Press_Club_(USA)"},{"link_name":"Harry S. Truman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_S._Truman"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bacall-Truman-Piano-1945.jpg"},{"link_name":"Harry S. Truman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_S._Truman"},{"link_name":"National Press Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Press_Club_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Charles Boyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Boyer"},{"link_name":"Confidential Agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidential_Agent"},{"link_name":"film noir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_noir"},{"link_name":"The Big Sleep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Sleep_(1946_film)"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBacall2005166-35"},{"link_name":"film noir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_noir"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"femme fatale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femme_fatale"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Dark Passage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Passage_(film)"},{"link_name":"Bosley Crowther","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosley_Crowther"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"John Huston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Huston"},{"link_name":"Key Largo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_Largo_(film)"},{"link_name":"Edward G. 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World-Telegram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_World-Telegram"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quirk_1986_22-45"},{"link_name":"Grauman's Chinese Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grauman%27s_Chinese_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bacall-10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marilyn_Monroe,_Betty_Grable_and_Lauren_Bacall_in_How_to_Marry_a_Millionaire_trailer.jpg"},{"link_name":"Marilyn Monroe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marilyn_Monroe"},{"link_name":"Betty Grable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betty_Grable"},{"link_name":"How to Marry a Millionaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Marry_a_Millionaire"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quirk_1986_22-45"},{"link_name":"Woman's 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Minnelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincente_Minnelli"},{"link_name":"Charles Boyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Boyer"},{"link_name":"Richard Widmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Widmark"},{"link_name":"Lillian Gish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lillian_Gish"},{"link_name":"New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Written_on_the_wind3.jpg"},{"link_name":"Written on the Wind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Written_on_the_Wind"},{"link_name":"Written on the Wind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Written_on_the_Wind"},{"link_name":"Douglas Sirk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Sirk"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Rock Hudson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Hudson"},{"link_name":"Dorothy Malone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_Malone"},{"link_name":"Robert Stack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Stack"},{"link_name":"Variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"esophageal cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esophageal_cancer"},{"link_name":"Gregory Peck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Peck"},{"link_name":"Designing Woman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Designing_Woman"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bacall-10"},{"link_name":"The Gift of Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gift_of_Love"},{"link_name":"Robert Stack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Stack"},{"link_name":"North West Frontier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_West_Frontier_(film)"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"}],"sub_title":"1944–1959: Hollywood contract and leading roles","text":"Howard Hawks and Bacall c. 1943After meeting Bacall in Hollywood, Hawks immediately signed her to a seven-year contract with a weekly salary of $100 and personally began to manage her career. He changed her first name to Lauren, and she chose Bacall, a variant of her mother's maiden name, as her screen surname. Slim Hawks also took Bacall under her wing,[24] dressing Bacall stylishly and guiding her in matters of elegance, manners and taste. At Hawks's suggestion, Bacall was trained by a voice coach to speak with a lower and deeper voice instead of her normally high-pitched, nasal voice.[25] As part of her training, Bacall was required to shout verses of Shakespeare for hours every day.[24][26] Her voice was characterized as a \"smoky, sexual growl\" by most critics[27] and a \"throaty purr\".[25] Bacall stood 5 feet 8+1⁄2 inches (1.74 meters),[27] unusually tall for actresses of the era, and was only an inch shorter than Humphrey Bogart.Bacall with Humphrey Bogart in To Have and Have NotDuring her screen tests for To Have and Have Not (1944), Bacall was so nervous that, to minimize her quivering, she pressed her chin against her chest, faced the camera and tilted her eyes upward.[28] This effect, which came to be known as \"The Look\", became another Bacall trademark, along with her sultry voice.[29] Bacall's character in the film used Slim Hawks's nickname, \"Slim\", and Bogart used Howard Hawks's nickname \"Steve\". The on-set chemistry between the two was immediate, according to Bacall.[9] She and Bogart, who was married to Mayo Methot, began a romantic relationship several weeks into shooting.[22] Bacall's role in the script was originally much smaller, but during production, the part was revised and extended several times.[30]After its release, To Have and Have Not catapulted Bacall into instant stardom, and her performance became the cornerstone of her star image that extended into popular culture at large, even influencing fashion[31] as well as filmmakers and other actors.[30] Warner Bros. launched an extensive marketing campaign to promote the picture and to establish Bacall as a movie star. As part of the public-relations push, Bacall visited the National Press Club in Washington, D.C., on February 10, 1945, and sat on a piano as Vice President Harry S. Truman played it.[32][33]20-year-old Bacall lounges on top of the piano while Vice President Harry S. Truman plays for servicemen at the National Press Club Canteen in Washington, D.C. (February 10, 1945)After To Have and Have Not, Bacall appeared with Charles Boyer in Confidential Agent (1945), which was poorly received by critics. By her own estimation, she had been terribly miscast and the film could have caused considerable damage to her career, but her next performance as the mysterious, acid-tongued Vivian Rutledge in Hawks's film noir The Big Sleep (1946), co-starring Bogart, provided a quick career resurgence.[34] The Big Sleep laid the foundation for Bacall's status as an icon of film noir, with which she would be strongly associated for the rest of her career.[35][36][37] She was often cast in roles that were variations of the independent and sultry femme fatale character of Vivian. As described by film scholar Joe McElhaney, \"Vivian displays an almost total command of movement and gesture. She never crawls.\"[38]Bacall was cast with Bogart in two more films. In the film noir Dark Passage (1947), she played an enigmatic San Francisco artist. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote: \"Miss Bacall ... generates quite a lot of pressure as a sharp-eyed, knows-what-she-wants girl.\"[39] Bacall appeared in John Huston's melodramatic suspense film Key Largo (1948) with Bogart, Edward G. Robinson and Lionel Barrymore. In the film, according to film critic Jessica Kiang, \"Bacall brings an edge of ambivalence and independence to the role that makes her character much more interesting than was written.\"[40]Bacall alongside Kirk Douglas in the film Young Man with a Horn (1950)Bacall rejected scripts that she did not find interesting, and thereby earned a reputation of being difficult. However, she further solidified her star status in the 1950s by appearing as the leading lady in a string of films that won favorable reviews.[citation needed] Bacall was cast with Gary Cooper in Bright Leaf (1950) and as a two-faced femme fatale in Young Man with a Horn (1950), a jazz musical co-starring Kirk Douglas, Doris Day and Hoagy Carmichael.[citation needed] From 1951 to 1952, Bacall costarred with Bogart in the syndicated action-adventure radio series Bold Venture.[41]Bacall starred in the first CinemaScope comedy, How to Marry a Millionaire (1953), a runaway hit among critics and at the box office that was directed by Jean Negulesco.[42] She received positive notices for her turn as witty gold-digger Schatze Page.[43] \"First honors in spreading mirth go to Miss Bacall,\" wrote Alton Cook in the New York World-Telegram & Sun, \"The most intelligent and predatory of the trio, she takes complete control of every scene with her acid delivery of viciously witty lines.\"[44] After the success of How to Marry a Millionaire, Bacall declined the opportunity to press her handprints and footprints in the Grauman's Chinese Theatre's famed cement forecourt. She felt that \"anyone with a picture opening could be represented there, standards had been so lowered\" and did not feel that she had yet achieved the status of a major star, and was thereby unworthy of the honor:[45] \"I want to feel I've earned my place with the best my business has produced.\"[9]: 236Marilyn Monroe, Betty Grable and Bacall in How to Marry a MillionaireBacall was under contract to 20th Century-Fox.[44] Following How to Marry a Millionaire, she appeared in yet another CinemaScope comedy directed by Negulesco, Woman's World (1954), which failed to match its predecessor's success at the box office.[46][47] A television version of Bogart's early film success The Petrified Forest was performed as a 1955 live installment of the weekly dramatic anthology Producers' Showcase, featuring Bogart in his original role of Duke Mantee and starring Bacall and Henry Fonda. In the late 1990s, Bacall donated the only known kinescope of the performance to the Museum of Television & Radio (now the Paley Center for Media), where it remains archived for viewing in New York City and Los Angeles.[48] Bacall starred in two feature films, The Cobweb and Blood Alley, both released in 1955. Directed by Vincente Minnelli, The Cobweb takes place at a mental institution where Bacall's character works as a therapist. It was her second collaboration with Charles Boyer, and the film also stars Richard Widmark and Lillian Gish. A New York Times critic wrote: \"In the only two really sympathetic roles, Mr. Widmark is excellent and Miss Bacall shrewdly underplays.\"[49]Bacall in the film Written on the Wind (1956)Many film scholars consider Written on the Wind (1956), directed by Douglas Sirk, a landmark melodrama.[50] Appearing with Rock Hudson, Dorothy Malone and Robert Stack, Bacall plays a career woman whose life is unexpectedly turned around by a family of oil magnates. Bacall wrote in her autobiography that she did not think much of her role, but reviews were favorable. Variety wrote: \"Bacall registers strongly as a sensible girl swept into the madness of the oil family.\"[51] While supporting Bogart as he suffered from terminal esophageal cancer, Bacall starred with Gregory Peck in Designing Woman (1957) to solid reviews.[52] The comedy was her second feature directed by Minnelli and was released in New York on May 16, 1957, four months after Bogart's death on January 14.[9] Bacall appeared in two more films in the 1950s: the Negulesco-directed melodrama The Gift of Love (1958) with Robert Stack and the British adventure film North West Frontier (1959), which was a box-office hit.[53]","title":"Hollywood"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadway_theatre"},{"link_name":"farce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farce"},{"link_name":"Cactus Flower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cactus_Flower_(play)"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Actress_in_a_Musical"},{"link_name":"Applause","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applause_(musical)"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ibdb-56"},{"link_name":"Betty Comden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betty_Comden"},{"link_name":"Adolph Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolph_Green"},{"link_name":"Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadway_(theatre)"},{"link_name":"West End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_(theatre)"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"All About Eve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_About_Eve"},{"link_name":"Bette Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bette_Davis"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bacall-10"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Sarah Siddons Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Siddons_Award"},{"link_name":"Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadway_(theatre)"},{"link_name":"Woman of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman_of_the_Year_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Peter Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Stone_(writer)"},{"link_name":"Kander and Ebb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kander_and_Ebb"},{"link_name":"1944 film of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"Katharine Hepburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katharine_Hepburn"},{"link_name":"Spencer Tracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_Tracy"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Actress_in_a_Musical"},{"link_name":"Sex and the Single Girl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_and_the_Single_Girl_(film)"},{"link_name":"Henry Fonda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fonda"},{"link_name":"Tony Curtis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Curtis"},{"link_name":"Natalie Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_Wood"},{"link_name":"Harper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harper_(film)"},{"link_name":"Paul Newman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Newman"},{"link_name":"Shelley Winters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelley_Winters"},{"link_name":"Julie Harris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Harris_(American_actress)"},{"link_name":"Robert Wagner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Wagner"},{"link_name":"Janet Leigh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_Leigh"},{"link_name":"Murder on the Orient Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_on_the_Orient_Express_(1974_film)"},{"link_name":"Ingrid Bergman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingrid_Bergman"},{"link_name":"Albert Finney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Finney"},{"link_name":"Vanessa Redgrave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanessa_Redgrave"},{"link_name":"Martin Balsam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Balsam"},{"link_name":"Sean Connery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Connery"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Craig Stevens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Stevens_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Mr. Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr._Broadway_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Jason Robards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Robards"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"The Shootist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Shootist"},{"link_name":"John Wayne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wayne"},{"link_name":"Blood Alley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_Alley"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Robert Altman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Altman"},{"link_name":"Health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_(film)"},{"link_name":"The Fan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fan_(1981_film)"},{"link_name":"John Lennon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lennon"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Edward Bianchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Bianchi"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Woman of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman_of_the_Year_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Harry Guardino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Guardino"},{"link_name":"Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Actress_in_a_Musical"},{"link_name":"Tennessee Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennessee_Williams"},{"link_name":"Sweet Bird of Youth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet_Bird_of_Youth"},{"link_name":"Harold Pinter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Pinter"},{"link_name":"Danny Huston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny_Huston"},{"link_name":"Mr. North","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr._North"},{"link_name":"Michael Winner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Winner"},{"link_name":"Appointment with Death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appointment_with_Death_(film)"},{"link_name":"Tree of Hands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_Hands"},{"link_name":"Ruth Rendell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Rendell"},{"link_name":"television adaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinner_at_Eight_(1989_film)"},{"link_name":"Dinner at Eight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinner_at_Eight_(1933_film)"},{"link_name":"Turner Television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turner_Television"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lauren_Bacall_1998.jpg"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."}],"sub_title":"1960–1989: Return to Broadway and musicals","text":"Bacall was seen in only a handful of films in the 1960s. She starred on Broadway in Goodbye, Charlie in 1959, and went on to a successful stage career. She played Stephanie in the farce Cactus Flower (1965).[54] She won her first Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical for her role as Margo Channing in Applause (1970).[55] The musical was written by Betty Comden and Adolph Green. She performed the role both on Broadway and the West End. Walter Kerr of The New York Times praised her performance declaring, \"Take your breath away? Indeed. What's more, she never gives it back.\"[56] Applause was a musical version of the film All About Eve (1950), starring Bette Davis, Bacall's idol as a child. A young and unknown Bacall had met Davis years earlier in New York.[9] After a performance of Applause, Davis visited Bacall backstage and told her, \"You're the only one who could have played the part.\"[57] Bacall would later win the Sarah Siddons Award in 1972 and 1984, an award inspired by the fictional trophy in All About Eve.She returned to Broadway in the musical Woman of the Year (1981) with book by Peter Stone and music and lyrics by Kander and Ebb. The musical is based on the 1944 film of the same name starring Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy. Frank Rich of The New York Times gave the production a mixed review but praised Bacall writing, \"The people who concocted this musical know what their show is really about. Miss Bacall is on hand virtually the whole time, and she's vibrant whether no-nonsense or tipsy, domineering or moony, dry or wet. If Woman of the Year is tired around the edges, it is always smart enough to keep its live wire center stage.\"[58] She went on to win her second Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical.The few films in which Bacall appeared during this period were all-star vehicles such as Sex and the Single Girl (1964) with Henry Fonda, Tony Curtis and Natalie Wood; Harper (1966) with Paul Newman, Shelley Winters, Julie Harris, Robert Wagner and Janet Leigh; and Murder on the Orient Express (1974), with Ingrid Bergman, Albert Finney, Vanessa Redgrave, Martin Balsam and Sean Connery.[citation needed] In 1964, Bacall appeared in two episodes of Craig Stevens's Mr. Broadway: first in \"Take a Walk Through a Cemetery\" with husband Jason Robards, Jr., and later as Barbara Lake in the episode \"Something to Sing About\" with Balsam.[59] In 1976, Bacall costarred in The Shootist with John Wayne, with whom she had worked in Blood Alley (1955).[60]Bacall was featured in Robert Altman's comedy Health (1980), which underwent a troubled process of release after the change of the top management at 20th Century-Fox and saw a very limited release in theaters. The following year, she appeared in the thriller The Fan (1981). The film received mixed reviews, especially following the recent murder of John Lennon and the similarities of the plot to the real event, but Bacall's performance gained a favorable reception.[61] Variety magazine wrote that Bacall and director Edward Bianchi \"make the audience care what happens\" to her character.[62] Bacall took a seven-year hiatus from films to perform on stage in Woman of the Year (1981) with costar Harry Guardino, for which she won her second Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical, and other shows such as a 1985 adaptation of Tennessee Williams's Sweet Bird of Youth under the direction of Harold Pinter. She returned to film in 1988 with supporting roles in Danny Huston's Mr. North and Michael Winner's Appointment with Death. She also starred in the British thriller Tree of Hands (1989), based on a novel by Ruth Rendell, and in a television adaptation of the 1933 classic Dinner at Eight for Turner Television.Bacall in Washington, D.C., in 1998","title":"Hollywood"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"James Caan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Caan"},{"link_name":"Rob Reiner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob_Reiner"},{"link_name":"Misery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misery_(film)"},{"link_name":"Stephen King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_King"},{"link_name":"A Little Piece of Sunshine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Forsyth_Presents"},{"link_name":"Frederick Forsyth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Forsyth"},{"link_name":"A Star for Two","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Star_for_Two"},{"link_name":"Anthony Quinn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Quinn"},{"link_name":"Lila Kedrova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lila_Kedrova"},{"link_name":"Jean-Pierre Aumont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Aumont"},{"link_name":"All I Want for Christmas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_I_Want_for_Christmas_(film)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Gregory Peck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Peck"},{"link_name":"Cecilia Peck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecilia_Peck"},{"link_name":"Arthur Penn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Penn"},{"link_name":"The Portrait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Portrait_(1993_film)"},{"link_name":"A Foreign Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Foreign_Field"},{"link_name":"Robert Altman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Altman"},{"link_name":"Prêt-à-Porter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%AAt-%C3%A0-Porter_(film)"},{"link_name":"ensemble film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensemble_film"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"Ingrid Bergman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingrid_Bergman"},{"link_name":"From the Mixed-Up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_the_Mixed-Up_Files_of_Mrs._Basil_E._Frankweiler_(1995_film)"},{"link_name":"1973 movie by the same title","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_the_Mixed-Up_Files_of_Mrs._Basil_E._Frankweiler_(1973_film)"},{"link_name":"Cactus Flower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cactus_Flower_(film)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Terrence McNally","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrence_McNally"},{"link_name":"The Visit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Visit_(play)"},{"link_name":"Chichester Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichester_Festival"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"Barbra Streisand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbra_Streisand"},{"link_name":"The Mirror Has Two Faces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mirror_Has_Two_Faces"},{"link_name":"Jeff Bridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Bridges"},{"link_name":"George Segal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Segal"},{"link_name":"Brenda Vaccaro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenda_Vaccaro"},{"link_name":"Variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actress"},{"link_name":"Juliette Binoche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juliette_Binoche"},{"link_name":"The English Patient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_English_Patient_(film)"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AcademyNom-66"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actress_%E2%80%93_Motion_Picture"},{"link_name":"Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_Actors_Guild_Award_for_Outstanding_Performance_by_a_Female_Actor_in_a_Supporting_Role"},{"link_name":"BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAFTA_Award_for_Best_Actress_in_a_Supporting_Role"},{"link_name":"Kennedy Center Honors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Center_Honors"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"American Film Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Film_Institute"},{"link_name":"Noël Coward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Coward"},{"link_name":"Waiting in the Wings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waiting_in_the_Wings_(play)"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Doris Duke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris_Duke"},{"link_name":"CBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS"},{"link_name":"Too Rich: The Secret Life of Doris Duke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Too_Rich:_The_Secret_Life_of_Doris_Duke"},{"link_name":"Tuesday Morning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuesday_Morning"},{"link_name":"High Point coffee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Point_(coffee)"},{"link_name":"Fancy Feast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fancy_Feast"}],"sub_title":"1990–1999: Film resurgence and West End debut","text":"In 1990, Bacall took a small but central role as James Caan's agent in Rob Reiner's Misery, based on the novel by Stephen King, and an important role in the British television movie A Little Piece of Sunshine, based on a novel by Frederick Forsyth. The following year, Bacall played the lead in the independent film A Star for Two (1991) with Anthony Quinn, Lila Kedrova and Jean-Pierre Aumont, and played a supporting role in All I Want for Christmas (1991).[citation needed]In 1993, Bacall was very active in television, pairing again with her lifelong friend Gregory Peck and his daughter Cecilia Peck in Arthur Penn's television movie The Portrait, and costarring with an all-star European cast in A Foreign Field. She appeared in Robert Altman's Prêt-à-Porter (1994), an ensemble film set in Paris during fashion week. In 1995, she was cast in her friend Ingrid Bergman's role in From the Mixed-Up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler, a television remake of the 1973 movie by the same title. Years earlier, Bergman had played the role in the film version of Cactus Flower (1969) that Bacall had played on Broadway in 1965.[citation needed] In 1995 portrayed Claire Zachanassian in the Terrence McNally play The Visit at the Chichester Festival.[63]1996 was a pivotal year for Bacall's career. She was chosen by Barbra Streisand to play her mother in the romantic comedy The Mirror Has Two Faces, also starring Jeff Bridges, George Segal and Brenda Vaccaro. Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote of her performance \"Bacall, posing, rolling her eyes and snapping out the one-liners with consummate skill, is in to play the source of all of Rose’s insecurities, the mother who was drop-dead gorgeous and who never told her kind of funny-looking daughter she was pretty.\"[64] She received widespread critical acclaim, and at age 72, she earned her first nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, which she was widely expected to win, but lost to Juliette Binoche for The English Patient.[65][66] She also won the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role, and a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role.Bacall received the Kennedy Center Honors in 1997,[67] and she was voted one of the 25 most significant female movie stars in history in 1999 by the American Film Institute. In 1999, Bacall starred on Broadway in a revival of Noël Coward's Waiting in the Wings.[68] She portrayed American billionaire heiress Doris Duke in the four part CBS miniseries Too Rich: The Secret Life of Doris Duke (1999). In the 2000s, she acted as a spokesman for the Tuesday Morning discount chain and produced a jewelry line. She was also a celebrity spokesman for High Point coffee and Fancy Feast cat food.","title":"Hollywood"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lauren_Bacall_2007.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Walker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walker"},{"link_name":"Lars von Trier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars_von_Trier"},{"link_name":"Dogville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogville"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Glazer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Glazer"},{"link_name":"Birth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_(2004_film)"},{"link_name":"Nicole Kidman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Kidman"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Hayao Miyazaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayao_Miyazaki"},{"link_name":"Howl's Moving Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howl%27s_Moving_Castle_(film)"},{"link_name":"Paul Schrader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Schrader"},{"link_name":"The Walker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walker"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"78th Academy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/78th_Academy_Awards"},{"link_name":"The Sopranos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sopranos"},{"link_name":"Luxury Lounge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxury_Lounge"},{"link_name":"Christopher Moltisanti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Moltisanti"},{"link_name":"Michael Imperioli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Imperioli"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"Bryn Mawr College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryn_Mawr_College"},{"link_name":"Katharine Hepburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katharine_Hepburn"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr."},{"link_name":"Reform Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_Club"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"The Forger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Forger_(2012_film)"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-V1-76"},{"link_name":"Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Motion_Picture_Arts_and_Sciences"},{"link_name":"Governors Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governors_Awards"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"Ernest & Celestine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_%26_Celestine"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"Family Guy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Guy"},{"link_name":"Mom's the Word","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mom%27s_the_Word"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"}],"sub_title":"2000–2009: Dramatic films and final roles","text":"Bacall at a press conference for The Walker in February 2007Her film career saw something of a renaissance taking dramatic roles in independent films. She attracted positive notices for her performances in high-profile psychological dramas such as Lars von Trier's Dogville (2003) and Jonathan Glazer's Birth (2004), both with Nicole Kidman.[69][70] She voiced Witch of the Waste in Hayao Miyazaki's acclaimed animated film Howl's Moving Castle (2004). She was a leading actress in Paul Schrader's The Walker (2007).[71] In March 2006, she introduced a film montage dedicated to film noir at the 78th Academy Awards. She made a cameo appearance as herself on The Sopranos in the April 2006 episode \"Luxury Lounge\", during which her character was mugged by Christopher Moltisanti (Michael Imperioli).[72]In September 2006, Bryn Mawr College awarded Bacall their Katharine Hepburn Medal, which recognizes \"women whose lives, work, and contributions embody the intelligence, drive, and independence\" of Hepburn.[73] She delivered an address at the memorial service of Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. at the Reform Club in London in June 2007.[74] She finished her role in The Forger in 2009.[75] The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences bestowed an honorary Academy Award upon Bacall at the inaugural Governors Awards on November 14, 2009.[76] In July 2013, Bacall expressed interest in the film Trouble Is My Business.[77] In November, she joined the English-dubbed voice cast for StudioCanal's animated film Ernest & Celestine.[78] Her final role was in 2014 as a guest voice appearance in the Family Guy episode \"Mom's the Word\".[79]","title":"Hollywood"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Acting credits and accolades"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bogart_Bacall_wedding_1945.jpg"},{"link_name":"Louis Bromfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Bromfield"},{"link_name":"Malabar Farm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabar_Farm_State_Park"},{"link_name":"Humphrey Bogart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey_Bogart"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"Malabar Farm, Lucas, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabar_Farm_State_Park"},{"link_name":"Pulitzer Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize"},{"link_name":"Louis Bromfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Bromfield"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_York_Times-82"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"1950 United States census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950_United_States_census"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-census-1"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"The African Queen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_African_Queen_(film)"},{"link_name":"Katharine Hepburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katharine_Hepburn"},{"link_name":"Spencer Tracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_Tracy"},{"link_name":"Arthur Schlesinger Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr."},{"link_name":"Alistair Cooke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alistair_Cooke"},{"link_name":"Democratic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Adlai Stevenson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_II"},{"link_name":"McCarthyism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCarthyism"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Levy2006-85"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KuhnRadstone1990-86"},{"link_name":"Frank Sinatra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Sinatra"},{"link_name":"Turner Classic Movies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turner_Classic_Movies"},{"link_name":"Robert Osborne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Osborne"},{"link_name":"Irving \"Swifty\" Lazar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Paul_Lazar"},{"link_name":"Louella Parsons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louella_Parsons"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bogart_family_April_1956.jpg"},{"link_name":"Stephen Humphrey Bogart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Humphrey_Bogart"},{"link_name":"Jason Robards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Robards"},{"link_name":"Vienna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"Las Vegas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Vegas"},{"link_name":"Nevada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-marriage_refusal-89"},{"link_name":"Ensenada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensenada,_Baja_California"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-marriage_refusal-89"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBacall2005377-91"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NewsDeath-92"},{"link_name":"Harry Guardino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Guardino"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lauren_Bacall08.JPG"},{"link_name":"Deauville American Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deauville_American_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"Stephen Humphrey Bogart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Humphrey_Bogart"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_York_Times-82"},{"link_name":"Leslie Howard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Howard"},{"link_name":"yoga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga"},{"link_name":"Erich Schiffmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Schiffmann"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_York_Times-82"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_York_Times-82"},{"link_name":"Sam Robards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Robards"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"Jeremy Isaacs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Isaacs"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_York_Times-82"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"}],"sub_title":"Relationships and family","text":"Best man Louis Bromfield (center) at the wedding of Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall at Malabar Farm (May 21, 1945)On May 21, 1945, Bacall married Humphrey Bogart. She was 20 and Bogart was 25 years older.[80] Their wedding and honeymoon took place at Malabar Farm, Lucas, Ohio, the country home of Pulitzer Prize–winning author Louis Bromfield, a close friend of Bogart.[81][82] At the time of the 1950 United States census, the couple was living at 2707 Benedict Canyon Drive in Beverly Hills with their son and their nursemaid. Bacall is listed as Betty Bogart.[1] She was married to Bogart until he died in 1957.[83]During the filming of The African Queen (1951), Bacall and Bogart became friends with Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy. She began to mix in non-acting circles, becoming friends with the historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. and the journalist Alistair Cooke. In 1952, she gave campaign speeches for Democratic presidential contender Adlai Stevenson. Along with other Hollywood figures, Bacall was a strong opponent of McCarthyism.[84][85]Bacall had a relationship with Frank Sinatra after Bogart's death. During an interview with Turner Classic Movies's Robert Osborne, Bacall stated that she had ended the romance, but, in her autobiography Lauren Bacall by Myself, she wrote that Sinatra ended the relationship abruptly after becoming upset that his marriage proposal had been leaked to the press, believing Bacall to be responsible. However, Bacall states in Lauren Bacall by Myself that when she was out with her friend Irving \"Swifty\" Lazar, they encountered the gossip columnist Louella Parsons, to whom Lazar revealed the news. Bacall wrote in By Myself that Sinatra only found out the truth years later.[citation needed]Lauren Bacall with Humphrey Bogart and their two children, Stephen Humphrey Bogart and Leslie, in 1956Bacall then met and began a relationship with Jason Robards. Their wedding was originally scheduled to take place in Vienna, Austria, on June 16, 1961.[86] The wedding plans were shelved after Austrian authorities refused to grant the couple a marriage license, due to Robards being unable to produce divorce documents from his previous marriage, and Bacall being unable to produce Humphrey Bogart's death certificate.[87] They were also refused a marriage in Las Vegas, Nevada, due to similar documentation issues.[88] On July 4, 1961, the couple drove to Ensenada, Mexico, where they wed.[88][89] The couple divorced in 1969. According to Bacall's autobiography, she divorced Robards mainly because of his alcoholism.[90][91]Bacall had a romantic relationship with her Woman of the Year costar Harry Guardino in the early 1980s.[92]Bacall at the Deauville American Film Festival in 1989Bacall had two children with Bogart and one with Robards. Son Stephen Humphrey Bogart (born January 6, 1949) is a news producer, documentary film maker, and author who is named after Bogart's character in To Have and Have Not.[81] Their daughter Leslie Howard Bogart (born August 23, 1952) is named after the actor Leslie Howard. A nurse and yoga instructor, she is married to Erich Schiffmann.[81] In his 1995 memoir, Stephen Bogart wrote, \"My mother was a lapsed Jew, and my father was a lapsed Episcopalian\", and that he and his sister were raised Episcopalian \"because my mother felt that would make life easier for Leslie and me during those post-World War II years\".[81] Sam Robards (born December 16, 1961), Bacall's son with Robards, is an actor.Bacall wrote two autobiographies, Lauren Bacall by Myself (1978) and Now (1994).[93][94] In 2006, the first volume of Lauren Bacall by Myself was reprinted as By Myself and Then Some with an extra chapter.[95]In a 1996 interview, Bacall, reflecting on her life, told the interviewer Jeremy Isaacs that she had been lucky:I had one great marriage, I have three great children and four grandchildren. I am still alive. I still can function. I still can work ... You just learn to cope with whatever you have to cope with. I spent my childhood in New York, riding on subways and buses. And you know what you learn if you're a New Yorker? The world doesn't owe you a damn thing.[81][96]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bacall,_Bogart,_Fonda.jpg"},{"link_name":"Henry Fonda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fonda"},{"link_name":"The Petrified Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Petrified_Forest"},{"link_name":"liberal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Democrat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_York_Times-82"},{"link_name":"House Un-American Activities Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_Un-American_Activities_Committee"},{"link_name":"communism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_York_Times-82"},{"link_name":"Committee for the First Amendment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_for_the_First_Amendment"},{"link_name":"Danny Kaye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny_Kaye"},{"link_name":"John Garfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Garfield"},{"link_name":"Gene Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Kelly"},{"link_name":"John Huston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Huston"},{"link_name":"Groucho Marx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groucho_Marx"},{"link_name":"Olivia De Havilland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivia_De_Havilland"},{"link_name":"Ira Gershwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ira_Gershwin"},{"link_name":"Jane Wyatt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Wyatt"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_York_Times-82"},{"link_name":"Photoplay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoplay"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Hollywood Ten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollywood_Ten"},{"link_name":"J. Edgar Hoover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GordonGordon1987-99"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"Adlai Stevenson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_II"},{"link_name":"1952 presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_York_Times-82"},{"link_name":"Robert F. Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy"},{"link_name":"presidential campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy_1968_presidential_campaign"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Larry King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_King"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"}],"sub_title":"Political views","text":"Bacall, Humphrey Bogart and Henry Fonda in a live color television version of The Petrified Forest in 1955Bacall was a staunch liberal Democrat, and proclaimed her political views on numerous occasions.[81] Bacall and Bogart were among about 80 Hollywood personalities to send a telegram protesting the House Un-American Activities Committee's investigations of Americans suspected of adhering to communism. The telegram said that investigating individuals' political beliefs violated the basic principles of American democracy.[81] In October 1947, Bacall and Bogart traveled to Washington, D.C., along with a number of other Hollywood stars in a group that called itself the Committee for the First Amendment (CFA), which also included Danny Kaye, John Garfield, Gene Kelly, John Huston, Groucho Marx, Olivia De Havilland, Ira Gershwin, and Jane Wyatt.[81]She appeared alongside Humphrey Bogart in a photograph printed at the end of an article he wrote, titled \"I'm No Communist\", in the May 1948 edition of Photoplay magazine,[97] written to counteract negative publicity resulting from his appearance before the House Committee. Bogart and Bacall distanced themselves from the Hollywood Ten, and said: \"We're about as much in favor of Communism as J. Edgar Hoover.\"[98][99]Bacall campaigned for Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson in the 1952 presidential election, accompanying him on motorcades along with Bogart, and flying east to help in the final laps of Stevenson's campaign in New York and Chicago.[81] She campaigned for Robert F. Kennedy in his 1964 run for the U.S. Senate and was part of a Hollywood committee that endorsed his presidential campaign.[100][101]In a 2005 interview with Larry King, Bacall described herself as \"anti-Republican... A liberal. The L-word\". She added that \"being a liberal is the best thing on Earth you can be. You are welcoming to everyone when you're a liberal. You do not have a small mind.\"[102]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Dakota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dakota"},{"link_name":"Upper West Side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_West_Side"},{"link_name":"Central Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Park"},{"link_name":"Manhattan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CNNDeath-3"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_York_Times-82"},{"link_name":"New York–Presbyterian Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York%E2%80%93Presbyterian_Hospital"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BacallDies-105"},{"link_name":"Forest Lawn Memorial Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_Lawn_Memorial_Park_(Glendale)"},{"link_name":"Glendale, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glendale,_California"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"}],"sub_title":"Death","text":"On August 12, 2014, Bacall died after suffering a stroke at her apartment in The Dakota, the Upper West Side building near Central Park in Manhattan.[3][81] She was confirmed dead at New York–Presbyterian Hospital, at the age of 89.[103][104]Bacall was interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.[105] At the time of her death, Bacall had an estimated $26.6 million estate. The bulk of her estate was divided among her three children: Leslie Bogart, Stephen Humphrey Bogart, and Sam Robards. Additionally, Bacall left $250,000 each to her youngest grandsons, the sons of Sam Robards, for college.[106]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"By Myself (1978)\nNow (1994)\nBy Myself and Then Some (2005)","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vincent Sherman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_Sherman"},{"link_name":"Joe Hyams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Hyams"},{"link_name":"To Have and Have Not","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_Have_and_Have_Not"},{"link_name":"Mayo Methot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayo_Methot"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"Kathryn Harrold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathryn_Harrold"},{"link_name":"Kevin O'Connor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_O%27Connor_(actor,_born_1938)"},{"link_name":"Ann Wedgeworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Wedgeworth"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bogie-109"},{"link_name":"The Sopranos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sopranos"},{"link_name":"Luxury Lounge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxury_Lounge"},{"link_name":"Evita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evita_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Andrew Lloyd Webber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Lloyd_Webber"},{"link_name":"Tim Rice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Rice"},{"link_name":"Eva Peron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eva_Peron"},{"link_name":"Merrie Melodies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merrie_Melodies"},{"link_name":"Bacall to Arms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacall_to_Arms"},{"link_name":"Slick Hare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slick_Hare"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"Laura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura,_Marshall_Islands"},{"link_name":"Majuro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majuro"},{"link_name":"Marshall Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Islands"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"}],"text":"FilmThe 1980 television film Bogie, directed by Vincent Sherman and based on a book by Joe Hyams, tells the story of Bogart meeting Bacall while making To Have and Have Not in 1943, and beginning the affair with her that led to the dissolution of Bogart's marriage to Mayo Methot.[107] Bacall is portrayed by Kathryn Harrold in the film; Kevin O'Connor plays Bogart; and Methot is played by Ann Wedgeworth.[108]TelevisionShe appeared in The Sopranos season six, episode 7 \"Luxury Lounge\" as herself.TheatreThe 1978 musical Evita, music by Andrew Lloyd Webber and lyrics by Tim Rice, tells the story of Argentina's infamous first lady Eva Peron. In the song \"Rainbow High\", Eva sings the lyrics \"I'm their savior. That's what they call me. So, Lauren Bacall me. Anything goes.\"AnimationBacall and Bogart are parodied in the Warner Brothers Merrie Melodies shorts Bacall to Arms (1946) and Slick Hare (1947).[109]Marshall Islands namesakeThe town of Laura—on the island of Majuro in the Marshall Islands—is one of several island towns code-named after the troops' favorite actresses by World War II U.S. forces.[110][better source needed]","title":"In popular culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FactsCNN-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"^ In a 1995 interview with Jeremy Isaacs, Bacall claimed to have never lived in the Bronx,[5] though numerous sources state that she was born in the borough.[6][7][8]","title":"Explanatory notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-census_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-census_1-1"},{"link_name":"\"1950 Census - Betty Bogart\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//1950census.archives.gov/search/?county=Los%20Angeles&ed=66-682&name=Betty%20Bogart&page=1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Academy_2-0"},{"link_name":"\"82nd Academy Awards Memorable Moments\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/82nd-academy-awards-memorable-moments"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CNNDeath_3-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CNNDeath_3-1"},{"link_name":"\"Famed actress Lauren Bacall dies at 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Retrieved September 30, 2017.\n\n^ \"The Essentials: Lauren Bacall's 6 Best Performances\". Indiewire. 2014. Archived from the original on August 27, 2014. Retrieved September 1, 2014.\n\n^ Dunning, John (May 7, 1998). On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio. Oxford University Press. pp. 109–110. ISBN 978-0-19-507678-3. Retrieved May 19, 2015.\n\n^ Vogel, Michelle (April 24, 2014). Marilyn Monroe: Her Films, Her Life. McFarland. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-7864-7086-0.\n\n^ Movie Reviews: \"How to Marry a Millionaire\", Rotten Tomatoes.com; retrieved August 13, 2014.\n\n^ a b Quirk, Laurence J. (1986). Lauren Bacall: Her Films and Career. Citadel Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-8065-0935-X.\n\n^ Endres, Stacey. Hollywood's Chinese Theatre: The Hand and Footprints of the Stars, Pomegranate Press (1992) e-book\n\n^ Aubrey Solomon, Twentieth Century Fox: A Corporate and Financial History, Scarecrow Press, 1989 p225\n\n^ 'The Top Box-Office Hits of 1954', Variety Weekly, January 5, 1955\n\n^ \"Broadcast Museum Seeks TV's Self-History\". The New York Times. January 25, 1987. Retrieved August 12, 2014.\n\n^ \"At Loew's State\". The New York Times. August 6, 1955. Retrieved September 2, 2014.\n\n^ \"Filmsite Movie Review: Written on the Wind (1956)\". Film Site. Retrieved August 13, 2014.\n\n^ \"Review: Written on the Wind\". Variety. December 31, 1955. Retrieved September 1, 2014.\n\n^ Designing Woman profile, Rotten Tomatoes.com; accessed August 14, 2014.\n\n^ Four British Films in \"Top 6\": Boulting Comedy Heads Box Office List, The Guardian (1959–2003), London, December 11, 1959: p. 4.\n\n^ \"Cactus Flower (Broadway, 1965)\". Playbill. Retrieved March 17, 2024.\n\n^ Lauren Bacall at the Internet Broadway Database\n\n^ Kerr, Walter (April 5, 1970). \"Bacall Takes Your Breath Away\". The New York Times. Retrieved March 17, 2023.\n\n^ Chandler, Charlotte (December 9, 2008). The Girl Who Walked Home Alone: Bette Davis A Personal Biography. Simon and Schuster. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-84739-698-3.\n\n^ Rich, Frank (March 30, 1981). \"STAGE: LAUREN BACALL IN 'WOMAN OF YEAR'\". The New York Times. Retrieved March 17, 2024.\n\n^ \"Next Saturday\". The Beaver County Times. December 12, 1964. Retrieved August 22, 2014.\n\n^ Natale, Richard (August 12, 2014). \"Lauren Bacall, Star of Hollywood's Golden Age, Dies at 89\". Variety. Retrieved August 14, 2014.\n\n^ Canby, Vincent (May 22, 1981). \"FILM: 'FAN', A LAUREN BACALL THRILLER\". The New York Times.\n\n^ \"The Fan\". Variety. December 31, 1981.\n\n^ \"Theatre: Lauren Bacall pays a fleeting Visit\". The Independent. September 30, 1995. Retrieved March 17, 2024.\n\n^ \"The Mirror Has Two Faces\". Variety. November 11, 1996. Retrieved March 17, 2024.\n\n^ \"69th Academy Award Winners\". Oscars. 1996. Archived from the original on August 13, 2014. Retrieved August 13, 2014.\n\n^ Soares, Andre. \"Lauren Bacall vs. Juliette Binoche: The 1997 Academy Awards\". Alt Film Guide. Retrieved October 19, 2015.\n\n^ Lyman, Rick (December 8, 1997). \"A Wind of Gratitude Blows Through the Performing Arts\". New York Times. Retrieved August 12, 2014.\n\n^ \"Waiting in the Wings Play\". Playbill. Retrieved September 5, 2015.\n\n^ \"'Dogville' at 20: The Cast on 'Cranky' Lauren Bacall, Day-Drinking on Set, and the Fun of Being 'Horrible'\". IndieWire. April 14, 2023. Retrieved March 17, 2024.\n\n^ \"'Birth' a believable psychological thriller\". Rogerebert.com. Retrieved March 17, 2024.\n\n^ Bernstein, Adam (August 12, 2014). \"Lauren Bacall, sultry star of film and Broadway, dies at 89\". Portland Press Herald. Retrieved August 14, 2014.\n\n^ Kois, Dan (August 12, 2014). \"Lauren Bacall was game for anything, even getting punched out on 'The Sopranos'\". Slate. Retrieved October 19, 2015.\n\n^ \"Welcome to the Katharine Houghton Hepburn Center\". Bryn Mawr College. February 7, 2013. Archived from the original on September 4, 2014. Retrieved August 13, 2014.\n\n^ Jenkins, Simon (June 28, 2007). \"Our trigger-happy rulers should have been sent on a crash course in history\". The Guardian. Retrieved August 12, 2014.\n\n^ McNary, Dave (February 1, 2009). \"Hutcherson rounds out 'Carmel' cast\". Variety. Retrieved July 9, 2014.\n\n^ \"Bacall, Calley, Corman and Willis to Receive Academy's Governors Awards\", Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences (press release), September 10, 2009.\n\n^ \"Trouble Is My Business\" Archived November 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, juntoboxfilms.com, July 2013.\n\n^ Keslassy, Elsa (November 8, 2013). \"Ernest & Celestine: Toon Taps Lauren Bacall, Paul Giamatti, William H. Macy (exclusive)\". Variety. Retrieved July 9, 2014.\n\n^ \"Breaking News – Tony Award Winner Lauren Bacall Dies at 89\". Broadway World. August 12, 2014. Archived from the original on August 14, 2014. Retrieved August 13, 2014.\n\n^ \"Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall's Romance Began with a Scandalous Affair\". Country Living. August 14, 2017. Retrieved June 3, 2024.\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j \"Lauren Bacall Dies at 89; in a Bygone Hollywood, She Purred Every Word\". The New York Times. August 12, 2014. Retrieved August 13, 2014.\n\n^ \"Malabar Farm State Park Photo\". 2014. Retrieved October 19, 2015.\n\n^ Barnes, Mike; Byrge, Duane (August 12, 2014). \"Lauren Bacall, Hollywood's Icon of Cool, Dies at 89\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved April 22, 2022.\n\n^ Levy, Patricia (2006). From Television to the Berlin Wall. Raintree. p. 27. ISBN 9781410917874. Retrieved August 13, 2014.\n\n^ Kuhn, Annette; Radstone, Susannah (1990). The Women's Companion to International Film. University of California Press. p. 34. ISBN 9780520088795. Retrieved August 13, 2014.\n\n^ \"Lauren Bacall, Jason Robards to wed\". The Evening Independent. June 15, 1961. Retrieved August 22, 2014.\n\n^ \"Vienna foils wedding plans of Lauren Bacall, Robards\". The Tuscaloosa News. Associated Press. June 16, 1951. Retrieved August 22, 2014.\n\n^ a b \"Lauren Bacall, Jason Robards wed in Mexico\". The Deseret News. United Press International. July 5, 1961. Retrieved August 22, 2014.\n\n^ Hickey, Neil (August 19, 1961). \"Her Kind of Boy\". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved August 22, 2014.\n\n^ Bacall 2005, p. 377.\n\n^ Stephenson, Alison (August 13, 2014). \"Lauren Bacall dead at 89\". News Corp Australia. Retrieved September 30, 2017.[permanent dead link]\n\n^ Stout, David (July 18, 1995). \"Harry Guardino, 69, an Actor In Romantic and Gangster Roles\". The New York Times. pp. 7, Section B. Retrieved May 14, 2022.\n\n^ Bacall, Lauren (October 12, 1985). Lauren Bacall: By Myself. Ballantine Books. ISBN 0345333217.\n\n^ Bacall, Lauren (November 29, 1995). Now (1st ed.). New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0345402324.\n\n^ Bacall, Lauren (October 31, 2006). By Myself and Then Some (Harper paperback ed.). New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0061127914.\n\n^ \"BBC – The Late Show – Face to Face: Lauren Bacall\", Interview with Jeremy Isaacs, BBC, March 20, 1995\n\n^ Bogart, Humphrey (March 1948). \"I'm No Communist\". Photoplay. Google Docs. Retrieved August 13, 2014. I'm no communist\n\n^ Gordon, Lois G.; Gordon, Alan (1987). American Chronicle: Six Decades in American Life, 1920–1980. Atheneum. p. 267. ISBN 9780689118999. Retrieved August 13, 2014.\n\n^ Kengor, Dr. Paul (August 15, 2014). \"Bogie and Bacall and Hollywood's Communists\". American Spectator. Human Events. Archived from the original on August 20, 2014. Retrieved August 25, 2014.\n\n^ Tomasky, Michael (August 13, 2014). \"Lauren Bacall was deeply liberal and deeply anti-communist\". The Daily Beast. Retrieved October 19, 2015.\n\n^ Palermo, Joseph A. (January 10, 2008). \"Here's What RFK Did in California in 1968\". HuffPost. Archived from the original on January 19, 2024.\n\n^ \"Interview with Lauren Bacall\". Larry King Live. May 6, 2005. CNN. Retrieved August 13, 2014.\n\n^ Barnes, Mike; Byrge, Duane (August 12, 2014). \"Lauren Bacall, Hollywood's Icon of Cool, Dies at 89\". Yahoo! Movies. Retrieved August 13, 2014.\n\n^ \"Legendary Actress Lauren Bacall Dies at 89\". New York Telegraph. Voice of America. August 13, 2014. Retrieved August 13, 2014.\n\n^ Creason, Glen (October 28, 2015). \"CityDig: The Glendale Graveyard That's Anything but Spooky\". Los Angeles Magazine. ISSN 1522-9149. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023.\n\n^ \"Lauren Bacall leaves $10,000 for her beloved dog in will\". Fox News. Retrieved August 25, 2014.\n\n^ Kristen (September 9, 2012). \"Bogie\". Journeys in Classic Film. Archived from the original on September 11, 2015. Retrieved October 19, 2015.\n\n^ Goudas, John N. (February 29, 1980). \"Kathryn Harrold cast as Bacall in 'Bogie'\". The Boca Raton News. Retrieved August 22, 2014.\n\n^ \"Bacall to Arms (1946)\". Archived from the original on August 14, 2014. Retrieved August 31, 2015.\n\n^ \"Marshall Islands\". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved December 31, 2015. The inhabited islands along the southern side of Majuro Atoll have been joined over time by landfill and a bridge to form a 30-mile road from Rita, on the extreme eastern end, to Laura, at the western end. Both villages were so code-named by U.S. forces in World War II after favorite pinups Rita Hayworth and Lauren Bacall.","title":"Citations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"By Myself","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bymyself00baca"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-394-41308-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-41308-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-061-12791-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-061-12791-5"}],"text":"Bacall, Lauren (1979). By Myself. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-41308-2.\nBy Myself and Then Some (Revised ed.). New York: HarperCollins. 2005. ISBN 978-0-061-12791-5.","title":"General and cited sources"}]
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[{"image_text":"Bacall by László Willinger","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Lauren_Bacall_by_L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Willinger%2C_1946.jpg/170px-Lauren_Bacall_by_L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Willinger%2C_1946.jpg"},{"image_text":"Howard Hawks and Bacall c. 1943","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Bacall%26Hawks.jpg/220px-Bacall%26Hawks.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bacall with Humphrey Bogart in To Have and Have Not","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Bogart_and_Bacall_To_Have_and_Have_Not.jpg/170px-Bogart_and_Bacall_To_Have_and_Have_Not.jpg"},{"image_text":"20-year-old Bacall lounges on top of the piano while Vice President Harry S. Truman plays for servicemen at the National Press Club Canteen in Washington, D.C. (February 10, 1945)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Bacall-Truman-Piano-1945.jpg/170px-Bacall-Truman-Piano-1945.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bacall alongside Kirk Douglas in the film Young Man with a Horn (1950)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Douglas_-_Bacall_-_Horn_1950.jpg/170px-Douglas_-_Bacall_-_Horn_1950.jpg"},{"image_text":"Marilyn Monroe, Betty Grable and Bacall in How to Marry a Millionaire","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Marilyn_Monroe%2C_Betty_Grable_and_Lauren_Bacall_in_How_to_Marry_a_Millionaire_trailer.jpg/220px-Marilyn_Monroe%2C_Betty_Grable_and_Lauren_Bacall_in_How_to_Marry_a_Millionaire_trailer.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bacall in the film Written on the Wind (1956)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Written_on_the_wind3.jpg/220px-Written_on_the_wind3.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bacall in Washington, D.C., in 1998","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Lauren_Bacall_1998.jpg/170px-Lauren_Bacall_1998.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bacall at a press conference for The Walker in February 2007","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Lauren_Bacall_2007.jpg/170px-Lauren_Bacall_2007.jpg"},{"image_text":"Best man Louis Bromfield (center) at the wedding of Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall at Malabar Farm (May 21, 1945)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Bogart_Bacall_wedding_1945.jpg/170px-Bogart_Bacall_wedding_1945.jpg"},{"image_text":"Lauren Bacall with Humphrey Bogart and their two children, Stephen Humphrey Bogart and Leslie, in 1956","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Bogart_family_April_1956.jpg/220px-Bogart_family_April_1956.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bacall at the Deauville American Film Festival in 1989","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Lauren_Bacall08.JPG/220px-Lauren_Bacall08.JPG"},{"image_text":"Bacall, Humphrey Bogart and Henry Fonda in a live color television version of The Petrified Forest in 1955","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bacall%2C_Bogart%2C_Fonda.jpg/170px-Bacall%2C_Bogart%2C_Fonda.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Bogart and Bacall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey_Bogart#Bogart_and_Bacall"},{"title":"Bogart–Bacall syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogart%E2%80%93Bacall_syndrome"},{"title":"List of actors with Academy Award nominations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_actors_with_Academy_Award_nominations"},{"title":"List of actors with Hollywood Walk of Fame motion picture stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_actors_with_Hollywood_Walk_of_Fame_motion_picture_stars"}]
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[{"reference":"\"1950 Census - Betty Bogart\". 1950census.archives.gov. Retrieved June 12, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://1950census.archives.gov/search/?county=Los%20Angeles&ed=66-682&name=Betty%20Bogart&page=1","url_text":"\"1950 Census - Betty Bogart\""}]},{"reference":"\"82nd Academy Awards Memorable Moments\". Oscars. 2009. Retrieved December 27, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/82nd-academy-awards-memorable-moments","url_text":"\"82nd Academy Awards Memorable Moments\""}]},{"reference":"Ford, Dana (August 12, 2014). \"Famed actress Lauren Bacall dies at 89\". CNN. Retrieved August 13, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/12/showbiz/lauren-bacall-dead","url_text":"\"Famed actress Lauren Bacall dies at 89\""}]},{"reference":"Bacall, Lauren (1979). Lauren Bacall By myself. New York: Knopf. p. 64.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bacall, Lauren (March 20, 1995). \"Face to Face: Lauren Bacall\". The Late Show (Interview). Interviewed by Jeremy Isaacs. BBC.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/p00nxqbq/the-late-show-face-to-face-lauren-bacall","url_text":"\"Face to Face: Lauren Bacall\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Isaacs","url_text":"Jeremy Isaacs"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC","url_text":"BBC"}]},{"reference":"\"Lauren Bacall Fast Facts\". CNN Library. August 12, 2014. Retrieved August 13, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/24/us/lauren-bacall-fast-facts/index.html","url_text":"\"Lauren Bacall Fast Facts\""}]},{"reference":"Tyrnauer, Matt (March 10, 2011). \"To Have and Have Not\". Vanity Fair. Retrieved October 15, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/features/2011/03/lauren-bacall-201103","url_text":"\"To Have and Have Not\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanity_Fair_(magazine)","url_text":"Vanity Fair"}]},{"reference":"West, Melanie Grayce (August 13, 2014). \"Lauren Bacall: Hollywood Legend Who Lived a New Yorker's Life\". The Wall Street Journal.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/bacall-hollywood-legend-who-lived-a-new-yorkers-life-1407982481","url_text":"\"Lauren Bacall: Hollywood Legend Who Lived a New Yorker's Life\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal","url_text":"The Wall Street Journal"}]},{"reference":"Meyers, Jeffrey (April 18, 1997). Bogart: A Life in Hollywood. Houghton Mifflin. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-395-77399-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bogartlifeinholl00meye/page/164","url_text":"Bogart: A Life in Hollywood"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bogartlifeinholl00meye/page/164","url_text":"164"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-77399-4","url_text":"978-0-395-77399-4"}]},{"reference":"Wickware, Francis Sill (May 7, 1945). \"Profile of Lauren Bacall\". Life. Vol. 18. pp. 100–106. ISSN 0024-3019.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8UkEAAAAMBAJ&q=lauren+bacall","url_text":"\"Profile of Lauren Bacall\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_(magazine)","url_text":"Life"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0024-3019","url_text":"0024-3019"}]},{"reference":"Anderman, Nirit (August 13, 2014). \"Shimon Peres remembers 'very strong, very beautiful' relative Lauren Bacall\". Haaretz. Tel Aviv.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.haaretz.com/life/movies-television/.premium-1.610399","url_text":"\"Shimon Peres remembers 'very strong, very beautiful' relative Lauren Bacall\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haaretz","url_text":"Haaretz"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv","url_text":"Tel Aviv"}]},{"reference":"Lazaroff, Tovah (November 10, 2005). \"Peres: Not such a bad record after all\". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved May 13, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=4397","url_text":"\"Peres: Not such a bad record after all\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jerusalem_Post","url_text":"The Jerusalem Post"}]},{"reference":"Weiner, Eric (June 13, 2007). \"Shimon Peres Wears Hats of Peacemaker, Schemer\". NPR. Retrieved May 13, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11020066","url_text":"\"Shimon Peres Wears Hats of Peacemaker, Schemer\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPR","url_text":"NPR"}]},{"reference":"Fahim, Kareem (October 10, 2008). \"A Tree-Lined Boulevard That's a Park and a Living Room\". The New York Times. Retrieved September 2, 2014- referencing \"By Myself and Then Some\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/11/nyregion/11journal.html","url_text":"\"A Tree-Lined Boulevard That's a Park and a Living Room\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Pike, Helen-Chantal (February 12, 2007). West Long Branch Revisited. Arcadia Publishing Co. ISBN 978-0738549033.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=08UJ6rXvaykC&pg=PA96","url_text":"West Long Branch Revisited"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0738549033","url_text":"978-0738549033"}]},{"reference":"\"Sultry, sophisticated and sassy, screen siren Bacall dies at 89\". Irish Independent. August 14, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.independent.ie/entertainment/movies/sultry-sophisticated-and-sassy-screen-siren-bacall-dies-at-89-30507516.html#sthash.qB0TCDBj.dpuf","url_text":"\"Sultry, sophisticated and sassy, screen siren Bacall dies at 89\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Independent","url_text":"Irish Independent"}]},{"reference":"Thomas, Tony (1991). The Films of Kirk Douglas. New York: Citadel Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0806512174.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Z6neu4_y238C&q=lauren+bacall","url_text":"The Films of Kirk Douglas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0806512174","url_text":"978-0806512174"}]},{"reference":"\"Lauren Bacall Biography & Filmography\". Matinee Classics. 2010. Archived from the original on July 19, 2014. 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Retrieved January 2, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121104115239/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/lauren-bacall-the-souring-of-a-hollywood-legend-6161923.html","url_text":"\"Lauren Bacall: The souring of a Hollywood legend\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent","url_text":"The Independent"},{"url":"https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/lauren-bacall-the-souring-of-a-hollywood-legend-6161923.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Bogdanovich, Peter (1997). Who the Devil Made It. New York City: Ballantine Books. p. 327. ISBN 978-0679447061.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Bogdanovich","url_text":"Bogdanovich, Peter"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBPHL2sQ3JoC&q=hawks+bacall","url_text":"Who the Devil Made It"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0679447061","url_text":"978-0679447061"}]},{"reference":"Sperber, Ann M.; Lax, Eric (April 1997). Bogart. New York: Morrow. p. 246. ISBN 978-0688075392. 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ISBN 0345333217.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/laurenbacall00laur","url_text":"Lauren Bacall: By Myself"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballantine_Books","url_text":"Ballantine Books"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0345333217","url_text":"0345333217"}]},{"reference":"Bacall, Lauren (November 29, 1995). Now (1st ed.). New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0345402324.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/now0000baca","url_text":"Now"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0345402324","url_text":"0345402324"}]},{"reference":"Bacall, Lauren (October 31, 2006). By Myself and Then Some (Harper paperback ed.). New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0061127914.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins","url_text":"HarperCollins"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0061127914","url_text":"0061127914"}]},{"reference":"Bogart, Humphrey (March 1948). \"I'm No Communist\". Photoplay. Google Docs. Retrieved August 13, 2014. I'm no communist","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.google.com/document/d/1khEGRvkO_nTSne4jDqCdtJ9aCXcPjhQaxVMExAVE_pk/preview?pli=1","url_text":"\"I'm No Communist\""}]},{"reference":"Gordon, Lois G.; Gordon, Alan (1987). American Chronicle: Six Decades in American Life, 1920–1980. Atheneum. p. 267. ISBN 9780689118999. Retrieved August 13, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/americanchronicl00gord","url_text":"American Chronicle: Six Decades in American Life, 1920–1980"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/americanchronicl00gord/page/267","url_text":"267"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780689118999","url_text":"9780689118999"}]},{"reference":"Kengor, Dr. Paul (August 15, 2014). \"Bogie and Bacall and Hollywood's Communists\". American Spectator. Human Events. Archived from the original on August 20, 2014. Retrieved August 25, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140820195330/http://humanevents.com/2014/08/15/bogie-and-bacall-and-hollywoods-communists/","url_text":"\"Bogie and Bacall and Hollywood's Communists\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Spectator_(literary_magazine)","url_text":"American Spectator"},{"url":"http://humanevents.com/2014/08/15/bogie-and-bacall-and-hollywoods-communists/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Tomasky, Michael (August 13, 2014). \"Lauren Bacall was deeply liberal and deeply anti-communist\". The Daily Beast. Retrieved October 19, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/08/13/lauren-bacall-was-deeply-liberal-and-deeply-anti-communist.html","url_text":"\"Lauren Bacall was deeply liberal and deeply anti-communist\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Beast","url_text":"The Daily Beast"}]},{"reference":"Palermo, Joseph A. (January 10, 2008). \"Here's What RFK Did in California in 1968\". HuffPost. Archived from the original on January 19, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.huffpost.com/entry/heres-what-rfk-did-in-cal_b_80931","url_text":"\"Here's What RFK Did in California in 1968\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240119034547/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/heres-what-rfk-did-in-cal_b_80931","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Interview with Lauren Bacall\". Larry King Live. May 6, 2005. CNN. Retrieved August 13, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0505/06/lkl.01.html","url_text":"\"Interview with Lauren Bacall\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN","url_text":"CNN"}]},{"reference":"Barnes, Mike; Byrge, Duane (August 12, 2014). \"Lauren Bacall, Hollywood's Icon of Cool, Dies at 89\". Yahoo! Movies. Retrieved August 13, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.yahoo.com/movies/lauren-bacall-hollywoods-icon-of-cool-dies-at-89-94579236487.html","url_text":"\"Lauren Bacall, Hollywood's Icon of Cool, Dies at 89\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!_Movies","url_text":"Yahoo! Movies"}]},{"reference":"\"Legendary Actress Lauren Bacall Dies at 89\". New York Telegraph. Voice of America. August 13, 2014. Retrieved August 13, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.newyorktelegraph.com/index.php/sid/224686889","url_text":"\"Legendary Actress Lauren Bacall Dies at 89\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_of_America","url_text":"Voice of America"}]},{"reference":"Creason, Glen (October 28, 2015). \"CityDig: The Glendale Graveyard That's Anything but Spooky\". Los Angeles Magazine. ISSN 1522-9149. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lamag.com/citythinkblog/citydig-the-glendale-graveyard-thats-anything-but-spooky/","url_text":"\"CityDig: The Glendale Graveyard That's Anything but Spooky\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_(magazine)","url_text":"Los Angeles Magazine"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1522-9149","url_text":"1522-9149"},{"url":"https://archive.today/20230220031318/https://www.lamag.com/citythinkblog/citydig-the-glendale-graveyard-thats-anything-but-spooky/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Lauren Bacall leaves $10,000 for her beloved dog in will\". Fox News. Retrieved August 25, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.foxnews.com/entertainment/2014/08/23/lauren-bacall-leaves-10000-for-her-beloved-dog-in-will/","url_text":"\"Lauren Bacall leaves $10,000 for her beloved dog in will\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_News","url_text":"Fox News"}]},{"reference":"Kristen (September 9, 2012). \"Bogie\". Journeys in Classic Film. Archived from the original on September 11, 2015. Retrieved October 19, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150911114222/http://journeysinclassicfilm.com/2012/09/09/bogie-1980/","url_text":"\"Bogie\""},{"url":"http://journeysinclassicfilm.com/2012/09/09/bogie-1980/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Goudas, John N. (February 29, 1980). \"Kathryn Harrold cast as Bacall in 'Bogie'\". The Boca Raton News. Retrieved August 22, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1291&dat=19800229&id=WiJUAAAAIBAJ&pg=4983,5822644","url_text":"\"Kathryn Harrold cast as Bacall in 'Bogie'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Boca_Raton_News","url_text":"The Boca Raton News"}]},{"reference":"\"Bacall to Arms (1946)\". Archived from the original on August 14, 2014. Retrieved August 31, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140814065720/http://fan.tcm.com/_Bacall-to-Arms-1946/video/1619111/66470.html?createPassive=true","url_text":"\"Bacall to Arms (1946)\""},{"url":"http://fan.tcm.com/_Bacall-to-Arms-1946/video/1619111/66470.html?createPassive=true","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Marshall Islands\". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved December 31, 2015. The inhabited islands along the southern side of Majuro Atoll have been joined over time by landfill and a bridge to form a 30-mile road from Rita, on the extreme eastern end, to Laura, at the western end. Both villages were so code-named by U.S. forces in World War II after favorite pinups Rita Hayworth and Lauren Bacall.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Marshall_Islands.aspx","url_text":"\"Marshall Islands\""}]},{"reference":"Bacall, Lauren (1979). By Myself. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-41308-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bymyself00baca","url_text":"By Myself"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-41308-2","url_text":"978-0-394-41308-2"}]},{"reference":"By Myself and Then Some (Revised ed.). New York: HarperCollins. 2005. ISBN 978-0-061-12791-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-061-12791-5","url_text":"978-0-061-12791-5"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchid
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Orchid
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["1 Description","1.1 Stem and roots","1.2 Leaves","1.3 Flowers","2 Reproduction","2.1 Pollination","2.2 Asexual reproduction","2.3 Fruits and seeds","3 Taxonomy","3.1 Evolution","3.2 Genera","3.3 Etymology","3.4 Hybrids","3.5 Abbreviations","4 Distribution","5 Ecology","6 Uses","6.1 Perfumery","6.2 Horticulture","6.3 Food","7 Cultural symbolism","8 Conservation","8.1 Assisted migration as conservation tool","9 See also","10 Notes","11 References","12 Bibliography","13 Documentaries","14 External links"]
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Family of flowering plants in the order Asparagales
For the color, see Orchid (color). For other uses, see Orchid (disambiguation).
OrchidTemporal range: 80–0 Ma
PreꞒ
Ꞓ
O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N
Late Cretaceous – Recent
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
Clade:
Tracheophytes
Clade:
Angiosperms
Clade:
Monocots
Order:
Asparagales
Family:
OrchidaceaeJuss.
Type genus
OrchisTourn. ex L.
Subfamilies
Apostasioideae Horaninov
Cypripedioideae Kosteletzky
Epidendroideae Kosteletzky
Orchidoideae Eaton
Vanilloideae Szlachetko
Distribution range of family Orchidaceae
Orchids are plants that belong to the family Orchidaceae (/ˌɔːrkɪˈdeɪsi.iː, -si.aɪ/), a diverse and widespread group of flowering plants with blooms that are often colourful and fragrant. Orchids are cosmopolitan plants that are found in almost every habitat on Earth except glaciers. The world's richest diversity of orchid genera and species is found in the tropics.
Orchidaceae is one of the two largest families of flowering plants, along with the Asteraceae. It contains about 28,000 currently accepted species distributed across 763 genera.
The Orchidaceae family encompasses about 6–11% of all species of seed plants. The largest genera are Bulbophyllum (2,000 species), Epidendrum (1,500 species), Dendrobium (1,400 species) and Pleurothallis (1,000 species). It also includes Vanilla (the genus of the vanilla plant), the type genus Orchis, and many commonly cultivated plants such as Phalaenopsis and Cattleya. Moreover, since the introduction of tropical species into cultivation in the 19th century, horticulturists have produced more than 100,000 hybrids and cultivars.
Description
A Phalaenopsis flower
Orchids are easily distinguished from other plants, as they share some very evident derived characteristics or synapomorphies. Among these are: bilateral symmetry of the flower (zygomorphism), many resupinate flowers, a nearly always highly modified petal (labellum), fused stamens and carpels, and extremely small seeds.
Stem and roots
Germinating seeds of the temperate orchid Anacamptis coriophora
All orchids are perennial herbs that lack any permanent woody structure. They can grow according to two patterns:
Monopodial: The stem grows from a single bud, leaves are added from the apex each year, and the stem grows longer accordingly. The stem of orchids with a monopodial growth can reach several metres in length, as in Vanda and Vanilla.
Sympodial: Sympodial orchids have a front (the newest growth) and a back (the oldest growth). The plant produces a series of adjacent shoots, which grow to a certain size, bloom and then stop growing and are replaced. Sympodial orchids grow horizontally, rather than vertically, following the surface of their support. The growth continues by development of new leads, with their own leaves and roots, sprouting from or next to those of the previous year, as in Cattleya. While a new lead is developing, the rhizome may start its growth again from a so-called 'eye', an undeveloped bud, thereby branching. Sympodial orchids may have visible pseudobulbs joined by a rhizome, which creeps along the top or just beneath the soil.
Neotinea lactea, collected in Sardinia; the small size, compared to a one-Euro coin, and the two globose tuberoids typical of the Neotinea genus are highlighted
Terrestrial orchids may be rhizomatous or form corms or tubers. The root caps of terrestrial orchids are smooth and white.
Some sympodial terrestrial orchids, such as Orchis and Ophrys, have two subterranean tuberous roots. One is used as a food reserve for wintry periods, and provides for the development of the other one, from which visible growth develops.
In warm and constantly humid climates, many terrestrial orchids do not need pseudobulbs.
Epiphytic orchids, those that grow upon a support, have modified aerial roots that can sometimes be a few meters long. In the older parts of the roots, a modified spongy epidermis, called a velamen, has the function of absorbing humidity. It is made of dead cells and can have a silvery-grey, white or brown appearance. In some orchids, the velamen includes spongy and fibrous bodies near the passage cells, called tilosomes.
The cells of the root epidermis grow at a right angle to the axis of the root to allow them to get a firm grasp on their support. Nutrients for epiphytic orchids mainly come from mineral dust, organic detritus, animal droppings and other substances collecting among on their supporting surfaces.
Pseudobulb of Prosthechea fragrans
The base of the stem of sympodial epiphytes, or in some species essentially the entire stem, may be thickened to form a pseudobulb that contains nutrients and water for drier periods.
The pseudobulb typically has a smooth surface with lengthwise grooves, and can have different shapes, often conical or oblong. Its size is very variable; in some small species of Bulbophyllum, it is no longer than two millimeters, while in the largest orchid in the world, Grammatophyllum speciosum (giant orchid), it can reach three meters. Some Dendrobium species have long, canelike pseudobulbs with short, rounded leaves over the whole length; some other orchids have hidden or extremely small pseudobulbs, completely included inside the leaves.
With ageing the pseudobulb sheds its leaves and becomes dormant. At this stage it is often called a backbulb. Backbulbs still hold nutrition for the plant, but then a pseudobulb usually takes over, exploiting the last reserves accumulated in the backbulb, which eventually dies off, too. A pseudobulb typically lives for about five years. Orchids without noticeable pseudobulbs are also said to have growths, an individual component of a sympodial plant.
Leaves
Like most monocots, orchids generally have simple leaves with parallel veins, although some Vanilloideae have reticulate venation. Leaves may be ovate, lanceolate, or orbiculate, and very variable in size on the individual plant. Their characteristics are often diagnostic. They are normally alternate on the stem, often folded lengthwise along the centre ("plicate"), and have no stipules. Orchid leaves often have siliceous bodies called stegmata in the vascular bundle sheaths (not present in the Orchidoideae) and are fibrous.
The structure of the leaves corresponds to the specific habitat of the plant. Species that typically bask in sunlight, or grow on sites which can be occasionally very dry, have thick, leathery leaves and the laminae are covered by a waxy cuticle to retain their necessary water supply. Shade-loving species, on the other hand, have long, thin leaves.
The leaves of most orchids are perennial, that is, they live for several years, while others, especially those with plicate leaves as in Catasetum, shed them annually and develop new leaves together with new pseudobulbs.
The leaves of some orchids are considered ornamental. The leaves of Macodes sanderiana, a semiterrestrial or rock-hugging ("lithophyte") orchid, show a sparkling silver and gold veining on a light green background. The cordate leaves of Psychopsiella limminghei are light brownish-green with maroon-puce markings, created by flower pigments. The attractive mottle of the leaves of lady's slippers from tropical and subtropical Asia (Paphiopedilum), is caused by uneven distribution of chlorophyll. Also, Phalaenopsis schilleriana is a pastel pink orchid with leaves spotted dark green and light green. The jewel orchid (Ludisia discolor) is grown more for its colorful leaves than its white flowers.
Some orchids, such as Dendrophylax lindenii (ghost orchid), Aphyllorchis and Taeniophyllum depend on their green roots for photosynthesis and lack normally developed leaves, as do all of the heterotrophic species.
Orchids of the genus Corallorhiza (coralroot orchids) lack leaves altogether and instead wrap their roots around the roots of mature trees and use specialized fungi to harvest sugars.
Flowers
Orchid flowers have three sepals, three petals and a three-chambered ovary. The three sepals and two of the petals are often similar to each other but one petal is usually highly modified, forming a "lip" or labellum. In most orchid genera, as the flower develops, it undergoes a twisting through 180°, called resupination, so that the labellum lies below the column. The labellum functions to attract insects, and in resupinate flowers, also acts as a landing stage, or sometimes a trap.
Labelled image of Caladenia alpinaLabelled image of Diuris carinata
The reproductive parts of an orchid flower are unique in that the stamens and style are joined to form a single structure, the column. Instead of being released singly, thousands of pollen grains are contained in one or two bundles called pollinia that are attached to a sticky disc near the top of the column. Just below the pollinia is a second, larger sticky plate called the stigma.
Reproduction
Pollination
Main article: Pollination of orchids
The complex mechanisms that orchids have evolved to achieve cross-pollination were investigated by Charles Darwin and described in Fertilisation of Orchids (1862). Orchids have developed highly specialized pollination systems, thus the chances of being pollinated are often scarce, so orchid flowers usually remain receptive for very long periods, rendering unpollinated flowers long-lasting in cultivation. Most orchids deliver pollen in a single mass. Each time pollination succeeds, thousands of ovules can be fertilized.
Pollinators are often visually attracted by the shape and colours of the labellum. However, some Bulbophyllum species attract male fruit flies (Bactrocera and Zeugodacus spp.) solely via a floral chemical which simultaneously acts as a floral reward (e.g. methyl eugenol, raspberry ketone, or zingerone) to perform pollination. The flowers may produce attractive odours. Although absent in most species, nectar may be produced in a spur of the labellum (8 in the illustration above), or on the point of the sepals, or in the septa of the ovary, the most typical position amongst the Asparagales.
Phalaenopsis pollinia (orange) attached to a toothpick with its sticky viscidium
In orchids that produce pollinia, pollination happens as some variant of the following sequence: when the pollinator enters into the flower, it touches a viscidium, which promptly sticks to its body, generally on the head or abdomen. While leaving the flower, it pulls the pollinium out of the anther, as it is connected to the viscidium by the caudicle or stipe. The caudicle then bends and the pollinium is moved forwards and downwards. When the pollinator enters another flower of the same species, the pollinium has taken such position that it will stick to the stigma of the second flower, just below the rostellum, pollinating it. In horticulture, artificial orchid pollination is achieved by removing the pollinia with a small instrument such as a toothpick from the pollen parent and transferring them to the seed parent.
Ophrys apifera is about to self-pollinate
Some orchids mainly or totally rely on self-pollination, especially in colder regions where pollinators are particularly rare. The caudicles may dry up if the flower has not been visited by any pollinator, and the pollinia then fall directly on the stigma. Otherwise, the anther may rotate and then enter the stigma cavity of the flower (as in Holcoglossum amesianum).
The slipper orchid Paphiopedilum parishii reproduces by self-fertilization. This occurs when the anther changes from a solid to a liquid state and directly contacts the stigma surface without the aid of any pollinating agent or floral assembly.
The labellum of the Cypripedioideae is poke bonnet-shaped, and has the function of trapping visiting insects. The only exit leads to the anthers that deposit pollen on the visitor.
In some extremely specialized orchids, such as the Eurasian genus Ophrys, the labellum is adapted to have a colour, shape, and odour which attracts male insects via mimicry of a receptive female. Pollination happens as the insect attempts to mate with flowers.
Many neotropical orchids are pollinated by male orchid bees, which visit the flowers to gather volatile chemicals they require to synthesize pheromonal attractants. Males of such species as Euglossa imperialis or Eulaema meriana have been observed to leave their territories periodically to forage for aromatic compounds, such as cineole, to synthesize pheromone for attracting and mating with females. Each type of orchid places the pollinia on a different body part of a different species of bee, so as to enforce proper cross-pollination.
A rare achlorophyllous saprophytic orchid growing entirely underground in Australia, Rhizanthella slateri, is never exposed to light, and depends on ants and other terrestrial insects to pollinate it.
Catasetum, a genus discussed briefly by Darwin, actually launches its viscid pollinia with explosive force when an insect touches a seta, knocking the pollinator off the flower.
After pollination, the sepals and petals fade and wilt, but they usually remain attached to the ovary.
In 2011, Bulbophyllum nocturnum was discovered to flower nocturnally.
Asexual reproduction
Some species, such as in the genera Phalaenopsis, Dendrobium, and Vanda, produce offshoots or plantlets formed from one of the nodes along the stem, through the accumulation of growth hormones at that point. These shoots are known as keiki.
Epipogium aphyllum exhibits a dual reproductive strategy, engaging in both sexual and asexual seed production. The likelihood of apomixis playing a substantial role in successful reproduction appears minimal. Within certain petite orchid species groups, there is a noteworthy preparation of female gametes for fertilization preceding the act of pollination.
Fruits and seeds
Cross-sections of orchid capsules showing the longitudinal slits
The ovary typically develops into a capsule that is dehiscent by three or six longitudinal slits, while remaining closed at both ends.
The seeds are generally almost microscopic and very numerous, in some species over a million per capsule. After ripening, they blow off like dust particles or spores. Most orchid species lack endosperm in their seed and must enter symbiotic relationships with various mycorrhizal basidiomyceteous fungi that provide them the necessary nutrients to germinate, so almost all orchid species are mycoheterotrophic during germination and reliant upon fungi to complete their lifecycles. Only a handful of orchid species have seed that can germinate without mycorrhiza, namely the species within the genus Disa with hydrochorous seeds.
Disa uniflora seedling on a sphagnum leaf, on a thumbtack
As the chance for a seed to meet a suitable fungus is very small, only a minute fraction of all the seeds released grow into adult plants. In cultivation, germination typically takes weeks.
Horticultural techniques have been devised for germinating orchid seeds on an artificial nutrient medium, eliminating the requirement of the fungus for germination and greatly aiding the propagation of ornamental orchids. The usual medium for the sowing of orchids in artificial conditions is agar gel combined with a carbohydrate energy source. The carbohydrate source can be combinations of discrete sugars or can be derived from other sources such as banana, pineapple, peach, or even tomato puree or coconut water. After the preparation of the agar medium, it is poured into test tubes or jars which are then autoclaved (or cooked in a pressure cooker) to sterilize the medium. After cooking, the medium begins to gel as it cools.
Taxonomy
Main article: Taxonomy of the Orchid family
The taxonomy of this family is in constant flux, as new studies continue to clarify the relationships between species and groups of species, allowing more taxa at several ranks to be recognized. The Orchidaceae is currently placed in the order Asparagales by the APG III system of 2009.
Five subfamilies are recognised. The cladogram below was made according to the APG system of 1998. It represents the view that most botanists had held up to that time. It was supported by morphological studies, but never received strong support in molecular phylogenetic studies.
Apostasioideae: 2 genera and 16 species, south-eastern Asia
Cypripedioideae: 5 genera and 130 species, from the temperate regions of the world, as well as tropical America and tropical Asia
Monandrae
Vanilloideae: 15 genera and 180 species, humid tropical and subtropical regions, eastern North America
Epidendroideae: more than 500 genera and more or less 20,000 species, cosmopolitan
Orchidoideae: 208 genera and 3,630 species, cosmopolitan
In 2015, a phylogenetic study showed strong statistical support for the following topology of the orchid tree, using 9 kb of plastid and nuclear DNA from 7 genes, a topology that was confirmed by a phylogenomic study in the same year.
Apostasioideae
Vanilloideae
Cypripedioideae
Epidendroideae
Orchidoideae
Evolution
A study in the scientific journal Nature has hypothesised that the origin of the orchids goes back much longer than originally expected. An extinct species of stingless bee, Proplebeia dominicana, was found trapped in Miocene amber from about 15-20 million years ago. The bee was carrying pollen of a previously unknown orchid taxon, Meliorchis caribea, on its wings. This find is the first evidence of fossilised orchids to date and shows insects were active pollinators of orchids then. This extinct orchid, M. caribea, has been placed within the extant tribe Cranichideae, subtribe Goodyerinae (subfamily Orchidoideae). An even older orchid species, Succinanthera baltica, was described from the Eocene Baltic amber by Poinar & Rasmussen (2017).
Genetic sequencing indicates orchids may have arisen earlier, 76 to 84 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous. According to Mark W. Chase et al. (2001), the overall biogeography and phylogenetic patterns of Orchidaceae show they are even older and may go back roughly 100 million years.
Using the molecular clock method, it was possible to determine the age of the major branches of the orchid family. This also confirmed that the subfamily Vanilloideae is a branch at the basal dichotomy of the monandrous orchids, and must have evolved very early in the evolution of the family. Since this subfamily occurs worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions, from tropical America to tropical Asia, New Guinea and West Africa, and the continents began to split about 100 million years ago, significant biotic exchange must have occurred after this split (since the age of Vanilla is estimated at 60 to 70 million years). Recent biogeographic studies conducted on densely sampled phylogenies indicated that the most recent common ancestor of all extant orchids probably originated somewhere 83 million years ago in the supercontinent Laurasia. Despite their long evolutionary history on Earth, the extant orchid diversity is also inferred to have originated during the last 5 million years, with the American and Asian tropics as the geopgraphic areas exhibiting the highest speciation rates (i.e., number of speciation events per million years) on Earth.
Genome duplication occurred prior to the divergence of this taxon.
Genera
Main article: List of Orchidaceae genera
There are around 800 genera of orchids. The following are amongst the most notable genera of the orchid family:
Aa
Abdominea
Acampe
Acanthophippium
Aceratorchis
Acianthus
Acineta
Acrorchis
Ada
Aerangis
Aeranthes
Aerides
Aganisia
Agrostophyllum
Anacamptis
Ancistrochilus
Angraecum
Anguloa
Ansellia
Aorchis
Aplectrum
Arachnis
Arethusa
Armodorum
Ascoglossum
Australorchis
Auxopus
Barkeria
Bartholina
Beloglottis
Biermannia
Bletilla
Brassavola
Brassia
Bulbophyllum
Calanthe
Calypso
Catasetum
Cattleya
Chiloschista
Cirrhopetalum
Cleisostoma
Clowesia
Coelogyne
Coryanthes
Cycnoches
Cymbidium
Cyrtopodium
Cypripedium
Dactylorhiza
Dendrobium
Disa
Dracula
Encyclia
Epidendrum
Epipactis
Eria
Eulophia
Gastrochilus
Gongora
Goodyera
Grammatophyllum
Gymnadenia
Habenaria
Herschelia
Ionopsis
Laelia
Lepanthes
Liparis
Ludisia
Lycaste
Masdevallia
Maxillaria
Meliorchis
Mexipedium
Miltonia
Mormodes
Odontoglossum
Oeceoclades
Oncidium
Ophrys
Orchis
Paphiopedilum
Papilionanthe
Paraphalaenopsis
Peristeria
Phaius
Phalaenopsis
Pholidota
Phragmipedium
Platanthera
Platystele
Pleione
Pleurothallis
Pomatocalpa
Promenaea
Pterostylis
Renanthera
Restrepia
Restrepiella
Rhynchostylis
Roezliella
Saccolabium
Sarcochilus
Satyrium
Seidenfadenia
Selenipedium
Serapias
Sobralia
Spiranthes
Stanhopea
Stelis
Thrixspermum
Tolumnia
Trias
Trichocentrum
Trichoglottis
Vanda
Vanilla
Yoania
Zeuxine
Zygopetalum
Etymology
The type genus (i.e. the genus after which the family is named) is Orchis. The genus name comes from the Ancient Greek ὄρχις (órkhis), literally meaning "testicle", because of the shape of the twin tubers in some species of Orchis. The term "orchid" was introduced in 1845 by John Lindley in School Botany, as a shortened form of Orchidaceae.
In Middle English, the name bollockwort was used for some orchids, based on "bollock" meaning testicle and "wort" meaning plant.
Hybrids
Orchid species hybridize readily in cultivation, leading to a large number of hybrids with complex naming. Hybridization is possible across genera, and therefore many cultivated orchids are placed into nothogenera. For instance, the nothogenus × Brassocattleya is used for all hybrids of species from the genera Brassavola and Cattleya. Nothogenera based on at least three genera may have names based on a person's name with the suffix -ara, for instance × Colmanara = Miltonia × Odontoglossum × Oncidium. (The suffix is obligatory starting at four genera.)
Cultivated hybrids in the orchid family are also special in that they are named by using grex nomenclature, rather than nothospecies. For instance, hybrids between Brassavola nodosa and Brassavola acaulis are placed in the grex Brassavola Guiseppi. The name of the grex ("Guiseppi" in this example) is written in a non-italic font without quotes.
Abbreviations
As a unique feature of the orchid family, a system of abbreviations exists that applies to names of genera and nothogenera. The system is maintained by the Royal Horticultural Society. These abbreviations consist of at least one character, but may be longer. As opposed to the usual one-letter abbreviations used for names of genera, orchid abbreviations uniquely determine the (notho)genus. They are widely used in cultivation. Examples are Phal for Phalaenopsis, V for Vanda and Cleis for Cleisostoma.
Distribution
Orchidaceae are cosmopolitan, occurring in almost every habitat apart from glaciers. The world's richest diversity of orchid genera and species is found in the tropics, but they are also found above the Arctic Circle, in southern Patagonia, and two species of Nematoceras on Macquarie Island at 54° south.
The following list gives a rough overview of their distribution:
Oceania: 50 to 70 genera
North America: 20 to 26 genera
tropical America: 212 to 250 genera
tropical Asia: 260 to 300 genera
tropical Africa: 230 to 270 genera
Europe and temperate Asia: 40 to 60 genera
Ecology
A majority of orchids are perennial epiphytes, which grow anchored to trees or shrubs in the tropics and subtropics. Species such as Angraecum sororium are lithophytes, growing on rocks or very rocky soil. Other orchids (including the majority of temperate Orchidaceae) are terrestrial and can be found in habitat areas such as grasslands or forest.
Some orchids, such as Neottia and Corallorhiza, lack chlorophyll, so are unable to photosynthesise. Instead, these species obtain energy and nutrients by parasitising soil fungi through the formation of orchid mycorrhizae. The fungi involved include those that form ectomycorrhizas with trees and other woody plants, parasites such as Armillaria, and saprotrophs. These orchids are known as myco-heterotrophs, but were formerly (incorrectly) described as saprophytes as it was believed they gained their nutrition by breaking down organic matter. While only a few species are achlorophyllous holoparasites, all orchids are myco-heterotrophic during germination and seedling growth, and even photosynthetic adult plants may continue to obtain carbon from their mycorrhizal fungi. The symbiosis is typically maintained throughout the lifetime of the orchid because they depend on the fungus for nutrients, sugars and minerals.
Uses
As decoration in a flowerpot
A × Brassolaeliocattleya ("BLC") Paradise Jewel 'Flame' hybrid orchid. Blooms of the Cattleya alliance are often used in ladies' corsages.
Perfumery
The scent of orchids is frequently analysed by perfumers (using headspace technology and gas-liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry) to identify potential fragrance chemicals.
Horticulture
The other important use of orchids is their cultivation for the enjoyment of the flowers. Most cultivated orchids are tropical or subtropical, but quite a few that grow in colder climates can be found on the market. Temperate species available at nurseries include Ophrys apifera (bee orchid), Gymnadenia conopsea (fragrant orchid), Anacamptis pyramidalis (pyramidal orchid) and Dactylorhiza fuchsii (common spotted orchid).
Orchids of all types have also often been sought by collectors of both species and hybrids. Many hundreds of societies and clubs worldwide have been established. These can be small, local clubs, or larger, national organisations such as the American Orchid Society. Both serve to encourage cultivation and collection of orchids, but some go further by concentrating on conservation or research.
The term "botanical orchid" loosely denotes those small-flowered, tropical orchids belonging to several genera that do not fit into the "florist" orchid category. A few of these genera contain enormous numbers of species. Some, such as Pleurothallis and Bulbophyllum, contain approximately 1700 and 2000 species, respectively, and are often extremely vegetatively diverse. The primary use of the term is among orchid hobbyists wishing to describe unusual species they grow, though it is also used to distinguish naturally occurring orchid species from horticulturally created hybrids.
New orchids are registered with the International Orchid Register, maintained by the Royal Horticultural Society.
Food
Further information: Vanilla
Vanilla fruit drying
The dried seed pods of one orchid genus, Vanilla (especially Vanilla planifolia), are commercially important as a flavouring in baking, for perfume manufacture and aromatherapy.
The underground tubers of terrestrial orchids are ground to a powder and used for cooking, such as in the hot beverage salep or in the Turkish mastic ice cream dondurma. The name salep has been claimed to come from the Arabic expression ḥasyu al-tha‘lab, "fox testicles", but it appears more likely the name comes directly from the Arabic name saḥlab. The similarity in appearance to testes naturally accounts for salep being considered an aphrodisiac.
The dried leaves of Jumellea fragrans are used to flavour rum on Reunion Island.
Some saprophytic orchid species of the group Gastrodia produce potato-like tubers and were consumed as food by native peoples in Australia and can be successfully cultivated, notably Gastrodia sesamoides. Wild stands of these plants can still be found in the same areas as early Aboriginal settlements, such as Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in Australia. Aboriginal peoples located the plants in habitat by observing where bandicoots had scratched in search of the tubers after detecting the plants underground by scent.
Cultural symbolism
Orchids have many associations with symbolic values. For example, the orchid is the City Flower of Shaoxing, China. Cattleya mossiae is the national Venezuelan flower, while Cattleya trianae is the national flower of Colombia. Vanda Miss Joaquim is the national flower of Singapore, Guarianthe skinneri is the national flower of Costa Rica and Rhyncholaelia digbyana is the national flower of Honduras. Prosthechea cochleata is the national flower of Belize, where it is known as the black orchid. Lycaste skinneri has a white variety (alba) that is the national flower of Guatemala, commonly known as Monja Blanca (White Nun). Panama's national flower is the Holy Ghost orchid (Peristeria elata), or 'the flor del Espiritu Santo'. Rhynchostylis retusa is the state flower of the Indian state of Assam where it is known as Kopou Phul.
Orchids native to the Mediterranean are depicted on the Ara Pacis in Rome, until now the only known instance of orchids in ancient art, and the earliest in European art. A French writer and agronomist, Louis Liger, invented a classical myth in his book Le Jardinier Fleuriste et Historiographe published in 1704, attributing it to the ancient Greeks and Romans, in which Orchis the son of a nymph and a satyr rapes a priestess of Bacchus during one of his festivals the Bacchanalia and is then killed and transformed into an orchid flower as punishment by the gods, paralleling the various myths of youths dying and becoming flowers, like Adonis and Narcisuss; this myth however does not appear any earlier than Liger, and is not part of traditional Greek and Roman mythologies.
Some cultivars
Cattleya Mrs. Mahler 'Mem. Fred Tompkins'
Cattleya Queen Sirikit 'Diamond Crown'
Cattleya Hawaiian Wedding Song 'Virgin'
Rhyncholaeliocattleya Chia Lin
Cattleya Hawaiian Variable 'Prasan'
Cattlianthe Barbara Belle
Cattleya Beaumesnil 'Parme'
Cattlianthe Chocolate Drop x Cattleya Pão de Açúcar
Cattleya mossiae 'Empress Frederick'
'Hermine'
Cattleya Little Angel
Cattleya Marjorie Hausermann 'York'
'Miva Breeze Alize'
Rhyncholaeliocattleya 'Nobile's carnival'
Cattleya Pernel George Barnett 'Yankee Clipper'
Cattlianthe Portia
Conservation
Almost all orchids are included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning that international trade (including in their parts/derivatives) is regulated by the CITES permit system. A smaller number of orchids such as Paphiopedilum sp. are listed in CITES Appendix I meaning that commercial international trade in wild-sourced specimens is prohibited and all other trade is strictly controlled.
Assisted migration as conservation tool
In 2006 the Longtan Dam was constructed at the Hongshui River, near the Yachang Orchid Nature Reserve. In response to threats of inundation of wild orchids at lower altitudes (350-400 m above sea level), 1000 endangered orchid plants of 16 genera and 29 species were translocated to higher elevation (approximately 1000 m above sea level). After relocation the 5 year survival of low and wide elevation species did not significantly differ and the mortality due to transplant shock was at only 10%. From this it was concluded that assisted migration might be a viable conservation tool for orchid species endangered by climate change.
See also
Adaptation (film), based on The Orchid Thief
Orchid Conservation Coalition
Orchid Pavilion Gathering
Orchidelirium, the Victorian era of flower madness in which collecting and discovering orchids reached extraordinary levels
Orchids of the Philippines
Orchids of Western Australia
Shangsi Festival
Black rot on orchids
List of taxa named after human genitals
Notes
^ Early western district (Vic.) settler gives account of local Aboriginal people gathering potato orchid tubers, digging where bandicoots had scratched.
^ The symbolic (or even religious) meaning of the Ara Pacis orchids is not yet known.
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Bibliography
RHS (2016). "Search The International Orchid Register". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
Documentaries
2017: Hidden Beauty – The Orchids of the Saale Valley, directed by David Cebulla
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Orchidaceae.
Citizen science observations for Orchidaceae at iNaturalist
"Orchidaceae". The Plant List. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Note that this website has been superseded by World Flora Online
Orchidaceae at the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website
World checklist of Orchidaceae species from the Catalogue of Life, 29,572 species supplied by World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (R. Govaerts & al.)
Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). "Orchidaceae". Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
"Orchidaceae". Flora of China – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
Orchidaceae at the online Flora of Zimbabwe
Orchidaceae at the online Flora of the Western Australian
Orchidaceae at the online Flora of New Zealand
The Global Orchid Information Network
Orchid Conservation Coalition
vteFamilies of flowering plants (APG IV)
Supergroup Plant:
Bryophyta
Marchantiophyta
Polypodiophyta
Acrogymnospermae
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Category
Taxon identifiersOrchidaceae
Wikidata: Q25308
Wikispecies: Orchidaceae
APNI: 54444
ATRF: Orchidaceae
BioLib: 3388
BOLD: 124684
CoL: DPL
EoL: 8156
EPPO: 1ORCF
FloraBase: 22787
FNA: 10638
FoAO2: Orchidaceae
FoC: 10638
FoIO: orchidaceae
GBIF: 7689
GRIN: 798
iNaturalist: 47217
IPNI: 30000046-2
IRMNG: 114451
ITIS: 43397
NBN: NBNSYS0000160580
NCBI: 4747
NZOR: f0c1993e-e036-4074-bdae-936c9854ef2b
Open Tree of Life: 568878
Paleobiology Database: 55864
Plazi: FE514B44-9E44-C00B-FEF3-F9BC6F23EBAD
POWO: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30000046-2
Tropicos: 42000388
VASCAN: 181
VicFlora: 8b0d8fd4-1b56-449f-a2de-2b153e84399c
Watson & Dallwitz: orchidac
WFO: wfo-7000000429
WoRMS: 414854
Authority control databases: National
France
BnF data
Germany
Israel
United States
Japan
Czech Republic
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Orchid (color)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchid_(color)"},{"link_name":"Orchid (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchid_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_(biology)"},{"link_name":"/ˌɔːrkɪˈdeɪsi.iː, -si.aɪ/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"flowering plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant"},{"link_name":"cosmopolitan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmopolitan_distribution"},{"link_name":"habitat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)"},{"link_name":"glaciers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier"},{"link_name":"tropics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropics"},{"link_name":"Asteraceae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteraceae"},{"link_name":"species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species"},{"link_name":"genera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"seed plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_plants"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Bulbophyllum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulbophyllum"},{"link_name":"Epidendrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidendrum"},{"link_name":"Dendrobium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrobium"},{"link_name":"Pleurothallis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleurothallis"},{"link_name":"Vanilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanilla_(genus)"},{"link_name":"vanilla plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanilla_planifolia"},{"link_name":"Orchis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchis"},{"link_name":"Phalaenopsis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalaenopsis"},{"link_name":"Cattleya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattleya"},{"link_name":"horticulturists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horticulture"},{"link_name":"hybrids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)"},{"link_name":"cultivars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultivar"}],"text":"For the color, see Orchid (color). For other uses, see Orchid (disambiguation).Orchids are plants that belong to the family Orchidaceae (/ˌɔːrkɪˈdeɪsi.iː, -si.aɪ/),[2] a diverse and widespread group of flowering plants with blooms that are often colourful and fragrant. Orchids are cosmopolitan plants that are found in almost every habitat on Earth except glaciers. The world's richest diversity of orchid genera and species is found in the tropics.Orchidaceae is one of the two largest families of flowering plants, along with the Asteraceae. It contains about 28,000 currently accepted species distributed across 763 genera.[3][4]The Orchidaceae family encompasses about 6–11% of all species of seed plants.[5] The largest genera are Bulbophyllum (2,000 species), Epidendrum (1,500 species), Dendrobium (1,400 species) and Pleurothallis (1,000 species). It also includes Vanilla (the genus of the vanilla plant), the type genus Orchis, and many commonly cultivated plants such as Phalaenopsis and Cattleya. Moreover, since the introduction of tropical species into cultivation in the 19th century, horticulturists have produced more than 100,000 hybrids and cultivars.","title":"Orchid"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orchid_high_resolution.jpg"},{"link_name":"synapomorphies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapomorphy"},{"link_name":"bilateral symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_(biology)#Bilateral_symmetry"},{"link_name":"zygomorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygomorphic"},{"link_name":"resupinate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resupination#Orchidaceae"},{"link_name":"petal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petal"},{"link_name":"stamens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamen"},{"link_name":"carpels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpel"},{"link_name":"seeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed"}],"text":"A Phalaenopsis flowerOrchids are easily distinguished from other plants, as they share some very evident derived characteristics or synapomorphies. Among these are: bilateral symmetry of the flower (zygomorphism), many resupinate flowers, a nearly always highly modified petal (labellum), fused stamens and carpels, and extremely small seeds.","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anacamptis_fragrans.JPG"},{"link_name":"Anacamptis coriophora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacamptis_coriophora"},{"link_name":"perennial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perennial_plant"},{"link_name":"herbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbaceous_plant"},{"link_name":"woody","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lignin"},{"link_name":"Monopodial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopodial"},{"link_name":"Vanda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanda"},{"link_name":"Vanilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanilla_(genus)"},{"link_name":"Sympodial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympodial"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Cattleya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattleya"},{"link_name":"rhizome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizome"},{"link_name":"pseudobulbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudobulb"},{"link_name":"rhizome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizome"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orchis_lactea_rhizotubers.jpg"},{"link_name":"Neotinea lactea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neotinea_lactea"},{"link_name":"Sardinia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardinia"},{"link_name":"globose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globose_(botany)"},{"link_name":"Neotinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neotinea"},{"link_name":"rhizomatous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizome"},{"link_name":"corms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corm"},{"link_name":"tubers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuber"},{"link_name":"Orchis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchis"},{"link_name":"Ophrys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophrys"},{"link_name":"tuberous roots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberous_root"},{"link_name":"Epiphytic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphyte"},{"link_name":"aerial roots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_root"},{"link_name":"epidermis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)"},{"link_name":"velamen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velamen"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pseudobulbe.jpg"},{"link_name":"Prosthechea fragrans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prosthechea_fragrans&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"pseudobulb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudobulb"},{"link_name":"Bulbophyllum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulbophyllum"},{"link_name":"Grammatophyllum speciosum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatophyllum_speciosum"},{"link_name":"Dendrobium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrobium"}],"sub_title":"Stem and roots","text":"Germinating seeds of the temperate orchid Anacamptis coriophoraAll orchids are perennial herbs that lack any permanent woody structure. They can grow according to two patterns:Monopodial: The stem grows from a single bud, leaves are added from the apex each year, and the stem grows longer accordingly. The stem of orchids with a monopodial growth can reach several metres in length, as in Vanda and Vanilla.\nSympodial: Sympodial orchids have a front (the newest growth) and a back (the oldest growth).[6] The plant produces a series of adjacent shoots, which grow to a certain size, bloom and then stop growing and are replaced. Sympodial orchids grow horizontally, rather than vertically, following the surface of their support. The growth continues by development of new leads, with their own leaves and roots, sprouting from or next to those of the previous year, as in Cattleya. While a new lead is developing, the rhizome may start its growth again from a so-called 'eye', an undeveloped bud, thereby branching. Sympodial orchids may have visible pseudobulbs joined by a rhizome, which creeps along the top or just beneath the soil.Neotinea lactea, collected in Sardinia; the small size, compared to a one-Euro coin, and the two globose tuberoids typical of the Neotinea genus are highlightedTerrestrial orchids may be rhizomatous or form corms or tubers. The root caps of terrestrial orchids are smooth and white.Some sympodial terrestrial orchids, such as Orchis and Ophrys, have two subterranean tuberous roots. One is used as a food reserve for wintry periods, and provides for the development of the other one, from which visible growth develops.In warm and constantly humid climates, many terrestrial orchids do not need pseudobulbs.Epiphytic orchids, those that grow upon a support, have modified aerial roots that can sometimes be a few meters long. In the older parts of the roots, a modified spongy epidermis, called a velamen, has the function of absorbing humidity. It is made of dead cells and can have a silvery-grey, white or brown appearance. In some orchids, the velamen includes spongy and fibrous bodies near the passage cells, called tilosomes.The cells of the root epidermis grow at a right angle to the axis of the root to allow them to get a firm grasp on their support. Nutrients for epiphytic orchids mainly come from mineral dust, organic detritus, animal droppings and other substances collecting among on their supporting surfaces.Pseudobulb of Prosthechea fragransThe base of the stem of sympodial epiphytes, or in some species essentially the entire stem, may be thickened to form a pseudobulb that contains nutrients and water for drier periods.The pseudobulb typically has a smooth surface with lengthwise grooves, and can have different shapes, often conical or oblong. Its size is very variable; in some small species of Bulbophyllum, it is no longer than two millimeters, while in the largest orchid in the world, Grammatophyllum speciosum (giant orchid), it can reach three meters. Some Dendrobium species have long, canelike pseudobulbs with short, rounded leaves over the whole length; some other orchids have hidden or extremely small pseudobulbs, completely included inside the leaves.With ageing the pseudobulb sheds its leaves and becomes dormant. At this stage it is often called a backbulb. Backbulbs still hold nutrition for the plant, but then a pseudobulb usually takes over, exploiting the last reserves accumulated in the backbulb, which eventually dies off, too. A pseudobulb typically lives for about five years. Orchids without noticeable pseudobulbs are also said to have growths, an individual component of a sympodial plant.","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"monocots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monocot"},{"link_name":"leaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf"},{"link_name":"parallel veins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf#Vein"},{"link_name":"Vanilloideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanilloideae"},{"link_name":"venation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf"},{"link_name":"alternate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phyllotaxis"},{"link_name":"stipules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stipule"},{"link_name":"siliceous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silica"},{"link_name":"vascular bundle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_bundle"},{"link_name":"Orchidoideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchidoideae"},{"link_name":"laminae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf_anatomy"},{"link_name":"cuticle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_cuticle"},{"link_name":"Catasetum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catasetum"},{"link_name":"Macodes sanderiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macodes_sanderiana"},{"link_name":"lithophyte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithophyte"},{"link_name":"Psychopsiella limminghei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopsiella"},{"link_name":"lady's slippers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady%27s_slipper"},{"link_name":"Paphiopedilum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paphiopedilum"},{"link_name":"Phalaenopsis schilleriana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalaenopsis_schilleriana"},{"link_name":"Ludisia discolor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludisia"},{"link_name":"Dendrophylax lindenii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrophylax_lindenii"},{"link_name":"Aphyllorchis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphyllorchis"},{"link_name":"Taeniophyllum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taeniophyllum"},{"link_name":"photosynthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis"},{"link_name":"heterotrophic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterotrophy"},{"link_name":"Corallorhiza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corallorhiza"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Leaves","text":"Like most monocots, orchids generally have simple leaves with parallel veins, although some Vanilloideae have reticulate venation. Leaves may be ovate, lanceolate, or orbiculate, and very variable in size on the individual plant. Their characteristics are often diagnostic. They are normally alternate on the stem, often folded lengthwise along the centre (\"plicate\"), and have no stipules. Orchid leaves often have siliceous bodies called stegmata in the vascular bundle sheaths (not present in the Orchidoideae) and are fibrous.The structure of the leaves corresponds to the specific habitat of the plant. Species that typically bask in sunlight, or grow on sites which can be occasionally very dry, have thick, leathery leaves and the laminae are covered by a waxy cuticle to retain their necessary water supply. Shade-loving species, on the other hand, have long, thin leaves.The leaves of most orchids are perennial, that is, they live for several years, while others, especially those with plicate leaves as in Catasetum, shed them annually and develop new leaves together with new pseudobulbs.The leaves of some orchids are considered ornamental. The leaves of Macodes sanderiana, a semiterrestrial or rock-hugging (\"lithophyte\") orchid, show a sparkling silver and gold veining on a light green background. The cordate leaves of Psychopsiella limminghei are light brownish-green with maroon-puce markings, created by flower pigments. The attractive mottle of the leaves of lady's slippers from tropical and subtropical Asia (Paphiopedilum), is caused by uneven distribution of chlorophyll. Also, Phalaenopsis schilleriana is a pastel pink orchid with leaves spotted dark green and light green. The jewel orchid (Ludisia discolor) is grown more for its colorful leaves than its white flowers.Some orchids, such as Dendrophylax lindenii (ghost orchid), Aphyllorchis and Taeniophyllum depend on their green roots for photosynthesis and lack normally developed leaves, as do all of the heterotrophic species.Orchids of the genus Corallorhiza (coralroot orchids) lack leaves altogether and instead wrap their roots around the roots of mature trees and use specialized fungi to harvest sugars.[7]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sepals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sepal"},{"link_name":"ovary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovary_(botany)"},{"link_name":"labellum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labellum_(botany)"},{"link_name":"resupination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resupination"},{"link_name":"column","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column_(botany)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hoffman-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brown-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nzpcn-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-boo-11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Caladenia_alpina_(labelled).jpg"},{"link_name":"Caladenia alpina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caladenia_alpina"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diuris_(labelled).jpg"},{"link_name":"Diuris carinata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diuris_carinata"},{"link_name":"stamens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamen"},{"link_name":"style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Style_(botany)"},{"link_name":"column","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column_(botany)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nzpcn-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-boo-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"pollen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen"},{"link_name":"pollinia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinium"},{"link_name":"stigma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigma_(botany)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hoffman-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brown-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nzpcn-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-boo-11"}],"sub_title":"Flowers","text":"Orchid flowers have three sepals, three petals and a three-chambered ovary. The three sepals and two of the petals are often similar to each other but one petal is usually highly modified, forming a \"lip\" or labellum. In most orchid genera, as the flower develops, it undergoes a twisting through 180°, called resupination, so that the labellum lies below the column. The labellum functions to attract insects, and in resupinate flowers, also acts as a landing stage, or sometimes a trap.[8][9][10][11]Labelled image of Caladenia alpinaLabelled image of Diuris carinataThe reproductive parts of an orchid flower are unique in that the stamens and style are joined to form a single structure, the column.[10][11][12] Instead of being released singly, thousands of pollen grains are contained in one or two bundles called pollinia that are attached to a sticky disc near the top of the column. Just below the pollinia is a second, larger sticky plate called the stigma.[8][9][10][11]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Reproduction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cross-pollination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allogamy"},{"link_name":"Charles Darwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin"},{"link_name":"Fertilisation of Orchids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids"},{"link_name":"pollination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollination"},{"link_name":"Bulbophyllum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulbophyllum"},{"link_name":"Bactrocera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactrocera"},{"link_name":"Zeugodacus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeugodacus"},{"link_name":"methyl eugenol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methyl_eugenol"},{"link_name":"ketone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketone"},{"link_name":"zingerone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zingerone"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"nectar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nectar"},{"link_name":"spur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spur_(biology)"},{"link_name":"Asparagales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asparagales"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phalaenopsis_pollinia_on_toothpick.jpg"},{"link_name":"Phalaenopsis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalaenopsis"},{"link_name":"viscidium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscidium"},{"link_name":"artificial orchid pollination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand-pollination"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ophrys_apifera_flower2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ophrys apifera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophrys_apifera"},{"link_name":"self-pollination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-pollination"},{"link_name":"Holcoglossum amesianum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holcoglossum_amesianum"},{"link_name":"Paphiopedilum parishii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paphiopedilum_parishii"},{"link_name":"self-fertilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-pollination"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Cypripedioideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypripedioideae"},{"link_name":"poke bonnet-shaped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poke_bonnet"},{"link_name":"Ophrys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophrys"},{"link_name":"mimicry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimicry"},{"link_name":"orchid bees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euglossini"},{"link_name":"pheromonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pheromone"},{"link_name":"Euglossa imperialis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euglossa_imperialis"},{"link_name":"Eulaema meriana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eulaema_meriana"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"achlorophyllous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/achlorophyllous"},{"link_name":"saprophytic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saprophyte"},{"link_name":"Rhizanthella slateri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizanthella_slateri"},{"link_name":"ants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant"},{"link_name":"Catasetum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catasetum"},{"link_name":"Darwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin"},{"link_name":"seta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seta"},{"link_name":"Bulbophyllum nocturnum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulbophyllum_nocturnum"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"Pollination","text":"The complex mechanisms that orchids have evolved to achieve cross-pollination were investigated by Charles Darwin and described in Fertilisation of Orchids (1862). Orchids have developed highly specialized pollination systems, thus the chances of being pollinated are often scarce, so orchid flowers usually remain receptive for very long periods, rendering unpollinated flowers long-lasting in cultivation. Most orchids deliver pollen in a single mass. Each time pollination succeeds, thousands of ovules can be fertilized.Pollinators are often visually attracted by the shape and colours of the labellum. However, some Bulbophyllum species attract male fruit flies (Bactrocera and Zeugodacus spp.) solely via a floral chemical which simultaneously acts as a floral reward (e.g. methyl eugenol, raspberry ketone, or zingerone) to perform pollination.[13] The flowers may produce attractive odours. Although absent in most species, nectar may be produced in a spur of the labellum (8 in the illustration above), or on the point of the sepals, or in the septa of the ovary, the most typical position amongst the Asparagales.Phalaenopsis pollinia (orange) attached to a toothpick with its sticky viscidiumIn orchids that produce pollinia, pollination happens as some variant of the following sequence: when the pollinator enters into the flower, it touches a viscidium, which promptly sticks to its body, generally on the head or abdomen. While leaving the flower, it pulls the pollinium out of the anther, as it is connected to the viscidium by the caudicle or stipe. The caudicle then bends and the pollinium is moved forwards and downwards. When the pollinator enters another flower of the same species, the pollinium has taken such position that it will stick to the stigma of the second flower, just below the rostellum, pollinating it. In horticulture, artificial orchid pollination is achieved by removing the pollinia with a small instrument such as a toothpick from the pollen parent and transferring them to the seed parent.Ophrys apifera is about to self-pollinateSome orchids mainly or totally rely on self-pollination, especially in colder regions where pollinators are particularly rare. The caudicles may dry up if the flower has not been visited by any pollinator, and the pollinia then fall directly on the stigma. Otherwise, the anther may rotate and then enter the stigma cavity of the flower (as in Holcoglossum amesianum).The slipper orchid Paphiopedilum parishii reproduces by self-fertilization. This occurs when the anther changes from a solid to a liquid state and directly contacts the stigma surface without the aid of any pollinating agent or floral assembly.[14]The labellum of the Cypripedioideae is poke bonnet-shaped, and has the function of trapping visiting insects. The only exit leads to the anthers that deposit pollen on the visitor.In some extremely specialized orchids, such as the Eurasian genus Ophrys, the labellum is adapted to have a colour, shape, and odour which attracts male insects via mimicry of a receptive female. Pollination happens as the insect attempts to mate with flowers.Many neotropical orchids are pollinated by male orchid bees, which visit the flowers to gather volatile chemicals they require to synthesize pheromonal attractants. Males of such species as Euglossa imperialis or Eulaema meriana have been observed to leave their territories periodically to forage for aromatic compounds, such as cineole, to synthesize pheromone for attracting and mating with females.[15][16] Each type of orchid places the pollinia on a different body part of a different species of bee, so as to enforce proper cross-pollination.A rare achlorophyllous saprophytic orchid growing entirely underground in Australia, Rhizanthella slateri, is never exposed to light, and depends on ants and other terrestrial insects to pollinate it.Catasetum, a genus discussed briefly by Darwin, actually launches its viscid pollinia with explosive force when an insect touches a seta, knocking the pollinator off the flower.After pollination, the sepals and petals fade and wilt, but they usually remain attached to the ovary.In 2011, Bulbophyllum nocturnum was discovered to flower nocturnally.[17]","title":"Reproduction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"nodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Node_(botany)"},{"link_name":"stem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_stem"},{"link_name":"keiki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keiki"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Epipogium aphyllum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epipogium_aphyllum"},{"link_name":"apomixis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apomixis"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Asexual reproduction","text":"Some species, such as in the genera Phalaenopsis, Dendrobium, and Vanda, produce offshoots or plantlets formed from one of the nodes along the stem, through the accumulation of growth hormones at that point. These shoots are known as keiki.[18]Epipogium aphyllum exhibits a dual reproductive strategy, engaging in both sexual and asexual seed production. The likelihood of apomixis playing a substantial role in successful reproduction appears minimal. Within certain petite orchid species groups, there is a noteworthy preparation of female gametes for fertilization preceding the act of pollination. [19]","title":"Reproduction"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kapselquerschnitte_Orchideen.png"},{"link_name":"capsule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)"},{"link_name":"dehiscent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehiscent"},{"link_name":"seeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed"},{"link_name":"endosperm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosperm"},{"link_name":"mycorrhizal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchid_mycorrhiza"},{"link_name":"basidiomyceteous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiomycete"},{"link_name":"fungi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi"},{"link_name":"mycoheterotrophic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoheterotrophic"},{"link_name":"mycorrhiza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchid_mycorrhiza"},{"link_name":"Disa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disa_(plant)"},{"link_name":"hydrochorous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_dispersal#Water"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Disa_seedling_on_a_thumbtack.jpg"},{"link_name":"Disa uniflora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disa_uniflora"},{"link_name":"Horticultural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horticultural"},{"link_name":"fungus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus"},{"link_name":"agar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agar"},{"link_name":"carbohydrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate"},{"link_name":"banana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banana"},{"link_name":"pineapple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineapple"},{"link_name":"peach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peach"},{"link_name":"tomato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomato"},{"link_name":"coconut water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coconut_water"},{"link_name":"test tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_tubes"}],"sub_title":"Fruits and seeds","text":"Cross-sections of orchid capsules showing the longitudinal slitsThe ovary typically develops into a capsule that is dehiscent by three or six longitudinal slits, while remaining closed at both ends.The seeds are generally almost microscopic and very numerous, in some species over a million per capsule. After ripening, they blow off like dust particles or spores. Most orchid species lack endosperm in their seed and must enter symbiotic relationships with various mycorrhizal basidiomyceteous fungi that provide them the necessary nutrients to germinate, so almost all orchid species are mycoheterotrophic during germination and reliant upon fungi to complete their lifecycles. Only a handful of orchid species have seed that can germinate without mycorrhiza, namely the species within the genus Disa with hydrochorous seeds.[20][21]Disa uniflora seedling on a sphagnum leaf, on a thumbtackAs the chance for a seed to meet a suitable fungus is very small, only a minute fraction of all the seeds released grow into adult plants. In cultivation, germination typically takes weeks.Horticultural techniques have been devised for germinating orchid seeds on an artificial nutrient medium, eliminating the requirement of the fungus for germination and greatly aiding the propagation of ornamental orchids. The usual medium for the sowing of orchids in artificial conditions is agar gel combined with a carbohydrate energy source. The carbohydrate source can be combinations of discrete sugars or can be derived from other sources such as banana, pineapple, peach, or even tomato puree or coconut water. After the preparation of the agar medium, it is poured into test tubes or jars which are then autoclaved (or cooked in a pressure cooker) to sterilize the medium. After cooking, the medium begins to gel as it cools.","title":"Reproduction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"taxonomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)"},{"link_name":"taxa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxa"},{"link_name":"ranks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_rank"},{"link_name":"order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_(biology)"},{"link_name":"Asparagales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asparagales"},{"link_name":"APG III system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APG_III_system"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-APGIII2009-1"},{"link_name":"subfamilies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subfamilies"},{"link_name":"cladogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladogram"},{"link_name":"APG system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APG_system"},{"link_name":"morphological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_morphology"},{"link_name":"studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research"},{"link_name":"molecular phylogenetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetic"},{"link_name":"Apostasioideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostasioideae"},{"link_name":"Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia"},{"link_name":"Cypripedioideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypripedioideae"},{"link_name":"America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas"},{"link_name":"Vanilloideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanilloideae"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"Epidendroideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidendroideae"},{"link_name":"Orchidoideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchidoideae"},{"link_name":"phylogenetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"statistical support","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resampling_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topology"},{"link_name":"tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree"},{"link_name":"kb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_pair"},{"link_name":"plastid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastid"},{"link_name":"nuclear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleus"},{"link_name":"DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"},{"link_name":"genes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene"},{"link_name":"phylogenomic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenomic"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Apostasioideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostasioideae"},{"link_name":"Vanilloideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanilloideae"},{"link_name":"Cypripedioideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypripedioideae"},{"link_name":"Epidendroideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidendroideae"},{"link_name":"Orchidoideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchidoideae"}],"text":"The taxonomy of this family is in constant flux, as new studies continue to clarify the relationships between species and groups of species, allowing more taxa at several ranks to be recognized. The Orchidaceae is currently placed in the order Asparagales by the APG III system of 2009.[1]Five subfamilies are recognised. The cladogram below was made according to the APG system of 1998. It represents the view that most botanists had held up to that time. It was supported by morphological studies, but never received strong support in molecular phylogenetic studies.Apostasioideae: 2 genera and 16 species, south-eastern Asia\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCypripedioideae: 5 genera and 130 species, from the temperate regions of the world, as well as tropical America and tropical Asia\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Monandrae \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nVanilloideae: 15 genera and 180 species, humid tropical and subtropical regions, eastern North America\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nEpidendroideae: more than 500 genera and more or less 20,000 species, cosmopolitan\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nOrchidoideae: 208 genera and 3,630 species, cosmopolitanIn 2015, a phylogenetic study[22] showed strong statistical support for the following topology of the orchid tree, using 9 kb of plastid and nuclear DNA from 7 genes, a topology that was confirmed by a phylogenomic study in the same year.[23]Apostasioideae\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nVanilloideae\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCypripedioideae\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nEpidendroideae\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nOrchidoideae","title":"Taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Origin_of_the_orchids-24"},{"link_name":"Miocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miocene"},{"link_name":"amber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber"},{"link_name":"pollen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen"},{"link_name":"Meliorchis caribea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meliorchis_caribea"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Origin_of_the_orchids-24"},{"link_name":"pollinators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinator"},{"link_name":"Cranichideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranichideae"},{"link_name":"Goodyerinae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodyerinae"},{"link_name":"Orchidoideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchidoideae"},{"link_name":"Succinanthera baltica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succinanthera_baltica"},{"link_name":"Eocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocene"},{"link_name":"Baltic amber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_amber"},{"link_name":"Poinar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Poinar_Jr."},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Late Cretaceous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Cretaceous"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Mark W. Chase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_W._Chase"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"molecular clock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_clock"},{"link_name":"Vanilloideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanilloideae"},{"link_name":"monandrous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monandrous"},{"link_name":"most recent common ancestor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor"},{"link_name":"Laurasia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasia"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Perez-Escobar-2024-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Perez-Escobar-2024-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"Evolution","text":"A study in the scientific journal Nature has hypothesised that the origin of the orchids goes back much longer than originally expected.[24] An extinct species of stingless bee, Proplebeia dominicana, was found trapped in Miocene amber from about 15-20 million years ago. The bee was carrying pollen of a previously unknown orchid taxon, Meliorchis caribea, on its wings. This find is the first evidence of fossilised orchids to date[24] and shows insects were active pollinators of orchids then. This extinct orchid, M. caribea, has been placed within the extant tribe Cranichideae, subtribe Goodyerinae (subfamily Orchidoideae). An even older orchid species, Succinanthera baltica, was described from the Eocene Baltic amber by Poinar & Rasmussen (2017).[25]Genetic sequencing indicates orchids may have arisen earlier, 76 to 84 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous.[26] According to Mark W. Chase et al. (2001), the overall biogeography and phylogenetic patterns of Orchidaceae show they are even older and may go back roughly 100 million years.[27]Using the molecular clock method, it was possible to determine the age of the major branches of the orchid family. This also confirmed that the subfamily Vanilloideae is a branch at the basal dichotomy of the monandrous orchids, and must have evolved very early in the evolution of the family. Since this subfamily occurs worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions, from tropical America to tropical Asia, New Guinea and West Africa, and the continents began to split about 100 million years ago, significant biotic exchange must have occurred after this split (since the age of Vanilla is estimated at 60 to 70 million years). Recent biogeographic studies conducted on densely sampled phylogenies indicated that the most recent common ancestor of all extant orchids probably originated somewhere 83 million years ago in the supercontinent Laurasia.[28] Despite their long evolutionary history on Earth, the extant orchid diversity is also inferred to have originated during the last 5 million years,[28] with the American and Asian tropics as the geopgraphic areas exhibiting the highest speciation rates (i.e., number of speciation events per million years) on Earth.Genome duplication occurred prior to the divergence of this taxon.[29]","title":"Taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Aa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aa_(plant)"},{"link_name":"Abdominea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdominea"},{"link_name":"Acampe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acampe"},{"link_name":"Acanthophippium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthophippium"},{"link_name":"Aceratorchis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aceratorchis"},{"link_name":"Acianthus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acianthus"},{"link_name":"Acineta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acineta"},{"link_name":"Acrorchis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrorchis"},{"link_name":"Ada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_(plant)"},{"link_name":"Aerangis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerangis"},{"link_name":"Aeranthes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeranthes"},{"link_name":"Aerides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerides"},{"link_name":"Aganisia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aganisia"},{"link_name":"Agrostophyllum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrostophyllum"},{"link_name":"Anacamptis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacamptis"},{"link_name":"Ancistrochilus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancistrochilus"},{"link_name":"Angraecum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angraecum"},{"link_name":"Anguloa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anguloa"},{"link_name":"Ansellia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansellia"},{"link_name":"Aorchis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorchis"},{"link_name":"Aplectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aplectrum"},{"link_name":"Arachnis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachnis_(plant)"},{"link_name":"Arethusa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arethusa_(plant)"},{"link_name":"Armodorum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armodorum"},{"link_name":"Ascoglossum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascoglossum"},{"link_name":"Australorchis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australorchis"},{"link_name":"Auxopus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxopus"},{"link_name":"Barkeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barkeria"},{"link_name":"Bartholina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartholina"},{"link_name":"Beloglottis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beloglottis"},{"link_name":"Biermannia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biermannia"},{"link_name":"Bletilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bletilla"},{"link_name":"Brassavola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassavola"},{"link_name":"Brassia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassia"},{"link_name":"Bulbophyllum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulbophyllum"},{"link_name":"Calanthe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calanthe"},{"link_name":"Calypso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calypso_(plant)"},{"link_name":"Catasetum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catasetum"},{"link_name":"Cattleya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattleya"},{"link_name":"Chiloschista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiloschista"},{"link_name":"Cirrhopetalum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirrhopetalum"},{"link_name":"Cleisostoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleisostoma"},{"link_name":"Clowesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clowesia"},{"link_name":"Coelogyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coelogyne"},{"link_name":"Coryanthes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coryanthes"},{"link_name":"Cycnoches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycnoches"},{"link_name":"Cymbidium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymbidium"},{"link_name":"Cyrtopodium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrtopodium"},{"link_name":"Cypripedium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypripedium"},{"link_name":"Dactylorhiza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dactylorhiza"},{"link_name":"Dendrobium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrobium"},{"link_name":"Disa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disa_(plant)"},{"link_name":"Dracula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dracula_(plant)"},{"link_name":"Encyclia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclia"},{"link_name":"Epidendrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidendrum"},{"link_name":"Epipactis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epipactis"},{"link_name":"Eria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eria"},{"link_name":"Eulophia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eulophia"},{"link_name":"Gastrochilus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrochilus"},{"link_name":"Gongora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gongora"},{"link_name":"Goodyera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodyera"},{"link_name":"Grammatophyllum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatophyllum"},{"link_name":"Gymnadenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnadenia"},{"link_name":"Habenaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habenaria"},{"link_name":"Herschelia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herschelia"},{"link_name":"Ionopsis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionopsis"},{"link_name":"Laelia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laelia"},{"link_name":"Lepanthes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepanthes"},{"link_name":"Liparis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liparis_(plant)"},{"link_name":"Ludisia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludisia"},{"link_name":"Lycaste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycaste"},{"link_name":"Masdevallia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masdevallia"},{"link_name":"Maxillaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxillaria"},{"link_name":"Meliorchis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meliorchis"},{"link_name":"Mexipedium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexipedium"},{"link_name":"Miltonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miltonia"},{"link_name":"Mormodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormodes"},{"link_name":"Odontoglossum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odontoglossum"},{"link_name":"Oeceoclades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oeceoclades"},{"link_name":"Oncidium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oncidium"},{"link_name":"Ophrys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophrys"},{"link_name":"Orchis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchis"},{"link_name":"Paphiopedilum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paphiopedilum"},{"link_name":"Papilionanthe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papilionanthe"},{"link_name":"Paraphalaenopsis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphalaenopsis"},{"link_name":"Peristeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peristeria_(plant)"},{"link_name":"Phaius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaius"},{"link_name":"Phalaenopsis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalaenopsis"},{"link_name":"Pholidota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pholidota_(plant)"},{"link_name":"Phragmipedium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phragmipedium"},{"link_name":"Platanthera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platanthera"},{"link_name":"Platystele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platystele"},{"link_name":"Pleione","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleione_(plant)"},{"link_name":"Pleurothallis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleurothallis"},{"link_name":"Pomatocalpa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomatocalpa"},{"link_name":"Promenaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promenaea"},{"link_name":"Pterostylis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pterostylis"},{"link_name":"Renanthera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renanthera"},{"link_name":"Restrepia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrepia"},{"link_name":"Restrepiella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrepiella"},{"link_name":"Rhynchostylis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhynchostylis"},{"link_name":"Roezliella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roezliella"},{"link_name":"Saccolabium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccolabium"},{"link_name":"Sarcochilus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcochilus"},{"link_name":"Satyrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satyrium_(plant)"},{"link_name":"Seidenfadenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seidenfadenia"},{"link_name":"Selenipedium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenipedium"},{"link_name":"Serapias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serapias"},{"link_name":"Sobralia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sobralia"},{"link_name":"Spiranthes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiranthes"},{"link_name":"Stanhopea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanhopea"},{"link_name":"Stelis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stelis"},{"link_name":"Thrixspermum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrixspermum"},{"link_name":"Tolumnia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolumnia_(plant)"},{"link_name":"Trias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trias_(plant)"},{"link_name":"Trichocentrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichocentrum"},{"link_name":"Trichoglottis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichoglottis"},{"link_name":"Vanda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanda"},{"link_name":"Vanilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanilla_(genus)"},{"link_name":"Yoania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoania"},{"link_name":"Zeuxine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeuxine"},{"link_name":"Zygopetalum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygopetalum"}],"sub_title":"Genera","text":"There are around 800 genera of orchids. The following are amongst the most notable genera of the orchid family:[30]Aa\nAbdominea\nAcampe\nAcanthophippium\nAceratorchis\nAcianthus\nAcineta\nAcrorchis\nAda\nAerangis\nAeranthes\nAerides\nAganisia\nAgrostophyllum\nAnacamptis\nAncistrochilus\nAngraecum\nAnguloa\nAnsellia\nAorchis\nAplectrum\nArachnis\nArethusa\nArmodorum\nAscoglossum\nAustralorchis\nAuxopus\nBarkeria\nBartholina\nBeloglottis\nBiermannia\nBletilla\nBrassavola\nBrassia\nBulbophyllum\nCalanthe\nCalypso\nCatasetum\nCattleya\nChiloschista\nCirrhopetalum\nCleisostoma\nClowesia\nCoelogyne\nCoryanthes\nCycnoches\nCymbidium\nCyrtopodium\nCypripedium\nDactylorhiza\nDendrobium\nDisa\nDracula\nEncyclia\nEpidendrum\nEpipactis\nEria\nEulophia\nGastrochilus\nGongora\nGoodyera\nGrammatophyllum\nGymnadenia\nHabenaria\nHerschelia\nIonopsis\nLaelia\nLepanthes\nLiparis\nLudisia\nLycaste\nMasdevallia\nMaxillaria\nMeliorchis\nMexipedium\nMiltonia\nMormodes\nOdontoglossum\nOeceoclades\nOncidium\nOphrys\nOrchis\nPaphiopedilum\nPapilionanthe\nParaphalaenopsis\nPeristeria\nPhaius\nPhalaenopsis\nPholidota\nPhragmipedium\nPlatanthera\nPlatystele\nPleione\nPleurothallis\nPomatocalpa\nPromenaea\nPterostylis\nRenanthera\nRestrepia\nRestrepiella\nRhynchostylis\nRoezliella\nSaccolabium\nSarcochilus\nSatyrium\nSeidenfadenia\nSelenipedium\nSerapias\nSobralia\nSpiranthes\nStanhopea\nStelis\nThrixspermum\nTolumnia\nTrias\nTrichocentrum\nTrichoglottis\nVanda\nVanilla\nYoania\nZeuxine\nZygopetalum","title":"Taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_(biology)"},{"link_name":"genus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus_(biology)"},{"link_name":"Orchis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchis"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"ὄρχις","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BD%84%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B9%CF%82"},{"link_name":"testicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testicle"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"John Lindley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lindley"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Middle English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English"},{"link_name":"bollock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bollock"},{"link_name":"wort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/wort#Etymology_1"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Etymology","text":"The type genus (i.e. the genus after which the family is named) is Orchis. The genus name comes from the Ancient Greek ὄρχις (órkhis), literally meaning \"testicle\", because of the shape of the twin tubers in some species of Orchis.[31][32][33] The term \"orchid\" was introduced in 1845 by John Lindley in School Botany,[34] as a shortened form of Orchidaceae.[35]In Middle English, the name bollockwort was used for some orchids, based on \"bollock\" meaning testicle and \"wort\" meaning plant.[36]","title":"Taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"nothogenera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_name"},{"link_name":"× Brassocattleya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%97_Brassocattleya"},{"link_name":"Brassavola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassavola"},{"link_name":"Cattleya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattleya"},{"link_name":"-ara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-ara"},{"link_name":"× Colmanara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%97_Colmanara"},{"link_name":"Miltonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miltonia"},{"link_name":"Odontoglossum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odontoglossum"},{"link_name":"Oncidium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oncidium"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"grex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)"},{"link_name":"Brassavola nodosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassavola_nodosa"},{"link_name":"Brassavola acaulis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brassavola_acaulis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"Hybrids","text":"Orchid species hybridize readily in cultivation, leading to a large number of hybrids with complex naming. Hybridization is possible across genera, and therefore many cultivated orchids are placed into nothogenera. For instance, the nothogenus × Brassocattleya is used for all hybrids of species from the genera Brassavola and Cattleya. Nothogenera based on at least three genera may have names based on a person's name with the suffix -ara, for instance × Colmanara = Miltonia × Odontoglossum × Oncidium. (The suffix is obligatory starting at four genera.[37])Cultivated hybrids in the orchid family are also special in that they are named by using grex nomenclature, rather than nothospecies. For instance, hybrids between Brassavola nodosa and Brassavola acaulis are placed in the grex Brassavola Guiseppi.[38] The name of the grex (\"Guiseppi\" in this example) is written in a non-italic font without quotes.[39]","title":"Taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Royal Horticultural Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Horticultural_Society"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Phalaenopsis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalaenopsis"},{"link_name":"Vanda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanda"},{"link_name":"Cleisostoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleisostoma"}],"sub_title":"Abbreviations","text":"As a unique feature of the orchid family, a system of abbreviations exists that applies to names of genera and nothogenera. The system is maintained by the Royal Horticultural Society.[40] These abbreviations consist of at least one character, but may be longer. As opposed to the usual one-letter abbreviations used for names of genera, orchid abbreviations uniquely determine the (notho)genus. They are widely used in cultivation. Examples are Phal for Phalaenopsis, V for Vanda and Cleis for Cleisostoma.","title":"Taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cosmopolitan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmopolitan_distribution"},{"link_name":"habitat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)"},{"link_name":"glaciers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier"},{"link_name":"tropics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropics"},{"link_name":"Arctic Circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Circle"},{"link_name":"Patagonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patagonia"},{"link_name":"Nematoceras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematoceras"},{"link_name":"Macquarie Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquarie_Island"},{"link_name":"54° south","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/54th_parallel_south"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Orchidaceae are cosmopolitan, occurring in almost every habitat apart from glaciers. The world's richest diversity of orchid genera and species is found in the tropics, but they are also found above the Arctic Circle, in southern Patagonia, and two species of Nematoceras on Macquarie Island at 54° south.The following list gives a rough overview of their distribution:[citation needed]Oceania: 50 to 70 genera\nNorth America: 20 to 26 genera\ntropical America: 212 to 250 genera\ntropical Asia: 260 to 300 genera\ntropical Africa: 230 to 270 genera\nEurope and temperate Asia: 40 to 60 genera","title":"Distribution"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"perennial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perennial_plant"},{"link_name":"epiphytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphyte"},{"link_name":"trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree"},{"link_name":"shrubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrub"},{"link_name":"tropics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropics"},{"link_name":"Angraecum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angraecum"},{"link_name":"lithophytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithophyte"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"temperate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperate"},{"link_name":"Neottia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neottia"},{"link_name":"Corallorhiza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corallorhiza"},{"link_name":"chlorophyll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophyll"},{"link_name":"parasitising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitism"},{"link_name":"orchid mycorrhizae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchid_mycorrhiza"},{"link_name":"ectomycorrhizas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectomycorrhizal"},{"link_name":"Armillaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillaria"},{"link_name":"saprotrophs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saprotroph"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"myco-heterotrophs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myco-heterotroph"},{"link_name":"holoparasites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitic_plant"},{"link_name":"mycorrhizal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycorrhiza"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"text":"A majority of orchids are perennial epiphytes, which grow anchored to trees or shrubs in the tropics and subtropics. Species such as Angraecum sororium are lithophytes,[41] growing on rocks or very rocky soil. Other orchids (including the majority of temperate Orchidaceae) are terrestrial and can be found in habitat areas such as grasslands or forest.Some orchids, such as Neottia and Corallorhiza, lack chlorophyll, so are unable to photosynthesise. Instead, these species obtain energy and nutrients by parasitising soil fungi through the formation of orchid mycorrhizae. The fungi involved include those that form ectomycorrhizas with trees and other woody plants, parasites such as Armillaria, and saprotrophs.[42] These orchids are known as myco-heterotrophs, but were formerly (incorrectly) described as saprophytes as it was believed they gained their nutrition by breaking down organic matter. While only a few species are achlorophyllous holoparasites, all orchids are myco-heterotrophic during germination and seedling growth, and even photosynthetic adult plants may continue to obtain carbon from their mycorrhizal fungi.[43][44] The symbiosis is typically maintained throughout the lifetime of the orchid because they depend on the fungus for nutrients, sugars and minerals.[45]","title":"Ecology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2007-12-17AdventFlowerShop02.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blc._Paradise_Jewel_%27Flame%27_Orchid_bloom.JPG"},{"link_name":"× Brassolaeliocattleya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%97_Brassolaeliocattleya"},{"link_name":"Cattleya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattleya"},{"link_name":"corsages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsage"}],"text":"As decoration in a flowerpotA × Brassolaeliocattleya (\"BLC\") Paradise Jewel 'Flame' hybrid orchid. Blooms of the Cattleya alliance are often used in ladies' corsages.","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"scent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scent"},{"link_name":"perfumers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfumer"},{"link_name":"headspace technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headspace_technology"},{"link_name":"gas-liquid chromatography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas-liquid_chromatography"},{"link_name":"mass spectrometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"sub_title":"Perfumery","text":"The scent of orchids is frequently analysed by perfumers (using headspace technology and gas-liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry) to identify potential fragrance chemicals.[46]","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tropical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropics"},{"link_name":"subtropical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtropics"},{"link_name":"Ophrys apifera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophrys_apifera"},{"link_name":"Gymnadenia conopsea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnadenia_conopsea"},{"link_name":"Anacamptis pyramidalis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacamptis_pyramidalis"},{"link_name":"Dactylorhiza fuchsii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dactylorhiza_fuchsii"},{"link_name":"American Orchid Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Orchid_Society"},{"link_name":"Pleurothallis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleurothallis"},{"link_name":"Bulbophyllum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulbophyllum"},{"link_name":"hybrids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)"},{"link_name":"Royal Horticultural Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Horticultural_Society"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERHS2016-47"}],"sub_title":"Horticulture","text":"The other important use of orchids is their cultivation for the enjoyment of the flowers. Most cultivated orchids are tropical or subtropical, but quite a few that grow in colder climates can be found on the market. Temperate species available at nurseries include Ophrys apifera (bee orchid), Gymnadenia conopsea (fragrant orchid), Anacamptis pyramidalis (pyramidal orchid) and Dactylorhiza fuchsii (common spotted orchid).Orchids of all types have also often been sought by collectors of both species and hybrids. Many hundreds of societies and clubs worldwide have been established. These can be small, local clubs, or larger, national organisations such as the American Orchid Society. Both serve to encourage cultivation and collection of orchids, but some go further by concentrating on conservation or research.The term \"botanical orchid\" loosely denotes those small-flowered, tropical orchids belonging to several genera that do not fit into the \"florist\" orchid category. A few of these genera contain enormous numbers of species. Some, such as Pleurothallis and Bulbophyllum, contain approximately 1700 and 2000 species, respectively, and are often extremely vegetatively diverse. The primary use of the term is among orchid hobbyists wishing to describe unusual species they grow, though it is also used to distinguish naturally occurring orchid species from horticulturally created hybrids.New orchids are registered with the International Orchid Register, maintained by the Royal Horticultural Society.[47]","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vanilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanilla"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vanilla_fragrans_4.jpg"},{"link_name":"Vanilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanilla_(genus)"},{"link_name":"Vanilla planifolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanilla_planifolia"},{"link_name":"baking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baking"},{"link_name":"perfume","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfume"},{"link_name":"aromatherapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromatherapy"},{"link_name":"Orchis mascula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchis_mascula"},{"link_name":"salep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salep"},{"link_name":"Turkish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_cuisine"},{"link_name":"dondurma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dondurma"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic"},{"link_name":"Jumellea fragrans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jumellea_fragrans"},{"link_name":"Reunion Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reunion_Island"},{"link_name":"Gastrodia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrodia"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Gastrodia sesamoides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrodia_sesamoides"},{"link_name":"Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku-ring-gai_Chase_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Aboriginal peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians"},{"link_name":"bandicoots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandicoot"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"}],"sub_title":"Food","text":"Further information: VanillaVanilla fruit dryingThe dried seed pods of one orchid genus, Vanilla (especially Vanilla planifolia), are commercially important as a flavouring in baking, for perfume manufacture and aromatherapy.The underground tubers of terrestrial orchids [mainly Orchis mascula (early purple orchid)] are ground to a powder and used for cooking, such as in the hot beverage salep or in the Turkish mastic ice cream dondurma. The name salep has been claimed to come from the Arabic expression ḥasyu al-tha‘lab, \"fox testicles\", but it appears more likely the name comes directly from the Arabic name saḥlab. The similarity in appearance to testes naturally accounts for salep being considered an aphrodisiac.The dried leaves of Jumellea fragrans are used to flavour rum on Reunion Island.Some saprophytic orchid species of the group Gastrodia produce potato-like tubers and were consumed as food by native peoples in Australia and can be successfully cultivated, notably Gastrodia sesamoides. Wild stands of these plants can still be found in the same areas as early Aboriginal settlements, such as Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in Australia. Aboriginal peoples located the plants in habitat by observing where bandicoots had scratched in search of the tubers after detecting the plants underground by scent.[note 1]","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shaoxing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaoxing"},{"link_name":"Cattleya mossiae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattleya_mossiae"},{"link_name":"Cattleya trianae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattleya_trianae"},{"link_name":"Colombia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia"},{"link_name":"Vanda Miss Joaquim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papilionanthe_Miss_Joaquim"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"Guarianthe skinneri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guarianthe_skinneri"},{"link_name":"Costa Rica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costa_Rica"},{"link_name":"Rhyncholaelia digbyana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyncholaelia_digbyana"},{"link_name":"Honduras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honduras"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Prosthechea cochleata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosthechea_cochleata"},{"link_name":"Belize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belize"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Lycaste skinneri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycaste_skinneri"},{"link_name":"Guatemala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guatemala"},{"link_name":"Panama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama"},{"link_name":"Peristeria elata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peristeria_elata"},{"link_name":"Rhynchostylis retusa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhynchostylis_retusa"},{"link_name":"Assam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Ara Pacis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ara_Pacis"},{"link_name":"[note 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Louis Liger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Liger"},{"link_name":"Orchis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchis_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Bacchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus"},{"link_name":"Adonis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adonis"},{"link_name":"Narcisuss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissus_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_and_B_Larsen_orchids_-_Cattleya_Mrs_Mahler_Mem_Fred_Tompkins_659-9.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_and_B_Larsen_orchids_-_Cattleya_Queen_Sirikhit_Diamond_Crown_DSCN4414.JPG"},{"link_name":"Sirikit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirikit"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_and_B_Larsen_orchids_-_Cattleya_Hawaiian_Wedding_Song_Virgin_674-23.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blc_Chia-lin.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_and_B_Larsen_orchids_-_Cattleya_Hawaian_Variable_Prasan_336-2.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_and_B_Larsen_orchids_-_Cattleya_Barbara_Belle_DSCN8696.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cattleya_Beaumesnil_Parme_1001_Orchids.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_and_B_Larsen_orchids_-_Cattleya_Chocolate_Drop_x_Pao_de_Acucar_507-21.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cattleya_Empress_Frederick_C_mossiae.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cattleya mossiae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattleya_mossiae"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cattleya_Hermine.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_and_B_Larsen_orchids_-_Cattleya_Little_AngelDSCN3349.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_and_B_Larsen_orchids_-_Cattleya_Marjorie_Hausermann_York_812-4.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_and_B_Larsen_orchids_-_Cattleya_Miva_Breeze_Alize_930-23.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blc_Nobiles_carnival.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cattleya_Pernell_George_Barnett_%22Yankee_Clipper%22_(3072486817).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cattleya_Portia.jpg"}],"text":"Orchids have many associations with symbolic values. For example, the orchid is the City Flower of Shaoxing, China. Cattleya mossiae is the national Venezuelan flower, while Cattleya trianae is the national flower of Colombia. Vanda Miss Joaquim is the national flower of Singapore, Guarianthe skinneri is the national flower of Costa Rica and Rhyncholaelia digbyana is the national flower of Honduras.[49] Prosthechea cochleata is the national flower of Belize, where it is known as the black orchid.[50] Lycaste skinneri has a white variety (alba) that is the national flower of Guatemala, commonly known as Monja Blanca (White Nun). Panama's national flower is the Holy Ghost orchid (Peristeria elata), or 'the flor del Espiritu Santo'. Rhynchostylis retusa is the state flower of the Indian state of Assam where it is known as Kopou Phul.[51]Orchids native to the Mediterranean are depicted on the Ara Pacis in Rome, until now the only known instance of orchids in ancient art, and the earliest in European art.[note 2] A French writer and agronomist, Louis Liger, invented a classical myth in his book Le Jardinier Fleuriste et Historiographe published in 1704, attributing it to the ancient Greeks and Romans, in which Orchis the son of a nymph and a satyr rapes a priestess of Bacchus during one of his festivals the Bacchanalia and is then killed and transformed into an orchid flower as punishment by the gods, paralleling the various myths of youths dying and becoming flowers, like Adonis and Narcisuss; this myth however does not appear any earlier than Liger, and is not part of traditional Greek and Roman mythologies.[53]Some cultivars\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCattleya Mrs. Mahler 'Mem. Fred Tompkins'\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCattleya Queen Sirikit 'Diamond Crown'\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCattleya Hawaiian Wedding Song 'Virgin'\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRhyncholaeliocattleya Chia Lin\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCattleya Hawaiian Variable 'Prasan'\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCattlianthe Barbara Belle\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCattleya Beaumesnil 'Parme'\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCattlianthe Chocolate Drop x Cattleya Pão de Açúcar\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCattleya mossiae 'Empress Frederick'\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'Hermine'\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCattleya Little Angel\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCattleya Marjorie Hausermann 'York'\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'Miva Breeze Alize'\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRhyncholaeliocattleya 'Nobile's carnival'\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCattleya Pernel George Barnett 'Yankee Clipper'\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCattlianthe Portia","title":"Cultural symbolism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CITES"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CITES_App-56"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CITES_App-56"}],"text":"Almost all orchids are included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning that international trade (including in their parts/derivatives) is regulated by the CITES permit system.[54] A smaller number of orchids such as Paphiopedilum sp. are listed in CITES Appendix I meaning that commercial international trade in wild-sourced specimens is prohibited and all other trade is strictly controlled.[54]","title":"Conservation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Longtan Dam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longtan_Dam"},{"link_name":"Hongshui River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongshui_River"},{"link_name":"Yachang Orchid Nature Reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yachang_Orchid_Nature_Reserve&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"inundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inundation"},{"link_name":"transplant shock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplant_shock"},{"link_name":"assisted migration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assisted_migration"},{"link_name":"climate change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"}],"sub_title":"Assisted migration as conservation tool","text":"In 2006 the Longtan Dam was constructed at the Hongshui River, near the Yachang Orchid Nature Reserve. In response to threats of inundation of wild orchids at lower altitudes (350-400 m above sea level), 1000 endangered orchid plants of 16 genera and 29 species were translocated to higher elevation (approximately 1000 m above sea level). After relocation the 5 year survival of low and wide elevation species did not significantly differ and the mortality due to transplant shock was at only 10%. From this it was concluded that assisted migration might be a viable conservation tool for orchid species endangered by climate change.[55]","title":"Conservation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-49"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-54"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"}],"text":"^ Early western district (Vic.) settler gives account of local Aboriginal people gathering potato orchid tubers, digging where bandicoots had scratched.[48]\n\n^ The symbolic (or even religious) meaning of the Ara Pacis orchids is not yet known.[52]","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RHS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Horticultural_Society"},{"link_name":"\"Search The International Orchid Register\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//apps.rhs.org.uk/horticulturaldatabase/orchidregister/orchidregister.asp"},{"link_name":"Royal Horticultural Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Horticultural_Society"}],"text":"RHS (2016). \"Search The International Orchid Register\". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved 28 November 2017.","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"David Cebulla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cebulla"}],"text":"2017: Hidden Beauty – The Orchids of the Saale Valley, directed by David Cebulla","title":"Documentaries"}]
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[{"image_text":"A Phalaenopsis flower","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Orchid_high_resolution.jpg/220px-Orchid_high_resolution.jpg"},{"image_text":"Germinating seeds of the temperate orchid Anacamptis coriophora","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Anacamptis_fragrans.JPG/220px-Anacamptis_fragrans.JPG"},{"image_text":"Neotinea lactea, collected in Sardinia; the small size, compared to a one-Euro coin, and the two globose tuberoids typical of the Neotinea genus are highlighted","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Orchis_lactea_rhizotubers.jpg/220px-Orchis_lactea_rhizotubers.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pseudobulb of Prosthechea fragrans","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Pseudobulbe.jpg/220px-Pseudobulbe.jpg"},{"image_text":"Labelled image of Caladenia alpina","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Caladenia_alpina_%28labelled%29.jpg/220px-Caladenia_alpina_%28labelled%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Labelled image of Diuris carinata","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Diuris_%28labelled%29.jpg/220px-Diuris_%28labelled%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Phalaenopsis pollinia (orange) attached to a toothpick with its sticky viscidium","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Phalaenopsis_pollinia_on_toothpick.jpg/220px-Phalaenopsis_pollinia_on_toothpick.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ophrys apifera is about to self-pollinate","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ophrys_apifera_flower2.jpg/220px-Ophrys_apifera_flower2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cross-sections of orchid capsules showing the longitudinal slits","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Kapselquerschnitte_Orchideen.png/220px-Kapselquerschnitte_Orchideen.png"},{"image_text":"Disa uniflora seedling on a sphagnum leaf, on a thumbtack","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Disa_seedling_on_a_thumbtack.jpg/220px-Disa_seedling_on_a_thumbtack.jpg"},{"image_text":"As decoration in a flowerpot","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/2007-12-17AdventFlowerShop02.jpg/170px-2007-12-17AdventFlowerShop02.jpg"},{"image_text":"A × Brassolaeliocattleya (\"BLC\") Paradise Jewel 'Flame' hybrid orchid. Blooms of the Cattleya alliance are often used in ladies' corsages.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Blc._Paradise_Jewel_%27Flame%27_Orchid_bloom.JPG/170px-Blc._Paradise_Jewel_%27Flame%27_Orchid_bloom.JPG"},{"image_text":"Vanilla fruit drying","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Vanilla_fragrans_4.jpg/220px-Vanilla_fragrans_4.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"Adaptation (film)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation_(film)"},{"title":"The Orchid Thief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Orchid_Thief"},{"title":"Orchid Conservation Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchid_Conservation_Coalition"},{"title":"Orchid Pavilion Gathering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchid_Pavilion_Gathering"},{"title":"Orchidelirium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchidelirium"},{"title":"Orchids of the Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchids_of_the_Philippines"},{"title":"Orchids of Western Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchids_of_Western_Australia"},{"title":"Shangsi Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shangsi_Festival"},{"title":"Black rot on orchids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_rot_on_orchids"},{"title":"List of taxa named after human genitals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_named_after_human_genitals"}]
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[{"reference":"Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (2009). \"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III\". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 161 (2): 105–121. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x. hdl:10654/18083.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.2009.00996.x","url_text":"\"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.2009.00996.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/10654%2F18083","url_text":"10654/18083"}]},{"reference":"Gove, Philip B., ed. (1961). Webster's Third New International Dictionary. G. & C. Merriam.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Christenhusz, M. J. M. & Byng, J. W. 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Slavic_languages
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North Slavic languages
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["1 Proposed subdivisions","2 Constructed languages","3 See also","4 References","5 Bibliography"]
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Group of Slavic languages
Not to be confused with North Slavey language.
The term North Slavic languages is used in three main senses:
for a number of proposed groupings or subdivisions of the Slavic languages. However, "North Slavic" is not widely used in this sense. Modern scholars usually divide the Slavic languages into West Slavic, East Slavic, and South Slavic.
for the West Slavic and East Slavic languages considered as a combined unit, particularly when contrasted to South Slavic languages.
for a number of constructed languages that were created in the 20th and 21st century, and have been derived from existing Slavic languages.
Proposed subdivisions
Historically, the term "North Slav" has been used in academia since at least the first half of the 19th century. Since then the concept continued to see use in various publications.
The following uses of the term "North Slavs" or "North Slavic" are found:
In this map of Austria-Hungary from Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1890), Czechs, Moravians, Slovaks, Poles, and "Ruthenians" are marked as "North-Slavs", while other Slavic groups are marked as "South-Slavs".
'North Slavs', 'Northslavs' or 'North Hungarian Slavs' were used as synonyms for the combination of Slovaks and Rusyns living in the northern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867) within the Austrian Empire by several Slavic authors and politicians writing between 1848 and 1861. They imagined Slovaks and Rusyns to be one nation or ethnic group consisting of two equal tribes (although Moravčík 1861 regarded Rusyns as a subordinate tribe to the Slovak nation) that inhabited a shared ethno-territory (Slovakia and Subcarpathia/Transcarpathia) and was entitled to political representation in the Imperial Council of Austria.
'North Slavs', 'Czechoslavs' and 'Slovaks' were used as synonyms for the combination of Czechs, Slovaks and Rusniaks/Rustines (Rusyns) by Ján Thomášek (1841). The ethno-territory that he imagined corresponds with that of the later First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938).
As a synonym for the combination of Czechs, Slovaks, and Poles (nowadays more commonly known as 'West Slavs').
As an extinct branch of Slavic. Anatoli Zhuravlyov suggested that a separate, now extinct, branch of North Slavic languages once existed, different from both South, West, and East Slavic. The dialect formerly spoken in the vicinity of Novgorod (the Old Novgorod dialect) contains several Proto-Slavic archaisms that did not survive in any other Slavic language, and may be considered a remnant of an ancient North Slavic branch. Another candidate is Slovincian in the Lekhitic subgroup.
An as alternative to or combination of the West Slavic and East Slavic languages into one group, due to the fact that the South Slavic dialects were geographically cut off by the Hungarian settlement of the Pannonian plain in the 9th century along with Austria and Romania being geographical barriers, in addition to the Black Sea. Due to this geographical separation, the North Slavs and South Slavs developed independently of each other with noteworthy cultural differences; as such, various theorists claim that the language communities often grouped into West and East Slavic sub-branches share enough linguistic characteristics to be categorised together as North Slavs. North Slavonic peoples today include the Belarusians, Czechs, Poles, Rusyns, Russians, Slovaks, Sorbs, and Ukrainians. Ukrainian and Belarusian have both been hugely influenced by Polish in the past centuries due to their geographic and cultural proximity, as well as due to the Polonisation of the Ruthenian population of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
The greatest disparities within the Slavic language family are between South Slavic tongues and the rest of the Slavonic languages.
Professor Michał Łesiów once said that "there are no two languages in the Slavic area that were as equally close to each other as Polish and Ruthenian". According to Kostiantyn Tyshchenko, Ukrainian shares 70% common vocabulary with Polish and 66% with Slovak, which puts them both ahead of Russian (at 62%) in their lexical proximity to Ukrainian. Furthermore, Tyschenko identified 82 grammatical and phonetic features of the Ukrainian tongue – Polish, Czech and Slovak share upwards of 20 of these characteristics with Ukrainian, whereas Russian apparently only 11. In contrast to other dialects of Slovak, Eastern dialects (sometimes called Slovjak) are less intelligible with Czech and more with Polish and Rusyn. Much overlap can be found between the Northwest and Northeast branches, as even some authors who use the West Slavic and East Slavic categories sometimes utilise the North Slav model instead where it is relevant. Tomasz Kamusella writes that where linguistic continua are considered to start and end is usually dictated by politics rather than linguistics, which is the case among North Slavonic nations too. Majority North Slavonic groups today include the Belarusians, Czechs, Kashubians, Poles, Silesians, Rusyns, Russians, Slovaks, Sorbs, and Ukrainians. The language areas of the North Slavs and South Slavs have been separated by a broad zones containing three other language communities, namely German, Hungarian, and Romanian.
In terms of language, the greatest contrasts are evident between South Slavic tongues and the rest of the family. Moreover, there are many exceptions and whole dialects that break the division of East and West Slavic languages. According to this view, it makes more sense to divide the Slavs into two main linguistic groups: the North Slavs and the South Slavs, which can then be further categorised as the Northwest tongues (Czech, Kashubian, Polish, Silesian, Slovak, and Sorbian) and the Northeast ones (Belarusian, Russian, Rusyn, and Ukrainian) – whereas the Southern branch is split into the widely accepted groups of the Southwest languages (Serbo-Croatian and Slovene) and the Southeast tongues (Bulgarian and Macedonian). This model is argued as being more appropriate and linguistically accurate than the triple dissection of east, west and south. Geographer O.T. Ford also writes of the Slavs being "conventionally" divided into three sub-branches (West, East, South), but "in reality" divided only by geographic isolation into two bands that form two dialect continua: North and South – a view mirrored by linguist Tomasz Kamusella. Tracing back to the Greek East and Latin West split in Late Antiquity, there are cultural divisions within the North Slavonic language family with regard to writing systems and religions: the West Slavic languages mostly use versions of the Latin script and have or historically had a Catholic-majority population, while the East Slavic languages are usually written in the Cyrillic script and have or historically had an Orthodox-majority population. A similar east-west split exists for people speaking South Slavic languages in the Balkans, although the Latin script is spreading in countries where Serbo-Croatian is frequently spoken and the majority population is Orthodox, such as Montenegro. The North Slavic and South Slavic-speaking territories are thus both generally geographically divided between Eastern and Western Christianity, and the great majority of all Eastern Orthodox believers in the world are found in the eastern parts of both the North Slavic and South Slavic areas, while a minority are Eastern-rite Catholics.
The concept has also been utilised in the archaeological studies as well as that of the pre-Christian beliefs of Slavic peoples in the Early Middle Ages by scholars in the 2010s.
Constructed languages
"North Slavic" has been used as a name for several 20th- and 21st-century constructed languages forming a fictional North Slavic branch of the Slavic languages. Their main inspiration is the lack of a North Slavic branch vis-à-vis the traditional West, East and South Slavic branches. Usually, they are part of a larger alternative history scheme and may be based on elements from Old Novgorodian or North Russian dialects, historical pidgins like Russenorsk or interference from non-Slavic languages such as the Uralic languages, the Baltic languages or the North Germanic languages. The best-known examples of constructed North Slavic languages are:
Sevorian (Sievrøsku, 1992), the language of a fictional island in the Baltic Sea;
three Uralic-inspired languages from the alternative history project Ill Bethisad:
Vozgian (Vŭozgašchai, 1996),
Nassian (Naŝica/Nasika, 2001) and
Skuodian (2002); and
Novegradian (Новеградескей лизике, Novegradeskej lizike, 2006), a project embedded in a highly elaborated fictional context.
Also included in the group of fictional North Slavic languages are five interrelated language projects (Seversk, Slavëni, Slavisk, Lydnevi, Mrezian) created around 2001 by Libor Sztemon, although they lack a fictional background and an explanation what exactly qualifies them as North Slavic.
See also
South Germanic
References
^ Gołąb, Zbigniew (1992). The Origins of the Slavs: A Linguist's View. Columbus, Ohio: Slavica Publishers. pp. 12–13. The present-day Slavic peoples are usually divided into the three following groups: West Slavic, East Slavic, and South Slavic. This division has both linguistic and historico-geographical justification, in the sense that on the one hand the respective Slavic languages show some old features which unite them into the above three groups, and on the other hand the pre- and early historical migrations of the respective Slavic peoples distributed them geographically in just this way.
^ a b Kamusella, Nomachi & Gibson, p. 239. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKamusellaNomachiGibson (help)
^ Psychological Bulletin, Volume 3. American Psychological Association. 1906. p. 419.
^ Ruggd, Harold Ordway (1938). Our Country and Our People: An Introduction to American Civilization, Revised. Ginn. p. 157.
^ Kamusella, Nomachi & Gibson, p. 238–239. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKamusellaNomachiGibson (help)
^ The Living Age, Volume 313. Living Age Company. 1922. pp. 194–195, 199.
^ А. Ф. Журавлев, "Лексико-статистическое моделирование системы славянского языкового родства", Moscow, 1994, p. 63.
^ a b c d e f g O.T. Ford. "Slavs". the-stewardship.org. The Stewardship. Retrieved 2022-01-27.
^ a b Lunt, Horace G. (2001). Old Church Slavonic Grammar. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 183. doi:10.1515/9783110876888. ISBN 3110162849.
^ a b c d Kamusella, Tomasz; Nomachi, Motoki; Gibson, Catherine (2016). The Palgrave Handbook of Slavic Languages, Identities and Borders. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781137348395.
^ Serafin, Mikołaj (January 2015). "Cultural Proximity of the Slavic Nations" (PDF). Retrieved April 28, 2017.
^ Łesiów, M. (2011). In: Łabowicz, L. (ed.) Gdzie "sicz", a gdzie "porohy"?!. In: Над Бугом і Нарвою, Iss. 117, p. 15.
^ Tyschenko, Kostiantyn. "Мови Європи: відстані між мовами за словниковим складом". Archived from the original on May 1, 2015. Retrieved April 29, 2017.
^ Tyshchenko, K. (2012). Правда про походження української мови. In: Lytvynenko, S (ed.) Український тиждень, Iss. 39, p. 35.
^ Štolc, Jozef (1994). Slovenská dialektológia . Bratislava: Veda.: Ed. I. Ripka.
^ Dickey, Stephen M. (2010). "Chapter 3: Common Slavic "indeterminate" verbs of motion were really manner-of-motion verbs*". In Perelmutter, Renee; Hasko, Victoria (eds.). New Approaches to Slavic Verbs of Motion. John Benjamins. pp. 67–110. ISBN 9789027205827.
^ a b Bethin, Christina Y. (1998). Slavic Prosody: Language Change and Phonological Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521591485.
^ Kamusella, Tomasz (2012). The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central Europe. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave. p. 34. ISBN 9780230294738.
^ Dingsdale, Alan (2002). Mapping Modernities Geographies of Central and Eastern Europe, 1920-2000. London: Routledge. pp. 21–24. ISBN 9780415216203.
^ a b c Kamusella, Tomasz (2005). "The Triple Division of the Slavic Languages: A Linguistic Finding, a Product of Politics, or an Accident?". IWM Working Papers (1). Retrieved 2022-06-16.
^ Mareš, František Václav (1980). "Die Tetrachotomie und doppelte Dichotomie der slavischen Sprachen". Wiener Slavistisches Jahrbuch (26): 33–45.
^ Kamusella, Tomasz (2010). "Central Europe from a Linguistic Viewpoint". Age of Globalization (2): 22–30. Retrieved 2022-06-16.
^ Kajkowski, Kamil (2015). "The Dog in Pagan Beliefs of Early Medieval North-Western Slavs". Analecta Archaeologica Ressoviensia. 10: 199–240. Retrieved 2022-06-16.
^ Szczepanik, Paweł; Wadyl, Sławomir (2012). "Uwagi o przestrzeni sakralnej północno-zachodniej słowiańszczyzny i Prus we wczesnym średniowieczu". Analecta Archaeologica Ressoviensia. VII: 37–65. Retrieved 2022-06-16.
^ Berger, Tilman (2004). "Vom Erfinden Slavischer Sprachen". In M. Okoka; U. Schweier (eds.). Germano-Slavistische Beiträge. Festschrift für P. Rehder zum 65. Geburtstag (PDF) (in German). München. pp. 19–28.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Mannewitz, Cornelia (2011). "Nordslawisch". In Cyril Brosch; Sabine Fiedler (eds.). Florilegium Interlinguisticum. Festschrift für Detlev Blanke zum 70. Geburtstag (in German). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang GmbH Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften. pp. 237–238. ISBN 978-3-631-61328-3.
^ Barandovská-Frank, Věra (2020). Interlingvistiko. Enkonduko en la sciencon pri planlingvoj (PDF) (in Esperanto). Poznań: Wydawnictwo Rys. p. 309. ISBN 978-83-65483-88-1.
^ Mannewitz, pp. 239-241.
Bibliography
See also: List of Slavic studies journals
Comrie, Bernard; Corbett, Greville G., The Slavonic languages (London, 2003), pp. 75 & 114–120.
Danylenko, Andrii, 2006, "The 'Greek Accusative' vs. the 'New Slavic Accusative' in the Impersonal Environment: an Areal or Structural Discrepancy?", in: Andrii Danylenko, "Slavica et Islamica. Ukrainian in Context". München: Otto Sagner Verlag, 243-265.
Hult, Arne, "On the verbal morphology of the South Slavic languages (in comparison with the North Slavic languages, especially Russian", Papers from First Conference on Formal Approaches to South Slavic Languages. Plovdiv October 1995. Dragvoll, University of Trondheim, Linguistics Department (= University of Trondheim. Working Papers in Linguistics 28), ss. 105-35. (23)
Kamusella, Tomasz; Nomachi, Motoki; Gibson, Catherine (2016). The Palgrave Handbook of Slavic Languages, Identities and Borders. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 561. ISBN 9781137348395.
Kortlandt, Frederik, "Early dialectal diversity in South Slavic II", in: Dutch Contributions to the Thirteenth International Congress of Slavists, Ljubljana: Linguistics (SSGL 30). Amsterdam – New York: Rodopi, 2003, 215-235.
Kortlandt, Frederik, From Proto-Indo-European to Slavic
Timberlake, Alan, 1978, "On the History of the Velar Phonemes in North Slavic" . In Henrik Birnbaum, ed., American Contributions to the Eighth International Congress of Slavists, vol. 1, Linguistics and Poetics. Columbus, OH: Slavica Publishers.
Tommola, Hannu, 2000, "On the Perfect in North Slavic." Östen Dahl (ed.), Tense and Aspect in the Languages of Europe. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 441-478.
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Modern scholars usually divide the Slavic languages into West Slavic, East Slavic, and South Slavic.[1]\nfor the West Slavic and East Slavic languages considered as a combined unit, particularly when contrasted to South Slavic languages.\nfor a number of constructed languages that were created in the 20th and 21st century, and have been derived from existing Slavic languages.","title":"North Slavic languages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamusellaNomachiGibson239-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-psychobullet-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-our_country-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meyers_b12_s0486a.jpg"},{"link_name":"Austria-Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungary"},{"link_name":"Meyers Konversations-Lexikon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meyers_Konversations-Lexikon"},{"link_name":"Ruthenians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruthenians"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1526%E2%80%931867)"},{"link_name":"Austrian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Imperial Council of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Council_(Austria)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamusellaNomachiGibson238%E2%80%93239-5"},{"link_name":"First Czechoslovak Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Czechoslovak_Republic"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamusellaNomachiGibson239-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-living_age-6"},{"link_name":"Anatoli Zhuravlyov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anatoli_Zhuravlyov&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B2,_%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A4%D1%91%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87"},{"link_name":"Novgorod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novgorod"},{"link_name":"Old Novgorod dialect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Novgorod_dialect"},{"link_name":"Proto-Slavic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Slavic_language"},{"link_name":"Slovincian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovincian_language"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zhu-7"},{"link_name":"West Slavic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Slavic_languages"},{"link_name":"East Slavic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Slavic_languages"},{"link_name":"South Slavic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Slavic_languages"},{"link_name":"Hungarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_people"},{"link_name":"Pannonian plain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonian_plain"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"},{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania"},{"link_name":"Black Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O.T._Ford-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lunt-9"},{"link_name":"North Slavs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Slavs"},{"link_name":"South Slavs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Slavs"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-palgrave-10"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"Belarusians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusians"},{"link_name":"Czechs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechs"},{"link_name":"Poles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_people"},{"link_name":"Rusyns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusyns"},{"link_name":"Russians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians"},{"link_name":"Slovaks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovaks"},{"link_name":"Sorbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbs"},{"link_name":"Ukrainians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainians"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O.T._Ford-8"},{"link_name":"Polonisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonization"},{"link_name":"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CPotSN-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-palgrave-10"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"Kostiantyn Tyshchenko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kostiantyn_Tyshchenko"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"Slovjak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovjak"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prosody-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kamu3-18"},{"link_name":"Belarusians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusians"},{"link_name":"Czechs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechs"},{"link_name":"Kashubians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashubians"},{"link_name":"Poles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_people"},{"link_name":"Silesians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silesians"},{"link_name":"Rusyns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusyns"},{"link_name":"Russians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians"},{"link_name":"Slovaks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovaks"},{"link_name":"Sorbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbs"},{"link_name":"Ukrainians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainians"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mappmod-19"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-palgrave-10"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O.T._Ford-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lunt-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-palgrave-10"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kamusella-20"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"South Slavs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Slavs"},{"link_name":"Czech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_language"},{"link_name":"Kashubian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashubian_language"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"Silesian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silesian_language"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"Slovak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovak_language"},{"link_name":"Sorbian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbian_languages"},{"link_name":"Belarusian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_language"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"Rusyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusyn_language"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"Ukrainian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_language"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prosody-17"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"Serbo-Croatian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_language"},{"link_name":"Slovene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovene_language"},{"link_name":"Bulgarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_language"},{"link_name":"Macedonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonian_language"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kamusella-20"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O.T._Ford-8"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kamusella-20"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kamu2-22"},{"link_name":"Greek East and Latin West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_East_and_Latin_West"},{"link_name":"West Slavic languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Slavic_languages"},{"link_name":"Latin script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_script"},{"link_name":"East Slavic languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Slavic_languages"},{"link_name":"Cyrillic script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_script"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O.T._Ford-8"},{"link_name":"the Latin script is spreading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_of_the_Latin_script"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O.T._Ford-8"},{"link_name":"Eastern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Christianity"},{"link_name":"Western Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Christianity"},{"link_name":"Eastern Orthodox believers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy"},{"link_name":"Eastern-rite Catholics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O.T._Ford-8"},{"link_name":"pre-Christian beliefs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith"},{"link_name":"Early Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-polnozach-24"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"}],"text":"Historically, the term \"North Slav\" has been used in academia since at least the first half of the 19th century.[2] Since then the concept continued to see use in various publications.[3][4]The following uses of the term \"North Slavs\" or \"North Slavic\" are found:In this map of Austria-Hungary from Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1890), Czechs, Moravians, Slovaks, Poles, and \"Ruthenians\" are marked as \"North-Slavs\", while other Slavic groups are marked as \"South-Slavs\".'North Slavs', 'Northslavs' or 'North Hungarian Slavs' were used as synonyms for the combination of Slovaks and Rusyns living in the northern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867) within the Austrian Empire by several Slavic authors and politicians writing between 1848 and 1861. They imagined Slovaks and Rusyns to be one nation or ethnic group consisting of two equal tribes (although Moravčík 1861 regarded Rusyns as a subordinate tribe to the Slovak nation) that inhabited a shared ethno-territory (Slovakia and Subcarpathia/Transcarpathia) and was entitled to political representation in the Imperial Council of Austria.[5]\n'North Slavs', 'Czechoslavs' and 'Slovaks' were used as synonyms for the combination of Czechs, Slovaks and Rusniaks/Rustines (Rusyns) by Ján Thomášek (1841). The ethno-territory that he imagined corresponds with that of the later First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938).[2]\nAs a synonym for the combination of Czechs, Slovaks, and Poles (nowadays more commonly known as 'West Slavs').[6]\nAs an extinct branch of Slavic. Anatoli Zhuravlyov [ru] suggested that a separate, now extinct, branch of North Slavic languages once existed, different from both South, West, and East Slavic. The dialect formerly spoken in the vicinity of Novgorod (the Old Novgorod dialect) contains several Proto-Slavic archaisms that did not survive in any other Slavic language, and may be considered a remnant of an ancient North Slavic branch. Another candidate is Slovincian in the Lekhitic subgroup.[7]\nAn as alternative to or combination of the West Slavic and East Slavic languages into one group, due to the fact that the South Slavic dialects were geographically cut off by the Hungarian settlement of the Pannonian plain in the 9th century along with Austria and Romania being geographical barriers, in addition to the Black Sea.[8][9] Due to this geographical separation, the North Slavs and South Slavs developed independently of each other with noteworthy cultural differences; as such, various theorists claim that the language communities often grouped into West and East Slavic sub-branches share enough linguistic characteristics to be categorised together as North Slavs.[10][page needed] North Slavonic peoples today include the Belarusians, Czechs, Poles, Rusyns, Russians, Slovaks, Sorbs, and Ukrainians.[8] Ukrainian and Belarusian have both been hugely influenced by Polish in the past centuries due to their geographic and cultural proximity, as well as due to the Polonisation of the Ruthenian population of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[11]The greatest disparities within the Slavic language family are between South Slavic tongues and the rest of the Slavonic languages.[10][page needed]\nProfessor Michał Łesiów once said that \"there are no two languages in the Slavic area that were as equally close to each other as Polish and Ruthenian\".[12][clarification needed] According to Kostiantyn Tyshchenko, Ukrainian shares 70% common vocabulary with Polish and 66% with Slovak, which puts them both ahead of Russian (at 62%) in their lexical proximity to Ukrainian.[13][clarification needed] Furthermore, Tyschenko identified 82 grammatical and phonetic features of the Ukrainian tongue – Polish, Czech and Slovak share upwards of 20 of these characteristics with Ukrainian, whereas Russian apparently only 11.[14][clarification needed] In contrast to other dialects of Slovak, Eastern dialects (sometimes called Slovjak) are less intelligible with Czech and more with Polish and Rusyn.[15][clarification needed] Much overlap can be found between the Northwest and Northeast branches, as even some authors who use the West Slavic and East Slavic categories sometimes utilise the North Slav model instead where it is relevant.[16][17] Tomasz Kamusella writes that where linguistic continua are considered to start and end is usually dictated by politics rather than linguistics, which is the case among North Slavonic nations too.[18] Majority North Slavonic groups today include the Belarusians, Czechs, Kashubians, Poles, Silesians, Rusyns, Russians, Slovaks, Sorbs, and Ukrainians.[19][10][page needed][8] The language areas of the North Slavs and South Slavs have been separated by a broad zones containing three other language communities, namely German, Hungarian, and Romanian.[9]In terms of language, the greatest contrasts are evident between South Slavic tongues and the rest of the family.[10][page needed] Moreover, there are many exceptions and whole dialects that break the division of East and West Slavic languages.[20][page needed] According to this view, it makes more sense to divide the Slavs into two main linguistic groups: the North Slavs and the South Slavs, which can then be further categorised as the Northwest tongues (Czech, Kashubian, Polish, Silesian,[failed verification] Slovak, and Sorbian) and the Northeast ones (Belarusian, Russian, Rusyn,[failed verification] and Ukrainian)[17][page needed] – whereas the Southern branch is split into the widely accepted groups of the Southwest languages (Serbo-Croatian and Slovene) and the Southeast tongues (Bulgarian and Macedonian).[21][page needed] This model is argued as being more appropriate and linguistically accurate than the triple dissection of east, west and south.[20][page needed] Geographer O.T. Ford also writes of the Slavs being \"conventionally\" divided into three sub-branches (West, East, South), but \"in reality\" divided only by geographic isolation into two bands that form two dialect continua: North and South[8] – a view mirrored by linguist Tomasz Kamusella.[20][22] Tracing back to the Greek East and Latin West split in Late Antiquity, there are cultural divisions within the North Slavonic language family with regard to writing systems and religions: the West Slavic languages mostly use versions of the Latin script and have or historically had a Catholic-majority population, while the East Slavic languages are usually written in the Cyrillic script and have or historically had an Orthodox-majority population.[8] A similar east-west split exists for people speaking South Slavic languages in the Balkans, although the Latin script is spreading in countries where Serbo-Croatian is frequently spoken and the majority population is Orthodox, such as Montenegro.[8] The North Slavic and South Slavic-speaking territories are thus both generally geographically divided between Eastern and Western Christianity, and the great majority of all Eastern Orthodox believers in the world are found in the eastern parts of both the North Slavic and South Slavic areas, while a minority are Eastern-rite Catholics.[8]The concept has also been utilised in the archaeological studies as well as that of the pre-Christian beliefs of Slavic peoples in the Early Middle Ages by scholars in the 2010s.[23][24][clarification needed]","title":"Proposed subdivisions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Slavic languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_languages"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"alternative history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_history"},{"link_name":"Old Novgorodian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Novgorod_dialect"},{"link_name":"North Russian dialects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Russian_dialects"},{"link_name":"Russenorsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russenorsk"},{"link_name":"Uralic languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralic_languages"},{"link_name":"Baltic languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_languages"},{"link_name":"North Germanic languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Germanic_languages"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Ill Bethisad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ill_Bethisad"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Lydnevi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydnevi"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"\"North Slavic\" has been used as a name for several 20th- and 21st-century constructed languages forming a fictional North Slavic branch of the Slavic languages.[25] Their main inspiration is the lack of a North Slavic branch vis-à-vis the traditional West, East and South Slavic branches. Usually, they are part of a larger alternative history scheme and may be based on elements from Old Novgorodian or North Russian dialects, historical pidgins like Russenorsk or interference from non-Slavic languages such as the Uralic languages, the Baltic languages or the North Germanic languages.[26] The best-known examples of constructed North Slavic languages are:Sevorian (Sievrøsku, 1992), the language of a fictional island in the Baltic Sea;\nthree Uralic-inspired languages from the alternative history project Ill Bethisad:\nVozgian (Vŭozgašchai, 1996),\nNassian (Naŝica/Nasika, 2001) and\nSkuodian (2002); and\nNovegradian (Новеградескей лизике, Novegradeskej lizike, 2006), a project embedded in a highly elaborated fictional context.[27]Also included in the group of fictional North Slavic languages are five interrelated language projects (Seversk, Slavëni, Slavisk, Lydnevi, Mrezian) created around 2001 by Libor Sztemon, although they lack a fictional background and an explanation what exactly qualifies them as North Slavic.[28]","title":"Constructed languages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of Slavic studies journals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Slavic_studies_journals"},{"link_name":"The Slavonic languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=euI4CQAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"The Palgrave Handbook of Slavic Languages, Identities and Borders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=01LeCwAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781137348395","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781137348395"},{"link_name":"International Congress of Slavists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Congress_of_Slavists"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art208e.pdf"},{"link_name":"From Proto-Indo-European to Slavic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art066e.pdf"},{"link_name":"Östen Dahl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96sten_Dahl"}],"text":"See also: List of Slavic studies journalsComrie, Bernard; Corbett, Greville G., The Slavonic languages (London, 2003), pp. 75 & 114–120.\nDanylenko, Andrii, 2006, \"The 'Greek Accusative' vs. the 'New Slavic Accusative' in the Impersonal Environment: an Areal or Structural Discrepancy?\", in: Andrii Danylenko, \"Slavica et Islamica. Ukrainian in Context\". München: Otto Sagner Verlag, 243-265.\nHult, Arne, \"On the verbal morphology of the South Slavic languages (in comparison with the North Slavic languages, especially Russian\", Papers from First Conference on Formal Approaches to South Slavic Languages. Plovdiv October 1995. Dragvoll, University of Trondheim, Linguistics Department (= University of Trondheim. Working Papers in Linguistics 28), ss. 105-35. (23)\nKamusella, Tomasz; Nomachi, Motoki; Gibson, Catherine (2016). The Palgrave Handbook of Slavic Languages, Identities and Borders. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 561. ISBN 9781137348395.\nKortlandt, Frederik, \"Early dialectal diversity in South Slavic II\", in: Dutch Contributions to the Thirteenth International Congress of Slavists, Ljubljana: Linguistics (SSGL 30). Amsterdam – New York: Rodopi, 2003, 215-235. [1]\nKortlandt, Frederik, From Proto-Indo-European to Slavic\nTimberlake, Alan, 1978, \"On the History of the Velar Phonemes in North Slavic\" [in Russian with English synopsis]. In Henrik Birnbaum, ed., American Contributions to the Eighth International Congress of Slavists, vol. 1, Linguistics and Poetics. Columbus, OH: Slavica Publishers.\nTommola, Hannu, 2000, \"On the Perfect in North Slavic.\" Östen Dahl (ed.), Tense and Aspect in the Languages of Europe. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 441-478.","title":"Bibliography"}]
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[{"image_text":"In this map of Austria-Hungary from Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1890), Czechs, Moravians, Slovaks, Poles, and \"Ruthenians\" are marked as \"North-Slavs\", while other Slavic groups are marked as \"South-Slavs\".","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Meyers_b12_s0486a.jpg/220px-Meyers_b12_s0486a.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"South Germanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Germanic"}]
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[{"reference":"Gołąb, Zbigniew (1992). The Origins of the Slavs: A Linguist's View. Columbus, Ohio: Slavica Publishers. pp. 12–13. The present-day Slavic peoples are usually divided into the three following groups: West Slavic, East Slavic, and South Slavic. This division has both linguistic and historico-geographical justification, in the sense that on the one hand the respective Slavic languages show some old features which unite them into the above three groups, and on the other hand the pre- and early historical migrations of the respective Slavic peoples distributed them geographically in just this way.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/04GolabTheOriginsOfTheSlavs/The%20origins%20of%20the%20Slavs%20a%20linguist%27s%20view_djvu.txt","url_text":"The Origins of the Slavs: A Linguist's View"}]},{"reference":"Psychological Bulletin, Volume 3. American Psychological Association. 1906. p. 419.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Ruggd, Harold Ordway (1938). Our Country and Our People: An Introduction to American Civilization, Revised. Ginn. p. 157.","urls":[]},{"reference":"The Living Age, Volume 313. Living Age Company. 1922. pp. 194–195, 199.","urls":[]},{"reference":"O.T. Ford. \"Slavs\". the-stewardship.org. The Stewardship. Retrieved 2022-01-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://the-stewardship.org/research/reference/slavs.htm","url_text":"\"Slavs\""}]},{"reference":"Lunt, Horace G. (2001). Old Church Slavonic Grammar. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 183. doi:10.1515/9783110876888. ISBN 3110162849.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7BXJgfIo_fYC&pg=PA183","url_text":"Old Church Slavonic Grammar"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110876888","url_text":"10.1515/9783110876888"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3110162849","url_text":"3110162849"}]},{"reference":"Kamusella, Tomasz; Nomachi, Motoki; Gibson, Catherine (2016). The Palgrave Handbook of Slavic Languages, Identities and Borders. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781137348395.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781137348395","url_text":"9781137348395"}]},{"reference":"Serafin, Mikołaj (January 2015). \"Cultural Proximity of the Slavic Nations\" (PDF). Retrieved April 28, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/32675557","url_text":"\"Cultural Proximity of the Slavic Nations\""}]},{"reference":"Tyschenko, Kostiantyn. \"Мови Європи: відстані між мовами за словниковим складом\". Archived from the original on May 1, 2015. Retrieved April 29, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150501234649/http://langs.com.ua/movy/zapoz/2.htm","url_text":"\"Мови Європи: відстані між мовами за словниковим складом\""},{"url":"http://langs.com.ua/movy/zapoz/2.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Štolc, Jozef (1994). Slovenská dialektológia [Slovak dialectology]. Bratislava: Veda.: Ed. I. Ripka.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Dickey, Stephen M. (2010). \"Chapter 3: Common Slavic \"indeterminate\" verbs of motion were really manner-of-motion verbs*\". In Perelmutter, Renee; Hasko, Victoria (eds.). New Approaches to Slavic Verbs of Motion. John Benjamins. pp. 67–110. ISBN 9789027205827.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789027205827","url_text":"9789027205827"}]},{"reference":"Bethin, Christina Y. (1998). Slavic Prosody: Language Change and Phonological Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521591485.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=xN_8himuvQYC","url_text":"Slavic Prosody: Language Change and Phonological Theory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521591485","url_text":"9780521591485"}]},{"reference":"Kamusella, Tomasz (2012). The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central Europe. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave. p. 34. 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Retrieved 2022-06-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/28396921","url_text":"\"The Triple Division of the Slavic Languages: A Linguistic Finding, a Product of Politics, or an Accident?\""}]},{"reference":"Mareš, František Václav (1980). \"Die Tetrachotomie und doppelte Dichotomie der slavischen Sprachen\". Wiener Slavistisches Jahrbuch (26): 33–45.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Kamusella, Tomasz (2010). \"Central Europe from a Linguistic Viewpoint\". Age of Globalization (2): 22–30. Retrieved 2022-06-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/21941714","url_text":"\"Central Europe from a Linguistic Viewpoint\""}]},{"reference":"Kajkowski, Kamil (2015). \"The Dog in Pagan Beliefs of Early Medieval North-Western Slavs\". Analecta Archaeologica Ressoviensia. 10: 199–240. Retrieved 2022-06-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/26614680","url_text":"\"The Dog in Pagan Beliefs of Early Medieval North-Western Slavs\""}]},{"reference":"Szczepanik, Paweł; Wadyl, Sławomir (2012). \"Uwagi o przestrzeni sakralnej północno-zachodniej słowiańszczyzny i Prus we wczesnym średniowieczu\". Analecta Archaeologica Ressoviensia. VII: 37–65. Retrieved 2022-06-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/4006717","url_text":"\"Uwagi o przestrzeni sakralnej północno-zachodniej słowiańszczyzny i Prus we wczesnym średniowieczu\""}]},{"reference":"Berger, Tilman (2004). \"Vom Erfinden Slavischer Sprachen\". In M. Okoka; U. Schweier (eds.). Germano-Slavistische Beiträge. Festschrift für P. Rehder zum 65. Geburtstag (PDF) (in German). München. pp. 19–28.","urls":[{"url":"http://homepages.uni-tuebingen.de/tilman.berger/Publikationen/BergerPlansprachen.pdf","url_text":"Germano-Slavistische Beiträge. Festschrift für P. Rehder zum 65. Geburtstag"}]},{"reference":"Mannewitz, Cornelia (2011). \"Nordslawisch\". In Cyril Brosch; Sabine Fiedler (eds.). Florilegium Interlinguisticum. Festschrift für Detlev Blanke zum 70. Geburtstag (in German). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang GmbH Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften. pp. 237–238. ISBN 978-3-631-61328-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-631-61328-3","url_text":"978-3-631-61328-3"}]},{"reference":"Barandovská-Frank, Věra (2020). Interlingvistiko. Enkonduko en la sciencon pri planlingvoj (PDF) (in Esperanto). Poznań: Wydawnictwo Rys. p. 309. ISBN 978-83-65483-88-1.","urls":[{"url":"http://interl.home.amu.edu.pl/interlingvistiko/Barandovska_Interlingvistiko_enkonduko.pdf","url_text":"Interlingvistiko. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luc_Brisson
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Luc Brisson
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["1 Life","2 Works","2.1 English translations","2.2 Original French works","2.3 Translations of Plato","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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Canadian scholar
Luc BrissonBorn(1946-03-10)March 10, 1946Saint-Esprit, Quebec, CanadaOccupationHistorian of philosophyAwardsCNRS Bronze medalHonorsFellow of Lincean Academy and Royal Society of Canada
Luc Brisson (born 10 March 1946 in Saint-Esprit, Quebec) is a Canadian (and from 1986 also French) historian of philosophy and anthropologist of antiquity. He is emeritus director of research at the CNRS in France, and is considered by some of his colleagues and students to be the greatest contemporary scholar on Platonism.
Life
Brisson was born in a small agricultural village in Québec in 1946. All his education was received in the ecclesiastically administered and staffed schools, seminaries, and universities of Québec. At the end of the sixties he joined the general movement of Québec students to Paris, where he undertook a thesis on the Timaeus of Plato, under the direction of Clémence Ramnoux at Paris X Nanterre. During 1971-1972 he was a visiting scholar at Balliol College, Oxford. His studies include several years of Sanskrit. Upon the completion of his Ph.D. thesis, and through the support of Jean Pépin, who shared his interest in the ancient treatment of myth, Brisson was attached to the CNRS in 1974. In 1975 he was awarded the Zographos Prize for his systematic commentary on Timaeus, Le Même et l’Autre dans la structure ontologique du Timée de Platon.
Despite his wider philosophical interests, he says that “I can be defined as ‘an historian of philosophy’ whose domain of research is Plato and Platonism.” His historical work includes several studies of Neoplatonism including new French translations of Plotinus.
Brisson’s range and quantity of publications has been very large, but the topic of the relation between myth and reason has dominated. At home neither in Québec nor in France, Brisson feels himself to be a kind of Platonic “nomad.” For him, as for Pierre Hadot, philosophy is “a spiritual exercise destined to transform the life of the individual who gives himself up to it.”
Works
English translations
Inventing the Universe: Plato's Timaeus, the Big Bang, and the Problem of Scientific Knowledge, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995.
Plato the Myth Maker, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. ISBN 9782707113269.
Sexual ambivalence: Androgyny and Hermaphroditism in Graeco-Roman Antiquity, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
How Philosophers Saved Myths: Allegorical Interpretation and Classical Mythology, University of Chicago Press, 2008. ISBN 9780226075389.
Plato's Philebus: selected papers from the Eighth Symposium Platonicum, with John M. Dillon, Sankt Augustin: Academia, 2010.
Dialogues on Plato's Politeia (Republic): selected papers from the Ninth Symposium Platonicum, with Noburu Notomi, Sankt Augustin: Academia Verlag, 2013.
Neoplatonic Demons and Angels, Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2018.
Original French works
Le mythe de Tirésias, essai d’analyse structurale, Leiden, Brill, 1976
Éros, París, Flammarion, 1980
Lectures de Platon. Paris, J. Vrin, 2000. ISBN 2-7116-1455-7.
Orphée et l’orphisme dans l’Antiquité greco-romaine, Londres, Variorum, 1995. ISBN 9780860784531.
Puissance et limites de la raison. Le probleme des valeurs, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1995, with Walter Meyerstein
Poèmes magiques et cosmopologiques / Orphée, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1995
Le sexe incertain: androgynie et hermaphrodisme dans l’antiquité gréco-romaine, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1997. ISBN 9782251324258.
Matière et devenir dans les philosophies anciennes, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 2003, joint volume.
Etudes platoniciennes VI, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2004, with Jean-François Pradeau.
Lectures de Platon, Paris, Vrin, 2000. ISBN 9782711614554.
Platon 1990-1995: Bibliographie, Paris, J. Vrin, 1999. ISBN 2-7116-1412-3, with Frédéric Plin.
Introduction a la Philosophie du mythe I et II, Paris, Vrin, 1997–2000, with Christoph Jamme.
Les écrits socratiques de Xénophon, Paris, Presse Universitaire de France, 2004. ISBN 978-2-251-42049-3.
Platon 1995-2000: Bibliographie, Paris, J. Vrin, 2007. ISBN 2-7116-1698-3, with B. Castelnerac and F. Plin.
Le même et l'autre dans la structure ontologique du Timée de Platon. Un commentaire systématique du Timée de Platon, Paris, Klincksieck, 1974 (4th edn, with an added bibliography 1998–2015, Sankt Augustin Academia Verlag, 2015).
See the French Wikipedia article for a comprehensive list.
Translations of Plato
Lettres, Paris, Flammarion, 1987. (GF ; 466).
Apologie de Socrate. Criton, 3rd ed., Paris, Flammarion, 2005. ISBN 2-08-070848-1.
Timée. Critias; 2nd ed., Paris, Garnier-Flammarion, 1995. ISBN 2-08-070618-7.
Parménide, Paris, Garnier-Flammarion, 1994. ISBN 2-08-070688-8.
Le banquet, 4th ed., Paris, Flammarion, 2005. ISBN 2-08-070987-9.
Phèdre, 6th ed., together with La pharmacie de Platon by Jacques Derrida. Paris, Flammarion, 2004. ISBN 2-08-070488-5.
Le politique, Paris, Flammarion, 2003. (ISBN 2-08-071156-3, with Jean-François Pradeau.
Les lois. I-VI, Paris, Flammarion, 2006. ISBN 2-08-071059-1 with Jean-François Pradeau.
Les lois. VII-XII; Paris, Flammarion, 2006. ISBN 2-08-071257-8, with Jean-François Pradeau.
Œuvres complètes in one volume, Luc Brisson (ed.), Flammarion, 2011. ISBN 978-2-0812-4937-0.
Apologie de Socrate, Criton: traductions, introductions, notes, chronologie et bibliographies (5th corrected and updated edn), Flammarion, 2017. ISBN 978-2-0814-1602-4
See also
Diophantus of Abae
References
^ Author page at the University of Chicago Press. Personal page at CNRS.
^ “Le plus grand spécialiste de Platon”.
^ Personal page at CNRS.
^ “One Hundred Years of Neoplatonism in France: A Brief Philosophical History”, by Wayne Hankey, in Studies in Philosophical Theology, Leuven/Paris/Dudley, MA: Peeters, 2006, pp. 97-248.
^ One Hundred Years of Neoplatonism in France.
External links
CNRS personal page.
Online lecture: « L'actualité de Platon ».
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Norway
Spain
France
BnF data
Catalonia
Germany
Israel
Belgium
United States
Latvia
Czech Republic
Greece
Korea
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
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Paris, J. Vrin, 2000. ISBN 2-7116-1455-7.\nOrphée et l’orphisme dans l’Antiquité greco-romaine, Londres, Variorum, 1995. ISBN 9780860784531.\nPuissance et limites de la raison. Le probleme des valeurs, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1995, with Walter Meyerstein\nPoèmes magiques et cosmopologiques / Orphée, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1995\nLe sexe incertain: androgynie et hermaphrodisme dans l’antiquité gréco-romaine, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1997. ISBN 9782251324258.\nMatière et devenir dans les philosophies anciennes, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 2003, joint volume.\nEtudes platoniciennes VI, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2004, with Jean-François Pradeau.\nLectures de Platon, Paris, Vrin, 2000. ISBN 9782711614554.\nPlaton 1990-1995: Bibliographie, Paris, J. Vrin, 1999. ISBN 2-7116-1412-3, with Frédéric Plin.\nIntroduction a la Philosophie du mythe I et II, Paris, Vrin, 1997–2000, with Christoph Jamme.\nLes écrits socratiques de Xénophon, Paris, Presse Universitaire de France, 2004. ISBN 978-2-251-42049-3.\nPlaton 1995-2000: Bibliographie, Paris, J. Vrin, 2007. ISBN 2-7116-1698-3, with B. Castelnerac and F. Plin.\nLe même et l'autre dans la structure ontologique du Timée de Platon. Un commentaire systématique du Timée de Platon, Paris, Klincksieck, 1974 (4th edn, with an added bibliography 1998–2015, Sankt Augustin Academia Verlag, 2015).See the French Wikipedia article for a comprehensive list.","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2-08-070848-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-08-070848-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2-08-070618-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-08-070618-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2-08-070688-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-08-070688-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2-08-070987-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-08-070987-9"},{"link_name":"Jacques Derrida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Derrida"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2-08-070488-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-08-070488-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2-08-071156-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-08-071156-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2-08-071059-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-08-071059-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2-08-071257-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-08-071257-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-2-0812-4937-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-0812-4937-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-2-0814-1602-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-0814-1602-4"}],"sub_title":"Translations of Plato","text":"Lettres, Paris, Flammarion, 1987. (GF ; 466).\nApologie de Socrate. Criton, 3rd ed., Paris, Flammarion, 2005. ISBN 2-08-070848-1.\nTimée. Critias; 2nd ed., Paris, Garnier-Flammarion, 1995. ISBN 2-08-070618-7.\nParménide, Paris, Garnier-Flammarion, 1994. ISBN 2-08-070688-8.\nLe banquet, 4th ed., Paris, Flammarion, 2005. ISBN 2-08-070987-9.\nPhèdre, 6th ed., together with La pharmacie de Platon by Jacques Derrida. Paris, Flammarion, 2004. ISBN 2-08-070488-5.\nLe politique, Paris, Flammarion, 2003. (ISBN 2-08-071156-3, with Jean-François Pradeau.\nLes lois. I-VI, Paris, Flammarion, 2006. ISBN 2-08-071059-1 with Jean-François Pradeau.\nLes lois. VII-XII; Paris, Flammarion, 2006. ISBN 2-08-071257-8, with Jean-François Pradeau.\nŒuvres complètes in one volume, Luc Brisson (ed.), Flammarion, 2011. ISBN 978-2-0812-4937-0.\nApologie de Socrate, Criton: traductions, introductions, notes, chronologie et bibliographies (5th corrected and updated edn), Flammarion, 2017. ISBN 978-2-0814-1602-4","title":"Works"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Diophantus of Abae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantus_of_Abae"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Internet_usage
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Global Internet usage
|
["1 Internet users","2 Broadband usage","3 Internet hosts","4 Web index","5 IPv4 addresses","6 Languages","7 Censorship and surveillance","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]
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Estimates of how many people use the Internet
This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: too many images and lack of summaries when describing child articles. Please help improve this article if you can. (June 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Global Internet usage is the number of people who use the Internet worldwide.
Internet users
Main article: List of countries by number of Internet users
In 2015, the International Telecommunication Union estimated about 3.2 billion people, or almost half of the world's population, would be online by the end of the year. Of them, about 2 billion would be from developing countries, including 89 million from least developed countries. According to Hootsuite, the number of Global Internet users has already reached almost 5 billion, or about 53% of the global population as of 2021. The flat world of information has been created thanks to the Internet and globalization. This phenomenon allows individuals to have access to cultural and ideological beliefs without having to go to other countries, resulting in immobile acculturation.
Internet users per 100 inhabitantsSource: International Telecommunication Union.
Worldwide Internet users
2005
2010
2017
2023
World population (billions)
6.5
6.9
7.4
8.0
Worldwide
16%
30%
48%
67%
In developing world
8%
21%
41.3%
60%
In developed world
51%
67%
81%
93%
Internet users by region
Region
2005
2010
2017
2023
Africa
2%
10%
21.8%
37%
Americas
36%
49%
65.9%
87%
Arab States
8%
26%
43.7%
69%
Asia and Pacific
9%
23%
43.9%
66%
Commonwealth ofIndependent States
10%
34%
67.7%
89%
Europe
46%
67%
79.6%
91%
Internet users in 2015 as a percentage of a country's populationSource: International Telecommunication Union.
Number of Internet users in 2012Source: International Telecommunication Union.
These maps illustrate the growth in the percentage of individuals using the Internet from 1990 to 2014.
Number of Internet users in 2011This map illustrates the total number of Internet users in a country as well as the percentage of the population that had Internet access in 2011.Source: Information Geographies at the Oxford Internet Institute.
Global internet access graph, 2000–2018
Broadband usage
Main article: List of sovereign states by number of broadband Internet subscriptions
Worldwide broadband subscriptions
Users
2007
2010
2016
2019
World population
6.6 billion
6.9 billion
7.3 billion
7.75 billion
Fixed broadband
5%
8%
11.9%
14.5%
Developing world
2%
4%
8.2%
11.2%
Developed world
18%
24%
30.1%
33.6%
Mobile broadband
4%
11%
49.4%
83%
Developing world
1%
4%
40.9%
75.2%
Developed world
19%
43%
90.3%
121.7%
Broadband subscriptions by region
Subscription
Place
2007
2010
2014
2019
Fixed
Africa
0.1%
0.2%
0.4%
0.4%
Americas
11%
14%
17%
22%
Arab States
1%
2%
3%
8.1%
Asia and Pacific
3%
6%
8%
14.4%
Commonwealth ofIndependent States
2%
8%
14%
19.8%
Europe
18%
24%
28%
31.9%
Mobile
Africa
0.2%
2%
19%
34%
Americas
6%
23%
59%
104.4%
Arab States
0.8%
5%
25%
67.3%
Asia and Pacific
3%
7%
23%
89%
Commonwealth ofIndependent States
0.2%
22%
49%
85.4%
Europe
15%
29%
64%
97.4%
Fixed broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012as a percentage of a country's populationSource: International Telecommunication Union.
Mobile broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012as a percentage of a country's populationSource: International Telecommunication Union.
Broadband affordability in 2011This map presents an overview of broadband affordability, as the relationship between average yearly income per capita and the cost of a broadband subscription (data referring to 2011).Source: Information Geographies at the Oxford Internet Institute.
Internet hosts
Main article: List of sovereign states by number of Internet hosts
The Internet Systems Consortium provides account for the number of the worldwide number of IPv4 hosts (see below). On 2019 this internet domain survey was discontinued as it does not account of IPv6 hosts, and therefore might be misleading.
Source: Internet Systems Consortium.
Web index
Main article: Web Index
The Web index is a composite statistic designed and produced by the World Wide Web Foundation. It provides a multi-dimensional measure of the World Wide Web's contribution to development and human rights globally. It covers 86 countries as of 2014, the latest year for which the index has been compiled. It incorporates indicators that assess the areas of universal access, freedom and openness, relevant content, and empowerment, which indicate economic, social, and political impacts of the Web.
Map showing the score of the countries included in the Web index.
IPv4 addresses
Main articles: Carna botnet and List of countries by IPv4 address allocation
The Carna Botnet was a botnet of 420,000 devices created by hackers to measure the extent of the Internet in what the creators called the "Internet Census of 2012".
World map of 24-hour relative average utilization of IPv4 addresses observed using ICMP ping requests as part of the Internet Census of 2012 (Carna Botnet), June – October 2012. Key: from red (high), to yellow, green (average), light blue, and dark blue (low).
Languages
Main article: Languages used on the Internet
Content languages for websites
Percentage of Internet users by language
Censorship and surveillance
Main article: Internet censorship and surveillance by country
Internet censorship and surveillance by country (2018) Pervasive censorship and/or surveillance Substantial censorship and/or surveillance Selective censorship and/or surveillance Little or no censorship and/or surveillance Not classified / No data Sources: Freedom on the Net, OpenNet Initiative, Reporters Without Borders.
Main article: Censorship of YouTube
YouTube blocking by country Accessible, has local YouTube version Accessible Blocked Previously blocked
See also
A4AI: affordability threshold
Digital rights
Internet access
Internet traffic
List of sovereign states by Internet connection speeds
List of countries by number of mobile phones in use
List of social networking services
Zettabyte Era
References
^ "Internet used by 3.2 billion people in 2015". BBC News. 26 May 2015. Archived from the original on 18 September 2020. Retrieved 21 July 2018 – via bbc.com.
^ http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ICTFactsFigures2015.pdf Archived 2015-08-12 at the Wayback Machine
^ Kemp, Simon (20 October 2020). "Digital 2020: October Global Statshot". Datareportal. Hootsuite. Archived from the original on November 18, 2020. Retrieved November 30, 2020.
^ Vuong, Quan-Hoang; Napier, Nancy K. (27 November 2015). "Acculturation and global mindsponge: An emerging market perspective". International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 49: 354–367. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.06.003.
^ "Individuals using the Internet 2005 to 2014" Archived 2015-05-28 at the Wayback Machine, Key ICT indicators for developed and developing countries and the world (totals and penetration rates), International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Retrieve 25 May 2015.
^ "Internet users per 100 inhabitants 1997 to 2007", ICT Data and Statistics (IDS), International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Retrieved 25 May 2015. Archived May 17, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
^ a b "Measuring digital development: Facts and figures 2023". Telecommunication Development Bureau, International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Retrieved 2024-06-14.
^ "Total Midyear Population for the World: 1950-2050"". International Programs Center for Demographic and Economic Studies, U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 2017-04-17. Retrieved 2020-02-28.
^ a b "Percentage of Individuals using the Internet 2000–2012" Archived 2014-02-09 at the Wayback Machine, International Telecommunication Union (Geneva), June 2013. Retrieved 22 June 2013
^ "World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators Database". United Nations. Archived from the original on 2017-09-15. Retrieved 2017-09-15.
^ "Internet Population and Penetration 2011" Archived 2014-06-14 at the Wayback Machine, Information Geographies at the Oxford Internet Institute.
^ "Measuring digital development: Facts and figures 2019". Telecommunication Development Bureau, International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Retrieved 2020-02-28.
^ Estimate.
^ "Total Midyear Population for the World: 1950-2050"". International Programs Center for Demographic and Economic Studies, U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 2017-04-17. Retrieved 2020-02-28.
^ "Measuring digital development: Facts and figures 2019". Telecommunication Development Bureau, International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Retrieved 2020-02-28.
^ Estimate
^ "Fixed (wired)-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 2012" Archived 2019-07-26 at the Wayback Machine, Dynamic Report, ITU ITC EYE, International Telecommunication Union. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
^ "Active mobile-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 2012" Archived 2019-07-26 at the Wayback Machine, Dynamic Report, ITU ITC EYE, International Telecommunication Union. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
^ "Broadband affordability" Archived 2014-06-14 at the Wayback Machine, Information Geographies at the Oxford Internet Institute.
^ Reid, Brian (26 August 2019). "ISC terminates long-running IPv4 Domain Survey, looks towards IPv6". www.isc.org. Archived from the original on 29 June 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
^ "Internet host count history" Archived 2012-05-18 at the Wayback Machine, Internet Systems Consortium. Retrieved September 2011
^ "Web Index 2014 data". World Wide Web Foundation. Archived from the original on 16 May 2020. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
^ "Web Index – taking a break in 2015". World Wide Web Foundation. 24 November 2014. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
^ Stöcker, Christian; Horchert, Judith (2013-03-22). "Mapping the Internet: A Hacker's Secret Internet Census". Der Spiegel. Archived from the original on 2015-10-02. Retrieved 2013-06-08.
^ Kleinman, Alexis (2013-03-22). "The Most Detailed, GIF-Based Map of the Internet Was Made By Hacking 420,000 Computers". HuffPost. Archived from the original on 2015-09-27. Retrieved 2013-06-08.
^ "Internet Census 2012: Port scanning /0 using insecure embedded devices" Archived 2015-10-13 at the Wayback Machine, Carna Botnet, 2012
^ "Usage of content languages for websites". W3Techs.com. Archived from the original on 18 April 2010. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
^ "Number of Internet Users by Language" Archived 2012-04-26 at the Wayback Machine, Internet World Stats, Miniwatts Marketing Group, 31 May 2011. Retrieved 22 April 2012
^ "Freedom on the Net 2018" (PDF). Freedom House. November 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 November 2018. Retrieved 1 November 2018.
^ OpenNet Initiative "Summarized global Internet filtering data spreadsheet" Archived 2012-01-10 at the Wayback Machine, 8 November 2011 and "Country Profiles" Archived 2011-08-26 at the Wayback Machine, the OpenNet Initiative is a collaborative partnership of the Citizen Lab at the Munk School of Global Affairs, University of Toronto; the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University; and the SecDev Group, Ottawa
^ Due to legal concerns the OpenNet Initiative does not check for filtering of child pornography and because their classifications focus on technical filtering, they do not include other types of censorship.
^ "Internet Enemies" Archived 2014-03-12 at the Wayback Machine, Enemies of the Internet 2014: Entities at the heart of censorship and surveillance, Reporters Without Borders (Paris), 11 March 2014. Retrieved 24 June 2014.
^ Internet Enemies Archived 2012-03-23 at the Wayback Machine, Reporters Without Borders (Paris), 12 March 2012
External links
"ICT Data and Statistics", International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
Internet Live Stats, Real Time Statistics Project.
Internet World Stats: Usage and Population Statistics, Miniwatts Marketing Group.
"40 maps that explain the internet", Timothy B. Lee, Vox Media, 2 June 2014.
"Information Geographies", Oxford Internet Institute.
"Internet Monitor", a research project of the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University to evaluate, describe, and summarize the means, mechanisms, and extent of Internet access, content controls and activity around the world.
vteInternet in Africa Sovereign states
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Republic of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Eswatini
Ethiopia
Gabon
The Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Ivory Coast
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
São Tomé and Príncipe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Sudan
Tanzania
Togo
Tunisia
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
States with limitedrecognition
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Somaliland
Dependencies andother territories
Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla (Spain)
Madeira (Portugal)
Mayotte / Réunion (France)
Saint Helena / Ascension Island / Tristan da Cunha (United Kingdom)
vteInternet in the Americas
United States and Canada
Latin America and the Caribbean
Regions
Latin America
Hispanic
North America
Northern
Caribbean
Central America
South America
Sovereign states
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Canada
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
El Salvador
Grenada
Guatemala
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
Uruguay
Venezuela
Dependencies andother territories
Anguilla
Aruba
Bermuda
Bonaire
British Virgin Islands
Cayman Islands
Curaçao
Falkland Islands
French Guiana
Greenland
Guadeloupe
Martinique
Montserrat
Puerto Rico
Saba
Saint Barthélemy
Saint Martin
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Sint Eustatius
Sint Maarten
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Turks and Caicos Islands
U.S. Virgin Islands
vteInternet in AsiaSovereign states
Afghanistan
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
East Timor (Timor-Leste)
Egypt
Georgia
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
North Korea
South Korea
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Lebanon
Malaysia
Maldives
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
Philippines
Qatar
Russia
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syria
Tajikistan
Thailand
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Vietnam
Yemen
States withlimited recognition
Abkhazia
Northern Cyprus
Palestine
South Ossetia
Taiwan
Dependencies andother territories
British Indian Ocean Territory
Christmas Island
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Hong Kong
Macau
Category
Asia portal
vteInternet in EuropeSovereign states
Albania
Andorra
Armenia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Georgia
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Kazakhstan
Latvia
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Moldova
Monaco
Montenegro
Netherlands
North Macedonia
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
San Marino
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
Ukraine
United Kingdom
States with limitedrecognition
Abkhazia
Kosovo
Northern Cyprus
South Ossetia
Transnistria
Dependencies andother entities
Åland
Faroe Islands
Gibraltar
Guernsey
Isle of Man
Jersey
Svalbard
Other entities
European Union
vteInternet in OceaniaSovereign states
Australia
Federated States of Micronesia
Fiji
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Nauru
New Zealand
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
Associated statesof New Zealand
Cook Islands
Niue
Dependenciesand other territories
American Samoa
Christmas Island
Clipperton Island
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Easter Island
French Polynesia
Guam
Hawaii
New Caledonia
Norfolk Island
Northern Mariana Islands
Pitcairn Islands
Tokelau
Wallis and Futuna
vteLists of countries by mass media rankingsIndices
e-Government
Government Broadband Index
ICT Development Index
Networked Readiness Index
Internet
Broadband
Censorship and surveillance
Connection speed
Hosts
IPv4 addresses
Users
Phones
4G LTE penetration
Smartphones
Mobile banking
Mobile phones
Telephone lines
Other
Books published
Television stations
List of international rankings
Lists by country
vteInternet censorship and surveillance by countryAfrica
Algeria
Angola
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Central African Republic
Chad
Congo DR
Congo RO
Egypt
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Ivory Coast
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mauritania
Morocco (Western Sahara)
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Tunisia
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Americas
Argentina
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Canada
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
El Salvador
Greenland
Guatemala
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
Puerto Rico
Uruguay
Venezuela
Asia
Afghanistan
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Cambodia
China
East Timor
Hong Kong
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Malaysia
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
North Korea
Oman
Pakistan
Palestinian territories
Philippines
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
South Korea
Sri Lanka
Syria
Taiwan
Tajikistan
Thailand
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Vietnam
Yemen
Europe
Albania
Armenia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany (YouTube video blocking)
Georgia
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Kazakhstan
Latvia
Lithuania
Moldova
Montenegro
Netherlands
North Macedonia
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
Ukraine
United Kingdom
Oceania
Australia
Fiji
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
vteCensorship and websitesCensorship of
Chinese censorship abroad
Facebook
File sharing sites
GitHub
iTunes Store
The Pirate Bay
TikTok
in the United States
Twitter
Wikipedia
in China
in Russia
in Turkey
in Venezuela
YouTube
in Germany
Censorship by
AOL
Apple
Cisco in China
Facebook
TikTok
Twitter
Yahoo
Google
YouTube
Microsoft in China
Skype in China
Myspace
in China
Websites blocked in
Belgium
Mainland China
list
India
Russia
list
South Korea
North Korean websites
Syria
Turkey
United Kingdom
Web blocking
list
United States
Singapore
List
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"}],"text":"Global Internet usage is the number of people who use the Internet worldwide.","title":"Global Internet usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International Telecommunication Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union"},{"link_name":"least developed countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_developed_country"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Hootsuite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hootsuite"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-digital2020OctStatshot-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Internet_users_per_100_inhabitants_ITU.svg"},{"link_name":"International Telecommunication Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Percentage_of_individuals_using_the_Internet_1990-2014.gif"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:InternetPopulation2011_DeSabbata_Graham_OII.png"},{"link_name":"Oxford Internet Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Internet_Institute"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-InternetPopulation2011-11"}],"text":"In 2015, the International Telecommunication Union estimated about 3.2 billion people, or almost half of the world's population, would be online by the end of the year. Of them, about 2 billion would be from developing countries, including 89 million from least developed countries.[1][2] According to Hootsuite, the number of Global Internet users has already reached almost 5 billion, or about 53% of the global population as of 2021.[3] The flat world of information has been created thanks to the Internet and globalization. This phenomenon allows individuals to have access to cultural and ideological beliefs without having to go to other countries, resulting in immobile acculturation.[4]Internet users per 100 inhabitantsSource: International Telecommunication Union.[5][6]These maps illustrate the growth in the percentage of individuals using the Internet from 1990 to 2014.[10]Number of Internet users in 2011This map illustrates the total number of Internet users in a country as well as the percentage of the population that had Internet access in 2011.Source: Information Geographies at the Oxford Internet Institute.[11]Global internet access graph, 2000–2018","title":"Internet users"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Broadband_Affordability.png"},{"link_name":"Oxford Internet Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Internet_Institute"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BroadbandAffordability2011-19"}],"text":"Broadband affordability in 2011This map presents an overview of broadband affordability, as the relationship between average yearly income per capita and the cost of a broadband subscription (data referring to 2011).Source: Information Geographies at the Oxford Internet Institute.[19]","title":"Broadband usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Internet Systems Consortium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Systems_Consortium"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Internet_Hosts_Count_log.svg"},{"link_name":"Internet Systems Consortium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Systems_Consortium"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"The Internet Systems Consortium provides account for the number of the worldwide number of IPv4 hosts (see below). On 2019 this internet domain survey was discontinued as it does not account of IPv6 hosts, and therefore might be misleading.[20]Source: Internet Systems Consortium.[21]","title":"Internet hosts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World Wide Web Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Foundation"},{"link_name":"World Wide Web","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"indicators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_indicator"},{"link_name":"universal access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_design"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_Map_of_Web_Index_2014.svg"}],"text":"The Web index is a composite statistic designed and produced by the World Wide Web Foundation. It provides a multi-dimensional measure of the World Wide Web's contribution to development and human rights globally. It covers 86 countries as of 2014, the latest year for which the index has been compiled.[22][23] It incorporates indicators that assess the areas of universal access, freedom and openness, relevant content, and empowerment, which indicate economic, social, and political impacts of the Web.Map showing the score of the countries included in the Web index.","title":"Web index"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"botnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botnet"},{"link_name":"hackers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker_(hobbyist)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carnabotnet_geovideo_lowres.gif"},{"link_name":"ICMP ping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ping_(networking_utility)"},{"link_name":"Internet Census of 2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Census_of_2012"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"The Carna Botnet was a botnet of 420,000 devices created by hackers to measure the extent of the Internet in what the creators called the \"Internet Census of 2012\".[24][25]World map of 24-hour relative average utilization of IPv4 addresses observed using ICMP ping requests as part of the Internet Census of 2012 (Carna Botnet), June – October 2012.[26] Key: from red (high), to yellow, green (average), light blue, and dark blue (low).","title":"IPv4 addresses"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Languages"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Internet_Censorship_and_Surveillance_World_Map.svg"},{"link_name":"Internet censorship and surveillance by country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_censorship_and_surveillance_by_country"},{"link_name":"Freedom on the Net","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_House#Freedom_on_the_Net"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOTN-2018-29"},{"link_name":"OpenNet Initiative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenNet_Initiative"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ONISS-Nov2011-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ONIChildPornLegal-31"},{"link_name":"Reporters Without Borders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reporters_Without_Borders"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RWBEnemies2014-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RWBEnemies-33"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:YouTube_world_map_May_2016_Update.svg"},{"link_name":"YouTube blocking by country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censorship_of_YouTube"}],"text":"Internet censorship and surveillance by country (2018) Pervasive censorship and/or surveillance Substantial censorship and/or surveillance Selective censorship and/or surveillance Little or no censorship and/or surveillance Not classified / No data Sources: Freedom on the Net,[29] OpenNet Initiative,[30][31] Reporters Without Borders.[32][33]YouTube blocking by country Accessible, has local YouTube version Accessible Blocked Previously blocked","title":"Censorship and surveillance"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Internet users per 100 inhabitantsSource: International Telecommunication Union.[5][6] ","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Internet_users_per_100_inhabitants_ITU.svg/650px-Internet_users_per_100_inhabitants_ITU.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Internet users in 2015 as a percentage of a country's populationSource: International Telecommunication Union.[9]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/InternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg/400px-InternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Number of Internet users in 2012Source: International Telecommunication Union.[9]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/InternetUsersWorldMap_2013.svg/400px-InternetUsersWorldMap_2013.svg.png"},{"image_text":"These maps illustrate the growth in the percentage of individuals using the Internet from 1990 to 2014.[10]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Percentage_of_individuals_using_the_Internet_1990-2014.gif"},{"image_text":"Number of Internet users in 2011This map illustrates the total number of Internet users in a country as well as the percentage of the population that had Internet access in 2011.Source: Information Geographies at the Oxford Internet Institute.[11]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/InternetPopulation2011_DeSabbata_Graham_OII.png/400px-InternetPopulation2011_DeSabbata_Graham_OII.png"},{"image_text":"Global internet access graph, 2000–2018"},{"image_text":"Fixed broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012as a percentage of a country's populationSource: International Telecommunication Union.[17]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/FixedBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg/400px-FixedBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Mobile broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012as a percentage of a country's populationSource: International Telecommunication Union.[18]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/MobileBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap_2013.svg/400px-MobileBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap_2013.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Broadband affordability in 2011This map presents an overview of broadband affordability, as the relationship between average yearly income per capita and the cost of a broadband subscription (data referring to 2011).Source: Information Geographies at the Oxford Internet Institute.[19]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Broadband_Affordability.png/400px-Broadband_Affordability.png"},{"image_text":"Source: Internet Systems Consortium.[21]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Internet_Hosts_Count_log.svg/600px-Internet_Hosts_Count_log.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Map showing the score of the countries included in the Web index.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/World_Map_of_Web_Index_2014.svg/600px-World_Map_of_Web_Index_2014.svg.png"},{"image_text":"World map of 24-hour relative average utilization of IPv4 addresses observed using ICMP ping requests as part of the Internet Census of 2012 (Carna Botnet), June – October 2012.[26] Key: from red (high), to yellow, green (average), light blue, and dark blue (low).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Carnabotnet_geovideo_lowres.gif"},{"image_text":"Content languages for websites[27]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/WebsitesByLanguagePieChart.svg/400px-WebsitesByLanguagePieChart.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Percentage of Internet users by language[28]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/InternetUsersByLanguagePieChart.svg/400px-InternetUsersByLanguagePieChart.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Internet censorship and surveillance by country (2018) Pervasive censorship and/or surveillance Substantial censorship and/or surveillance Selective censorship and/or surveillance Little or no censorship and/or surveillance Not classified / No data Sources: Freedom on the Net,[29] OpenNet Initiative,[30][31] Reporters Without Borders.[32][33]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Internet_Censorship_and_Surveillance_World_Map.svg/600px-Internet_Censorship_and_Surveillance_World_Map.svg.png"},{"image_text":"YouTube blocking by country Accessible, has local YouTube version Accessible Blocked Previously blocked ","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/YouTube_world_map_May_2016_Update.svg/600px-YouTube_world_map_May_2016_Update.svg.png"}]
|
[{"title":"A4AI: affordability threshold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance_for_Affordable_Internet#1_for_2_target"},{"title":"Digital rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_rights"},{"title":"Internet access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_access"},{"title":"Internet traffic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_traffic"},{"title":"List of sovereign states by Internet connection speeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_by_Internet_connection_speeds"},{"title":"List of countries by number of mobile phones in use","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_number_of_mobile_phones_in_use"},{"title":"List of social networking services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_social_networking_services"},{"title":"Zettabyte Era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zettabyte_Era"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Internet used by 3.2 billion people in 2015\". BBC News. 26 May 2015. Archived from the original on 18 September 2020. Retrieved 21 July 2018 – via bbc.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-32884867","url_text":"\"Internet used by 3.2 billion people in 2015\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200918082455/https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-32884867","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kemp, Simon (20 October 2020). \"Digital 2020: October Global Statshot\". Datareportal. Hootsuite. Archived from the original on November 18, 2020. Retrieved November 30, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2020-october-global-statshot","url_text":"\"Digital 2020: October Global Statshot\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201118175515/https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2020-october-global-statshot","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Vuong, Quan-Hoang; Napier, Nancy K. (27 November 2015). \"Acculturation and global mindsponge: An emerging market perspective\". International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 49: 354–367. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.06.003.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijintrel.2015.06.003","url_text":"10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.06.003"}]},{"reference":"\"Measuring digital development: Facts and figures 2023\". Telecommunication Development Bureau, International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Retrieved 2024-06-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx","url_text":"\"Measuring digital development: Facts and figures 2023\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union","url_text":"International Telecommunication Union"}]},{"reference":"\"Total Midyear Population for the World: 1950-2050\"\". International Programs Center for Demographic and Economic Studies, U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 2017-04-17. Retrieved 2020-02-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170417134744/https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/worldpoptotal.php","url_text":"\"Total Midyear Population for the World: 1950-2050\"\""},{"url":"https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/worldpoptotal.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators Database\". United Nations. Archived from the original on 2017-09-15. Retrieved 2017-09-15.","urls":[{"url":"http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=ITU&f=ind1Code%3aI99H","url_text":"\"World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators Database\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170915113829/http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=ITU&f=ind1Code%3aI99H","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Measuring digital development: Facts and figures 2019\". Telecommunication Development Bureau, International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Retrieved 2020-02-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx","url_text":"\"Measuring digital development: Facts and figures 2019\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union","url_text":"International Telecommunication Union"}]},{"reference":"\"Total Midyear Population for the World: 1950-2050\"\". International Programs Center for Demographic and Economic Studies, U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 2017-04-17. Retrieved 2020-02-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170417134744/https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/worldpoptotal.php","url_text":"\"Total Midyear Population for the World: 1950-2050\"\""},{"url":"https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/worldpoptotal.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Measuring digital development: Facts and figures 2019\". Telecommunication Development Bureau, International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Retrieved 2020-02-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx","url_text":"\"Measuring digital development: Facts and figures 2019\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union","url_text":"International Telecommunication Union"}]},{"reference":"Reid, Brian (26 August 2019). \"ISC terminates long-running IPv4 Domain Survey, looks towards IPv6\". www.isc.org. Archived from the original on 29 June 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.isc.org/blogs/domain-survey-ends/","url_text":"\"ISC terminates long-running IPv4 Domain Survey, looks towards IPv6\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210629202222/https://www.isc.org/blogs/domain-survey-ends/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Web Index 2014 data\". World Wide Web Foundation. Archived from the original on 16 May 2020. Retrieved 5 April 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://thewebindex.org/data/?indicator=INDEX&country=ALL","url_text":"\"Web Index 2014 data\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Foundation","url_text":"World Wide Web Foundation"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200516045758/https://thewebindex.org/data/?indicator=INDEX&country=ALL","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Web Index – taking a break in 2015\". World Wide Web Foundation. 24 November 2014. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://thewebindex.org/blog/web-index-taking-a-break-in-2015/","url_text":"\"Web Index – taking a break in 2015\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Foundation","url_text":"World Wide Web Foundation"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170318080218/http://thewebindex.org/blog/web-index-taking-a-break-in-2015/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Stöcker, Christian; Horchert, Judith (2013-03-22). \"Mapping the Internet: A Hacker's Secret Internet Census\". Der Spiegel. Archived from the original on 2015-10-02. Retrieved 2013-06-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/hacker-measures-the-internet-illegally-with-carna-botnet-a-890413.html","url_text":"\"Mapping the Internet: A Hacker's Secret Internet Census\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151002001019/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/hacker-measures-the-internet-illegally-with-carna-botnet-a-890413.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kleinman, Alexis (2013-03-22). \"The Most Detailed, GIF-Based Map of the Internet Was Made By Hacking 420,000 Computers\". HuffPost. Archived from the original on 2015-09-27. Retrieved 2013-06-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/03/22/internet-map_n_2926934.html","url_text":"\"The Most Detailed, GIF-Based Map of the Internet Was Made By Hacking 420,000 Computers\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150927053259/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/03/22/internet-map_n_2926934.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Usage of content languages for websites\". W3Techs.com. Archived from the original on 18 April 2010. Retrieved 26 April 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/content_language/all","url_text":"\"Usage of content languages for websites\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100418025254/http://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/content_language/all","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Freedom on the Net 2018\" (PDF). Freedom House. November 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 November 2018. Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181101192951/https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FOTN_2018_Final%20Booklet_11_1_2018.pdf","url_text":"\"Freedom on the Net 2018\""},{"url":"https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FOTN_2018_Final%20Booklet_11_1_2018.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-32884867","external_links_name":"\"Internet used by 3.2 billion people in 2015\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200918082455/https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-32884867","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ICTFactsFigures2015.pdf","external_links_name":"http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ICTFactsFigures2015.pdf"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150812085350/http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ICTFactsFigures2015.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2020-october-global-statshot","external_links_name":"\"Digital 2020: October Global 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D._Richard_Hipp
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D. Richard Hipp
|
["1 Life and career","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
|
American software developer
D. Richard HippHipp in 2008BornDwayne Richard Hipp (1961-04-09) April 9, 1961 (age 63)Charlotte, North Carolina, USKnown forSQLite, Fossil, LemonSpouse
Ginger G. Wyrick (m. 1994)AwardsGoogle-O'Reilly Open Source AwardWebsitewww.hwaci.com/drh
Dwayne Richard Hipp (born April 9, 1961) is an American software developer and the primary author of SQLite as well as the Fossil SCM. He also authored the Lemon parser generator, and CVSTrac; the latter became the inspiration for Trac. He was also a member of the Tcl core team.
Life and career
Hipp was born in Charlotte, North Carolina, on April 9, 1961, but grew up in the suburbs of Atlanta, Georgia. He graduated from Stone Mountain High School in 1979 and enrolled at Georgia Tech. He graduated from Georgia Tech in 1984 with Master of Science in Electrical Engineering.
After graduating from Georgia Tech, Hipp worked at AT&T for three years before returning to graduate school at Duke University to study under Alan W. Biermann in the Department of Computer Science. He earned a Doctor of Philosophy from Duke in 1992 and, finding the academic market for PhDs saturated with what he believed to be better qualified candidates, started his own software development consulting company. He designed SQLite in the spring of 2000 while working for General Dynamics on contract with the United States Navy.
He married Ginger G. Wyrick on April 16, 1994, changed the name of his company to Hipp, Wyrick & Company, Inc - abbreviated as Hwaci (pronounced /ˈhwɑːtʃiː/) - and signed all stock over to Wyrick. He and his wife moved to their present home in Charlotte, North Carolina in August 1995.
See also
SQLite
List of Georgia Institute of Technology alumni
List of Duke University people
References
^ Anderson, Tim (2007-06-21). "Size isn't everything for the modest creator of SQLite". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2021-10-24. Retrieved 2018-01-31.
^ a b Allen, Grant; Owens, Mike (2011). The Definitive Guide to SQLite. Apress. ISBN 9781430232261.
^ Kenny, Kevin (16 December 2008). "TCL CORE TEAM ANNOUNCES: Harrison, Hopp, Ingham, Welch leave Tcl Core Team". tcl-core (Mailing list). Archived from the original on 2021-10-24.
^ "O'Reilly Open Source Convention 2004 - Speaker". O'Reilly. 2004. Archived from the original on 2021-10-24.
^ a b "#201: SQLite with Richard Hipp - The Changelog". The Changelog. 2016-04-29. Archived from the original on 2021-10-24. Retrieved 2016-05-03.
^ "How Do You Say "Hwaci"?".
External links
Official website
Introduction to SQLite on YouTube
How SQL Database Engines Work on YouTube
"The Untold Story of SQLite". CoRecursive.
"FLOSS Weekly 26: SQLite". TWiT.tv. 2008-03-06.
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Norway
Israel
United States
Academics
Association for Computing Machinery
DBLP
Mathematics Genealogy Project
zbMATH
|
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|
[]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_hosting_service
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Online video platform
|
["1 Description","2 Video and content delivery protocols","3 Influence","4 Copyright issues","5 Mobile video hosting","6 History","6.1 Video hosting sites","6.2 Video streaming platforms","7 See also","8 References"]
|
Platform for users to upload, share videos or live stream videos on the Internet
An online video platform (OVP) enables users to upload, convert, store, and play back video content on the Internet, often via a private server structured, large-scale system that may generate revenue. Users will generally upload video content via the hosting service's website, mobile or desktop application, or other interfaces (API), and typically provides embed codes or links that allow others to view the video content.
Description
Online video platforms can use a software as a service (SaaS) business model, a do it yourself (DIY) model or user-generated content (UGC) model. The OVP comes with an end-to-end tool set to upload, encode, manage, playback, style, deliver, distribute, download, publish and measure quality of service or audience engagement quality of experience of online video content for both video on demand (VOD) and live delivery. This is usually manifested as a User Interface with log-in credentials. OVPs also include providing a custom video player or a third-party video player that can be embedded in a website. Modern online video platforms are often coupled up with embedded online video analytics providing video publishers with detailed insights into video performance: the total number of video views, impressions, and unique views; video watch time, stats on user location, visits, and behavior on the site. Video heat maps show how user engagement rate changes through the viewing process in order to measure audience interaction and to create compelling video content. OVPs are related to the over-the-top content video industry, although there are many OVP providers that are also present in broadcast markets, serving video on demand set-top boxes.
OVP product models vary in scale and feature-set, ranging from ready-made web sites that individuals can use, to white label models that can be customized by enterprise clients or media/content aggregators and integrated with their traditional broadcast workflows. The former example is YouTube. The latter example is predominantly found in FTA (Free-To-Air) or pay-TV broadcasters who seek to provide an over-the-top media service (OTT) that extends the availability of their content on desktops or multiple mobility devices.
In general, the graphical user interface accessed by users of the OVP is sold as a service. Revenue is derived from monthly subscriptions based on the number of users it is licensed to and the complexity of the workflow. Some workflows require encryption of content with DRM and this increases the cost of using the service. Videos may be transcoded from their original source format or resolution to a mezzanine format (suitable for management and mass-delivery), either on-site or using cloud computing. The latter would be where platform as a service, is provided as an additional cost.
It is feasible, but rare, for large broadcasters to develop their own proprietary OVP. However, this can require complex development and maintenance costs and diverts attention to 'building' as opposed to distributing/curating content.
OVPs often cooperate with specialized third-party service providers, using what they call an application programming interface (API). These include cloud transcoders, recommendation engines, search engines, metadata libraries and analytics providers.
Video and content delivery protocols
The vast majority of OVPs use industry-standard HTTP streaming or HTTP progressive download protocols. With HTTP streaming, the de facto standard is to use adaptive streaming where multiple files of a video are created at different bit rates, but only one of these is sent to the end-user during playback, depending on available bandwidth or device CPU constraints. This can be switched dynamically and near-seamlessly at any time during the video viewing. The main protocols for adaptive HTTP streaming include Smooth Streaming (by Microsoft), HTTP Live Streaming (HLS) (by Apple) and Flash Video (by Adobe). Flash is still in use but is declining due to the popularity of HLS and Smooth Stream in mobile devices and desktops, respectively. Each is a proprietary protocol in its own right and due to this fragmentation, there have been efforts to create one standardized protocol known as MPEG-DASH.
There are many OVPs available on the Internet.
Influence
In the 2010s, with the increasing prevalence of technology and the Internet in everyday life, video hosting services serve as a portal to different forms of entertainment (comedy, shows, games, or music), news, documentaries and educational videos. Content may be either both user-generated, amateur clips or commercial products. The entertainment industry uses this medium to release music and videos, movies and television shows directly to the public. Since many users do not have unlimited web space, either as a paid service, or through an ISP offering, video hosting services are becoming increasingly popular, especially with the explosion in popularity of blogs, internet forums and other interactive pages. The mass market for camera phones and smartphones has increased the supply of user-generated video. Traditional methods of personal video distribution, such as making a DVD to show to friends at home, are unsuited to the low resolution and high volume of camera phone clips. In contrast, current broadband Internet connections are well suited to serving the quality of video shot on mobile phones. Most people do not own web servers, and this has created demand for user-generated video content hosting.
Copyright issues
On some websites, users share entire films by breaking them up into segments that are about the size of the video length limit imposed by the site (e.g., 15-minutes). An emerging practice is for users to obfuscate the titles of feature-length films that they share by providing a title that is recognizable by humans but will not match on standard search engines. It is not even in all cases obvious to the user if a provided video is a copyright infringement.
Mobile video hosting
A more recent application of the video hosting services is in the mobile web 2.0 arena, where video and other mobile content can be delivered to, and easily accessed by mobile devices. While some video-hosting services like DaCast and Ustream have developed means by which video can be watched on mobile devices, mobile-oriented web-based frontends for video hosting services that possess equal access and capability to desktop-oriented web services have yet to be developed. A mobile live streaming software called Qik allows the users to upload videos from their cell phones to the internet. The videos will then be stored online and can be shared to various social networking sites like Twitter, Facebook and YouTube. Videos will be stored on the servers and can be watched from both the mobile devices and the website.
History
Practical online video hosting and video streaming was made possible by advances in video compression, due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed video. Raw uncompressed digital video has a bit rate of 168 Mbit/s for SD video, and over 1 Gbit/s for full HD video. The most important data compression algorithm that enabled practical video hosting and streaming is the discrete cosine transform (DCT), a lossy compression technique first proposed by Nasir Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1973. The DCT algorithm is the basis for the first practical video coding format, H.261, in 1988. It was followed by more popular DCT-based video coding formats, most notably the MPEG and H.26x video standards from 1991 onwards. The modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) is also the basis for the MP3 audio compression format introduced in 1994, and later the Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) format in 1999.
Video hosting sites
The first Internet video hosting site was ShareYourWorld.com. Founded in 1997, it allowed users to upload clips or full videos in different file formats. However, Internet access bandwidth and video transcoding technology at the time were limited, so the site did not support video streaming like YouTube later did. ShareYourWorld was founded by Chase Norlin, and it ran until 2001, when it closed due to budget and bandwidth problems.
Founded in October 2004, Pandora TV from South Korea is the first video sharing website in the world to attach advertisements to user-submitted video clips and to provide unlimited storage space for users to upload their own clips. The company has developed an auto-advertisements system that automatically inserts advertising to the clips posted to the website. It was founded in the Gangnam District of Seoul.
Video streaming platforms
YouTube was founded by Chad Hurley, Jawed Karim and Steve Chen in 2005. It was based on video transcoding technology, which enabled the video streaming of user-generated content from anywhere on the World Wide Web. This was made possible by implementing a Flash player based on MPEG-4 AVC video with AAC audio. This allowed any video coding format to be uploaded, and then transcoded into Flash-compatible AVC video that can be directly streamed from anywhere on the Web. The first YouTube video clip was Me at the zoo, uploaded by Karim in April 2005.
YouTube subsequently became the most popular online video platform, and changed the way videos were hosted on the Web. The success of YouTube led to a number of similar online video streaming platforms, from companies such as Netflix, Hulu and Crunchyroll.
Within these video streaming platforms like Netflix, Hulu, and YouTube, there are privacy concerns about how the websites use consumers' personal information and online behaviors to advertise and track spending. Many video streaming websites record semi-private consumer information such as video streaming data, purchase frequency, genre of videos watched, etc.
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Video hosting.
Flash Video ("Flash")
Fliggo
List of online video platforms
Online video analytics
Streaming media
References
^ a b "Every Online Video Platform (OVP) on the Market: A Reference List". Onlinevideo.net – Online Video Marketing Strategies, News, and Tips. 6 October 2011. Archived from the original on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 8 February 2017.
^ Dreier, Troy (5 June 2013). "Tips for Choosing an Online Video Platform (OVP) – Streaming Media Magazine". Streaming Media Magazine. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 8 February 2017.
^ "Choose Wisely: Selecting An Online Video Platform". Streaming Media Europe Magazine. Spring 2010. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
^ "Recommended Online Video Hosting Services". Groundwire.org. Archived from the original on 10 March 2016. Retrieved 19 January 2014.
^ "Ten video sharing services compared". 7 April 2006. Archived from the original on 10 July 2011.
^ Lee, Jack (2005). Scalable Continuous Media Streaming Systems: Architecture, Design, Analysis and Implementation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 25. ISBN 9780470857649. Archived from the original on 27 December 2019. Retrieved 18 September 2019.
^ Nasir Ahmed (1991). "How I Came Up With the Discrete Cosine Transform". Digital Signal Processing. 1 (1): 4–5. doi:10.1016/1051-2004(91)90086-Z.
^ Ghanbari, Mohammed (2003). Standard Codecs: Image Compression to Advanced Video Coding. Institution of Engineering and Technology. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9780852967102. Archived from the original on 8 August 2019. Retrieved 18 September 2019.
^ Ce, Zhu (2010). Streaming Media Architectures, Techniques, and Applications: Recent Advances: Recent Advances. IGI Global. p. 26. ISBN 9781616928339. Archived from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 18 September 2019.
^ Guckert, John (Spring 2012). "The Use of FFT and MDCT in MP3 Audio Compression" (PDF). University of Utah. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2018. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
^ Brandenburg, Karlheinz (1999). "MP3 and AAC Explained" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 February 2017. Retrieved 18 September 2019.
^ a b "First Video Sharing Site Paved the Way for YouTube — ShareYourWorld.com Was There First to Launch Ten Years Back". Beet.TV. Archived from the original on 21 January 2014. Retrieved 19 January 2014.
^ a b "Privacy Policy Archived 2011-09-24 at the Wayback Machine." Pandora TV. Retrieved 17 September 2011. "Seoul-Gangnam Building 5th Floor #727-16, Yeoksam-Dong, Gangnam-Gu Seoul, Korea 135-921"
^ "Report Personal Rights Violation." Pandora TV. Retrieved on 17 September 2011. "Copyright Infringement Report Center Pandora TV Inc.5F. Seoul Gangnam Bldg, #727-16 Yeoksam-dong Gangnam-gu, Seoul 135-921, South Korea"
^ Matthew, Crick (2016). Power, Surveillance, and Culture in YouTube™'s Digital Sphere. IGI Global. pp. 36–7. ISBN 9781466698567.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-1"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"}],"text":"Platform for users to upload, share videos or live stream videos on the InternetAn online video platform (OVP)[1] enables users to upload, convert, store, and play back video content on the Internet, often via a private server structured, large-scale system that may generate revenue. Users will generally upload video content via the hosting service's website, mobile or desktop application, or other interfaces (API), and typically provides embed codes or links that allow others to view the video content.","title":"Online video platform"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"software as a service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_as_a_service"},{"link_name":"do it yourself","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do_it_yourself"},{"link_name":"user-generated content","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User-generated_content"},{"link_name":"quality of service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_service"},{"link_name":"quality of experience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_experience"},{"link_name":"video on demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_on_demand"},{"link_name":"video player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_player"},{"link_name":"online video analytics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_video_analytics"},{"link_name":"heat maps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_map"},{"link_name":"over-the-top content","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over-the-top_content"},{"link_name":"YouTube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube"},{"link_name":"over-the-top media service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over-the-top_media_service"},{"link_name":"graphical user interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface"},{"link_name":"cloud computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"platform as a service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_as_a_service"},{"link_name":"application programming interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_programming_interface"}],"text":"Online video platforms can use a software as a service (SaaS) business model, a do it yourself (DIY) model or user-generated content (UGC) model. The OVP comes with an end-to-end tool set to upload, encode, manage, playback, style, deliver, distribute, download, publish and measure quality of service or audience engagement quality of experience of online video content for both video on demand (VOD) and live delivery. This is usually manifested as a User Interface with log-in credentials. OVPs also include providing a custom video player or a third-party video player that can be embedded in a website. Modern online video platforms are often coupled up with embedded online video analytics providing video publishers with detailed insights into video performance: the total number of video views, impressions, and unique views; video watch time, stats on user location, visits, and behavior on the site. Video heat maps show how user engagement rate changes through the viewing process in order to measure audience interaction and to create compelling video content. OVPs are related to the over-the-top content video industry, although there are many OVP providers that are also present in broadcast markets, serving video on demand set-top boxes.OVP product models vary in scale and feature-set, ranging from ready-made web sites that individuals can use, to white label models that can be customized by enterprise clients or media/content aggregators and integrated with their traditional broadcast workflows. The former example is YouTube. The latter example is predominantly found in FTA (Free-To-Air) or pay-TV broadcasters who seek to provide an over-the-top media service (OTT) that extends the availability of their content on desktops or multiple mobility devices.In general, the graphical user interface accessed by users of the OVP is sold as a service. Revenue is derived from monthly subscriptions based on the number of users it is licensed to and the complexity of the workflow. Some workflows require encryption of content with DRM and this increases the cost of using the service. Videos may be transcoded from their original source format or resolution to a mezzanine format (suitable for management and mass-delivery), either on-site or using cloud computing. The latter would be where platform as a service, is provided as an additional cost.It is feasible, but rare, for large broadcasters to develop their own proprietary OVP. However, this can require complex development and maintenance costs and diverts attention to 'building' as opposed to distributing/curating content.OVPs often cooperate with specialized third-party service providers, using what they call an application programming interface (API). These include cloud transcoders, recommendation engines, search engines, metadata libraries and analytics providers.","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Smooth Streaming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_bitrate_streaming#Microsoft_Smooth_Streaming_(MSS)"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"HTTP Live Streaming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTP_Live_Streaming"},{"link_name":"Apple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"Flash Video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_Video"},{"link_name":"Adobe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Systems"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"MPEG-DASH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPEG-DASH"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The vast majority of OVPs use industry-standard HTTP streaming or HTTP progressive download protocols. With HTTP streaming, the de facto standard is to use adaptive streaming where multiple files of a video are created at different bit rates, but only one of these is sent to the end-user during playback, depending on available bandwidth or device CPU constraints. This can be switched dynamically and near-seamlessly at any time during the video viewing. The main protocols for adaptive HTTP streaming include Smooth Streaming (by Microsoft), HTTP Live Streaming (HLS) (by Apple) and Flash Video (by Adobe). Flash is still in use but is declining due to the popularity of HLS and Smooth Stream in mobile devices and desktops, respectively.[citation needed] Each is a proprietary protocol in its own right and due to this fragmentation, there have been efforts to create one standardized protocol known as MPEG-DASH.There are many OVPs available on the Internet.[1][2][3]","title":"Video and content delivery protocols"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment"},{"link_name":"news","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News"},{"link_name":"documentaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary"},{"link_name":"educational videos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_video"},{"link_name":"ISP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_service_provider"},{"link_name":"blogs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blog"},{"link_name":"internet forums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_forum"},{"link_name":"camera phones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_phones"},{"link_name":"smartphones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"DVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD"},{"link_name":"broadband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadband_Internet_access"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"In the 2010s, with the increasing prevalence of technology and the Internet in everyday life, video hosting services serve as a portal to different forms of entertainment (comedy, shows, games, or music), news, documentaries and educational videos. Content may be either both user-generated, amateur clips or commercial products. The entertainment industry uses this medium to release music and videos, movies and television shows directly to the public. Since many users do not have unlimited web space, either as a paid service, or through an ISP offering, video hosting services are becoming increasingly popular, especially with the explosion in popularity of blogs, internet forums and other interactive pages. The mass market for camera phones and smartphones has increased the supply of user-generated video. Traditional methods of personal video distribution, such as making a DVD to show to friends at home, are unsuited to the low resolution and high volume of camera phone clips. In contrast, current broadband Internet connections are well suited to serving the quality of video shot on mobile phones. Most people do not own web servers, and this has created demand for user-generated video content hosting.[4][5]","title":"Influence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"On some websites, users share entire films by breaking them up into segments that are about the size of the video length limit imposed by the site (e.g., 15-minutes). An emerging practice is for users to obfuscate the titles of feature-length films that they share by providing a title that is recognizable by humans but will not match on standard search engines. It is not even in all cases obvious to the user if a provided video is a copyright infringement.[citation needed]","title":"Copyright issues"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mobile content","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_content"},{"link_name":"mobile devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_device"},{"link_name":"DaCast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DaCast"},{"link_name":"Ustream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ustream"},{"link_name":"Qik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qik"}],"text":"A more recent application of the video hosting services is in the mobile web 2.0 arena, where video and other mobile content can be delivered to, and easily accessed by mobile devices. While some video-hosting services like DaCast and Ustream have developed means by which video can be watched on mobile devices, mobile-oriented web-based frontends for video hosting services that possess equal access and capability to desktop-oriented web services have yet to be developed. A mobile live streaming software called Qik allows the users to upload videos from their cell phones to the internet. The videos will then be stored online and can be shared to various social networking sites like Twitter, Facebook and YouTube. Videos will be stored on the servers and can be watched from both the mobile devices and the website.","title":"Mobile video hosting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"video streaming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_streaming"},{"link_name":"video compression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_compression"},{"link_name":"uncompressed video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncompressed_video"},{"link_name":"digital video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_video"},{"link_name":"bit rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_rate"},{"link_name":"Mbit/s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbit/s"},{"link_name":"SD video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SD_video"},{"link_name":"Gbit/s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gbit/s"},{"link_name":"full HD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_HD"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"data compression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_compression"},{"link_name":"discrete cosine transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform"},{"link_name":"lossy compression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lossy_compression"},{"link_name":"Nasir Ahmed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N._Ahmed"},{"link_name":"K. R. Rao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._R._Rao"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-7"},{"link_name":"video coding format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_coding_format"},{"link_name":"H.261","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.261"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ghanbari-8"},{"link_name":"MPEG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPEG"},{"link_name":"H.26x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.26x"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhu-9"},{"link_name":"modified discrete cosine transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modified_discrete_cosine_transform"},{"link_name":"MP3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP3"},{"link_name":"audio compression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_compression_(data)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guckert-10"},{"link_name":"Advanced Audio Coding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Audio_Coding"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brandenburg-11"}],"text":"Practical online video hosting and video streaming was made possible by advances in video compression, due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed video. Raw uncompressed digital video has a bit rate of 168 Mbit/s for SD video, and over 1 Gbit/s for full HD video.[6] The most important data compression algorithm that enabled practical video hosting and streaming is the discrete cosine transform (DCT), a lossy compression technique first proposed by Nasir Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1973.[7] The DCT algorithm is the basis for the first practical video coding format, H.261, in 1988.[8] It was followed by more popular DCT-based video coding formats, most notably the MPEG and H.26x video standards from 1991 onwards.[9] The modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) is also the basis for the MP3 audio compression format introduced in 1994,[10] and later the Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) format in 1999.[11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-beet-12"},{"link_name":"Internet access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_access"},{"link_name":"transcoding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcoding"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Pandora TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandora_TV"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"},{"link_name":"Gangnam District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangnam_District"},{"link_name":"Seoul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seoul"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Video hosting sites","text":"The first Internet video hosting site was ShareYourWorld.com.[12] Founded in 1997, it allowed users to upload clips or full videos in different file formats. However, Internet access bandwidth and video transcoding technology at the time were limited, so the site did not support video streaming like YouTube later did. ShareYourWorld was founded by Chase Norlin, and it ran until 2001, when it closed due to budget and bandwidth problems.[citation needed]Founded in October 2004, Pandora TV from South Korea is the first video sharing website in the world to attach advertisements to user-submitted video clips and to provide unlimited storage space for users to upload their own clips. The company has developed an auto-advertisements system that automatically inserts advertising to the clips posted to the website. It was founded in the Gangnam District of Seoul.[13][14]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"YouTube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube"},{"link_name":"Chad Hurley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad_Hurley"},{"link_name":"Jawed Karim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawed_Karim"},{"link_name":"Steve Chen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Chen"},{"link_name":"user-generated content","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User-generated_content"},{"link_name":"World Wide Web","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web"},{"link_name":"Flash player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_player"},{"link_name":"MPEG-4 AVC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPEG-4_AVC"},{"link_name":"video coding format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_coding_format"},{"link_name":"Flash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Flash"},{"link_name":"video clip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_clip"},{"link_name":"Me at the zoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me_at_the_zoo"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Matthew-15"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-beet-12"},{"link_name":"YouTube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube"},{"link_name":"Netflix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netflix"},{"link_name":"Hulu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hulu"},{"link_name":"Crunchyroll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crunchyroll"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-13"}],"sub_title":"Video streaming platforms","text":"YouTube was founded by Chad Hurley, Jawed Karim and Steve Chen in 2005. It was based on video transcoding technology, which enabled the video streaming of user-generated content from anywhere on the World Wide Web. This was made possible by implementing a Flash player based on MPEG-4 AVC video with AAC audio. This allowed any video coding format to be uploaded, and then transcoded into Flash-compatible AVC video that can be directly streamed from anywhere on the Web. The first YouTube video clip was Me at the zoo, uploaded by Karim in April 2005.[15]YouTube subsequently became the most popular online video platform, and changed the way videos were hosted on the Web.[12] The success of YouTube led to a number of similar online video streaming platforms, from companies such as Netflix, Hulu and Crunchyroll.Within these video streaming platforms like Netflix, Hulu, and YouTube, there are privacy concerns about how the websites use consumers' personal information and online behaviors to advertise and track spending. Many video streaming websites record semi-private consumer information such as video streaming data, purchase frequency, genre of videos watched, etc.[13]","title":"History"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Video hosting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Video_hosting"},{"title":"Flash Video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_Video"},{"title":"Fliggo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fliggo"},{"title":"List of online video platforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_online_video_platforms"},{"title":"Online video analytics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_video_analytics"},{"title":"Streaming media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_media"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Every Online Video Platform (OVP) on the Market: A Reference List\". Onlinevideo.net – Online Video Marketing Strategies, News, and Tips. 6 October 2011. Archived from the original on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 8 February 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.onlinevideo.net/2011/10/every-online-video-platform-ovp-on-the-market-a-reference-list/","url_text":"\"Every Online Video Platform (OVP) on the Market: A Reference List\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111008025359/http://www.onlinevideo.net/2011/10/every-online-video-platform-ovp-on-the-market-a-reference-list/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Dreier, Troy (5 June 2013). \"Tips for Choosing an Online Video Platform (OVP) – Streaming Media Magazine\". Streaming Media Magazine. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 8 February 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.streamingmedia.com/Articles/Editorial/Featured-Articles/Tips-for-Choosing-an-Online-Video-Platform-(OVP)-90061.aspx","url_text":"\"Tips for Choosing an Online Video Platform (OVP) – Streaming Media Magazine\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170211081944/http://www.streamingmedia.com/Articles/Editorial/Featured-Articles/Tips-for-Choosing-an-Online-Video-Platform-(OVP)-90061.aspx","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Choose Wisely: Selecting An Online Video Platform\". Streaming Media Europe Magazine. Spring 2010. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 8 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.streamingmediaglobal.com/Articles/Editorial/Featured-Articles/Choose-Wisely-Selecting-An-Online-Video-Platform-65746.aspx","url_text":"\"Choose Wisely: Selecting An Online Video Platform\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170211080531/http://www.streamingmediaglobal.com/Articles/Editorial/Featured-Articles/Choose-Wisely-Selecting-An-Online-Video-Platform-65746.aspx","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Recommended Online Video Hosting Services\". Groundwire.org. Archived from the original on 10 March 2016. Retrieved 19 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://groundwire.org/resources/articles/online-video-hosting","url_text":"\"Recommended Online Video Hosting Services\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160310200721/http://groundwire.org/resources/articles/online-video-hosting/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Ten video sharing services compared\". 7 April 2006. Archived from the original on 10 July 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110710033801/http://www.dvguru.com/2006/04/07/ten-video-sharing-services-compared/","url_text":"\"Ten video sharing services compared\""},{"url":"http://www.dvguru.com/2006/04/07/ten-video-sharing-services-compared/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Lee, Jack (2005). Scalable Continuous Media Streaming Systems: Architecture, Design, Analysis and Implementation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 25. ISBN 9780470857649. Archived from the original on 27 December 2019. Retrieved 18 September 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7fuvu52cyNEC&pg=PA25","url_text":"Scalable Continuous Media Streaming Systems: Architecture, Design, Analysis and Implementation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons","url_text":"John Wiley & Sons"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470857649","url_text":"9780470857649"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191227031840/https://books.google.com/books?id=7fuvu52cyNEC&pg=PA25","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Nasir Ahmed (1991). \"How I Came Up With the Discrete Cosine Transform\". Digital Signal Processing. 1 (1): 4–5. doi:10.1016/1051-2004(91)90086-Z.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N._Ahmed","url_text":"Nasir Ahmed"},{"url":"https://www.scribd.com/doc/52879771/DCT-History","url_text":"\"How I Came Up With the Discrete Cosine Transform\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F1051-2004%2891%2990086-Z","url_text":"10.1016/1051-2004(91)90086-Z"}]},{"reference":"Ghanbari, Mohammed (2003). Standard Codecs: Image Compression to Advanced Video Coding. Institution of Engineering and Technology. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9780852967102. Archived from the original on 8 August 2019. Retrieved 18 September 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7XuU8T3ooOAC&pg=PA1","url_text":"Standard Codecs: Image Compression to Advanced Video Coding"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institution_of_Engineering_and_Technology","url_text":"Institution of Engineering and Technology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780852967102","url_text":"9780852967102"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190808084018/https://books.google.com/books?id=7XuU8T3ooOAC&pg=PA1","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Ce, Zhu (2010). Streaming Media Architectures, Techniques, and Applications: Recent Advances: Recent Advances. IGI Global. p. 26. ISBN 9781616928339. Archived from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 18 September 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Cb4dWYVJ_8AC&pg=PA26","url_text":"Streaming Media Architectures, Techniques, and Applications: Recent Advances: Recent Advances"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781616928339","url_text":"9781616928339"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191223224826/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cb4dWYVJ_8AC&pg=PA26","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Guckert, John (Spring 2012). \"The Use of FFT and MDCT in MP3 Audio Compression\" (PDF). University of Utah. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2018. Retrieved 14 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.math.utah.edu/~gustafso/s2012/2270/web-projects/Guckert-audio-compression-svd-mdct-MP3.pdf","url_text":"\"The Use of FFT and MDCT in MP3 Audio Compression\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Utah","url_text":"University of Utah"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180520211458/http://www.math.utah.edu/~gustafso/s2012/2270/web-projects/Guckert-audio-compression-svd-mdct-MP3.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Brandenburg, Karlheinz (1999). \"MP3 and AAC Explained\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 February 2017. Retrieved 18 September 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://graphics.ethz.ch/teaching/mmcom12/slides/mp3_and_aac_brandenburg.pdf","url_text":"\"MP3 and AAC Explained\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170213191747/http://graphics.ethz.ch/teaching/mmcom12/slides/mp3_and_aac_brandenburg.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"First Video Sharing Site Paved the Way for YouTube — ShareYourWorld.com Was There First to Launch Ten Years Back\". Beet.TV. Archived from the original on 21 January 2014. Retrieved 19 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.beet.tv/2007/07/first-video-sha.html","url_text":"\"First Video Sharing Site Paved the Way for YouTube — ShareYourWorld.com Was There First to Launch Ten Years Back\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140121111500/http://www.beet.tv/2007/07/first-video-sha.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Matthew, Crick (2016). Power, Surveillance, and Culture in YouTube™'s Digital Sphere. IGI Global. pp. 36–7. ISBN 9781466698567.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=y-FmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36","url_text":"Power, Surveillance, and Culture in YouTube™'s Digital Sphere"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781466698567","url_text":"9781466698567"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neighborhood_effect_averaging_problem
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Neighborhood effect averaging problem
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["1 Background","2 Addressing the NEAP","3 Implications and Significance","3.1 Spatial anlysis","3.2 Policy","4 See also","5 References"]
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Source of statistical bias
The neighborhood effect averaging problem or NEAP delves into the challenges associated with understanding the influence of aggregating neighborhood-level phenomena on individuals when mobility-dependent exposures influence the phenomena. The problem confounds the neighbourhood effect, which suggests that a person's neighborhood impacts their individual characteristics, such as health. It relates to the boundary problem, in that delineated neighborhoods used for analysis may not fully account for an individual's activity space if the borders are permeable, and individual mobility crosses the boundaries. The term was first coined by Mei-Po Kwan in the peer-reviewed journal "International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health" in 2018.
Background
Examples of the visual language of time geography: space-time cube, path, prism, bundle, and other concepts
Mei-Po Kwan, a prominent scholar in human geography, highlighted the importance of accounting for spatial processes and interactions within neighborhoods in a 2018 paper. She argued that the analysis's neighborhood effect averaging problem arises from disregarding spatial dependence and spatial heterogeneity, and is credited with the discovery of the NEAP. In studying human geography, understanding the relationship between individual-level attributes and the effects of the neighborhood in which individuals reside is crucial. However, a significant issue arises due to the potential mismatch between the scale at which data is collected (individual level) and the scale at which analysis is conducted (neighborhood level). Individual-level data often provide detailed information about individuals, including socioeconomic status, education level, or health conditions. On the other hand, neighborhood-level data offers a broader perspective on specific areas, encompassing factors like average income, crime rates, or access to amenities.
The neighborhood effect averaging problem emerges as researchers attempt to integrate the disparate data scales of individuals and neighborhoods. The common approach involves aggregating individual-level data to the neighborhood level by calculating summary statistics such as means or proportions for each neighborhood. However, this oversimplifies the analysis by assuming that individuals within the neighborhood all have activity spaces and space-time paths within the neighborhood's borders. Studies applying the neighborhood effect fail to capture the individual's real neighborhood by failing to consider mobility. A person's mobility may amplify or attenuate environmental factors in their neighborhood.
Addressing the NEAP
To address this problem, Kwan proposed utilizing spatial statistical techniques to consider individuals neighborhood contexts at different temporal scales throughout their life. By incorporating these methods, researchers can model and analyze the spatial relationships between individuals and their neighborhoods. Factors such as proximity, spatial autocorrelation, and the influence of neighboring areas can be considered, providing a more accurate understanding of the complex dynamics between individuals and their environment.
Implications and Significance
Spatial anlysis
By acknowledging and tackling the neighborhood effect averaging problem, researchers can better understand how individual characteristics interact with neighborhood contexts to shape various outcomes, such as health outcomes, educational attainment, or social behavior. This approach advances urban and regional studies knowledge, providing insights into the intricate interplay between individuals and their surrounding environment. Failure to account for the NEAP may lead to erroneous findings.
Policy
The NEAP suggests that simply improving neighborhood conditions may not improve an individual's experience. By increasing cross-neighborhood transit and interactions between disadvantaged and advantaged neighborhoods, it may be possible to improve individual outcomes like health.
See also
Arbia's law of geography – One of several proposed laws of geography
Modifiable areal unit problem – Source of statistical bias
Modifiable temporal unit problem – Source of statistical bias
Permeability (spatial and transport planning) – Freedom of movement of traffic
Spatial Analysis – Formal techniques which study entities using their topological, geometric, or geographic propertiesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Technical Geography – Study of using and creating tools to manage spatial informationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Qualitative geography – Subfield of geographic methods
Quantitative geography – Subfield of geographic methods
Tobler's first law of geography – The first of several proposed laws of geography
Tobler's second law of geography – One of several proposed laws of geography
Uncertain geographic context problem – Source of statistical bias
References
^ a b c d e f g h i Kwan, Mei-Po (2018). "The Neighborhood Effect Averaging Problem (NEAP): An Elusive Confounder of the Neighborhood Effect". Int J Environ Res Public Health. 15 (9). doi:10.3390/ijerph15091841. PMC 6163400. PMID 30150510.
^ a b c d e f g Kwan, Mei-Po (2023). "Human Mobility and the Neighborhood Effect Averaging Problem (NEAP)". In Li, Bin; Xun, Shi; A-Xing, Zhu; Wang, Cuizhen; Lin, Hui (eds.). New Thinking in GIScience. Springer. ISBN 978-981-19-3818-4. Retrieved 7 October 2023.
^ a b Xu, Tiantian; Wang, Shiyi; Liu, Qing; Kim, Junghwan; Zhang, Jingyi; Ren, Yiwen; Ta, Na; Wang, Xiaoliang; Wu, Jiayu (August 2023). "Vegetation color exposure differences at the community and individual levels: An explanatory framework based on the neighborhood effect averaging problem". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 86. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2023.128001.
^ a b c Ham, Maarten van; Manley, David (2012). "Neighbourhood Effects Research at a Crossroads. Ten Challenges for Future Research Introduction". Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space. 44 (12): 2787–2793. doi:10.1068/a4543.
^ a b Parry, Marc (5 November 2012). "The Neighborhood Effect". THE CHRONICLE REVIEW. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved 7 October 2023.
^ "MEI-PO KWAN (2022 WINNER)" (PDF). Previous Anderson Medal of Honor Recipients. American Association of Geographers Applied Geography Specialty Group. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
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The term was first coined by Mei-Po Kwan in the peer-reviewed journal \"International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health\" in 2018.[1][2]","title":"Neighborhood effect averaging problem"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png"},{"link_name":"visual language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_language"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kwan2-2"},{"link_name":"spatial heterogeneity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_heterogeneity"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kwan2-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAG1-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ham1-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parry1-5"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kwan1-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ham1-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kwan1-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kwan2-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kwan1-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kwan2-2"}],"text":"Examples of the visual language of time geography: space-time cube, path, prism, bundle, and other conceptsMei-Po Kwan, a prominent scholar in human geography, highlighted the importance of accounting for spatial processes and interactions within neighborhoods in a 2018 paper.[2] She argued that the analysis's neighborhood effect averaging problem arises from disregarding spatial dependence and spatial heterogeneity, and is credited with the discovery of the NEAP.[2][6] In studying human geography, understanding the relationship between individual-level attributes and the effects of the neighborhood in which individuals reside is crucial.[4][5] However, a significant issue arises due to the potential mismatch between the scale at which data is collected (individual level) and the scale at which analysis is conducted (neighborhood level).[1] Individual-level data often provide detailed information about individuals, including socioeconomic status, education level, or health conditions. On the other hand, neighborhood-level data offers a broader perspective on specific areas, encompassing factors like average income, crime rates, or access to amenities.[4]The neighborhood effect averaging problem emerges as researchers attempt to integrate the disparate data scales of individuals and neighborhoods.[1][2] The common approach involves aggregating individual-level data to the neighborhood level by calculating summary statistics such as means or proportions for each neighborhood. However, this oversimplifies the analysis by assuming that individuals within the neighborhood all have activity spaces and space-time paths within the neighborhood's borders. Studies applying the neighborhood effect fail to capture the individual's real neighborhood by failing to consider mobility.[1] A person's mobility may amplify or attenuate environmental factors in their neighborhood.[2]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kwan1-1"}],"text":"To address this problem, Kwan proposed utilizing spatial statistical techniques to consider individuals neighborhood contexts at different temporal scales throughout their life.[1] By incorporating these methods, researchers can model and analyze the spatial relationships between individuals and their neighborhoods. 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By increasing cross-neighborhood transit and interactions between disadvantaged and advantaged neighborhoods, it may be possible to improve individual outcomes like health.[1][3]","title":"Implications and Significance"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jake_Gyllenhaal
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Jake Gyllenhaal
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["1 Life and career","1.1 1980–2000: Early life and career beginnings","1.2 2001–2004: Donnie Darko to the London stage","1.3 2005–2011: Brokeback Mountain and leading roles","1.4 2012–2018: Critical acclaim and Broadway debut","1.5 2019–present: Action and thriller films","2 Public image","3 Personal life","3.1 Family and relationships","3.2 Political views and other interests","4 Acting credits and awards","5 References","6 External links"]
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American actor (born 1980)
Jake GyllenhaalGyllenhaal in 2019BornJacob Benjamin Gyllenhaal (1980-12-19) December 19, 1980 (age 43)Los Angeles, California, U.S.Alma materColumbia UniversityOccupationsActorproducerYears active1991–presentWorksFull listParentsStephen GyllenhaalNaomi FonerFamilyGyllenhaalAwardsFull list
Jacob Benjamin Gyllenhaal (/ˈdʒɪlənhɔːl/ JIL-ən-hawl, Swedish: ; born December 19, 1980) is an American actor. Born into the Gyllenhaal family, he is the son of film director Stephen Gyllenhaal and screenwriter Naomi Foner, and the younger brother of actress Maggie Gyllenhaal. He began acting as a child, making his acting debut in City Slickers (1991), followed by roles in his father's films A Dangerous Woman (1993) and Homegrown (1998). His breakthrough roles were as Homer Hickam in the biographical drama film October Sky (1999) and as a psychologically troubled teenager in the science fiction psychological thriller film Donnie Darko (2001).
Gyllenhaal starred in the 2004 science fiction disaster film The Day After Tomorrow. He played Jack Twist in Ang Lee's 2005 romantic drama Brokeback Mountain, for which Gyllenhaal won a BAFTA Award and was nominated for an Academy Award. His career progressed with starring roles in the thriller Zodiac (2007), the romantic comedy Love & Other Drugs (2010), and the science fiction film Source Code (2011). Further acclaim came with his roles in Denis Villeneuve's thrillers Prisoners (2013) and Enemy (2013), and he received nominations for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role for his performances as a manipulative journalist in Nightcrawler (2014) and a troubled writer in Nocturnal Animals (2016). His highest-grossing release came with the Marvel Cinematic Universe superhero film Spider-Man: Far From Home (2019), in which he portrayed Quentin Beck / Mysterio. He has since starred in Wildlife (2018), Velvet Buzzsaw (2019), The Guilty (2021), and Ambulance (2022).
Gyllenhaal has performed on stage, starring in a West End production of the play This Is Our Youth and Broadway productions of the musical Sunday in the Park with George as well as the plays Constellations and Sea Wall/A Life, the lattermost of which earned him a nomination for the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play. Aside from acting, he is vocal about political and social issues.
Life and career
1980–2000: Early life and career beginnings
Coat of arms of the noble house Gyllenhaal
Jacob Benjamin Gyllenhaal was born on December 19, 1980, in Los Angeles, California, United States, to screenwriter Naomi Foner (née Achs) and film director Stephen Gyllenhaal. Actress Maggie Gyllenhaal, his older sister, appeared with him in the science fiction psychological thriller film Donnie Darko (2001). Gyllenhaal's father, who was raised as a Swedenborgian, is of Swedish and English descent and is a descendant of the Swedish noble Gyllenhaal family. His last ancestor to be born in Sweden was his great-great-grandfather, Anders Leonard Gyllenhaal. Gyllenhaal's mother is Jewish, and was born in New York City into an Ashkenazi Jewish family from Russia and Poland. Gyllenhaal has said that he considers himself Jewish. On his 13th birthday, Gyllenhaal performed a "Bar Mitzvah-like act, without the typical trappings", volunteering at a homeless shelter because his parents wanted to give him a sense of gratitude for his privileged lifestyle.
As a child, Gyllenhaal was regularly exposed to filmmaking due to his family's ties to the industry. He made his acting debut as Billy Crystal's son in the 1991 comedy City Slickers. His parents did not allow him to appear in The Mighty Ducks (1992) because it would have required him to leave home for two months. In subsequent years, his parents allowed him to audition for roles but regularly forbade him to take them if he were chosen. He was allowed to appear in his father's films several times. Gyllenhaal appeared in the 1993's A Dangerous Woman (along with sister Maggie), in "Bop Gun", a 1994 episode of Homicide: Life on the Street; and in the 1998 comedy Homegrown. Along with their mother, Jake and Maggie appeared in two episodes of Molto Mario, an Italian cooking show on the Food Network. Prior to his senior year in high school, the only other film not directed by his father in which Gyllenhaal was allowed to perform was the 1993 film Josh and S.A.M., a little-known children's adventure.
His parents insisted that he have summer jobs to support himself, and he thus worked as a lifeguard and as a busboy at a restaurant operated by a family friend. Gyllenhaal said his parents encouraged artistic expression: "I do have parents who constantly supported me in certain ways. In other ways, they were lacking. Definitely, it's in expression and creativity where my family has always been best at." Gyllenhaal graduated from the Harvard-Westlake School in Los Angeles in 1998, then attended Columbia University, where his sister was a senior and from which his mother had graduated, to study Eastern religions and philosophy. At Columbia, he was a resident of John Jay Hall. Gyllenhaal dropped out after two years to concentrate on acting but has expressed intentions to eventually finish his degree. Gyllenhaal's first lead role was in October Sky, Joe Johnston's 1999 adaptation of the Homer Hickam autobiography Rocket Boys, in which he portrayed a young man from West Virginia striving to win a science scholarship to avoid becoming a coal miner. The film was positively received and earned $32 million; it was described in the Sacramento News and Review as Gyllenhaal's "breakout performance".
2001–2004: Donnie Darko to the London stage
Donnie Darko, in which Gyllenhaal played his second lead role on film, was not a box office success on its initial 2001 release; eventually, the film became a cult favorite. Directed by Richard Kelly, the film is set in 1988 and stars Gyllenhaal as a troubled teenager who experiences visions of a 6-foot (1.8 m) tall rabbit named Frank who tells him that the world is coming to an end. Gyllenhaal's performance was well received by critics; Gary Mairs of Culture Vulture wrote that he "manages the difficult trick of seeming both blandly normal and profoundly disturbed, often within the same scene."
Gyllenhaal's next role was as Pilot Kelston in 2002's Highway alongside Jared Leto. His performance was described by one critic as "silly, clichéd and straight to video". Gyllenhaal had more success starring opposite Jennifer Aniston in The Good Girl, which premiered at the 2002 Sundance Film Festival; he also starred in Lovely and Amazing with Catherine Keener. In both films he plays an unstable character who begins a reckless affair with an older woman. Gyllenhaal later described these as "teenager in transition" roles. Gyllenhaal later starred in the Touchstone Pictures romantic comedy Bubble Boy, which was loosely based on the story of David Vetter. The film portrays the title character's adventures as he pursues the love of his life before she marries the wrong man. The film was panned by critics, with one calling it "stupid and devoid of any redeeming features".
Following Bubble Boy, Gyllenhaal starred opposite Dustin Hoffman, Susan Sarandon and Ellen Pompeo in Moonlight Mile (2002), as a young man coping with the death of his fiancée and the grief of her parents. The story, which received mixed reviews, is loosely based on writer-director Brad Silberling's personal experiences following the murder of his girlfriend, Rebecca Schaeffer. In his theatrical debut, Gyllenhaal starred on the London stage in Kenneth Lonergan's revival of This Is Our Youth at the Garrick Theatre in 2002. Gyllenhaal said, "Every actor I look up to has done theatre work, so I knew I had to give it a try." The play ran for eight weeks in London's West End; Gyllenhaal received favorable reviews and an Evening Standard Theatre Award in the Outstanding Newcomer category.
Gyllenhaal was almost cast as Spider-Man for 2004's Spider-Man 2, due to director Sam Raimi's concerns about original Spider-Man star Tobey Maguire's health. Maguire recovered, however, and the sequel was shot without Gyllenhaal. The actors later starred together in Brothers (2009), and resemble each other enough that Gyllenhaal has jokingly complained about cab drivers often calling him "Spider-Man." In 2003, he also auditioned for the role of Batman in the superhero film Batman Begins and came close being offered the part, but it was given to Christian Bale. Gyllenhaal subsequently appeared in the science fiction blockbuster The Day After Tomorrow in 2004, co-starring Dennis Quaid as his father.
2005–2011: Brokeback Mountain and leading roles
Gyllenhaal attending the premiere of Proof at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival
In 2005, Gyllenhaal was cast in the drama Proof, with co-stars Gwyneth Paltrow and Anthony Hopkins, where he played a graduate student in mathematics who tries to convince Paltrow's character to publish a revolutionary proof to a problem puzzling the mathematicians' community. The film received a generally positive response. He also starred in Sam Mendes's Jarhead, where Gyllenhaal played a U.S. Marine during the first Gulf War. The film garnered a favorable response; Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post praises Gyllenhaal's performance, writing, "He makes us see his character's intelligence", adding "he doesn't seem jealous of the camera's attention when it goes to others".
In Brokeback Mountain (2005), Gyllenhaal and Heath Ledger play young men who meet as sheep herders and embark upon a sexual relationship that begins in the summer of 1963 and lasts for 20 years. The film was often referred to in the media with the shorthand phrase "the gay cowboy movie", although there was differing opinion on the sexual orientation of the characters. The film won numerous accolades, including the Golden Lion prize at the Venice Film Festival. The film won three Academy Awards, and earned Gyllenhaal a nomination for Best Supporting Actor, but he lost to George Clooney for Syriana. The film also won four Golden Globes, and four British Academy Film Awards (BAFTAs), in which Gyllenhaal won for Best Supporting Actor. He and Ledger won an MTV Movie Award for Best Kiss in 2006. Shortly after the 2006 Academy Awards, Gyllenhaal was invited to join the Academy in recognition of his acting career.
Gyllenhaal expressed mixed feelings about the experience of being directed by Ang Lee in Brokeback Mountain but generally had more praise than criticism for his directorial style. While critical of the way Lee tended to disconnect from his actors once filming began, Gyllenhaal praised his encouraging direction of the actors and sensitive approach to the material. At the Directors Guild of America Awards on January 28, 2006, Gyllenhaal also praised Lee for "his humbleness and his respect for everyone around him". When asked about his kissing scenes with Ledger in Brokeback Mountain, Gyllenhaal said, "As an actor, I think we need to embrace the times we feel most uncomfortable." When asked about the more intimate scenes with Ledger, Gyllenhaal likened them to "doing a sex scene with a woman I'm not particularly attracted to". Following the release of Brokeback Mountain, rumors circulated regarding the actor's sexual orientation. When asked about such gossip during an interview, Gyllenhaal said: You know it's flattering when there's a rumor that says I'm bisexual. It means I can play more kinds of roles. I'm open to whatever people want to call me. I've never really been attracted to men sexually, but I don't think I would be afraid of it if it happened.
Gyllenhaal narrated the 2005 short animated film The Man Who Walked Between the Towers, based on Mordicai Gerstein's book of the same name about Philippe Petit's famous stunt. In January 2007, as host of Saturday Night Live, he put on a sparkly evening dress and sang "And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going" from the musical Dreamgirls for his opening monologue, dedicating the song to his "unique fan base... the fans of Brokeback". Later, Gyllenhaal starred in David Fincher's mystery thriller Zodiac (2007), based on the Zodiac Killer. He played Robert Graysmith, a San Francisco Chronicle political cartoonist. In preparation for his role, Gyllenhaal met Graysmith, and videotaped him to study his mannerisms and behavior. The film received a positive response; writing for The Sydney Morning Herald, Paul Byrnes opined that it was "poignant, provocative and haunting", and called Gyllenhaal "terrific". He next starred opposite Meryl Streep, Alan Arkin and Reese Witherspoon in 2007's Rendition, a Gavin Hood-directed political thriller about the U.S. policy of extraordinary rendition. Although it garnered a mixed response, New York magazine's David Edelstein called Gyllenhaal "compelling ... he's a reticent actor. But he builds that limitation into the character". Two years later, he co-starred with Tobey Maguire and Natalie Portman in Jim Sheridan's Brothers, a 2009 remake of Susanne Bier's Danish film of the same name. It was met with mixed reviews and moderate box office returns, but Anthony Quinn of The Independent thought Gyllenhaal and Maguire gave "honest performances". Gyllenhaal has also claimed that Maguire's performance in the film influenced his acting throughout his career.
The following year, Gyllenhaal played the lead role in Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time, an adaptation of the video game of the same name, produced by Jerry Bruckheimer and released by Disney. He starred opposite Anne Hathaway in the romantic-comedy Love & Other Drugs, released on November 24, 2010, which gained him a Golden Globe Award nomination. The Guardian's Philip French welcomed Gyllenhaal's choice of a comic role, in contrast to his previous film roles, but thought the film "stumbles badly". For his sole project in 2011, he portrayed Colter Stevens, a U.S. Army Aviation captain, in the 2011 time-travel thriller Source Code. Despite noting the film's unrealistic plot, Peter Howell of the Toronto Star praised the prime performances of the cast.
2012–2018: Critical acclaim and Broadway debut
Gyllenhaal starred alongside Michael Peña in David Ayer's action thriller End of Watch, about two Los Angeles street cops. The film, for which Gyllenhaal was also an executive producer, was released in September 2012 and received positive reviews, with Roger Ebert deeming it "one of the best police movies in recent years, a virtuoso fusion of performances and often startling action" and Salon's Andrew O'Hehir stating that the film was "at least the best cop movie since James Gray's We Own the Night, and very likely since Antoine Fuqua's memorable Training Day (which, not coincidentally, was written by Ayer)". To prepare for the role, Gyllenhaal took tactical training and participated in actual police ride-alongs with co-star Peña to help establish the language of the characters.
Gyllenhaal at the 2012 Berlin International Film Festival, where he served as a jury member
He served as a jury member for the 62nd Berlin International Film Festival that was held in February 2012. Also in 2012, Gyllenhaal made his Off-Broadway debut in Nick Payne's play If There Is I Haven't Found It Yet at the Roundabout Theatre Company's Laura Pels Theatre. 2013 saw Gyllenhaal appear in two films directed by Denis Villeneuve, whom Gyllenhaal describes as "an older brother". The first, the thriller Prisoners, starred Gyllenhaal as a detective named Loki in search of the abductor of two young girls. Rolling Stone critic Peter Travers praised Gyllenhaal's "exceptional" performance in the film. In their second collaboration, Gyllenhaal portrayed the dual role of a history teacher and his doppelgänger in the thriller Enemy. The following year, he produced and starred in the crime thriller Nightcrawler, earning Golden Globe Award and Screen Actors Guild Award nominations for his performance. Ben Sachs of the Chicago Reader called Gyllenhaal's performance "attention-grabbing" and said that he "creates a memorable screen presence".
Gyllenhaal debuted on Broadway in Payne's Constellations at the Samuel J. Friedman Theatre opposite Ruth Wilson, also in her Broadway debut. The production opened in January 2015 and closed in March of the same year. That same year, he starred in the comedy Accidental Love, which was filmed in South Carolina with Jessica Biel, as well as Antoine Fuqua's sports drama Southpaw. Writing for The Independent, Geoffrey Macnab called his portrayal of a boxer in Southpaw "plausible" and complimented his "emotional vulnerability", despite an unoriginal plot. He then portrayed Scott Fischer in Baltasar Kormákur's Everest, based on the 1996 Mount Everest disaster; the film was a commercial success, grossing $203 million worldwide. Finally, he appeared in Jean-Marc Vallée's comedy-drama Demolition, playing an investment banker Davis Mitchell, who rebuilds his life after losing his wife. The Village Voice's Bilge Ebiri praised his performance, writing, "He nails Davis's boyish curiosity, the quiet, wide-eyed uncertainty of someone discovering the world for the first time." He also served as a jury member for the main competition of the 2015 Cannes Film Festival.
In 2016, he starred in Tom Ford's neo-noir thriller Nocturnal Animals, based on the 1993 novel Tony and Susan by Austin Wright. The film received positive reviews. The Sydney Morning Herald's Sandra Hall praised Gyllenhaal's brilliant portrayal of his two roles, while Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times wrote that his performance contained "rich emotional shadings" and escalating intensity that becomes overwhelming. In October 2016, he appeared in four benefit concert performances of the Stephen Sondheim and James Lapine musical Sunday in the Park with George at the New York City Center as the titular character. Alexis Soloski of The Guardian gave the performance a perfect five-star review and hailed Gyllenhaal's superb singing. Starting in February 2017, Gyllenhaal reprised the role at the reopened Hudson Theatre on Broadway. Ben Brantley of The New York Times praised his "searing theatrical presence, in which his eyes are his center of gravity." He was scheduled to appear in Lanford Wilson's Burn This on Broadway under the direction of Michael Mayer in 2017. However, a new production of Burn This took place in 2019 with Adam Driver appearing, with Gyllenhaal's production having reportedly been abandoned.
In 2017, Gyllenhaal starred as astronaut David Jordan in the science fiction horror film Life; Slant Magazine's Eric Henderson stated that Gyllenhaal was "dead behind the eyes from his first scene". He also had a supporting role in the action-adventure film Okja and starred in the drama Stronger, based on Boston Marathon bombing survivor Jeff Bauman. In his review of the latter, The Independent's Geoffrey Macnab complimented Gyllenhaal's versatility and "outstanding" portrayal of Bauman. The following year, he co-starred in the drama Wildlife opposite Carey Mulligan, in which he plays a father who temporarily abandons his family to take a dangerous job. It is based on the 1990 novel of the same name by Richard Ford. Ella Kemp, writing for Sight & Sound magazine, praised the chemistry of the lead actors which "fizzes with an effortless dynamism". He also had a role in the Western drama The Sisters Brothers (2018).
2019–present: Action and thriller films
Gyllenhaal reunited with Nightcrawler director Dan Gilroy in the thriller film Velvet Buzzsaw, in which he plays art critic Mort Vandewalt. The film premiered at the 2019 Sundance Film Festival and was distributed by Netflix. Variety's Peter Debrudge opined that Gyllenhaal was "relishing another of those cartoonishly camp performances". That same year, Gyllenhaal played comic book villain Mysterio / Quentin Beck in the superhero film Spider-Man: Far From Home, a sequel to Spider-Man: Homecoming, set within the Marvel Cinematic Universe. It was one of the highest-grossing films of the year. He appeared alongside Tom Sturridge in Sea Wall/A Life, a double bill of monologues by Nick Payne and Simon Stephens, at the Hudson Theatre on Broadway in 2019. He garnered a Tony Award nomination for Best Actor in a Play for his performance. Gyllenhaal also lent his voice for the animation Spirit Untamed (2021). That same year, he played detective Joe Baylor in the crime thriller The Guilty, a remake of the Danish film of the same name.
In 2022, he starred as a criminal in Michael Bay's action thriller Ambulance; the film received mixed reviews from critics. Gyllenhaal also voiced a farmer in the Disney animation Strange World. He appeared in Guy Ritchie's The Covenant (2023) and Doug Liman's action film Road House (2024). Following the success of Road House, his production company, Nine Stories, signed a first-look deal with Amazon MGM Studios.
In 2024 it was announced that Gyllenhaal would return to Broadway playing Iago in the 2025 revival of William Shakespeare's tragedy Othello starring opposite Denzel Washington.
Public image
Gyllenhaal was named one of People's "50 Most Beautiful People" in 2006. He was also listed in People's "Hottest Bachelors of 2006". In April 2012, Shalom Life ranked him number six on its list of "the 50 most talented, intelligent, funny, and gorgeous Jewish men in the world". He was ranked number 35 in Empire's poll of The 100 Sexiest Movie Stars in 2013. In another poll conducted by Glamour, Gyllenhaal was selected as one of the Sexiest Men of The Year 2018.
Personal life
Family and relationships
Further information: Gyllenhaal family
Gyllenhaal's sister Maggie is married to actor Peter Sarsgaard, Gyllenhaal's co-star in Jarhead and Rendition. In December 2006, Gyllenhaal and his sister escaped a fire that destroyed Manka's Inverness Lodge, a famed lodge and restaurant in Inverness, California, at which they were vacationing. The two were among a dozen or so guests who fled after the fire, sparked by a falling tree, broke out at about 3 a.m. Co-owner and celebrity chef Daniel DeLong said the pair were supportive despite having to brave the wind and cold. "Jake was helping me pull things out of the fire," DeLong said.
Gyllenhaal has both godparents and what he describes as "celebrity godparents". Actor and director Paul Newman was his godfather, and actress Jamie Lee Curtis is his godmother. Other godparents of unknown status include a gay couple and cinematographer Robert Elswit. Gyllenhaal is the godfather of Matilda Rose Ledger (born October 28, 2005), daughter of his Brokeback Mountain co-stars Heath Ledger and Michelle Williams.
Gyllenhaal began dating actress Kirsten Dunst in 2002 after his sister Maggie, who starred with Dunst in Mona Lisa Smile, introduced them; they eventually broke up in 2004 on friendly terms. He dated his Rendition co-star Reese Witherspoon from 2007 until 2009. He dated singer-songwriter Taylor Swift from October 2010 to January 2011, and model Alyssa Miller from July to December 2013.
Gyllenhaal has been in a relationship with French model Jeanne Cadieu since late 2018.
Political views and other interests
Gyllenhaal once filmed a commercial for Rock the Vote and, along with his sister, visited the University of Southern California to urge students to vote in the 2004 U.S. presidential election. He also campaigned for Democratic Party presidential nominee John Kerry. He has said that "it frustrates me when actors talk politics; I'm political and I make choices in my movies that I think are political. I try and say things with what I do. Rightly or wrongly, young actors have all the power." In an interview, he remarked that "it's a sad time when actors are politicians and politicians are actors". In the 2018 midterm elections, Gyllenhaal endorsed U.S. Senate candidate Beto O'Rourke. His endorsement came in the form of a Facebook post that included a picture of him in a "BETO" shirt and a caption that also endorsed Stacey Abrams, Andrew Gillum, Kyrsten Sinema, and Jacky Rosen in their respective Senate or gubernatorial elections.
Gyllenhaal recycles regularly, and said in an interview that he spends $400 a year to have trees planted in a Mozambique forest, partly to promote the Future Forests program. After filming The Day After Tomorrow, he flew to the Arctic to promote awareness of climate change. He has described climate activist Greta Thunberg as an inspiring figure.
In 2003, Gyllenhaal participated in an advertising campaign by the American Civil Liberties Union. Gyllenhaal is the Honorary Chair of the New Eyes for the Needy Advisory Board, and has signed on to help the TV fundraiser Stand Up to Cancer. Gyllenhaal is on the board of directors for the Anti-Recidivism Coalition and volunteered in California juvenile detention centers with Scott Budnick. In 2014, Gyllenhaal attended an event that benefited the Headstrong Project, an organization that provides treatment to military veterans suffering from post traumatic stress disorder, during which he read a poem by a veteran, and in 2017 he participated in a fundraiser to help survivors who lost limbs during the September 11 attacks in 2001.
Gyllenhaal has studied Buddhism and has said, "I am not a card-carrying Buddhist, but I do try to practice mindfulness" and that it is his goal to meditate every day. He has also been seen attending home games of the Los Angeles Lakers.
Acting credits and awards
Main articles: Jake Gyllenhaal on screen and stage and awards and nominations
Gyllenhaal's most acclaimed films, according to the review aggregate site Rotten Tomatoes, include October Sky (1999), Donnie Darko (2001), Lovely & Amazing (2002), Brokeback Mountain (2005), Zodiac (2007), Source Code (2011), End of Watch (2012), Nightcrawler (2014), and Stronger (2017). He has received numerous accolades, including a BAFTA Film Award, an Independent Spirit Award, and nominations for an Academy Award, two Golden Globe Awards, three Screen Actors Guild Awards and three Tony Awards.
References
^ Gyllenhaal, Jake (October 13, 2014). "An Actor Pronounces My Last Name Correctly" (Interview). Interviewed by Pattanumotana, Goon "Gig Patta". 0:00 minutes in. Archived from the original on November 1, 2020. Retrieved April 26, 2020.Gig Patta: Good, good. And, um, just to wrap things up, I know you've been asked, you know, hundreds of times—I mean, how do you really pronounce your last name?Gyllenhaal: How do you think you pronounce my last name?Gig Patta: I thought it was pronounced /ˈdʒɪlənhɔːl/.Gyllenhaal: You got it! That's it.Gig Patta: Is that really...?Gyllenhaal: Yeah, there's no need for me even to say it. You got it perfectly.
^ "NLS Other Writings Say How". National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped. Archived from the original on November 6, 2018. Retrieved October 1, 2017.
^ Gyllenhaal, Jake (September 27, 2012). "Nobody Says Jake Gyllenhaal's Name Correctly". Conan (Interview). Interviewed by O'Brien, Conan. TBS. 0:21 minutes in. Archived from the original on January 16, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020 – via Team Coco. The only two places that it's pronounced correctly, my last name, like you did just now, is in Sweden and in IKEA.
^ Sveriges Ridderskap och Adels kalender 2010 (in Swedish). Stockholm: Riddarhuset. 2009. p. 302. ISBN 978-91-633-5156-3. ISSN 0347-9633.
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External links
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Jake Gyllenhaal at IMDb
Jake Gyllenhaal at the Internet Broadway Database
Jake Gyllenhaal at the Internet Off-Broadway Database
Jake Gyllenhaal at the TCM Movie Database
Media related to Jake Gyllenhaal at Wikimedia Commons
Awards for Jake Gyllenhaal
vteBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role1968–2000
Ian Holm (1968)
Laurence Olivier (1969)
Colin Welland (1970)
Edward Fox (1971)
Ben Johnson (1972)
Arthur Lowe (1973)
John Gielgud (1974)
Fred Astaire (1975)
Brad Dourif (1976)
Edward Fox (1977)
John Hurt (1978)
Robert Duvall (1979)
Ian Holm (1981)
Jack Nicholson (1982)
Denholm Elliott (1983)
Denholm Elliott (1984)
Denholm Elliott (1985)
Ray McAnally (1986)
Daniel Auteuil (1987)
Michael Palin (1988)
Ray McAnally (1989)
Salvatore Cascio (1990)
Alan Rickman (1991)
Gene Hackman (1992)
Ralph Fiennes (1993)
Samuel L. Jackson (1994)
Tim Roth (1995)
Paul Scofield (1996)
Tom Wilkinson (1997)
Geoffrey Rush (1998)
Jude Law (1999)
Benicio del Toro (2000)
2001–present
Jim Broadbent (2001)
Christopher Walken (2002)
Bill Nighy (2003)
Clive Owen (2004)
Jake Gyllenhaal (2005)
Alan Arkin (2006)
Javier Bardem (2007)
Heath Ledger (2008)
Christoph Waltz (2009)
Geoffrey Rush (2010)
Christopher Plummer (2011)
Christoph Waltz (2012)
Barkhad Abdi (2013)
J. K. Simmons (2014)
Mark Rylance (2015)
Dev Patel (2016)
Sam Rockwell (2017)
Mahershala Ali (2018)
Brad Pitt (2019)
Daniel Kaluuya (2020)
Troy Kotsur (2021)
Barry Keoghan (2022)
Robert Downey Jr. (2023)
vteEvening Standard Theatre Award for Outstanding Newcomer
Eve Best (1999)
Chiwetel Ejiofor (2000)
Rufus Norris (2001)
Jake Gyllenhaal (2002)
Tom Hardy (2003)
Eddie Redmayne (2004)
David Babani and Danielle Tarento (2005)
Andrew Garfield (2006)
Stephen Wight (2007)
Ella Smith (2008)
Lenny Henry (2009)
Kate Bond and Morgan Lloyd (2010)
Kyle Soller (2011)
Matthew Tennyson (2012)
Seth Numrich (2013)
vteHouston Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor
Daniel Day-Lewis (2007)
Sean Penn (2008)
George Clooney (2009)
Jesse Eisenberg (2010)
Michael Fassbender (2011)
Daniel Day-Lewis (2012)
Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013)
Jake Gyllenhaal (2014)
Michael Fassbender (2015)
Casey Affleck (2016)
James Franco (2017)
Christian Bale (2018)
Adam Driver (2019)
Riz Ahmed (2020)
Benedict Cumberbatch (2021)
Colin Farrell (2022)
Paul Giamatti (2023)
vteMTV Movie & TV Award for Best Kiss1990s
Anna Chlumsky & Macaulay Culkin in My Girl (1992)
Christian Slater & Marisa Tomei in Untamed Heart (1993)
Demi Moore & Woody Harrelson in Indecent Proposal (1994)
Jim Carrey & Lauren Holly in Dumb and Dumber (1995)
Natasha Henstridge & Anthony Guidera in Species (1996)
Will Smith & Vivica A. Fox in Independence Day (1997)
Adam Sandler & Drew Barrymore in The Wedding Singer (1998)
Gwyneth Paltrow & Joseph Fiennes in Shakespeare in Love (1999)
2000s
Sarah Michelle Gellar & Selma Blair in Cruel Intentions (2000)
Julia Stiles & Sean Patrick Thomas in Save the Last Dance (2001)
Jason Biggs & Seann William Scott in American Pie 2 (2002)
Tobey Maguire & Kirsten Dunst in Spider-Man (2003)
Owen Wilson, Carmen Electra & Amy Smart in Starsky & Hutch (2004)
Ryan Gosling & Rachel McAdams in The Notebook (2005)
Heath Ledger & Jake Gyllenhaal in Brokeback Mountain (2006)
Will Ferrell & Sacha Baron Cohen in Talladega Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby (2007)
Briana Evigan & Robert Hoffman in Step Up 2: The Streets (2008)
Robert Pattinson & Kristen Stewart in Twilight (2009)
2010s
Robert Pattinson & Kristen Stewart in The Twilight Saga: New Moon (2010)
Robert Pattinson & Kristen Stewart in The Twilight Saga: Eclipse (2011)
Robert Pattinson & Kristen Stewart in The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn - Part 1 (2012)
Jennifer Lawrence & Bradley Cooper in Silver Linings Playbook (2013)
Emma Roberts, Jennifer Aniston & Will Poulter in We're the Millers (2014)
Ansel Elgort & Shailene Woodley in The Fault in Our Stars (2015)
Rebel Wilson & Adam DeVine in Pitch Perfect 2 (2016)
Ashton Sanders & Jharrel Jerome in Moonlight (2017)
Nick Robinson & Keiynan Lonsdale in Love, Simon (2018)
Noah Centineo & Lana Condor in To All the Boys I've Loved Before (2019)
2020s
No award (2020)
Chase Stokes & Madelyn Cline in Outer Banks (2021)
Poopies & the Snake in Jackass Forever (2022)
Madison Bailey & Rudy Pankow in Outer Banks (2023)
vteMTV Movie & TV Award for Best Performance in a MovieBest Male Performance(1992–2005, 2008–2016)
Arnold Schwarzenegger (1992)
Denzel Washington (1993)
Tom Hanks (1994)
Brad Pitt (1995)
Jim Carrey (1996)
Tom Cruise (1997)
Leonardo DiCaprio (1998)
Jim Carrey (1999)
Keanu Reeves (2000)
Tom Cruise (2001)
Will Smith (2002)
Eminem (2003)
Johnny Depp (2004)
Leonardo DiCaprio (2005)
Will Smith (2008)
Zac Efron (2009)
Robert Pattinson (2010)
Robert Pattinson (2011)
Josh Hutcherson (2012)
Bradley Cooper (2013)
Josh Hutcherson (2014)
Bradley Cooper (2015)
Leonardo DiCaprio (2016)
Best Female Performance(1992–2005, 2008–2016)
Linda Hamilton (1992)
Sharon Stone (1993)
Janet Jackson (1994)
Sandra Bullock (1995)
Alicia Silverstone (1996)
Claire Danes (1997)
Neve Campbell (1998)
Cameron Diaz (1999)
Sarah Michelle Gellar (2000)
Julia Roberts (2001)
Nicole Kidman (2002)
Kirsten Dunst (2003)
Uma Thurman (2004)
Lindsay Lohan (2005)
Elliot Page (2008)
Kristen Stewart (2009)
Kristen Stewart (2010)
Kristen Stewart (2011)
Jennifer Lawrence (2012)
Jennifer Lawrence (2013)
Jennifer Lawrence (2014)
Shailene Woodley (2015)
Charlize Theron (2016)
Best Performance(2006–2007, 2017–present)
Jake Gyllenhaal (2006)
Johnny Depp (2007)
Emma Watson (2017)
Chadwick Boseman (2018)
Lady Gaga (2019)
No Award (2020)
Chadwick Boseman (2021)
Tom Holland (2022)
Tom Cruise (2023)
vteNational Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actor1954–1975
John Williams (1954)
Charles Bickford (1955)
Richard Basehart (1956)
Sessue Hayakawa (1957)
Albert Salmi (1958)
Hugh Griffith (1959)
George Peppard (1960)
Jackie Gleason (1961)
Burgess Meredith (1962)
Melvyn Douglas (1963)
Martin Balsam (1964)
Harry Andrews (1965)
Robert Shaw (1966)
Paul Ford (1967)
Leo McKern (1968)
Philippe Noiret (1969)
Frank Langella (1970)
Ben Johnson (1971)
Joel Grey / Al Pacino (1972)
John Houseman (1973)
Holger Löwenadler (1974)
Charles Durning (1975)
1976–2000
Jason Robards (1976)
Tom Skerritt (1977)
Richard Farnsworth (1978)
Paul Dooley (1979)
Joe Pesci (1980)
Jack Nicholson (1981)
Robert Preston (1982)
Jack Nicholson (1983)
John Malkovich (1984)
Klaus Maria Brandauer (1985)
Daniel Day-Lewis (1986)
Sean Connery (1987)
River Phoenix (1988)
Alan Alda (1989)
Joe Pesci (1990)
Anthony Hopkins (1991)
Jack Nicholson (1992)
Leonardo DiCaprio (1993)
Gary Sinise (1994)
Kevin Spacey (1995)
Edward Norton (1996)
Greg Kinnear (1997)
Ed Harris (1998)
Philip Seymour Hoffman (1999)
Joaquin Phoenix (2000)
2001–present
Jim Broadbent (2001)
Chris Cooper (2002)
Alec Baldwin (2003)
Thomas Haden Church (2004)
Jake Gyllenhaal (2005)
Djimon Hounsou (2006)
Casey Affleck (2007)
Josh Brolin (2008)
Woody Harrelson (2009)
Christian Bale(2010)
Christopher Plummer (2011)
Leonardo DiCaprio (2012)
Will Forte (2013)
Edward Norton (2014)
Sylvester Stallone (2015)
Jeff Bridges (2016)
Willem Dafoe (2017)
Sam Elliott (2018)
Brad Pitt (2019)
Paul Raci (2020)
Ciarán Hinds (2021)
Brendan Gleeson (2022)
Mark Ruffalo (2023)
vteSan Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor
Kenneth Branagh (1996)
Jack Nicholson (1997)
Ian McKellen (1998)
Kevin Spacey (1999)
Russell Crowe (2000)
Guy Pearce (2001)
Daniel Day-Lewis (2002)
Chiwetel Ejiofor (2003)
Jim Carrey (2004)
Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005)
Ken Takakura (2006)
Daniel Day-Lewis (2007)
Mickey Rourke (2008)
Colin Firth (2009)
Colin Farrell (2010)
Michael Shannon (2011)
Daniel Day-Lewis (2012)
Oscar Isaac (2013)
Jake Gyllenhaal (2014)
Leonardo DiCaprio (2015)
Casey Affleck (2016)
James McAvoy (2017)
Ethan Hawke (2018)
Adam Driver / Joaquin Phoenix (2019)
Riz Ahmed (2020)
Nicolas Cage (2021)
Colin Farrell (2022)
Jeffrey Wright (2023)
vteSt. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor
Jamie Foxx (2004)
Heath Ledger (2005)
Forest Whitaker (2006)
Daniel Day-Lewis (2007)
Sean Penn (2008)
George Clooney (2009)
Colin Firth (2010)
George Clooney (2011)
Daniel Day-Lewis (2012)
Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013)
Jake Gyllenhaal (2014)
Leonardo DiCaprio (2015)
Casey Affleck (2016)
Gary Oldman (2017)
Ethan Hawke (2018)
Adam Sandler (2019)
Chadwick Boseman (2020)
Nicolas Cage (2021)
Brendan Fraser (2022)
Cillian Murphy (2023)
vteVancouver Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor
Benicio del Toro (2000)
Steve Buscemi (2001)
Daniel Day-Lewis (2002)
Sean Penn (2003)
Jamie Foxx (2004)
Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005)
Forest Whitaker (2006)
Daniel Day-Lewis (2007)
Sean Penn (2008)
Colin Firth (2009)
Colin Firth (2010)
Michael Fassbender (2011)
Joaquin Phoenix (2012)
Oscar Isaac (2013)
Jake Gyllenhaal (2014)
Michael Fassbender (2015)
Casey Affleck (2016)
Daniel Day-Lewis (2017)
Ethan Hawke (2018)
Adam Driver (2019)
Chadwick Boseman (2020)
Andrew Garfield (2021)
Colin Farrell (2022)
Paul Giamatti (2023)
Portals: Biography California Film Television New York (state) Greater Los Angeles San Francisco Bay Area
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JakeGyllenhaal.ogg"},{"link_name":"/ˈdʒɪlənhɔːl/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"JIL-ən-hawl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[ˈjʏ̂lːɛnˌhɑːl]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Swedish"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Gyllenhaal family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyllenhaal_family"},{"link_name":"Stephen Gyllenhaal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Gyllenhaal"},{"link_name":"Naomi Foner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naomi_Foner"},{"link_name":"Maggie Gyllenhaal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maggie_Gyllenhaal"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"City Slickers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Slickers"},{"link_name":"A Dangerous Woman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Dangerous_Woman_(1993_film)"},{"link_name":"Homegrown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homegrown_(film)"},{"link_name":"Homer Hickam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer_Hickam"},{"link_name":"October Sky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_Sky"},{"link_name":"Donnie Darko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donnie_Darko"},{"link_name":"The Day After Tomorrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Day_After_Tomorrow"},{"link_name":"Jack Twist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Twist"},{"link_name":"Ang Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ang_Lee"},{"link_name":"Brokeback Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brokeback_Mountain"},{"link_name":"BAFTA Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAFTA_Award"},{"link_name":"Academy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award"},{"link_name":"Zodiac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zodiac_(film)"},{"link_name":"Love & Other Drugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_%26_Other_Drugs"},{"link_name":"Source Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_Code"},{"link_name":"Denis Villeneuve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Villeneuve"},{"link_name":"Prisoners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoners_(2013_film)"},{"link_name":"Enemy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enemy_(2013_film)"},{"link_name":"BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAFTA_Award_for_Best_Actor_in_a_Leading_Role"},{"link_name":"Nightcrawler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nightcrawler_(film)"},{"link_name":"Nocturnal Animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocturnal_Animals"},{"link_name":"Marvel Cinematic Universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvel_Cinematic_Universe"},{"link_name":"Spider-Man: Far From Home","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider-Man:_Far_From_Home"},{"link_name":"Quentin Beck / Mysterio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quentin_Beck_(Marvel_Cinematic_Universe)"},{"link_name":"Wildlife","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_(film)"},{"link_name":"Velvet Buzzsaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvet_Buzzsaw"},{"link_name":"The Guilty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guilty_(2021_film)"},{"link_name":"Ambulance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambulance_(2022_film)"},{"link_name":"West End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_theatre"},{"link_name":"This Is Our Youth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Our_Youth"},{"link_name":"Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadway_theatre"},{"link_name":"Sunday in the Park with George","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_in_the_Park_with_George"},{"link_name":"Constellations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellations_(play)"},{"link_name":"Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Actor_in_a_Play"}],"text":"American actor (born 1980)Jacob Benjamin Gyllenhaal (/ˈdʒɪlənhɔːl/ JIL-ən-hawl,[1][2] Swedish: [ˈjʏ̂lːɛnˌhɑːl];[3] born December 19, 1980) is an American actor. Born into the Gyllenhaal family, he is the son of film director Stephen Gyllenhaal and screenwriter Naomi Foner, and the younger brother of actress Maggie Gyllenhaal.[4] He began acting as a child, making his acting debut in City Slickers (1991), followed by roles in his father's films A Dangerous Woman (1993) and Homegrown (1998). His breakthrough roles were as Homer Hickam in the biographical drama film October Sky (1999) and as a psychologically troubled teenager in the science fiction psychological thriller film Donnie Darko (2001).Gyllenhaal starred in the 2004 science fiction disaster film The Day After Tomorrow. He played Jack Twist in Ang Lee's 2005 romantic drama Brokeback Mountain, for which Gyllenhaal won a BAFTA Award and was nominated for an Academy Award. His career progressed with starring roles in the thriller Zodiac (2007), the romantic comedy Love & Other Drugs (2010), and the science fiction film Source Code (2011). Further acclaim came with his roles in Denis Villeneuve's thrillers Prisoners (2013) and Enemy (2013), and he received nominations for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role for his performances as a manipulative journalist in Nightcrawler (2014) and a troubled writer in Nocturnal Animals (2016). His highest-grossing release came with the Marvel Cinematic Universe superhero film Spider-Man: Far From Home (2019), in which he portrayed Quentin Beck / Mysterio. He has since starred in Wildlife (2018), Velvet Buzzsaw (2019), The Guilty (2021), and Ambulance (2022).Gyllenhaal has performed on stage, starring in a West End production of the play This Is Our Youth and Broadway productions of the musical Sunday in the Park with George as well as the plays Constellations and Sea Wall/A Life, the lattermost of which earned him a nomination for the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play. Aside from acting, he is vocal about political and social issues.","title":"Jake Gyllenhaal"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gyllenhaal.jpg"},{"link_name":"Coat of arms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat_of_arms"},{"link_name":"Gyllenhaal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyllenhaal_family"},{"link_name":"Naomi Foner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naomi_Foner"},{"link_name":"née","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_name#Maiden_and_married_names"},{"link_name":"Stephen Gyllenhaal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Gyllenhaal"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schruers-2005-6"},{"link_name":"Maggie Gyllenhaal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maggie_Gyllenhaal"},{"link_name":"Donnie Darko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donnie_Darko"},{"link_name":"Swedenborgian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Church"},{"link_name":"Gyllenhaal family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyllenhaal_family"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Ashkenazi Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jewish"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Bar Mitzvah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_Mitzvah"},{"link_name":"homeless shelter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeless_shelter"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Billy Crystal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Crystal"},{"link_name":"City Slickers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Slickers"},{"link_name":"The Mighty Ducks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mighty_Ducks_(film)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schruers-2005-6"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horn-19"},{"link_name":"A Dangerous Woman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Dangerous_Woman_(1993_film)"},{"link_name":"Bop Gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bop_Gun_(Homicide:_Life_on_the_Street)"},{"link_name":"Homicide: Life on the Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homicide:_Life_on_the_Street"},{"link_name":"Homegrown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homegrown_(film)"},{"link_name":"Food Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_Network"},{"link_name":"Josh and S.A.M.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josh_and_S.A.M."},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wills-20"},{"link_name":"busboy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busboy"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horn-19"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Harvard-Westlake School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard-Westlake_School"},{"link_name":"Columbia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University"},{"link_name":"Eastern religions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_religions"},{"link_name":"John Jay Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jay_Hall"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schruers-2005-6"},{"link_name":"October Sky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_Sky"},{"link_name":"Joe Johnston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Johnston"},{"link_name":"Homer Hickam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer_Hickam"},{"link_name":"Rocket Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_Boys"},{"link_name":"West Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Sacramento News and Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramento_News_and_Review"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wills-20"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"1980–2000: Early life and career beginnings","text":"Coat of arms of the noble house GyllenhaalJacob Benjamin Gyllenhaal was born on December 19, 1980, in Los Angeles, California, United States, to screenwriter Naomi Foner (née Achs) and film director Stephen Gyllenhaal.[5][6] Actress Maggie Gyllenhaal, his older sister, appeared with him in the science fiction psychological thriller film Donnie Darko (2001). Gyllenhaal's father, who was raised as a Swedenborgian, is of Swedish and English descent and is a descendant of the Swedish noble Gyllenhaal family.[7] His last ancestor to be born in Sweden was his great-great-grandfather, Anders Leonard Gyllenhaal.[8] Gyllenhaal's mother is Jewish,[9][10][11][12] and was born in New York City into an Ashkenazi Jewish family from Russia and Poland.[13][14] Gyllenhaal has said that he considers himself Jewish.[15][16] On his 13th birthday, Gyllenhaal performed a \"Bar Mitzvah-like act, without the typical trappings\", volunteering at a homeless shelter because his parents wanted to give him a sense of gratitude for his privileged lifestyle.[17][18]As a child, Gyllenhaal was regularly exposed to filmmaking due to his family's ties to the industry. He made his acting debut as Billy Crystal's son in the 1991 comedy City Slickers. His parents did not allow him to appear in The Mighty Ducks (1992) because it would have required him to leave home for two months.[6] In subsequent years, his parents allowed him to audition for roles but regularly forbade him to take them if he were chosen.[19] He was allowed to appear in his father's films several times. Gyllenhaal appeared in the 1993's A Dangerous Woman (along with sister Maggie), in \"Bop Gun\", a 1994 episode of Homicide: Life on the Street; and in the 1998 comedy Homegrown. Along with their mother, Jake and Maggie appeared in two episodes of Molto Mario, an Italian cooking show on the Food Network. Prior to his senior year in high school, the only other film not directed by his father in which Gyllenhaal was allowed to perform was the 1993 film Josh and S.A.M., a little-known children's adventure.[20]His parents insisted that he have summer jobs to support himself, and he thus worked as a lifeguard and as a busboy at a restaurant operated by a family friend.[19] Gyllenhaal said his parents encouraged artistic expression: \"I do have parents who constantly supported me in certain ways. In other ways, they were lacking. Definitely, it's in expression and creativity where my family has always been best at.\"[21] Gyllenhaal graduated from the Harvard-Westlake School in Los Angeles in 1998, then attended Columbia University, where his sister was a senior and from which his mother had graduated, to study Eastern religions and philosophy. At Columbia, he was a resident of John Jay Hall.[22] Gyllenhaal dropped out after two years to concentrate on acting but has expressed intentions to eventually finish his degree.[6] Gyllenhaal's first lead role was in October Sky, Joe Johnston's 1999 adaptation of the Homer Hickam autobiography Rocket Boys, in which he portrayed a young man from West Virginia striving to win a science scholarship to avoid becoming a coal miner. The film was positively received and earned $32 million; it was described in the Sacramento News and Review as Gyllenhaal's \"breakout performance\".[20][23]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cult favorite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cult_film"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Richard Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Kelly_(director)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Highway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highway_(2002_film)"},{"link_name":"Jared Leto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jared_Leto"},{"link_name":"straight to video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-to-video"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Jennifer Aniston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Aniston"},{"link_name":"The Good Girl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Good_Girl"},{"link_name":"Sundance Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundance_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"Lovely and Amazing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovely_and_Amazing"},{"link_name":"Catherine Keener","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_Keener"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Touchstone Pictures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchstone_Pictures"},{"link_name":"Bubble Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubble_Boy_(film)"},{"link_name":"David Vetter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Vetter"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Dustin Hoffman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustin_Hoffman"},{"link_name":"Susan Sarandon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Sarandon"},{"link_name":"Ellen Pompeo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen_Pompeo"},{"link_name":"Moonlight Mile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonlight_Mile_(film)"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Brad Silberling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_Silberling"},{"link_name":"Rebecca Schaeffer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebecca_Schaeffer"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Kenneth Lonergan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Lonergan"},{"link_name":"This Is Our Youth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Our_Youth"},{"link_name":"Garrick Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrick_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"West End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_theatre"},{"link_name":"Evening Standard Theatre Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evening_Standard_Theatre_Award"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Spider-Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider-Man"},{"link_name":"Spider-Man 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider-Man_2"},{"link_name":"Sam Raimi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Raimi"},{"link_name":"Spider-Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider-Man_(2002_film)"},{"link_name":"Tobey Maguire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobey_Maguire"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Batman Begins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batman_Begins"},{"link_name":"Christian Bale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Bale"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"blockbuster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockbuster_(entertainment)"},{"link_name":"The Day After Tomorrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Day_After_Tomorrow"},{"link_name":"Dennis Quaid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Quaid"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schruers-2005-6"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"2001–2004: Donnie Darko to the London stage","text":"Donnie Darko, in which Gyllenhaal played his second lead role on film, was not a box office success on its initial 2001 release; eventually, the film became a cult favorite.[24] Directed by Richard Kelly, the film is set in 1988 and stars Gyllenhaal as a troubled teenager who experiences visions of a 6-foot (1.8 m) tall rabbit named Frank who tells him that the world is coming to an end. Gyllenhaal's performance was well received by critics; Gary Mairs of Culture Vulture wrote that he \"manages the difficult trick of seeming both blandly normal and profoundly disturbed, often within the same scene.\"[25][26]Gyllenhaal's next role was as Pilot Kelston in 2002's Highway alongside Jared Leto. His performance was described by one critic as \"silly, clichéd and straight to video\".[27] Gyllenhaal had more success starring opposite Jennifer Aniston in The Good Girl, which premiered at the 2002 Sundance Film Festival; he also starred in Lovely and Amazing with Catherine Keener.[28] In both films he plays an unstable character who begins a reckless affair with an older woman. Gyllenhaal later described these as \"teenager in transition\" roles.[29] Gyllenhaal later starred in the Touchstone Pictures romantic comedy Bubble Boy, which was loosely based on the story of David Vetter. The film portrays the title character's adventures as he pursues the love of his life before she marries the wrong man.[30] The film was panned by critics,[31] with one calling it \"stupid and devoid of any redeeming features\".[32]Following Bubble Boy, Gyllenhaal starred opposite Dustin Hoffman, Susan Sarandon and Ellen Pompeo in Moonlight Mile (2002), as a young man coping with the death of his fiancée and the grief of her parents. The story, which received mixed reviews,[33] is loosely based on writer-director Brad Silberling's personal experiences following the murder of his girlfriend, Rebecca Schaeffer.[34] In his theatrical debut, Gyllenhaal starred on the London stage in Kenneth Lonergan's revival of This Is Our Youth at the Garrick Theatre in 2002.[35] Gyllenhaal said, \"Every actor I look up to has done theatre work, so I knew I had to give it a try.\"[36] The play ran for eight weeks in London's West End; Gyllenhaal received favorable reviews and an Evening Standard Theatre Award in the Outstanding Newcomer category.[37][38]Gyllenhaal was almost cast as Spider-Man for 2004's Spider-Man 2, due to director Sam Raimi's concerns about original Spider-Man star Tobey Maguire's health.[39] Maguire recovered, however, and the sequel was shot without Gyllenhaal.[40] The actors later starred together in Brothers (2009), and resemble each other enough that Gyllenhaal has jokingly complained about cab drivers often calling him \"Spider-Man.\"[41] In 2003, he also auditioned for the role of Batman in the superhero film Batman Begins and came close being offered the part, but it was given to Christian Bale.[42][43] Gyllenhaal subsequently appeared in the science fiction blockbuster The Day After Tomorrow in 2004, co-starring Dennis Quaid as his father.[6][44]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Proof_004_(7288885150).jpg"},{"link_name":"Proof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_(2005_film)"},{"link_name":"2005 Toronto International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Toronto_International_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"Proof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_(2005_film)"},{"link_name":"Gwyneth Paltrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwyneth_Paltrow"},{"link_name":"Anthony 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Ledger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_Ledger"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hiscock-2005-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"differing opinion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brokeback_Mountain#Discussion_on_characters'_sexuality"},{"link_name":"Golden Lion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Lion"},{"link_name":"Venice Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Best Supporting Actor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor"},{"link_name":"George Clooney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Clooney"},{"link_name":"Syriana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriana"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"British Academy Film Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Academy_of_Film_and_Television_Arts"},{"link_name":"Best Supporting Actor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Academy_Television_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"MTV Movie Award for Best Kiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTV_Movie_Award_for_Best_Kiss"},{"link_name":"2006 Academy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/78th_Academy_Awards"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Ang Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ang_Lee"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Directors Guild of America Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directors_Guild_of_America_Award"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"sex scene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_scene"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hiscock-2005-46"},{"link_name":"sexual orientation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_orientation"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"The Man Who Walked Between the Towers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_Who_Walked_Between_the_Towers"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Mordicai Gerstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordicai_Gerstein"},{"link_name":"Philippe Petit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Petit"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Saturday Night Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live"},{"link_name":"And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_I_Am_Telling_You_I%27m_Not_Going"},{"link_name":"Dreamgirls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamgirls"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"David Fincher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fincher"},{"link_name":"Zodiac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zodiac_(film)"},{"link_name":"Zodiac Killer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zodiac_Killer"},{"link_name":"Robert Graysmith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Graysmith"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"The Sydney Morning Herald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Meryl Streep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meryl_Streep"},{"link_name":"Alan Arkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Arkin"},{"link_name":"Reese Witherspoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reese_Witherspoon"},{"link_name":"Rendition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendition_(film)"},{"link_name":"Gavin Hood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin_Hood"},{"link_name":"extraordinary rendition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraordinary_rendition"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"David Edelstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Edelstein"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Natalie Portman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_Portman"},{"link_name":"Jim Sheridan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Sheridan"},{"link_name":"Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brothers_(2009_film)"},{"link_name":"Susanne Bier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susanne_Bier"},{"link_name":"of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brothers_(2004_film)"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"The Independent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Persia:_The_Sands_of_Time_(film)"},{"link_name":"of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Persia:_The_Sands_of_Time"},{"link_name":"Jerry Bruckheimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Bruckheimer"},{"link_name":"Disney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney"},{"link_name":"Anne Hathaway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Hathaway"},{"link_name":"Love & Other Drugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_%26_Other_Drugs"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"Philip French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_French"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"U.S. Army Aviation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Aviation_Branch"},{"link_name":"Source Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_Code"},{"link_name":"Toronto Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_Star"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"}],"sub_title":"2005–2011: Brokeback Mountain and leading roles","text":"Gyllenhaal attending the premiere of Proof at the 2005 Toronto International Film FestivalIn 2005, Gyllenhaal was cast in the drama Proof, with co-stars Gwyneth Paltrow and Anthony Hopkins, where he played a graduate student in mathematics who tries to convince Paltrow's character to publish a revolutionary proof to a problem puzzling the mathematicians' community. The film received a generally positive response. He also starred in Sam Mendes's Jarhead, where Gyllenhaal played a U.S. Marine during the first Gulf War. The film garnered a favorable response; Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post praises Gyllenhaal's performance, writing, \"He makes us see his character's intelligence\", adding \"he doesn't seem jealous of the camera's attention when it goes to others\".[45]In Brokeback Mountain (2005), Gyllenhaal and Heath Ledger play young men who meet as sheep herders and embark upon a sexual relationship that begins in the summer of 1963 and lasts for 20 years.[46] The film was often referred to in the media with the shorthand phrase \"the gay cowboy movie\",[47] although there was differing opinion on the sexual orientation of the characters. The film won numerous accolades, including the Golden Lion prize at the Venice Film Festival.[48] The film won three Academy Awards, and earned Gyllenhaal a nomination for Best Supporting Actor, but he lost to George Clooney for Syriana.[49] The film also won four Golden Globes, and four British Academy Film Awards (BAFTAs), in which Gyllenhaal won for Best Supporting Actor.[50] He and Ledger won an MTV Movie Award for Best Kiss in 2006. Shortly after the 2006 Academy Awards, Gyllenhaal was invited to join the Academy in recognition of his acting career.[51]Gyllenhaal expressed mixed feelings about the experience of being directed by Ang Lee in Brokeback Mountain but generally had more praise than criticism for his directorial style. While critical of the way Lee tended to disconnect from his actors once filming began, Gyllenhaal praised his encouraging direction of the actors and sensitive approach to the material.[52][53] At the Directors Guild of America Awards on January 28, 2006, Gyllenhaal also praised Lee for \"his humbleness and his respect for everyone around him\".[54] When asked about his kissing scenes with Ledger in Brokeback Mountain, Gyllenhaal said, \"As an actor, I think we need to embrace the times we feel most uncomfortable.\"[55] When asked about the more intimate scenes with Ledger, Gyllenhaal likened them to \"doing a sex scene with a woman I'm not particularly attracted to\".[46] Following the release of Brokeback Mountain, rumors circulated regarding the actor's sexual orientation. When asked about such gossip during an interview, Gyllenhaal said:You know it's flattering when there's a rumor that says I'm bisexual. It means I can play more kinds of roles. I'm open to whatever people want to call me. I've never really been attracted to men sexually, but I don't think I would be afraid of it if it happened.[56]Gyllenhaal narrated the 2005 short animated film The Man Who Walked Between the Towers,[57] based on Mordicai Gerstein's book of the same name about Philippe Petit's famous stunt.[58] In January 2007, as host of Saturday Night Live, he put on a sparkly evening dress and sang \"And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going\" from the musical Dreamgirls for his opening monologue,[59] dedicating the song to his \"unique fan base... the fans of Brokeback\".[60] Later, Gyllenhaal starred in David Fincher's mystery thriller Zodiac (2007), based on the Zodiac Killer. He played Robert Graysmith, a San Francisco Chronicle political cartoonist.[61] In preparation for his role, Gyllenhaal met Graysmith, and videotaped him to study his mannerisms and behavior.[62] The film received a positive response; writing for The Sydney Morning Herald, Paul Byrnes opined that it was \"poignant, provocative and haunting\", and called Gyllenhaal \"terrific\".[63] He next starred opposite Meryl Streep, Alan Arkin and Reese Witherspoon in 2007's Rendition, a Gavin Hood-directed political thriller about the U.S. policy of extraordinary rendition.[64] Although it garnered a mixed response, New York magazine's David Edelstein called Gyllenhaal \"compelling ... he's a reticent actor. But he builds that limitation into the character\".[65] Two years later, he co-starred with Tobey Maguire and Natalie Portman in Jim Sheridan's Brothers, a 2009 remake of Susanne Bier's Danish film of the same name.[66] It was met with mixed reviews and moderate box office returns, but Anthony Quinn of The Independent thought Gyllenhaal and Maguire gave \"honest performances\".[67] Gyllenhaal has also claimed that Maguire's performance in the film influenced his acting throughout his career.[68]The following year, Gyllenhaal played the lead role in Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time, an adaptation of the video game of the same name, produced by Jerry Bruckheimer and released by Disney. He starred opposite Anne Hathaway in the romantic-comedy Love & Other Drugs, released on November 24, 2010, which gained him a Golden Globe Award nomination.[69] The Guardian's Philip French welcomed Gyllenhaal's choice of a comic role, in contrast to his previous film roles, but thought the film \"stumbles badly\".[70] For his sole project in 2011, he portrayed Colter Stevens, a U.S. Army Aviation captain, in the 2011 time-travel thriller Source Code. Despite noting the film's unrealistic plot, Peter Howell of the Toronto Star praised the prime performances of the cast.[71]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Michael Peña","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Pe%C3%B1a"},{"link_name":"David Ayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Ayer"},{"link_name":"End of Watch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_of_Watch"},{"link_name":"Roger Ebert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Ebert"},{"link_name":"Salon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salon_(website)"},{"link_name":"James Gray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Gray_(director)"},{"link_name":"We Own the Night","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_Own_the_Night_(film)"},{"link_name":"Antoine Fuqua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Fuqua"},{"link_name":"Training Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Training_Day"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jake_Gyllenhaal_2012.jpg"},{"link_name":"2012 Berlin International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Berlin_International_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"62nd Berlin International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/62nd_Berlin_International_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"Off-Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Off-Broadway"},{"link_name":"Nick Payne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Payne"},{"link_name":"If There Is I Haven't Found It Yet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_There_Is_I_Haven%27t_Found_It_Yet"},{"link_name":"Roundabout Theatre Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roundabout_Theatre_Company"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"Denis Villeneuve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Villeneuve"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Prisoners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoners_(2013_film)"},{"link_name":"Rolling Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone"},{"link_name":"Peter Travers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Travers"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"doppelgänger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppelg%C3%A4nger"},{"link_name":"Enemy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enemy_(2013_film)"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"Nightcrawler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nightcrawler_(film)"},{"link_name":"Screen Actors Guild Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_Actors_Guild_Award"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"Chicago Reader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Reader"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadway_theatre"},{"link_name":"Constellations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellations_(play)"},{"link_name":"Samuel J. Friedman Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_J._Friedman_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Ruth Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Wilson"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"Accidental Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accidental_Love"},{"link_name":"South Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Carolina"},{"link_name":"Jessica Biel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessica_Biel"},{"link_name":"Southpaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southpaw_(film)"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Scott Fischer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Fischer"},{"link_name":"Baltasar Kormákur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltasar_Korm%C3%A1kur"},{"link_name":"Everest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everest_(2015_film)"},{"link_name":"1996 Mount Everest disaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996_Mount_Everest_disaster"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"Jean-Marc Vallée","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Marc_Vall%C3%A9e"},{"link_name":"Demolition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demolition_(2015_film)"},{"link_name":"investment banker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment_banking"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"The Village Voice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Village_Voice"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"2015 Cannes Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Cannes_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"Tom Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Ford"},{"link_name":"Nocturnal Animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocturnal_Animals"},{"link_name":"Tony and Susan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_and_Susan"},{"link_name":"Austin Wright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin_Wright"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McNary-2016-93"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"Sandra Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandra_Hall_(writer)"},{"link_name":"Justin Chang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Chang"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"Stephen Sondheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Sondheim"},{"link_name":"James Lapine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lapine"},{"link_name":"Sunday in the Park with George","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_in_the_Park_with_George"},{"link_name":"New York City Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City_Center"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Hudson Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brantley-2017-99"},{"link_name":"Ben Brantley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Brantley"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brantley-2017-99"},{"link_name":"Lanford Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanford_Wilson"},{"link_name":"Burn This","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burn_This"},{"link_name":"Michael Mayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Mayer_(director)"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"Adam Driver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Driver"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_(2017_film)"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McNary-2016-93"},{"link_name":"Slant Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slant_Magazine"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Okja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okja"},{"link_name":"Stronger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stronger_(film)"},{"link_name":"Boston Marathon bombing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Marathon_bombing"},{"link_name":"Jeff Bauman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Bauman"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McNary-2016-93"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"Wildlife","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_(film)"},{"link_name":"Carey Mulligan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carey_Mulligan"},{"link_name":"1990 novel of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_(novel)"},{"link_name":"Richard Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Ford"},{"link_name":"Sight & Sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sight_%26_Sound"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"The Sisters Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sisters_Brothers_(film)"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McNary-2016-93"}],"sub_title":"2012–2018: Critical acclaim and Broadway debut","text":"Gyllenhaal starred alongside Michael Peña in David Ayer's action thriller End of Watch, about two Los Angeles street cops. The film, for which Gyllenhaal was also an executive producer, was released in September 2012 and received positive reviews, with Roger Ebert deeming it \"one of the best police movies in recent years, a virtuoso fusion of performances and often startling action\" and Salon's Andrew O'Hehir stating that the film was \"at least the best cop movie since James Gray's We Own the Night, and very likely since Antoine Fuqua's memorable Training Day (which, not coincidentally, was written by Ayer)\".[72][73] To prepare for the role, Gyllenhaal took tactical training and participated in actual police ride-alongs with co-star Peña to help establish the language of the characters.[74]Gyllenhaal at the 2012 Berlin International Film Festival, where he served as a jury memberHe served as a jury member for the 62nd Berlin International Film Festival that was held in February 2012.[75] Also in 2012, Gyllenhaal made his Off-Broadway debut in Nick Payne's play If There Is I Haven't Found It Yet at the Roundabout Theatre Company's Laura Pels Theatre.[76] 2013 saw Gyllenhaal appear in two films directed by Denis Villeneuve, whom Gyllenhaal describes as \"an older brother\".[77] The first, the thriller Prisoners, starred Gyllenhaal as a detective named Loki in search of the abductor of two young girls. Rolling Stone critic Peter Travers praised Gyllenhaal's \"exceptional\" performance in the film.[78] In their second collaboration, Gyllenhaal portrayed the dual role of a history teacher and his doppelgänger in the thriller Enemy.[79] The following year, he produced and starred in the crime thriller Nightcrawler, earning Golden Globe Award and Screen Actors Guild Award nominations for his performance.[80] Ben Sachs of the Chicago Reader called Gyllenhaal's performance \"attention-grabbing\" and said that he \"creates a memorable screen presence\".[81]Gyllenhaal debuted on Broadway in Payne's Constellations at the Samuel J. Friedman Theatre opposite Ruth Wilson, also in her Broadway debut.[82] The production opened in January 2015 and closed in March of the same year.[83] That same year, he starred in the comedy Accidental Love, which was filmed in South Carolina with Jessica Biel, as well as Antoine Fuqua's sports drama Southpaw.[84][85] Writing for The Independent, Geoffrey Macnab called his portrayal of a boxer in Southpaw \"plausible\" and complimented his \"emotional vulnerability\", despite an unoriginal plot.[86] He then portrayed Scott Fischer in Baltasar Kormákur's Everest, based on the 1996 Mount Everest disaster;[87] the film was a commercial success, grossing $203 million worldwide.[88] Finally, he appeared in Jean-Marc Vallée's comedy-drama Demolition, playing an investment banker Davis Mitchell, who rebuilds his life after losing his wife.[89] The Village Voice's Bilge Ebiri praised his performance, writing, \"He nails Davis's boyish curiosity, the quiet, wide-eyed uncertainty of someone discovering the world for the first time.\"[90] He also served as a jury member for the main competition of the 2015 Cannes Film Festival.[91][92]In 2016, he starred in Tom Ford's neo-noir thriller Nocturnal Animals, based on the 1993 novel Tony and Susan by Austin Wright.[93] The film received positive reviews.[94] The Sydney Morning Herald's Sandra Hall praised Gyllenhaal's brilliant portrayal of his two roles, while Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times wrote that his performance contained \"rich emotional shadings\" and escalating intensity that becomes overwhelming.[95][96] In October 2016, he appeared in four benefit concert performances of the Stephen Sondheim and James Lapine musical Sunday in the Park with George at the New York City Center as the titular character.[97] Alexis Soloski of The Guardian gave the performance a perfect five-star review and hailed Gyllenhaal's superb singing.[98] Starting in February 2017, Gyllenhaal reprised the role at the reopened Hudson Theatre on Broadway.[99] Ben Brantley of The New York Times praised his \"searing theatrical presence, in which his eyes are his center of gravity.\"[99] He was scheduled to appear in Lanford Wilson's Burn This on Broadway under the direction of Michael Mayer in 2017.[100] However, a new production of Burn This took place in 2019 with Adam Driver appearing, with Gyllenhaal's production having reportedly been abandoned.[101]In 2017, Gyllenhaal starred as astronaut David Jordan in the science fiction horror film Life;[93] Slant Magazine's Eric Henderson stated that Gyllenhaal was \"dead behind the eyes from his first scene\".[102] He also had a supporting role in the action-adventure film Okja and starred in the drama Stronger, based on Boston Marathon bombing survivor Jeff Bauman.[93] In his review of the latter, The Independent's Geoffrey Macnab complimented Gyllenhaal's versatility and \"outstanding\" portrayal of Bauman.[103] The following year, he co-starred in the drama Wildlife opposite Carey Mulligan, in which he plays a father who temporarily abandons his family to take a dangerous job. It is based on the 1990 novel of the same name by Richard Ford. Ella Kemp, writing for Sight & Sound magazine, praised the chemistry of the lead actors which \"fizzes with an effortless dynamism\".[104] He also had a role in the Western drama The Sisters Brothers (2018).[93]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dan Gilroy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Gilroy"},{"link_name":"Velvet Buzzsaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvet_Buzzsaw"},{"link_name":"art critic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_critic"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"2019 Sundance Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Sundance_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"Netflix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netflix"},{"link_name":"Variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"comic book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comic_book"},{"link_name":"Mysterio / Quentin Beck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysterio"},{"link_name":"Spider-Man: Far From Home","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider-Man:_Far_From_Home"},{"link_name":"Spider-Man: Homecoming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider-Man:_Homecoming"},{"link_name":"Marvel Cinematic Universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvel_Cinematic_Universe"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"Tom Sturridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Sturridge"},{"link_name":"monologues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monologue"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"Tony Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Award"},{"link_name":"Best Actor in a Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Actor_in_a_Play"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"Spirit Untamed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_Untamed"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jorgeson-2022-111"},{"link_name":"The Guilty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guilty_(2021_film)"},{"link_name":"Danish film of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guilty_(2018_film)"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"Michael Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Bay"},{"link_name":"Ambulance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambulance_(2022_film)"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"Strange World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange_World_(film)"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jorgeson-2022-111"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"Guy Ritchie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Ritchie"},{"link_name":"The Covenant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Ritchie%27s_The_Covenant"},{"link_name":"Doug Liman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doug_Liman"},{"link_name":"Road House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_House_(2024_film)"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"Amazon MGM Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_MGM_Studios"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"Iago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iago"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Othello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Othello"},{"link_name":"Denzel Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denzel_Washington"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"}],"sub_title":"2019–present: Action and thriller films","text":"Gyllenhaal reunited with Nightcrawler director Dan Gilroy in the thriller film Velvet Buzzsaw, in which he plays art critic Mort Vandewalt.[105] The film premiered at the 2019 Sundance Film Festival and was distributed by Netflix. Variety's Peter Debrudge opined that Gyllenhaal was \"relishing another of those cartoonishly camp performances\".[106] That same year, Gyllenhaal played comic book villain Mysterio / Quentin Beck in the superhero film Spider-Man: Far From Home, a sequel to Spider-Man: Homecoming, set within the Marvel Cinematic Universe.[107] It was one of the highest-grossing films of the year.[108] He appeared alongside Tom Sturridge in Sea Wall/A Life, a double bill of monologues by Nick Payne and Simon Stephens, at the Hudson Theatre on Broadway in 2019.[109] He garnered a Tony Award nomination for Best Actor in a Play for his performance.[110] Gyllenhaal also lent his voice for the animation Spirit Untamed (2021).[111] That same year, he played detective Joe Baylor in the crime thriller The Guilty, a remake of the Danish film of the same name.[112]In 2022, he starred as a criminal in Michael Bay's action thriller Ambulance; the film received mixed reviews from critics.[113] Gyllenhaal also voiced a farmer in the Disney animation Strange World.[111][114] He appeared in Guy Ritchie's The Covenant (2023) and Doug Liman's action film Road House (2024).[115][116] Following the success of Road House, his production company, Nine Stories, signed a first-look deal with Amazon MGM Studios.[117][118]\nIn 2024 it was announced that Gyllenhaal would return to Broadway playing Iago in the 2025 revival of William Shakespeare's tragedy Othello starring opposite Denzel Washington.[119]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_(film_magazine)"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"Glamour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glamour_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"}],"text":"Gyllenhaal was named one of People's \"50 Most Beautiful People\" in 2006.[120] He was also listed in People's \"Hottest Bachelors of 2006\".[121] In April 2012, Shalom Life ranked him number six on its list of \"the 50 most talented, intelligent, funny, and gorgeous Jewish men in the world\".[122] He was ranked number 35 in Empire's poll of The 100 Sexiest Movie Stars in 2013.[123] In another poll conducted by Glamour, Gyllenhaal was selected as one of the Sexiest Men of The Year 2018.[124]","title":"Public image"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gyllenhaal family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyllenhaal_family"},{"link_name":"Peter Sarsgaard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Sarsgaard"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"Inverness, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverness,_California"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"godparents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godparent"},{"link_name":"Paul Newman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Newman"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Farndale-2007-127"},{"link_name":"Jamie Lee Curtis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamie_Lee_Curtis"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schruers-2005-6"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Farndale-2007-127"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"Robert Elswit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Elswit"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"Michelle Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Williams_(actress)"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"Kirsten Dunst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirsten_Dunst"},{"link_name":"Mona Lisa Smile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mona_Lisa_Smile"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"Reese Witherspoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reese_Witherspoon"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"Taylor Swift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_Swift"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"Alyssa Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alyssa_Miller"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"}],"sub_title":"Family and relationships","text":"Further information: Gyllenhaal familyGyllenhaal's sister Maggie is married to actor Peter Sarsgaard, Gyllenhaal's co-star in Jarhead and Rendition.[125] In December 2006, Gyllenhaal and his sister escaped a fire that destroyed Manka's Inverness Lodge, a famed lodge and restaurant in Inverness, California, at which they were vacationing. The two were among a dozen or so guests who fled after the fire, sparked by a falling tree, broke out at about 3 a.m. Co-owner and celebrity chef Daniel DeLong said the pair were supportive despite having to brave the wind and cold. \"Jake was helping me pull things out of the fire,\" DeLong said.[126]Gyllenhaal has both godparents and what he describes as \"celebrity godparents\". Actor and director Paul Newman was his godfather,[127] and actress Jamie Lee Curtis is his godmother.[6][127] Other godparents of unknown status include a gay couple[128][129] and cinematographer Robert Elswit.[130][131] Gyllenhaal is the godfather of Matilda Rose Ledger (born October 28, 2005), daughter of his Brokeback Mountain co-stars Heath Ledger and Michelle Williams.[132]Gyllenhaal began dating actress Kirsten Dunst in 2002 after his sister Maggie, who starred with Dunst in Mona Lisa Smile, introduced them; they eventually broke up in 2004 on friendly terms.[133] He dated his Rendition co-star Reese Witherspoon from 2007 until 2009.[134][135] He dated singer-songwriter Taylor Swift from October 2010 to January 2011,[136][137] and model Alyssa Miller from July to December 2013.[138][139]Gyllenhaal has been in a relationship with French model Jeanne Cadieu since late 2018.[140]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rock the Vote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_the_Vote"},{"link_name":"University of Southern California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Southern_California"},{"link_name":"2004 U.S. presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_U.S._presidential_election"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"John Kerry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Kerry"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schruers-2005-6"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"2018 midterm elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_midterm_elections"},{"link_name":"U.S. Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Senate"},{"link_name":"Beto O'Rourke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beto_O%27Rourke"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"Stacey Abrams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stacey_Abrams"},{"link_name":"Andrew Gillum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Gillum"},{"link_name":"Kyrsten Sinema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrsten_Sinema"},{"link_name":"Jacky Rosen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacky_Rosen"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"recycles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recycles"},{"link_name":"Mozambique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozambique"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"Arctic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic"},{"link_name":"climate change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"Greta Thunberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greta_Thunberg"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"link_name":"American Civil Liberties Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"New Eyes for the Needy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Eyes_for_the_Needy"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"Stand Up to Cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stand_Up_to_Cancer"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"},{"link_name":"Anti-Recidivism Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Recidivism_Coalition"},{"link_name":"Scott Budnick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Budnick_(film_producer)"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"post traumatic stress disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_traumatic_stress_disorder"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"September 11 attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11_attacks"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"mindfulness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness_(Buddhism)"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Lakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Lakers"}],"sub_title":"Political views and other interests","text":"Gyllenhaal once filmed a commercial for Rock the Vote and, along with his sister, visited the University of Southern California to urge students to vote in the 2004 U.S. presidential election.[141] He also campaigned for Democratic Party presidential nominee John Kerry.[142] He has said that \"it frustrates me when actors talk politics; I'm political and I make choices in my movies that I think are political. I try and say things with what I do. Rightly or wrongly, young actors have all the power.\"[6] In an interview, he remarked that \"it's a sad time when actors are politicians and politicians are actors\".[143] In the 2018 midterm elections, Gyllenhaal endorsed U.S. Senate candidate Beto O'Rourke. His endorsement came in the form of a Facebook post that included a picture of him in a \"BETO\" shirt and a caption that also endorsed Stacey Abrams, Andrew Gillum, Kyrsten Sinema, and Jacky Rosen in their respective Senate or gubernatorial elections.[144]Gyllenhaal recycles regularly, and said in an interview that he spends $400 a year to have trees planted in a Mozambique forest, partly to promote the Future Forests program.[145][146] After filming The Day After Tomorrow, he flew to the Arctic to promote awareness of climate change.[147][148] He has described climate activist Greta Thunberg as an inspiring figure.[149]In 2003, Gyllenhaal participated in an advertising campaign by the American Civil Liberties Union.[150][151] Gyllenhaal is the Honorary Chair of the New Eyes for the Needy Advisory Board,[152] and has signed on to help the TV fundraiser Stand Up to Cancer.[153] Gyllenhaal is on the board of directors for the Anti-Recidivism Coalition and volunteered in California juvenile detention centers with Scott Budnick.[154] In 2014, Gyllenhaal attended an event that benefited the Headstrong Project, an organization that provides treatment to military veterans suffering from post traumatic stress disorder, during which he read a poem by a veteran,[155] and in 2017 he participated in a fundraiser to help survivors who lost limbs during the September 11 attacks in 2001.[156]Gyllenhaal has studied Buddhism and has said, \"I am not a card-carrying Buddhist, but I do try to practice mindfulness\" and that it is his goal to meditate every day.[157][158] He has also been seen attending home games of the Los Angeles Lakers.","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"films","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jake_Gyllenhaal_on_screen_and_stage"},{"link_name":"numerous accolades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Jake_Gyllenhaal"},{"link_name":"BAFTA Film Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Academy_Film_Awards"},{"link_name":"Independent Spirit Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_Spirit_Award"},{"link_name":"Academy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award"},{"link_name":"Golden Globe Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe_Awards"},{"link_name":"Screen Actors Guild Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_Actors_Guild_Awards"},{"link_name":"Tony Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Awards"}],"text":"Gyllenhaal's most acclaimed films, according to the review aggregate site Rotten Tomatoes, include October Sky (1999), Donnie Darko (2001), Lovely & Amazing (2002), Brokeback Mountain (2005), Zodiac (2007), Source Code (2011), End of Watch (2012), Nightcrawler (2014), and Stronger (2017). He has received numerous accolades, including a BAFTA Film Award, an Independent Spirit Award, and nominations for an Academy Award, two Golden Globe Awards, three Screen Actors Guild Awards and three Tony Awards.","title":"Acting credits and awards"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Coat of arms of the noble house Gyllenhaal","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Gyllenhaal.jpg/170px-Gyllenhaal.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gyllenhaal attending the premiere of Proof at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Proof_004_%287288885150%29.jpg/170px-Proof_004_%287288885150%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gyllenhaal at the 2012 Berlin International Film Festival, where he served as a jury member","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Jake_Gyllenhaal_2012.jpg/170px-Jake_Gyllenhaal_2012.jpg"},{}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Gyllenhaal, Jake (October 13, 2014). \"An Actor Pronounces My Last Name Correctly\" (Interview). Interviewed by Pattanumotana, Goon \"Gig Patta\". 0:00 minutes in. Archived from the original on November 1, 2020. Retrieved April 26, 2020.","urls":[{"url_text":"Gyllenhaal, Jake"},{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lur2tXyg-Iw","url_text":"\"An Actor Pronounces My Last Name Correctly\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201101105128/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lur2tXyg-Iw","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"NLS Other Writings Say How\". National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped. Archived from the original on November 6, 2018. Retrieved October 1, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.loc.gov/nls/about/organization/standards-guidelines/efgh/#g","url_text":"\"NLS Other Writings Say How\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Library_Service_for_the_Blind_and_Physically_Handicapped","url_text":"National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181106205744/http://www.loc.gov/nls/about/organization/standards-guidelines/efgh/#g","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Gyllenhaal, Jake (September 27, 2012). \"Nobody Says Jake Gyllenhaal's Name Correctly\". Conan (Interview). Interviewed by O'Brien, Conan. TBS. 0:21 minutes in. Archived from the original on January 16, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020 – via Team Coco. The only two places that it's pronounced correctly, my last name, like you did just now, is in Sweden and in IKEA.","urls":[{"url_text":"Gyllenhaal, Jake"},{"url":"https://teamcoco.com/video/highlight-nobody-says-jake-gyllenhaals-name-correctly","url_text":"\"Nobody Says Jake Gyllenhaal's Name Correctly\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Conan_episodes_(2012)#September","url_text":"Conan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conan_O%27Brien","url_text":"O'Brien, Conan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TBS_(American_TV_channel)","url_text":"TBS"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200116144919/https://teamcoco.com/video/highlight-nobody-says-jake-gyllenhaals-name-correctly","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team_Coco","url_text":"Team Coco"}]},{"reference":"Sveriges Ridderskap och Adels kalender 2010 (in Swedish). Stockholm: Riddarhuset. 2009. p. 302. ISBN 978-91-633-5156-3. ISSN 0347-9633.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-633-5156-3","url_text":"978-91-633-5156-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0347-9633","url_text":"0347-9633"}]},{"reference":"Rookwood, Dan (January 11, 2018). \"Jake Gyllenhaal On The Toughest Role Of His Career: 'Sometimes I Took It Too Far'\". GQ Australia. Archived from the original on April 21, 2018. Retrieved April 22, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gq.com.au/entertainment/celebrity/jake+gyllenhaal+on+the+toughest+role+of+his+career,53285","url_text":"\"Jake Gyllenhaal On The Toughest Role Of His Career: 'Sometimes I Took It Too Far'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GQ_Australia","url_text":"GQ Australia"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180421132446/http://www.gq.com.au/entertainment/celebrity/jake+gyllenhaal+on+the+toughest+role+of+his+career,53285","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Schruers, Fred (October 30, 2005). \"Jake's progress\". The Guardian. Archived from the original on July 30, 2017. 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Retrieved April 22, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://jewishjournal.com/culture/arts/12194/","url_text":"\"'Bee' Spells Family D-y-s-f-u-n-c-t-i-o-n-a-l\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jewish_Journal_of_Greater_Los_Angeles","url_text":"Jewish Journal"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180624175909/http://jewishjournal.com/culture/arts/12194/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Christie, Janet (June 22, 2014). \"Maggie Gyllenhaal: Acting for self-discovery\". The Scotsman. Archived from the original on April 22, 2018. Retrieved April 22, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/culture/film/maggie-gyllenhaal-acting-for-self-discovery-1-3452677","url_text":"\"Maggie Gyllenhaal: Acting for self-discovery\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scotsman","url_text":"The Scotsman"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180422202128/https://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/culture/film/maggie-gyllenhaal-acting-for-self-discovery-1-3452677","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Applebaum, Stephen (June 22, 2017). \"Jake Gyllenhaal: Going big – with a giant pig\". The Jewish Chronicle. Archived from the original on April 22, 2018. Retrieved April 22, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thejc.com/culture/film/jake-gyllenhaal-okja-1.440374","url_text":"\"Jake Gyllenhaal: Going big – with a giant pig\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jewish_Chronicle","url_text":"The Jewish Chronicle"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180422133003/https://www.thejc.com/culture/film/jake-gyllenhaal-okja-1.440374","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Gilbert, Gerard (July 2, 2014). \"Maggie Gyllenhaal on her new role in BBC2 spy drama The Honourable Woman\". The Independent. Archived from the original on April 24, 2018. Retrieved April 24, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/features/maggie-gyllenhaals-role-in-bbc2-spy-drama-the-honourable-woman-sounds-like-the-perfect-fit-even-with-9580264.html","url_text":"\"Maggie Gyllenhaal on her new role in BBC2 spy drama The Honourable Woman\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent","url_text":"The Independent"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180424135927/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/features/maggie-gyllenhaals-role-in-bbc2-spy-drama-the-honourable-woman-sounds-like-the-perfect-fit-even-with-9580264.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Pfefferman, Naomi (July 23, 2014). \"Maggie Gyllenhaal stars in SundanceTV's \"The Honorable Woman\"\". Jewish Journal. Archived from the original on April 24, 2018. Retrieved April 24, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://jewishjournal.com/current_edition/131226/","url_text":"\"Maggie Gyllenhaal stars in SundanceTV's \"The Honorable Woman\"\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jewish_Journal_of_Greater_Los_Angeles","url_text":"Jewish Journal"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180424135239/http://jewishjournal.com/current_edition/131226/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Adams, Tim (April 24, 2016). \"Jake Gyllenhaal: 'Pushing myself is part of my life'\". The Guardian. Archived from the original on April 22, 2018. Retrieved April 22, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/film/2016/apr/24/jake-gyllenhaal-interview-pushing-myself-is-part-of-my-life-film-demolition","url_text":"\"Jake Gyllenhaal: 'Pushing myself is part of my life'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180422201948/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2016/apr/24/jake-gyllenhaal-interview-pushing-myself-is-part-of-my-life-film-demolition","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Jews in the News:Sarah Michelle Gellar, Julianne Margulies and Jake Gyllenhaal\". jewishtampa.com. Tampa Jewish Community Center & Federation. October 3, 2013. Archived from the original on July 30, 2017. 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Archived from the original on January 12, 2009. Retrieved July 30, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/gyllenhaals%20homeless%20shelter%20bar-mitzvah","url_text":"\"Gyllenhaal's Homeless Shelter Bar-Mitzvah\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090112205803/http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/gyllenhaals%20homeless%20shelter%20bar-mitzvah","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lipworth, Elaine (January 1, 2011). \"Jake Gyllenhaal: My family values\". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on July 30, 2017. Retrieved July 30, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2011/jan/01/jake-gyllenhaal-my-family-values","url_text":"\"Jake Gyllenhaal: My family values\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170730063733/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2011/jan/01/jake-gyllenhaal-my-family-values","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Nepales, Ruben V. (December 14, 2016). \"Jake Gyllenhaal shares views on sensitivity and masculinity\". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Archived from the original on July 30, 2017. 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Retrieved November 14, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://spectatorarchive.library.columbia.edu/?a=d&d=cs20050325-03.2.17&srpos=11&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN-%22Jake+Gyllenhaal%22------","url_text":"\"Columbia Spectator 25 March 2005 — Columbia Spectator\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220718025228/https://spectatorarchive.library.columbia.edu/?a=d&d=cs20050325-03.2.17&srpos=11&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN-%22Jake+Gyllenhaal%22------","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Halverson, Mark (1998). \"A breakout performance by Jake Gyllenhaal!\". Rotten Tomatoes. Archived from the original on June 26, 2008. 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Retrieved July 30, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.looktothestars.org/news/9304-jake-gyllenhaal-honored-at-new-eyes-for-the-needy-dinner","url_text":"\"Jake Gyllenhaal is the Honorary Chair of the New Eyes For The Needy Advisory Board\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170730014625/https://www.looktothestars.org/news/9304-jake-gyllenhaal-honored-at-new-eyes-for-the-needy-dinner","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Fox, Jake Gyllenhaal Join Stand Up To Cancer\". TV Guide. July 13, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2014. Retrieved July 30, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tvguide.com/News/Stand-Up-Cancer-1020491.aspx","url_text":"\"Fox, Jake Gyllenhaal Join Stand Up To Cancer\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140513113754/http://www.tvguide.com/news/stand-up-cancer-1020491.aspx","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Mechanic, Michael (May 23, 2013). \"Why the Producer of 'The Hangover Part III' Spends So Much Time in Prison\". Mother Jones. 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data"},{"Link":"https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058509247406706","external_links_name":"Catalonia"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/129166952","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007445271805171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no99077345","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000268151&P_CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Latvia"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ola2003198099&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an40920845","external_links_name":"Australia"},{"Link":"https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC2020K4890","external_links_name":"Korea"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p212776924","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810646572405606","external_links_name":"Poland"},{"Link":"https://musicbrainz.org/artist/99d145d6-0280-4e84-98a3-5c07c9286077","external_links_name":"MusicBrainz"},{"Link":"https://www.synchronkartei.de/person/Hvu-yNuBZ","external_links_name":"Deutsche Synchronkartei"},{"Link":"https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd129166952.html?language=en","external_links_name":"Deutsche Biographie"},{"Link":"https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1449715","external_links_name":"Trove"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/113504853","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innobase
|
Innobase
|
["1 History","2 References"]
|
Finnish company
Innobase Oy
Innobase was a Finnish company headquartered in Helsinki, Finland. Innobase is best known for being the developer of the InnoDB transactional storage engine for the MySQL open source database system. From 2005 on, Innobase was a subsidiary of Oracle Corporation, which acquired Innobase. It has been fully merged into Oracle and terminated all business activities as of July 8, 2013.
History
In 1995 Heikki Tuuri founded Innobase to develop InnoDB. In September 2000 Innobase started collaboration with MySQL AB, which resulted in the release of MySQL that incorporated InnoDB in March 2001.
InnoDB was originally closed source, but was released to open source after Innobase failed to find a buyer for InnoDB and started collaboration with MySQL. MySQL tried to close a deal with Innobase in the following years, but eventually Oracle acquired Innobase in October, 2005. Oracle eventually also acquired Sun Microsystems, owner of MySQL AB, in January 2010.
References
^ Oracle Announces the Acquisition of Open Source Software Company, Innobase. Retrieved 6 May 2013
^ Innobase Oy historical information in the Finnish Business Information System. Retrieved 28 Aug 2013
This Finnish corporation or company article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
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[]
| null |
[]
|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubik%27s_Cube_group
|
Rubik's Cube group
|
["1 Cube moves","2 Group structure","2.1 Subgroups","2.2 Generalizations","2.3 Conjugacy classes","3 See also","4 Notes","5 References"]
|
Mathematical group
The manipulations of the Rubik's Cube form the Rubik's Cube groupThe Rubik's Cube group is a group
(
G
,
⋅
)
{\displaystyle (G,\cdot )}
that represents the structure of the Rubik's Cube mechanical puzzle. Each element of the set
G
{\displaystyle G}
corresponds to a cube move, which is the effect of any sequence of rotations of the cube's faces. With this representation, not only can any cube move be represented, but any position of the cube as well, by detailing the cube moves required to rotate the solved cube into that position. Indeed with the solved position as a starting point, there is a one-to-one correspondence between each of the legal positions of the Rubik's Cube and the elements of
G
{\displaystyle G}
. The group operation
⋅
{\displaystyle \cdot }
is the composition of cube moves, corresponding to the result of performing one cube move after another.
The Rubik's Cube group is constructed by labeling each of the 48 non-center facets with the integers 1 to 48. Each configuration of the cube can be represented as a permutation of the labels 1 to 48, depending on the position of each facet. Using this representation, the solved cube is the identity permutation which leaves the cube unchanged, while the twelve cube moves that rotate a layer of the cube 90 degrees are represented by their respective permutations. The Rubik's Cube group is the subgroup of the symmetric group
S
48
{\displaystyle S_{48}}
generated by the six permutations corresponding to the six clockwise cube moves. With this construction, any configuration of the cube reachable through a sequence of cube moves is within the group. Its operation
⋅
{\displaystyle \cdot }
refers to the composition of two permutations; within the cube, this refers to combining two sequences of cube moves together, doing one after the other. The Rubik's Cube group is non-abelian as composition of cube moves is not commutative; doing two sequences of cube moves in a different order can result in a different configuration.
Cube moves
A
3
×
3
×
3
{\displaystyle 3\times 3\times 3}
Rubik's Cube consists of
6
{\displaystyle 6}
faces, each with
9
{\displaystyle 9}
colored squares called facelets, for a total of
54
{\displaystyle 54}
facelets. A solved cube has all of the facelets on each face having the same color.
A cube move rotates one of the
6
{\displaystyle 6}
faces either
90
∘
,
180
∘
,
{\displaystyle 90^{\circ },180^{\circ },}
or
−
90
∘
{\displaystyle -90^{\circ }}
(half-turn metric). A center facelet rotates about its axis but otherwise stays in the same position.
Cube moves are described with the Singmaster notation:
Basic 90°
180°
-90°
F
{\displaystyle F}
turns the front clockwise
F
2
{\displaystyle F^{2}}
turns the front clockwise twice
F
′
{\displaystyle F^{\prime }}
turns the front counter-clockwise
B
{\displaystyle B}
turns the back clockwise
B
2
{\displaystyle B^{2}}
turns the back clockwise twice
B
′
{\displaystyle B^{\prime }}
turns the back counter-clockwise
U
{\displaystyle U}
turns the top clockwise
U
2
{\displaystyle U^{2}}
turns the top clockwise twice
U
′
{\displaystyle U^{\prime }}
turns the top counter-clockwise
D
{\displaystyle D}
turns the bottom clockwise
D
2
{\displaystyle D^{2}}
turns the bottom clockwise twice
D
′
{\displaystyle D^{\prime }}
turns the bottom counter-clockwise
L
{\displaystyle L}
turns the left face clockwise
L
2
{\displaystyle L^{2}}
turns the left face clockwise twice
L
′
{\displaystyle L^{\prime }}
turns the left face counter-clockwise
R
{\displaystyle R}
turns the right face clockwise
R
2
{\displaystyle R^{2}}
turns the right face clockwise twice
R
′
{\displaystyle R^{\prime }}
turns the right face counter-clockwise
The empty move is
E
{\displaystyle E}
. The concatenation
L
L
L
L
{\displaystyle LLLL}
is the same as
E
{\displaystyle E}
, and
R
R
R
{\displaystyle RRR}
is the same as
R
′
{\displaystyle R^{\prime }}
.
Group structure
Algebraic structure → Group theoryGroup theory
Basic notions
Subgroup
Normal subgroup
Quotient group
(Semi-)direct product
Group homomorphisms
kernel
image
direct sum
wreath product
simple
finite
infinite
continuous
multiplicative
additive
cyclic
abelian
dihedral
nilpotent
solvable
action
Glossary of group theory
List of group theory topics
Finite groups
Cyclic group Zn
Symmetric group Sn
Alternating group An
Dihedral group Dn
Quaternion group Q
Cauchy's theorem
Lagrange's theorem
Sylow theorems
Hall's theorem
p-group
Elementary abelian group
Frobenius group
Schur multiplier
Classification of finite simple groups
cyclic
alternating
Lie type
sporadic
Discrete groupsLattices
Integers (
Z
{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} }
)
Free group
Modular groups PSL(2,
Z
{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} }
)SL(2,
Z
{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} }
)
Arithmetic group
Lattice
Hyperbolic group
Topological and Lie groups
Solenoid
Circle
General linear GL(n)
Special linear SL(n)
Orthogonal O(n)
Euclidean E(n)
Special orthogonal SO(n)
Unitary U(n)
Special unitary SU(n)
Symplectic Sp(n)
G2
F4
E6
E7
E8
Lorentz
Poincaré
Conformal
Diffeomorphism
Loop
Infinite dimensional Lie group O(∞)SU(∞)Sp(∞)
Algebraic groups
Linear algebraic group
Reductive group
Abelian variety
Elliptic curve
vte
The following uses the notation described in How to solve the Rubik's Cube. The orientation of the six centre facelets is fixed.
We can identify each of the six face rotations as elements in the symmetric group on the set of non-center facelets. More concretely, we can label the non-center facelets by the numbers 1 through 48, and then identify the six face rotations as elements of the symmetric group S48 according to how each move permutes the various facelets. The Rubik's Cube group, G, is then defined to be the subgroup of S48 generated by the 6 face rotations,
{
F
,
B
,
U
,
D
,
L
,
R
}
{\displaystyle \{F,B,U,D,L,R\}}
.
The cardinality of G is given by
|
G
|
=
43,252,003,274,489,856,000
=
(
(
12
!
⋅
8
!
)
÷
2
)
⋅
(
2
12
÷
2
)
⋅
(
3
8
÷
3
)
=
2
27
3
14
5
3
7
2
11
{\displaystyle |G|=43{,}252{,}003{,}274{,}489{,}856{,}000\,\!={\bigl (}{\bigl (}12!\cdot 8!{\bigr )}\div 2{\bigr )}\cdot {\bigl (}2^{12}\div 2{\bigr )}\cdot {\bigl (}3^{8}\div 3{\bigr )}=2^{27}3^{14}5^{3}7^{2}11}
Despite being this large, God's Number for Rubik's Cube is 20; that is, any position can be solved in 20 or fewer moves (where a half-twist is counted as a single move; if a half-twist is counted as two quarter-twists, then God's number is 26).
The largest order of an element in G is 1260. For example, one such element of order 1260 is
(
R
U
2
D
−
1
B
D
−
1
)
{\displaystyle (RU^{2}D^{-1}BD^{-1})}
.
G is non-abelian (that is, not all cube moves commute with each other) since, for example,
F
R
{\displaystyle FR}
is not the same as
R
F
{\displaystyle RF}
. The center of G consists of only two elements: the identity (i.e. the solved state), and the superflip.
Subgroups
We consider two subgroups of G: First the subgroup Co of cube orientations, the moves that leave the position of every block fixed, but can change the orientations of blocks. This group is a normal subgroup of G. It can be represented as the normal closure of some moves that flip a few edges or twist a few corners. For example, it is the normal closure of the following two moves:
B
R
′
D
2
R
B
′
U
2
B
R
′
D
2
R
B
′
U
2
,
{\displaystyle BR^{\prime }D^{2}RB^{\prime }U^{2}BR^{\prime }D^{2}RB^{\prime }U^{2},\,\!}
(twist two corners)
R
U
D
B
2
U
2
B
′
U
B
U
B
2
D
′
R
′
U
′
,
{\displaystyle RUDB^{2}U^{2}B^{\prime }UBUB^{2}D^{\prime }R^{\prime }U^{\prime },\,\!}
(flip two edges).
Second, we take the subgroup
C
P
{\displaystyle C_{P}}
of cube permutations, the moves which can change the positions of the blocks, but leave the orientation fixed. For this subgroup there are several choices, depending on the precise way 'orientation' is defined. One choice is the following group, given by generators (the last generator is a 3 cycle on the edges):
C
p
=
[
U
2
,
D
2
,
F
,
B
,
L
2
,
R
2
,
R
2
U
′
F
B
′
R
2
F
′
B
U
′
R
2
]
.
{\displaystyle C_{p}=.\,\!}
Since Co is a normal subgroup and the intersection of Co and Cp is the identity and their product is the whole cube group, it follows that the cube group G is the semi-direct product of these two groups. That is
G
=
C
o
⋊
C
p
.
{\displaystyle G=C_{o}\rtimes C_{p}.\,}
Next we can take a closer look at these two groups. The structure of Co is
Z
3
7
×
Z
2
11
,
{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} _{3}^{7}\times \mathbb {Z} _{2}^{11},\ }
since the group of rotations of each corner (resp. edge) cube is
Z
3
{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} _{3}}
(resp.
Z
2
{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} _{2}}
), and in each case all but one may be rotated freely, but these rotations determine the orientation of the last one. Noticing that there are 8 corners and 12 edges, and that all the rotation groups are abelian, gives the above structure.
Cube permutations, Cp, is a little more complicated. It has the following two disjoint normal subgroups: the group of even permutations on the corners A8 and the group of even permutations on the edges A12. Complementary to these two subgroups is a permutation that swaps two corners and swaps two edges. It turns out that these generate all possible permutations, which means
C
p
=
(
A
8
×
A
12
)
⋊
Z
2
.
{\displaystyle C_{p}=(A_{8}\times A_{12})\,\rtimes \mathbb {Z} _{2}.}
Putting all the pieces together we get that the cube group is isomorphic to
(
Z
3
7
×
Z
2
11
)
⋊
(
(
A
8
×
A
12
)
⋊
Z
2
)
.
{\displaystyle (\mathbb {Z} _{3}^{7}\times \mathbb {Z} _{2}^{11})\rtimes \,((A_{8}\times A_{12})\rtimes \mathbb {Z} _{2}).}
This group can also be described as the subdirect product
[
(
Z
3
7
⋊
S
8
)
×
(
Z
2
11
⋊
S
12
)
]
1
2
{\displaystyle ^{\frac {1}{2}}}
,
in the notation of Griess.
Generalizations
When the centre facet symmetries are taken into account, the symmetry group is a subgroup of
[
Z
4
6
×
(
Z
3
7
⋊
S
8
)
×
(
Z
2
11
⋊
S
12
)
]
1
2
.
{\displaystyle ^{\frac {1}{2}}.}
(This unimportance of centre facet rotations is an implicit example of a quotient group at work, shielding the reader from the full automorphism group of the object in question.)
The symmetry group of the Rubik's Cube obtained by disassembling and reassembling it is slightly larger: namely it is the direct product
Z
4
6
×
(
Z
3
≀
S
8
)
×
(
Z
2
≀
S
12
)
.
{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} _{4}^{6}\times (\mathbb {Z} _{3}\wr \mathrm {S} _{8})\times (\mathbb {Z} _{2}\wr \mathrm {S} _{12}).}
The first factor is accounted for solely by rotations of the centre pieces, the second solely by symmetries of the corners, and the third solely by symmetries of the edges. The latter two factors are examples of generalized symmetric groups, which are themselves examples of wreath products. (There is no factor for re-arrangements of the center faces, because on virtually all Rubik's Cube models, re-arranging these faces is impossible with a simple disassembly.)
The simple groups that occur as quotients in the composition series of the standard cube group (i.e. ignoring centre piece rotations) are
A
8
{\displaystyle A_{8}}
,
A
12
{\displaystyle A_{12}}
,
Z
3
{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} _{3}}
(7 times), and
Z
2
{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} _{2}}
(12 times).
Conjugacy classes
It has been reported that the Rubik's Cube Group has 81,120 conjugacy classes. The number was calculated by counting the number of even and odd conjugacy classes in the edge and corner groups separately and then multiplying them, ensuring that the total parity is always even. Special care must be taken to count so-called parity-sensitive conjugacy classes, whose elements always differ when conjugated with any even element versus any odd element.
Number of conjugacy classes in the Rubik's Cube Group and various subgroups
Group
No. even
No. odd
No. ps
Total
Corner positions
12
10
2
22
Edge positions
40
37
3
77
All positions
856
Corners
140
130
10
270
Edges
308
291
17
599
Whole cube
81,120
See also
Commutator
Conjugacy class
Coset
Optimal solutions for Rubik's Cube
Solvable group
Thistlethwaite's algorithm
Notes
^ Not to be confused with
E
{\displaystyle E}
as used in the extended Singmaster Notation, where it represents a quarter-turn of the equator layer (i.e., the central layer between
U
{\displaystyle U}
and
D
{\displaystyle D}
), in the same direction as
D
{\displaystyle D}
.
^ One way of defining orientation is as follows, adapted from pages 314–315 of Metamagical Themas by Douglas Hofstadter. Define two notions: the chief color of a block and the chief facet of a position, where a position means the location of a block. The chief facet of a position will be the one on the front or back face of the cube, if that position has such a facet; otherwise it will be the one on the left or right face. There are nine chief facelets on F, nine on B, two on L, and two on R. The chief color of a block is defined as the color that should be on the block's chief facet when the block "comes home" to its proper position in a solved cube. A cube move
X
{\displaystyle X}
preserves orientation if, when
X
{\displaystyle X}
has been applied to a solved cube, the chief color of every block is on the chief facet of its position.
References
^ a b c Joyner, David (2002). Adventures in group theory: Rubik's Cube, Merlin's machine, and Other Mathematical Toys. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6947-1.
^ a b Davis, Tom (2006). "Group Theory via Rubik's Cube" (PDF).
^ a b Rokicki, Tomas; et al. "God's Number is 20".
^ Singmaster, David (1981). Notes on Rubik's Magic Cube. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-907395-00-7.
^ God's Number is 26 in the Quarter-Turn Metric
^ Garron, Lucas (March 8, 2010). "The Permutation Group of the Rubik's Cube" (PDF). Semantic Scholar. S2CID 18785794. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 22, 2019. Retrieved August 1, 2020.
^ a b brac37 (October 20, 2009). "Conjugacy classes of the cube". Domain of the Cube Forum. Retrieved August 1, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
vteRubik's CubePuzzle inventors
Ernő Rubik
Larry Nichols
Uwe Mèffert
Tony Fisher
Panagiotis Verdes
Oskar van Deventer
Rubik's Cubes
Overview
Rubik's family cubes of all sizes
2×2×2 (Pocket Cube)
3×3×3 (Rubik's Cube)
4×4×4 (Rubik's Revenge)
5×5×5 (Professor's Cube)
6×6×6 (V-Cube 6)
7×7×7 (V-Cube 7)
8×8×8 (V-Cube 8)
Variations of theRubik's Cube
Void Cube
Bump Cube
Nine-Colour Cube
Sudoku Cube
Other cubiccombination puzzles
Helicopter Cube
Skewb
Dino Cube
Square 1
Gear Cube
Non-cubiccombination puzzlesTetrahedron
Pyraminx
Pyraminx Duo
Pyramorphix
BrainTwist
Octahedron
Skewb Diamond
Dodecahedron
Megaminx
Pyraminx Crystal
Skewb Ultimate
Icosahedron
Impossiball
Dogic
Great dodecahedron
Alexander's Star
Truncated icosahedron
Tuttminx
Cuboid
Rubik's Domino (2x3x3)
Virtual combination puzzles (>3D)
MagicCube4D
MagicCube5D
MagicCube7D
Magic 120-cell
Derivatives
Missing Link
Rubik's 360
Rubik's Clock
Rubik's Magic
Master Edition
Rubik's Revolution
Rubik's Snake
Rubik's Triamid
Renowned solvers
Yu Nakajima
Édouard Chambon
Bob Burton, Jr.
Jessica Fridrich
Chris Hardwick
Kevin Hays
Rowe Hessler
Leyan Lo
Shotaro Makisumi
Toby Mao
Prithveesh K. Bhat
Krishnam Raju Gadiraju
Tyson Mao
Frank Morris
Lars Petrus
Gilles Roux
David Singmaster
Ron van Bruchem
Eric Limeback
Anthony Michael Brooks
Mats Valk
Feliks Zemdegs
Collin Burns
Max Park
Mátyás Kuti
SolutionsSpeedsolving
Speedcubing
Methods
Layer by Layer
CFOP method
Optimal
Mathematics
God's algorithm
Superflip
Thistlethwaite's algorithm
Rubik's Cube group
Official organization
World Cube Association
Related articles
Rubik's Cube in popular culture
Rubik, the Amazing Cube
The Simple Solution to Rubik's Cube
1982 World Rubik's Cube Championship
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rubik%27s_cube.svg"},{"link_name":"Rubik's Cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubik%27s_Cube"},{"link_name":"group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_structure"},{"link_name":"Rubik's Cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubik%27s_Cube"},{"link_name":"mechanical puzzle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_puzzle"},{"link_name":"set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"one-to-one correspondence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijection"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-advgroup-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-geometer-2"},{"link_name":"operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_operation"},{"link_name":"composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_composition"},{"link_name":"permutation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation"},{"link_name":"subgroup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subgroup"},{"link_name":"symmetric group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_group"},{"link_name":"generated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_generator"},{"link_name":"composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_composition"},{"link_name":"non-abelian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-abelian_group"},{"link_name":"commutative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative_property"}],"text":"The manipulations of the Rubik's Cube form the Rubik's Cube groupThe Rubik's Cube group is a group \n \n \n \n (\n G\n ,\n ⋅\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (G,\\cdot )}\n \n that represents the structure of the Rubik's Cube mechanical puzzle. Each element of the set \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n corresponds to a cube move, which is the effect of any sequence of rotations of the cube's faces. With this representation, not only can any cube move be represented, but any position of the cube as well, by detailing the cube moves required to rotate the solved cube into that position. Indeed with the solved position as a starting point, there is a one-to-one correspondence between each of the legal positions of the Rubik's Cube and the elements of \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n.[1][2] The group operation \n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\cdot }\n \n is the composition of cube moves, corresponding to the result of performing one cube move after another.The Rubik's Cube group is constructed by labeling each of the 48 non-center facets with the integers 1 to 48. Each configuration of the cube can be represented as a permutation of the labels 1 to 48, depending on the position of each facet. Using this representation, the solved cube is the identity permutation which leaves the cube unchanged, while the twelve cube moves that rotate a layer of the cube 90 degrees are represented by their respective permutations. The Rubik's Cube group is the subgroup of the symmetric group \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n 48\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle S_{48}}\n \n generated by the six permutations corresponding to the six clockwise cube moves. With this construction, any configuration of the cube reachable through a sequence of cube moves is within the group. Its operation \n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\cdot }\n \n refers to the composition of two permutations; within the cube, this refers to combining two sequences of cube moves together, doing one after the other. The Rubik's Cube group is non-abelian as composition of cube moves is not commutative; doing two sequences of cube moves in a different order can result in a different configuration.","title":"Rubik's Cube group"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cube20-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-advgroup-1"},{"link_name":"Singmaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Singmaster"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Singmaster-4"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"A \n \n \n \n 3\n ×\n 3\n ×\n 3\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 3\\times 3\\times 3}\n \n Rubik's Cube consists of \n \n \n \n 6\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 6}\n \n faces, each with \n \n \n \n 9\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 9}\n \n colored squares called facelets, for a total of \n \n \n \n 54\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 54}\n \n facelets. A solved cube has all of the facelets on each face having the same color.A cube move rotates one of the \n \n \n \n 6\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 6}\n \n faces either \n \n \n \n \n 90\n \n ∘\n \n \n ,\n \n 180\n \n ∘\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 90^{\\circ },180^{\\circ },}\n \n or \n \n \n \n −\n \n 90\n \n ∘\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle -90^{\\circ }}\n \n (half-turn metric).[3] A center facelet rotates about its axis but otherwise stays in the same position.[1]Cube moves are described with the Singmaster notation:[4]The empty move is \n \n \n \n E\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E}\n \n.[note 1] The concatenation \n \n \n \n L\n L\n L\n L\n \n \n {\\displaystyle LLLL}\n \n is the same as \n \n \n \n E\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E}\n \n, and \n \n \n \n R\n R\n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle RRR}\n \n is the same as \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n ′\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R^{\\prime }}\n \n.","title":"Cube moves"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"How to solve the Rubik's Cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikibooks.org/wiki/How_to_solve_the_Rubik%27s_Cube"},{"link_name":"symmetric group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_group"},{"link_name":"symmetric group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_group"},{"link_name":"subgroup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subgroup"},{"link_name":"generated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_generator"},{"link_name":"cardinality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinality"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cube20-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_(group_theory)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-advgroup-1"},{"link_name":"non-abelian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-abelian_group"},{"link_name":"commute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutativity"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-geometer-2"},{"link_name":"center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_(group_theory)"},{"link_name":"superflip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superflip"}],"text":"The following uses the notation described in How to solve the Rubik's Cube. The orientation of the six centre facelets is fixed.We can identify each of the six face rotations as elements in the symmetric group on the set of non-center facelets. More concretely, we can label the non-center facelets by the numbers 1 through 48, and then identify the six face rotations as elements of the symmetric group S48 according to how each move permutes the various facelets. The Rubik's Cube group, G, is then defined to be the subgroup of S48 generated by the 6 face rotations, \n \n \n \n {\n F\n ,\n B\n ,\n U\n ,\n D\n ,\n L\n ,\n R\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{F,B,U,D,L,R\\}}\n \n.The cardinality of G is given by|\n \n G\n \n |\n \n =\n 43,252,003,274,489,856,000\n \n \n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n 12\n !\n ⋅\n 8\n !\n \n \n )\n \n \n ÷\n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n 2\n \n 12\n \n \n ÷\n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n 3\n \n 8\n \n \n ÷\n 3\n \n \n )\n \n \n =\n \n 2\n \n 27\n \n \n \n 3\n \n 14\n \n \n \n 5\n \n 3\n \n \n \n 7\n \n 2\n \n \n 11\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |G|=43{,}252{,}003{,}274{,}489{,}856{,}000\\,\\!={\\bigl (}{\\bigl (}12!\\cdot 8!{\\bigr )}\\div 2{\\bigr )}\\cdot {\\bigl (}2^{12}\\div 2{\\bigr )}\\cdot {\\bigl (}3^{8}\\div 3{\\bigr )}=2^{27}3^{14}5^{3}7^{2}11}God's Number[3][5]The largest order of an element in G is 1260. For example, one such element of order 1260 is(\n R\n \n U\n \n 2\n \n \n \n D\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n B\n \n D\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (RU^{2}D^{-1}BD^{-1})}\n \n.[1]G is non-abelian (that is, not all cube moves commute with each other) since, for example, \n \n \n \n F\n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle FR}\n \n is not the same as \n \n \n \n R\n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle RF}\n \n.[2] The center of G consists of only two elements: the identity (i.e. the solved state), and the superflip.","title":"Group structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"normal subgroup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_subgroup"},{"link_name":"normal closure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_closure"},{"link_name":"[note 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"semi-direct product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-direct_product"},{"link_name":"subdirect product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdirect_product"},{"link_name":"Griess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Griess"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Subgroups","text":"We consider two subgroups of G: First the subgroup Co of cube orientations, the moves that leave the position of every block fixed, but can change the orientations of blocks. This group is a normal subgroup of G. It can be represented as the normal closure of some moves that flip a few edges or twist a few corners. For example, it is the normal closure of the following two moves:B\n \n R\n \n ′\n \n \n \n D\n \n 2\n \n \n R\n \n B\n \n ′\n \n \n \n U\n \n 2\n \n \n B\n \n R\n \n ′\n \n \n \n D\n \n 2\n \n \n R\n \n B\n \n ′\n \n \n \n U\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle BR^{\\prime }D^{2}RB^{\\prime }U^{2}BR^{\\prime }D^{2}RB^{\\prime }U^{2},\\,\\!}\n \n (twist two corners)\n\n \n \n \n R\n U\n D\n \n B\n \n 2\n \n \n \n U\n \n 2\n \n \n \n B\n \n ′\n \n \n U\n B\n U\n \n B\n \n 2\n \n \n \n D\n \n ′\n \n \n \n R\n \n ′\n \n \n \n U\n \n ′\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle RUDB^{2}U^{2}B^{\\prime }UBUB^{2}D^{\\prime }R^{\\prime }U^{\\prime },\\,\\!}\n \n (flip two edges).Second, we take the subgroup \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n P\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle C_{P}}\n \n of cube permutations, the moves which can change the positions of the blocks, but leave the orientation fixed. For this subgroup there are several choices, depending on the precise way 'orientation' is defined.[note 2] One choice is the following group, given by generators (the last generator is a 3 cycle on the edges):C\n \n p\n \n \n =\n [\n \n U\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n D\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n F\n ,\n B\n ,\n \n L\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n \n U\n \n ′\n \n \n F\n \n B\n \n ′\n \n \n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n \n F\n \n ′\n \n \n B\n \n U\n \n ′\n \n \n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n ]\n .\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle C_{p}=[U^{2},D^{2},F,B,L^{2},R^{2},R^{2}U^{\\prime }FB^{\\prime }R^{2}F^{\\prime }BU^{\\prime }R^{2}].\\,\\!}Since Co is a normal subgroup and the intersection of Co and Cp is the identity and their product is the whole cube group, it follows that the cube group G is the semi-direct product of these two groups. That isG\n =\n \n C\n \n o\n \n \n ⋊\n \n C\n \n p\n \n \n .\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle G=C_{o}\\rtimes C_{p}.\\,}Next we can take a closer look at these two groups. The structure of Co isZ\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 7\n \n \n ×\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 11\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {Z} _{3}^{7}\\times \\mathbb {Z} _{2}^{11},\\ }since the group of rotations of each corner (resp. edge) cube is \n \n \n \n \n \n Z\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {Z} _{3}}\n \n (resp. \n \n \n \n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {Z} _{2}}\n \n), and in each case all but one may be rotated freely, but these rotations determine the orientation of the last one. Noticing that there are 8 corners and 12 edges, and that all the rotation groups are abelian, gives the above structure.Cube permutations, Cp, is a little more complicated. It has the following two disjoint normal subgroups: the group of even permutations on the corners A8 and the group of even permutations on the edges A12. Complementary to these two subgroups is a permutation that swaps two corners and swaps two edges. It turns out that these generate all possible permutations, which meansC\n \n p\n \n \n =\n (\n \n A\n \n 8\n \n \n ×\n \n A\n \n 12\n \n \n )\n \n ⋊\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C_{p}=(A_{8}\\times A_{12})\\,\\rtimes \\mathbb {Z} _{2}.}Putting all the pieces together we get that the cube group is isomorphic to(\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 7\n \n \n ×\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 11\n \n \n )\n ⋊\n \n (\n (\n \n A\n \n 8\n \n \n ×\n \n A\n \n 12\n \n \n )\n ⋊\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (\\mathbb {Z} _{3}^{7}\\times \\mathbb {Z} _{2}^{11})\\rtimes \\,((A_{8}\\times A_{12})\\rtimes \\mathbb {Z} _{2}).}This group can also be described as the subdirect product[\n (\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 7\n \n \n ⋊\n \n \n S\n \n \n 8\n \n \n )\n ×\n (\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 11\n \n \n ⋊\n \n \n S\n \n \n 12\n \n \n )\n \n ]\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle [(\\mathbb {Z} _{3}^{7}\\rtimes \\mathrm {S} _{8})\\times (\\mathbb {Z} _{2}^{11}\\rtimes \\mathrm {S} _{12})]^{\\frac {1}{2}}}\n \n,in the notation of Griess[citation needed].","title":"Group structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"subgroup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subgroup"},{"link_name":"quotient group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotient_group"},{"link_name":"automorphism group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automorphism_group"},{"link_name":"direct product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_product_of_groups"},{"link_name":"generalized symmetric groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_symmetric_group"},{"link_name":"wreath products","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wreath_product"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"simple groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_group"},{"link_name":"composition series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composition_series"}],"sub_title":"Generalizations","text":"When the centre facet symmetries are taken into account, the symmetry group is a subgroup of[\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 4\n \n \n 6\n \n \n ×\n (\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 7\n \n \n ⋊\n \n \n S\n \n \n 8\n \n \n )\n ×\n (\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 11\n \n \n ⋊\n \n \n S\n \n \n 12\n \n \n )\n \n ]\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle [\\mathbb {Z} _{4}^{6}\\times (\\mathbb {Z} _{3}^{7}\\rtimes \\mathrm {S} _{8})\\times (\\mathbb {Z} _{2}^{11}\\rtimes \\mathrm {S} _{12})]^{\\frac {1}{2}}.}(This unimportance of centre facet rotations is an implicit example of a quotient group at work, shielding the reader from the full automorphism group of the object in question.)The symmetry group of the Rubik's Cube obtained by disassembling and reassembling it is slightly larger: namely it is the direct productZ\n \n \n 4\n \n \n 6\n \n \n ×\n (\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 3\n \n \n ≀\n \n \n S\n \n \n 8\n \n \n )\n ×\n (\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ≀\n \n \n S\n \n \n 12\n \n \n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {Z} _{4}^{6}\\times (\\mathbb {Z} _{3}\\wr \\mathrm {S} _{8})\\times (\\mathbb {Z} _{2}\\wr \\mathrm {S} _{12}).}The first factor is accounted for solely by rotations of the centre pieces, the second solely by symmetries of the corners, and the third solely by symmetries of the edges. The latter two factors are examples of generalized symmetric groups, which are themselves examples of wreath products. (There is no factor for re-arrangements of the center faces, because on virtually all Rubik's Cube models, re-arranging these faces is impossible with a simple disassembly[citation needed].)The simple groups that occur as quotients in the composition series of the standard cube group (i.e. ignoring centre piece rotations) are \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 8\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{8}}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 12\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{12}}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n \n Z\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {Z} _{3}}\n \n (7 times), and \n \n \n \n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {Z} _{2}}\n \n (12 times).","title":"Group structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"conjugacy classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugacy_class"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"}],"sub_title":"Conjugacy classes","text":"It has been reported that the Rubik's Cube Group has 81,120 conjugacy classes.[6] The number was calculated by counting the number of even and odd conjugacy classes in the edge and corner groups separately and then multiplying them, ensuring that the total parity is always even. Special care must be taken to count so-called parity-sensitive conjugacy classes, whose elements always differ when conjugated with any even element versus any odd element.[7]","title":"Group structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"extended Singmaster Notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubik%27s_Cube#Singmaster_Notation"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Metamagical Themas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamagical_Themas"},{"link_name":"Douglas Hofstadter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Hofstadter"}],"text":"^ Not to be confused with \n \n \n \n E\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E}\n \n as used in the extended Singmaster Notation, where it represents a quarter-turn of the equator layer (i.e., the central layer between \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U}\n \n and \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n {\\displaystyle D}\n \n), in the same direction as \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n {\\displaystyle D}\n \n.\n\n^ One way of defining orientation is as follows, adapted from pages 314–315 of Metamagical Themas by Douglas Hofstadter. Define two notions: the chief color of a block and the chief facet of a position, where a position means the location of a block. The chief facet of a position will be the one on the front or back face of the cube, if that position has such a facet; otherwise it will be the one on the left or right face. There are nine chief facelets on F, nine on B, two on L, and two on R. The chief color of a block is defined as the color that should be on the block's chief facet when the block \"comes home\" to its proper position in a solved cube. A cube move \n \n \n \n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X}\n \n preserves orientation if, when \n \n \n \n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X}\n \n has been applied to a solved cube, the chief color of every block is on the chief facet of its position.","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"The manipulations of the Rubik's Cube form the Rubik's Cube group","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Rubik%27s_cube.svg/220px-Rubik%27s_cube.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Commutator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutator"},{"title":"Conjugacy class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugacy_class"},{"title":"Coset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coset"},{"title":"Optimal solutions for Rubik's Cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimal_solutions_for_Rubik%27s_Cube"},{"title":"Solvable group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvable_group"},{"title":"Thistlethwaite's algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morwen_Thistlethwaite#Thistlethwaite's_algorithm"}]
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[{"reference":"Joyner, David (2002). Adventures in group theory: Rubik's Cube, Merlin's machine, and Other Mathematical Toys. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6947-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/adventuresingrou0000joyn","url_text":"Adventures in group theory: Rubik's Cube, Merlin's machine, and Other Mathematical Toys"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-6947-1","url_text":"0-8018-6947-1"}]},{"reference":"Davis, Tom (2006). \"Group Theory via Rubik's Cube\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"http://geometer.org/rubik/group.pdf","url_text":"\"Group Theory via Rubik's Cube\""}]},{"reference":"Rokicki, Tomas; et al. \"God's Number is 20\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cube20.org/","url_text":"\"God's Number is 20\""}]},{"reference":"Singmaster, David (1981). Notes on Rubik's Magic Cube. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-907395-00-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-907395-00-7","url_text":"0-907395-00-7"}]},{"reference":"Garron, Lucas (March 8, 2010). \"The Permutation Group of the Rubik's Cube\" (PDF). Semantic Scholar. S2CID 18785794. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 22, 2019. Retrieved August 1, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190222230655/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3bc9/ff8fdb1ca220bbe7ee4518fc0615b96e5c30.pdf","url_text":"\"The Permutation Group of the Rubik's Cube\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18785794","url_text":"18785794"},{"url":"http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3bc9/ff8fdb1ca220bbe7ee4518fc0615b96e5c30.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"brac37 (October 20, 2009). \"Conjugacy classes of the cube\". Domain of the Cube Forum. Retrieved August 1, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://forum.cubeman.org/?q=node/view/161","url_text":"\"Conjugacy classes of the cube\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/adventuresingrou0000joyn","external_links_name":"Adventures in group theory: Rubik's Cube, Merlin's machine, and Other Mathematical Toys"},{"Link":"http://geometer.org/rubik/group.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Group Theory via Rubik's Cube\""},{"Link":"http://www.cube20.org/","external_links_name":"\"God's Number is 20\""},{"Link":"http://www.cube20.org/qtm","external_links_name":"God's Number is 26 in the Quarter-Turn Metric"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190222230655/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3bc9/ff8fdb1ca220bbe7ee4518fc0615b96e5c30.pdf","external_links_name":"\"The Permutation Group of the Rubik's Cube\""},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18785794","external_links_name":"18785794"},{"Link":"http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3bc9/ff8fdb1ca220bbe7ee4518fc0615b96e5c30.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://forum.cubeman.org/?q=node/view/161","external_links_name":"\"Conjugacy classes of the cube\""}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_West_Field
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Cyrus W. Field
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["1 Early life","2 Getting started in business","3 Midlife","4 Later years","5 Commemoration","6 References","7 External links"]
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American businessman (1819–1892)
"Cyrus Field" redirects here. For the hydrocarbon field, see Cyrus field.
Cyrus W. Fieldc. 1870BornCyrus West Field(1819-11-30)November 30, 1819Stockbridge, Massachusetts, U.S.DiedJuly 12, 1892(1892-07-12) (aged 72)Irvington, New York, U.S.Occupation(s)businessman, financier, telecommunications pioneerSpouse
Mary Bryan Stone (m. 1840)ChildrenFour sons, three daughtersParent(s)David Dudley Field, Submit Dickinson (1782–1861)RelativesFrederick Vanderbilt Field (descendant)Signature
Cyrus West Field (November 30, 1819 – July 12, 1892) was an American businessman and financier who, along with other entrepreneurs, created the Atlantic Telegraph Company and laid the first telegraph cable across the Atlantic Ocean in 1858.
Early life
Cyrus Field, c. 1860
Field was born in Stockbridge, Massachusetts to Rev. David Dudley Field, a Congregational clergyman, and Submit Dickinson Field, daughter of Revolutionary War Captain Noah Dickinson from Somers, Connecticut. The eighth of ten children, he was the brother of David Dudley Field Jr., Henry Martyn Field, and Stephen Johnson Field, the 38th United States Supreme Court Justice, among other siblings. When he was 15 years old, Field came to New York City, where he was hired as an errand boy in the A.T. Stewart & Co., a dry goods merchant firm. He entered a business apprenticeship, and earned fifty dollars at his first year as a storeroom clerk; his pay was doubled the following year. After three years, he came back to Stockbridge, but returned to New York later in his career. Field married Mary Bryan Stone on December 2, 1840, two days after he turned twenty one, and they had seven children.
Getting started in business
Although Field had many available career options, he chose business. This was a great move for Field. At first, he worked for his brothers, David Dudley Field Jr. and Matthew Dickinson Field. In 1838, he accepted an offer from his brother Matthew to become his assistant in the paper manufacturing venture, the Columbia Mill, in Lee, Massachusetts. In Spring 1840, he went into business by himself, manufacturing paper in Westfield, Massachusetts. The same year, he became a junior partner in the E. Root & Co., a wholesale paper firm based in New York with responsibilities to oversee clients and conduct sales away from New York. After six months, E. Root & Co. failed leaving large debts. Field negotiated with creditors, dissolved the old firm, and started a new partnership with his brother-in-law, Joseph F. Stone, registered as Cyrus W. Field & Co. He stayed in business and was furnishing supplies for the Northeast mills, such as owned by Crane & Company, and buying the finished product wholesale. Through his hard work and long hours, the young paper merchant was able to repay the settled debts and succeed in business by servicing the burgeoning penny press and the need for stocks and bonds, becoming eventually one of the richest men in New York. In March, 1853, he repaid all previously cancelled debt due to insolvency of E. Root & Co. debts in full amount with interest, being under no legal obligation to do so. Among the answers received, one particularly stated, Your only inheritance was a load of debt, cast upon you at the commencement of your business life, which was not caused by lack of foresight or fault on your part. You bore up under this heavy burden and paid it as not one in thousands could or would have done, and by this very act you laid broad the basis of your subsequent success.
Midlife
Business earnings permitted Field to partially retire at the age of 34 with a fortune of $250,000 and build a home in Gramercy Park. In 1853, Field financed an expedition to South America with his artist friend Frederic Edwin Church, during which they explored present-day Ecuador, Colombia, and Panama. They followed the route taken by Alexander von Humboldt over 50 years earlier. Church's sketches of the landscapes and volcanoes on this trip, and on a subsequent trip in 1857 with artist Louis Rémy Mignot, inspired some of his most famous paintings upon his return to New York. Field's list of "Places of Interest to Visit" in South America reflected his interests, including business interests: bridges, volcanoes, waterfalls, and cities, as well as gold mines and the emerald mines of Muzo.
Field turned his attention to telegraphy after he was contacted in January 1854 by Frederic Newton Gisborne, a British engineer, who aimed to establish a telegraph connection between St. John's, Newfoundland and New York City, started the work, but failed due to the lack of capital. Later that year he, with Peter Cooper, Abram Stevens Hewitt, Moses Taylor and Samuel F.B. Morse, joined the so-called Cable Cabinet of entrepreneurs, investors and engineers. Through this Cable Cabinet, Field became instrumental in laying a 400-mile (640 km) telegraph line connecting St. John's, Newfoundland with Nova Scotia, coupling with telegraph lines from the U.S. American investors took over Gisborne's venture and formed a new company called the New York, Newfoundland, and London Telegraph Company (N.Y.N.L.T.C.) after Field convinced the Cable Cabinet to extend the line from Newfoundland to Ireland .
The next year the same investors formed the American Telegraph Company and began buying up other companies, rationalizing them into a consolidated system that ran from Maine to the Gulf Coast; the system was second only to Western Union's.
Congratulatory telegram to President Buchanan on the completion of the first Trans-Atlantic cable, 1858.
In 1857, after securing financing in England and backing from the American and British governments, the Atlantic Telegraph Company began laying the first transatlantic telegraph cable, utilizing a shallow submarine plateau that ran between Ireland and Newfoundland. The cable was officially opened on August 16, 1858, when Queen Victoria sent President James Buchanan a message in Morse code. Although the jubilation at the feat was widespread, the cable itself was short-lived: it broke down three weeks afterward, and was not reconnected until 1866.
During the Panic of 1857, Field's paper business suspended, and Peter Cooper, his neighbor in Gramercy Park, was the only one that kept him from going under.
On August 26, 1858, Field returned to a triumphant homecoming at Great Barrington, Massachusetts, saluting this Massachusetts boy made good. "This has been a great day here," trumpeted The New York Times, "The occasion was the reception of the welcome of Cyrus W. Field, Esq., the world-renowned parent of the Atlantic Telegraph Cable scheme, which has been so successfully completed."
Field's activities brought him into contact with a number of prominent persons on both sides of the Atlantic – including Lord Clarendon and William Ewart Gladstone, the British Finance Minister at the time. Field's communications with Gladstone would become important in the middle of the American Civil War, when three letters he received from Gladstone between November 27, 1862 and December 9, 1862 caused a furor, because Gladstone appeared to express support of the secessionist southern states in forming the Confederate States of America.
In 1866, Field laid a new, more durable trans-Atlantic cable using Brunel's SS Great Eastern. Great Eastern was, at the time, the largest ocean-going ship in the world. His new cable provided almost instant communication across the Atlantic. On his return to Newfoundland, he grappled the cable he had attempted to lay the previous year and made it into a backup wire to the main cable.
In 1867, Field received a gold medal from the U.S. Congress and the grand prize at the International Exposition in Paris for his work on the transatlantic cable.
Later years
In the 1870s–80s, Field entered into transportation business. He served as president of the New York Elevated Railroad Company in 1877–1880 and collaborated with Jay Gould on developing the Wabash Railroad. Field also loaned Henry W. Grady the $20,000 used for Grady to buy a one-quarter interest in the Atlanta Constitution newspaper. He also owned the Mail and Express, a New York newspaper. Bad investments deprived Field of his fortune. He lived modestly during the last five years of his life in his native Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and died in 1892 at the age of 72. He is buried in Stockbridge Cemetery.
Commemoration
Field and his wife are buried in Stockbridge, Massachusetts in the Stockbridge Cemetery in Berkshire County. His headstone reads: "CYRUS WEST FIELD To whose courage, energy and perseverance the world owes The Atlantic Telegraph."
Plaque on a later building on the spot where Cyrus Field lived and worked
In December 1884, the Canadian Pacific Railway named the community of Field, British Columbia, Canada in his honor.
Cyrus Field Road, in Irvington, New York, where he died, is named after him.
Fieldia, the burrowing Cambrian worm, is named after Field.
Ardsley, New York was named after Field's ancestor, Zechariah Field, on Cyrus Field's request. Zechariah Field was born in East Ardsley, West Riding of Yorkshire, England, and immigrated to America in 1629.
References
Notes
^ a b c d e f g h Judson, I. F. (1896). Cyrus W. Field, his life and work, 1819–1892. New York: Harper & Brothers.
^ a b c d e f Burrows, Edwin G. and Wallace, Mike (1999). Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-195-11634-8. pp. 675–676
^ Richard R. John. Field, Cyrus West. American National Biography Online, February 2000. Retrieved November 30, 2015.
^ Avery, Kevin (1993). Church's Great Picture: The Heart of the Andes. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 17.
^ Jane A. Stewart. Great Americans of the past:Cyrus West Field. The Journal of Education, Vol. 90, No. 18 (2254) (November 13, 1919), pp. 488–489.
^ The Cable Cabinet, The Great Transatlantic Cable, PBS
^ History of the Atlantic Cable and Submarine Telegraphy. Atlantic-cable.com. Retrieved September 1, 2011.
^ Latest by Telegraph, Ovation to Cyrus W. Field. The New York Times, August 23, 1858. Retrieved September 1, 2011.
^ Widener Library manuscripts
^ Stewart Mitchell. Horatio Seymour of New York. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Mass., 1938, p. 254.
^ Cyrus W. Field, American financier. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved November 30, 2015.
^ Ingham, J. N. (1983). Biographical dictionary of American business leaders. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, pp. 372–374.
^ Find a Grave – Cyrus West Field
^ "Fieldia lanceolata". Burgess Shale Fossil Gallery. Virtual Museum of Canada. 2011.
Bibliography
Carter, Samuel. Cyrus Field: Man of Two Worlds. New York: Putnam, 1968.
Hearn, Chester G. "Circuits in the Sea: the Men, the Ships, and the Atlantic Cable. Westport: Connecticut, Praeger, 2004"
Gordon, John Steele. A Thread Across the Ocean: The Heroic Story of the Transatlantic Cable. New York: Harper Perennial, 2003.
Judson, Isabella F. Cyrus W. Field, His Life and Work, 1819–1892. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1896.
Klein, Carole. Gramercy Park: An American Bloomsbury. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987.
Thompson, Robert L. Wiring a Continent: The History of the Telegraph Industry in the United States, 1832–1866. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1947.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cyrus West Field.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Field, Cyrus West".
Bill Burns. History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communications: Cyrus W. Field, Atlantic-Cable.com
Cyrus Field (1819–1892), The Great Transatlantic Cable, PBS
Authority control databases International
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WorldCat
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This was a great move for Field. At first, he worked for his brothers, David Dudley Field Jr. and Matthew Dickinson Field.[1] In 1838, he accepted an offer from his brother Matthew to become his assistant in the paper manufacturing venture, the Columbia Mill, in Lee, Massachusetts. In Spring 1840, he went into business by himself, manufacturing paper in Westfield, Massachusetts. The same year, he became a junior partner in the E. Root & Co., a wholesale paper firm based in New York with responsibilities to oversee clients and conduct sales away from New York.[1] After six months, E. Root & Co. failed leaving large debts.[citation needed] Field negotiated with creditors, dissolved the old firm, and started a new partnership with his brother-in-law, Joseph F. Stone, registered as Cyrus W. Field & Co.[1] He stayed in business and was furnishing supplies for the Northeast mills, such as owned by Crane & Company, and buying the finished product wholesale.[3] Through his hard work and long hours, the young paper merchant was able to repay the settled debts and succeed in business by servicing the burgeoning penny press and the need for stocks and bonds, becoming eventually one of the richest men in New York. In March, 1853, he repaid all previously cancelled debt due to insolvency of E. Root & Co. debts in full amount with interest, being under no legal obligation to do so.[1] Among the answers received, one particularly stated,Your only inheritance was a load of debt, cast upon you at the commencement of your business life, which was not caused by lack of foresight or fault on your part. You bore up under this heavy burden and paid it as not one in thousands could or would have done, and by this very act you laid broad the basis of your subsequent success.[1]","title":"Getting started in business"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gramercy Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramercy_Park"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gotham675-2"},{"link_name":"Frederic Edwin Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_Edwin_Church"},{"link_name":"Ecuador","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecuador"},{"link_name":"Colombia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia"},{"link_name":"Panama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama"},{"link_name":"Alexander von Humboldt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Louis Rémy Mignot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_R%C3%A9my_Mignot"},{"link_name":"Muzo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzo"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Judson,_I._F.-1"},{"link_name":"telegraphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraphy"},{"link_name":"Frederic Newton Gisborne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_Newton_Gisborne"},{"link_name":"St. John's, Newfoundland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._John%27s,_Newfoundland"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Peter Cooper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Cooper"},{"link_name":"Abram Stevens Hewitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abram_Stevens_Hewitt"},{"link_name":"Moses Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses_Taylor"},{"link_name":"Samuel F.B. 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They followed the route taken by Alexander von Humboldt over 50 years earlier.[4] Church's sketches of the landscapes and volcanoes on this trip, and on a subsequent trip in 1857 with artist Louis Rémy Mignot, inspired some of his most famous paintings upon his return to New York. Field's list of \"Places of Interest to Visit\" in South America reflected his interests, including business interests: bridges, volcanoes, waterfalls, and cities, as well as gold mines and the emerald mines of Muzo.[1]Field turned his attention to telegraphy after he was contacted in January 1854 by Frederic Newton Gisborne, a British engineer, who aimed to establish a telegraph connection between St. John's, Newfoundland and New York City, started the work, but failed due to the lack of capital. Later that year he, with Peter Cooper, Abram Stevens Hewitt, Moses Taylor and Samuel F.B. Morse, joined the so-called Cable Cabinet of entrepreneurs, investors and engineers. Through this Cable Cabinet, Field became instrumental in laying a 400-mile (640 km) telegraph line connecting St. John's, Newfoundland with Nova Scotia, coupling with telegraph lines from the U.S.[5] American investors took over Gisborne's venture and formed a new company called the New York, Newfoundland, and London Telegraph Company (N.Y.N.L.T.C.) after Field convinced the Cable Cabinet to extend the line from Newfoundland to Ireland .[6]The next year the same investors formed the American Telegraph Company and began buying up other companies, rationalizing them into a consolidated system that ran from Maine to the Gulf Coast; the system was second only to Western Union's.[2]Congratulatory telegram to President Buchanan on the completion of the first Trans-Atlantic cable, 1858.In 1857, after securing financing in England and backing from the American and British governments, the Atlantic Telegraph Company began laying the first transatlantic telegraph cable, utilizing a shallow submarine plateau that ran between Ireland and Newfoundland.[2] The cable was officially opened on August 16, 1858, when Queen Victoria sent President James Buchanan a message in Morse code. Although the jubilation at the feat was widespread,[2] the cable itself was short-lived: it broke down three weeks afterward, and was not reconnected until 1866.[2][7]During the Panic of 1857, Field's paper business suspended, and Peter Cooper, his neighbor in Gramercy Park, was the only one that kept him from going under.On August 26, 1858, Field returned to a triumphant homecoming at Great Barrington, Massachusetts, saluting this Massachusetts boy made good. \"This has been a great day here,\" trumpeted The New York Times, \"The occasion was the reception of the welcome of Cyrus W. Field, Esq., the world-renowned parent of the Atlantic Telegraph Cable scheme, which has been so successfully completed.\"[8]Field's activities brought him into contact with a number of prominent persons on both sides of the Atlantic – including Lord Clarendon and William Ewart Gladstone, the British Finance Minister at the time. Field's communications with Gladstone would become important in the middle of the American Civil War, when three letters he received from Gladstone between November 27, 1862 and December 9, 1862 caused a furor,[9] because Gladstone appeared to express support of the secessionist southern states in forming the Confederate States of America.[10]In 1866, Field laid a new, more durable trans-Atlantic cable using Brunel's SS Great Eastern. Great Eastern was, at the time, the largest ocean-going ship in the world. His new cable provided almost instant communication across the Atlantic. On his return to Newfoundland, he grappled the cable he had attempted to lay the previous year and made it into a backup wire to the main cable.In 1867, Field received a gold medal from the U.S. Congress and the grand prize at the International Exposition in Paris for his work on the transatlantic cable.","title":"Midlife"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jay Gould","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Gould"},{"link_name":"Wabash Railroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wabash_Railroad"},{"link_name":"Henry W. Grady","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_W._Grady"},{"link_name":"Mail and Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Evening_Mail"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Stockbridge, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockbridge,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"In the 1870s–80s, Field entered into transportation business. He served as president of the New York Elevated Railroad Company in 1877–1880 and collaborated with Jay Gould on developing the Wabash Railroad. Field also loaned Henry W. Grady the $20,000 used for Grady to buy a one-quarter interest in the Atlanta Constitution newspaper. He also owned the Mail and Express, a New York newspaper. Bad investments deprived Field of his fortune.[11] He lived modestly during the last five years of his life in his native Stockbridge, Massachusetts,[12] and died in 1892 at the age of 72. He is buried in Stockbridge Cemetery.[13]","title":"Later years"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:One_Lex_Av_plaque_for_Field_HDR_2021_jeh.jpg"},{"link_name":"Canadian Pacific Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Railway"},{"link_name":"Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Irvington, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvington,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Fieldia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fieldia_(worm)"},{"link_name":"Cambrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambrian"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Ardsley, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardsley,_New_York"}],"text":"Field and his wife are buried in Stockbridge, Massachusetts in the Stockbridge Cemetery in Berkshire County. His headstone reads: \"CYRUS WEST FIELD To whose courage, energy and perseverance the world owes The Atlantic Telegraph.\"Plaque on a later building on the spot where Cyrus Field lived and workedIn December 1884, the Canadian Pacific Railway named the community of Field, British Columbia, Canada in his honor.Cyrus Field Road, in Irvington, New York, where he died, is named after him.Fieldia, the burrowing Cambrian worm, is named after Field.[14]Ardsley, New York was named after Field's ancestor, Zechariah Field, on Cyrus Field's request. Zechariah Field was born in East Ardsley, West Riding of Yorkshire, England, and immigrated to America in 1629.","title":"Commemoration"}]
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[{"reference":"Burrows, Edwin G. and Wallace, Mike (1999). Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-195-11634-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_G._Burrows","url_text":"Burrows, Edwin G."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Wallace_(historian)","url_text":"Wallace, Mike"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotham:_A_History_of_New_York_City_to_1898","url_text":"Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-195-11634-8","url_text":"0-195-11634-8"}]},{"reference":"Avery, Kevin (1993). Church's Great Picture: The Heart of the Andes. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 17.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/churchsgreatpict00aver","url_text":"Church's Great Picture: The Heart of the Andes"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/churchsgreatpict00aver/page/n17","url_text":"17"}]},{"reference":"\"Fieldia lanceolata\". Burgess Shale Fossil Gallery. Virtual Museum of Canada. 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/fossils/fieldia-lanceolata/","url_text":"\"Fieldia lanceolata\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=UoUpBgAAQBAJ&q=Cyrus+W.+Field+%3B+His+Life+and+Work++By+Isabella+Field+Judson","external_links_name":"Cyrus W. Field, his life and work, 1819–1892."},{"Link":"http://www.anb.org/articles/10/10-00542.html","external_links_name":"Field, Cyrus West"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/churchsgreatpict00aver","external_links_name":"Church's Great Picture: The Heart of the Andes"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/churchsgreatpict00aver/page/n17","external_links_name":"17"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/42767473?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents","external_links_name":"Great Americans of the past:Cyrus West Field"},{"Link":"https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/cable/peopleevents/p_cabinet.html","external_links_name":"The Cable Cabinet"},{"Link":"http://www.atlantic-cable.com/Field/","external_links_name":"History of the Atlantic Cable and Submarine Telegraphy"},{"Link":"https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1858/08/27/78860329.pdf","external_links_name":"Latest by Telegraph, Ovation to Cyrus W. Field"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140703141334/http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~hou01481","external_links_name":"Widener Library manuscripts"},{"Link":"http://www.britannica.com/biography/Cyrus-W-Field","external_links_name":"Cyrus W. Field, American financier"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=KRjPBj19i-4C&dq=Cyrus+West+Field&pg=PA372","external_links_name":"Biographical dictionary of American business leaders"},{"Link":"https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/1090/cyrus-west-field","external_links_name":"Find a Grave – Cyrus West Field"},{"Link":"https://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/fossils/fieldia-lanceolata/","external_links_name":"\"Fieldia lanceolata\""},{"Link":"http://atlantic-cable.com/Field/","external_links_name":"History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communications: Cyrus W. Field"},{"Link":"https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/cable/peopleevents/p_field.html","external_links_name":"Cyrus Field (1819–1892)"},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/159585/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000073748037","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/57368358","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJccf4bfHRXvPrpY6JkdQq","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/116500166","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007361608905171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n85197407","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p246417803","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd116500166.html?language=en","external_links_name":"Deutsche Biographie"},{"Link":"https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6n3020k","external_links_name":"SNAC"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Empirical_Legal_Studies
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Journal of Empirical Legal Studies
|
["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"]
|
Academic journalJournal of Empirical Legal StudiesDisciplineLawLanguageEnglishPublication detailsHistory2004-presentPublisherWiley-Blackwell in collaboration with the Cornell Law SchoolFrequencyQuarterlyStandard abbreviationsISO 4 (alt) · Bluebook (alt1 · alt2)NLM (alt) · MathSciNet (alt )BluebookJ. Empirical Legal Stud.ISO 4J. Empir. Leg. Stud.IndexingCODEN (alt · alt2) · JSTOR (alt) · LCCN (alt)MIAR · NLM (alt) · ScopusISSN1740-1453 (print)1740-1461 (web)Links
Journal homepage
Wiley Online Library
The Journal of Empirical Legal Studies is a peer-edited and peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes empirically oriented research on a wide range of legal topics, including civil justice, civil procedure, corporate law, administrative law, and constitutional law. The journal is highly interdisciplinary and draws authors from law schools, as well as from economics, psychology, sociology, public policy, and political science departments. The journal was established in 2004 and is published by Wiley-Blackwell in collaboration with the Cornell Law School. In terms of academic citations, the journal is ranked 1st among refereed law and social science journals, and 1st among refereed law and economics journals; in terms of judicial citations, it is ranked 2nd and 1st in those categories, respectively; in terms of impact, it is ranked 2nd and 1st in those categories, respectively.
See also
Law portal
Empirical legal studies
Legal psychology
Law and economics
References
^ Law Journals: Submission and Ranking Archived 2006-03-07 at the Wayback Machine Ranking of Law journals by impact, 2015
External links
Official website
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This article about a journal on law and legal issues is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RadioGat%C3%BAn
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RadioGatún
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["1 Claimed strength","2 Implementation details","3 Cryptanalysis","4 Test vectors","4.1 RadioGatún[32]","4.2 RadioGatún[64]","5 References","6 External links"]
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Cryptographic hash primitive
RadioGatúnGeneralDesignersGuido BertoniJoan DaemenMichaël PeetersGilles Van AsscheFirst publishedAugust 2006Derived fromPanamaSuccessorsKeccak (SHA-3)Cipher detailBlock sizes19 words in mill; 39 words in beltBest public cryptanalysisFuhr/Peyrin 2008, 211w (352/704 bits) complexity
RadioGatún is a cryptographic hash primitive created by Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen, Michaël Peeters, and Gilles Van Assche. It was first publicly presented at the NIST Second Cryptographic Hash Workshop, held in Santa Barbara, California, on August 24–25, 2006, as part of the NIST hash function competition. The same team that developed RadioGatún went on to make considerable revisions to this cryptographic primitive, leading to the Keccak SHA-3 algorithm.
RadioGatún is a family of 64 different hash functions, distinguished by a single parameter, the word width in bits (w), adjustable between 1 and 64. The only word sizes with official test vectors are the 32-bit and 64-bit variants of RadioGatún. The algorithm uses 58 words, each using w bits, to store its internal state, so the 32-bit version needs 232 bytes to store its state (since each word needs 32 bits or four bytes, and 58 multiplied by four is 232) and the 64-bit version 464 bytes (each word using eight bytes).
Although RadioGatún is a derivative of Panama, a stream cipher and hash construction from the late 1990s whose hash construction has been broken, RadioGatún does not have Panama's weaknesses when used as a hash function. As of 2022, RadioGatún is still a secure hash function; the largest version of RadioGatún that is broken is the one with a word size of two bits. RadioGatún has a claimed security strength of 304 bits for the 32-bit version and 608 bits for the 64-bit version. The best known cryptanalysis has not broken this claim: It needs 352 bits of work for the 32-bit version and 704 bits of work for the 64-bit version.
RadioGatún can be used either as a hash function or a stream cipher; it can output an arbitrarily long stream of pseudo-random numbers; this kind of hash construction is now known as an "extendable-output function" (XOF).
Claimed strength
The algorithm's designers, in the original RadioGatún paper, claimed that the first 19 × w bits (where w is the word width used) of RadioGatún's output is a cryptographically secure hash function.
Since publishing the paper, the designers revised their security claim, and now claim that RadioGatún has the security of a cryptographic sponge function with a capacity of 19w. This means that the 32-bit version of RadioGatún can be used to make a hash with 304 bits of security (both from collision attacks and from Preimage attacks), and the 64-bit version offers 608 bits of security.
Implementation details
The designers call RadioGatún an "ideal mangling function". RadioGatún uses a "belt" and "mill" to cryptographically process binary data, with the majority of mangling operations performed on the "mill" part of RadioGatún.
Keccak removed the belt, increased the size of the mill from 19 words to 25 words, and made the mill function somewhat more complicated.
The core belt function looks like this:
(A,B) = R(a,b)
for row = 0 to 2 do
for all i do
B = b
end for
end for {Belt function: simple rotation}
for i = 0 to 11 do
B = B ⊕ a
end for {Mill to belt feedforward}
A = Mill(a) {Mill function}
b = B
for i = 0 to 2 do
A = A ⊕ b
end for {Belt to mill feedforward}
And the mill function Mill(A) looks like this:
{all indices should be taken modulo 19,
x ≫ y denotes bitwise rotation (rotate x right y bits)
x ⊕ y denotes exclusive or
x |~ y denotes performing a bitwise or between x and the bitwise negation of y}
for all i do
A = a ⊕ (a|~a)
end for {γ: non-linearity}
for all i do
a = A ≫ i(i + 1)/2
end for {π: intra-word and inter-word dispersion}
for all i do
A = a ⊕ a ⊕ a
end for {θ: diffusion}
A = A ⊕ 1 {ι: asymmetry}
The Wikibooks page on RadioGatún provides full implementation details, and Module:RadioGatun32 is an implementation of the 32-bit version of RadioGatún.
Cryptanalysis
In the paper "Two attacks on RadioGatún", Dmitry Khovratovich presents two attacks that do not break the designers' security claims, one with a complexity of 218w and another with a complexity of 223.1w. Khovratovich also authored a paper, entitled "Cryptanalysis of hash functions with structures", which describes an attack with a complexity of 218w.
In the paper "Analysis of the Collision Resistance of RadioGatún using Algebraic Techniques", Charles Bouillaguet and Pierre-Alain Fouque present a way of generating collisions with the 1-bit version of the algorithm using an attack that needs 224.5 operations. The attack can not be extended to larger versions since "all the possible trails we knew for the 1-bit version turned out to be impossible to extend to n-bit versions." This attack is less effective than the other attacks and also does not break RadioGatún's security claim.
The most effective attack against the algorithm, one with a complexity of 211w, is given in the paper "Cryptanalysis of RadioGatun" by Thomas Fuhr and Thomas Peyrin. In the paper, they break the 2-bit (word size of two) version of RadioGatún. While more effective than the other attacks, this attack still does not break the security claim.
The developers of RadioGatún have stated that their "own experiments did not inspire confidence in RadioGatún".
Test vectors
The only RadioGatún variants that the designers supplied test vectors (published hash values for sample inputs so programmers can verify they are correctly implementing the algorithm) for are the 32-bit and 64-bit versions.
RadioGatún
These test vectors, generated using the 32-bit version of RadioGatún, only show the first 256 bits of RadioGatún's arbitrarily long output stream:
RadioGatun("") =
F30028B54AFAB6B3E55355D277711109A19BEDA7091067E9A492FB5ED9F20117
RadioGatun("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog") =
191589005FEC1F2A248F96A16E9553BF38D0AEE1648FFA036655CE29C2E229AE
RadioGatun("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy cog") =
EBDC1C8DCD54DEB47EEEFC33CA0809AD23CD9FFC0B5254BE0FDABB713477F2BD
RadioGatún
Here are hashes for the 64-bit version:
RadioGatun("") =
64A9A7FA139905B57BDAB35D33AA216370D5EAE13E77BFCDD85513408311A584
RadioGatun("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog") =
6219FB8DAD92EBE5B2F7D18318F8DA13CECBF13289D79F5ABF4D253C6904C807
RadioGatun("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy cog") =
C06265CAC961EA74912695EBF20F1C256A338BC0E980853A3EEF188D4B06FCE5
References
^ Bertoni, Guido; Daemen, Joan; Peeters, Michaël; Van Assche, Gilles (2009). "The Road from Panama to Keccak via RadioGatún". Dagstuhl Seminar Proceedings (DagSemProc). 9031: 1–9. doi:10.4230/DagSemProc.09031.17. Retrieved 2009-10-20. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Sadeghi-Nasab, Alireza; Rafe, Vahid (2022). "A comprehensive review of the security flaws of hashing algorithms" (PDF). Journal of Computer Virology and Hacking Techniques. 19 (2): 287–302. doi:10.1007/s11416-022-00447-w. S2CID 253033894. RadioGatún continues to be a safe hash function
^ Kishore, Neha; Raina, Priya (2019). "Parallel cryptographic hashing: Developments in the last 25 years". Cryptologia. 43 (6): 504–535. doi:10.1080/01611194.2019.1609130. S2CID 201884222. RadioGatún (Bertoni et al.2006) is still secure
^ Thomas Pornin (2011-04-03). "Need suggestion for faster Linux fingerprint/hash comparison". Among those I cite, the Radiogatun and Shabal functions are currently unbroken.
^ Zooko Wilcox (2017-02-24). "Lessons From The History Of Attacks On Secure Hash Functions". Retrieved 2018-06-28. no new secure hash functions (designed after approximately the year 2000) have so far succumbed to collision attacks, either.
^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-31. Retrieved 2017-07-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ Page 9 (Section 6) of "RadioGatún, a belt-and-mill hash function" states that "RadioGatún
offers a security level indicated by a capacity c = 19 * w. For the 64-bit version RadioGatún
this is a capacity of 1216 bits, for the 32-bit version and 16-bit version this
gives 608 and 304 bits respectively."
^ http://radiogatun.noekeon.org/ "We now prefer to express the security claim for RadioGatún as a flat sponge claim with capacity 19w"
^ "RadioGatún, a belt-and-mill hash function" (PDF). 2006-07-20.
^ "The road from Panama to Keccak via RadioGatún" (PDF). S2CID 2222603. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-08-05. For Keccak, we have therefore decided to remove the belt and instead increase the number of words in the mill
^ Khovratovich, Dmitry (2008). "Two Attacks on RadioGatún" (PDF). Progress in Cryptology - INDOCRYPT 2008. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 5365. pp. 53–66. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-89754-5_5. ISBN 978-3-540-89753-8. S2CID 6487398. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-08-07.
^ https://www.cryptolux.org/images/7/79/Struct.pdf
^ Bouillaguet, Charles; Fouque, Pierre-Alain (2009). "Analysis of the Collision Resistance of Radio Gatún Using Algebraic Techniques". Selected Areas in Cryptography. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 5381. pp. 245–261. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-04159-4_16. ISBN 978-3-642-04158-7.
^ Fuhr, Thomas; Peyrin, Thomas (2008). "Cryptanalysis of RadioGatun". Cryptology ePrint Archive.
^ "Keccak and the SHA-3 Standardization" (PDF).
External links
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Cryptography/RadioGatún
The RadioGatún Hash Function Family, RadioGatún's official web page, with the hash's official description, public domain reference code, and test vectors
rg32hash, an independent public-domain implementation of the 32-bit version of RadioGatún
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Category
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cryptographic hash primitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function"},{"link_name":"Joan Daemen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Daemen"},{"link_name":"Gilles Van Assche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilles_Van_Assche"},{"link_name":"Santa Barbara, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Barbara,_California"},{"link_name":"NIST hash function competition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIST_hash_function_competition"},{"link_name":"cryptographic primitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_primitive"},{"link_name":"Keccak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keccak"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"bits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit"},{"link_name":"Panama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_(cryptography)"},{"link_name":"stream cipher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_cipher"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"security strength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_strength"},{"link_name":"pseudo-random numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudorandomness"},{"link_name":"extendable-output function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extendable-output_function"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"RadioGatún is a cryptographic hash primitive created by Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen, Michaël Peeters, and Gilles Van Assche. It was first publicly presented at the NIST Second Cryptographic Hash Workshop, held in Santa Barbara, California, on August 24–25, 2006, as part of the NIST hash function competition. The same team that developed RadioGatún went on to make considerable revisions to this cryptographic primitive, leading to the Keccak SHA-3 algorithm.[1]RadioGatún is a family of 64 different hash functions, distinguished by a single parameter, the word width in bits (w), adjustable between 1 and 64. The only word sizes with official test vectors are the 32-bit and 64-bit variants of RadioGatún. The algorithm uses 58 words, each using w bits, to store its internal state, so the 32-bit version needs 232 bytes to store its state (since each word needs 32 bits or four bytes, and 58 multiplied by four is 232) and the 64-bit version 464 bytes (each word using eight bytes).Although RadioGatún is a derivative of Panama, a stream cipher and hash construction from the late 1990s whose hash construction has been broken, RadioGatún does not have Panama's weaknesses when used as a hash function. As of 2022, RadioGatún is still a secure hash function;[2][3][4][5] the largest version of RadioGatún that is broken is the one with a word size of two bits. RadioGatún has a claimed security strength of 304 bits for the 32-bit version and 608 bits for the 64-bit version. The best known cryptanalysis has not broken this claim: It needs 352 bits of work for the 32-bit version and 704 bits of work for the 64-bit version.RadioGatún can be used either as a hash function or a stream cipher; it can output an arbitrarily long stream of pseudo-random numbers; this kind of hash construction is now known as an \"extendable-output function\" (XOF).[6]","title":"RadioGatún"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"sponge function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sponge_function"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"bits of security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bits_of_security"},{"link_name":"collision attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collision_attack"},{"link_name":"Preimage attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preimage_attack"}],"text":"The algorithm's designers, in the original RadioGatún paper, claimed that the first 19 × w bits (where w is the word width used) of RadioGatún's output is a cryptographically secure hash function.[7]Since publishing the paper, the designers revised their security claim, and now claim that RadioGatún has the security of a cryptographic sponge function with a capacity of 19w.[8] This means that the 32-bit version of RadioGatún can be used to make a hash with 304 bits of security (both from collision attacks and from Preimage attacks), and the 64-bit version offers 608 bits of security.","title":"Claimed strength"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Keccak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SHA-3"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Module:RadioGatun32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Module:RadioGatun32"}],"text":"The designers call RadioGatún an \"ideal mangling function\". RadioGatún uses a \"belt\" and \"mill\" to cryptographically process binary data, with the majority of mangling operations performed on the \"mill\" part of RadioGatún.[9]Keccak removed the belt, increased the size of the mill from 19 words to 25 words, and made the mill function somewhat more complicated.[10]The core belt function looks like this:(A,B) = R(a,b)\nfor row = 0 to 2 do\n for all i do \n B[i, row] = b[i + 1 mod 13, row]\n end for\nend for {Belt function: simple rotation}\nfor i = 0 to 11 do\n B[i + 1, i mod 3] = B[i + 1, i mod 3] ⊕ a[i + 1]\nend for {Mill to belt feedforward}\nA = Mill(a) {Mill function}\nb = B\nfor i = 0 to 2 do\n A[i + 13] = A[i + 13] ⊕ b[12, i]\nend for {Belt to mill feedforward}And the mill function Mill(A) looks like this:{all indices should be taken modulo 19,\nx ≫ y denotes bitwise rotation (rotate x right y bits)\nx ⊕ y denotes exclusive or\nx |~ y denotes performing a bitwise or between x and the bitwise negation of y}\nfor all i do\n A[i] = a[i] ⊕ (a[i + 1]|~a[i + 2])\nend for {γ: non-linearity}\nfor all i do\n a[i] = A[7i] ≫ i(i + 1)/2\nend for {π: intra-word and inter-word dispersion}\nfor all i do\n A[i] = a[i] ⊕ a[i + 1] ⊕ a[i + 4]\nend for {θ: diffusion}\nA[0] = A[0] ⊕ 1 {ι: asymmetry}The Wikibooks page on RadioGatún provides full implementation details, and Module:RadioGatun32 is an implementation of the 32-bit version of RadioGatún.","title":"Implementation details"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dmitry Khovratovich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Khovratovich"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"In the paper \"Two attacks on RadioGatún\", Dmitry Khovratovich presents two attacks that do not break the designers' security claims, one with a complexity of 218w and another with a complexity of 223.1w.[11] Khovratovich also authored a paper, entitled \"Cryptanalysis of hash functions with structures\", which describes an attack with a complexity of 218w.[12]In the paper \"Analysis of the Collision Resistance of RadioGatún using Algebraic Techniques\", Charles Bouillaguet and Pierre-Alain Fouque present a way of generating collisions with the 1-bit version of the algorithm using an attack that needs 224.5 operations.[13] The attack can not be extended to larger versions since \"all the possible trails we knew for the 1-bit version turned out to be impossible to extend to n-bit versions.\" This attack is less effective than the other attacks and also does not break RadioGatún's security claim.The most effective attack against the algorithm, one with a complexity of 211w, is given in the paper \"Cryptanalysis of RadioGatun\" by Thomas Fuhr and Thomas Peyrin. In the paper, they break the 2-bit (word size of two) version of RadioGatún.[14] While more effective than the other attacks, this attack still does not break the security claim.The developers of RadioGatún have stated that their \"own experiments did not inspire confidence in RadioGatún\".[15]","title":"Cryptanalysis"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The only RadioGatún variants that the designers supplied test vectors (published hash values for sample inputs so programmers can verify they are correctly implementing the algorithm) for are the 32-bit and 64-bit versions.","title":"Test vectors"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"RadioGatún[32]","text":"These test vectors, generated using the 32-bit version of RadioGatún, only show the first 256 bits of RadioGatún[32]'s arbitrarily long output stream:RadioGatun[32](\"\") =\nF30028B54AFAB6B3E55355D277711109A19BEDA7091067E9A492FB5ED9F20117RadioGatun[32](\"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog\") =\n191589005FEC1F2A248F96A16E9553BF38D0AEE1648FFA036655CE29C2E229AERadioGatun[32](\"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy cog\") =\nEBDC1C8DCD54DEB47EEEFC33CA0809AD23CD9FFC0B5254BE0FDABB713477F2BD","title":"Test vectors"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"RadioGatún[64]","text":"Here are hashes for the 64-bit version:RadioGatun[64](\"\") =\n64A9A7FA139905B57BDAB35D33AA216370D5EAE13E77BFCDD85513408311A584RadioGatun[64](\"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog\") = \n6219FB8DAD92EBE5B2F7D18318F8DA13CECBF13289D79F5ABF4D253C6904C807RadioGatun[64](\"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy cog\") = \nC06265CAC961EA74912695EBF20F1C256A338BC0E980853A3EEF188D4B06FCE5","title":"Test vectors"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"Bertoni, Guido; Daemen, Joan; Peeters, Michaël; Van Assche, Gilles (2009). \"The Road from Panama to Keccak via RadioGatún\". Dagstuhl Seminar Proceedings (DagSemProc). 9031: 1–9. doi:10.4230/DagSemProc.09031.17. Retrieved 2009-10-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://drops.dagstuhl.de/opus/volltexte/2009/1958/","url_text":"\"The Road from Panama to Keccak via RadioGatún\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4230%2FDagSemProc.09031.17","url_text":"10.4230/DagSemProc.09031.17"}]},{"reference":"Sadeghi-Nasab, Alireza; Rafe, Vahid (2022). \"A comprehensive review of the security flaws of hashing algorithms\" (PDF). Journal of Computer Virology and Hacking Techniques. 19 (2): 287–302. doi:10.1007/s11416-022-00447-w. S2CID 253033894. RadioGatún continues to be a safe hash function","urls":[{"url":"https://research.gold.ac.uk/id/eprint/33410/1/paper_en_v1.pdf","url_text":"\"A comprehensive review of the security flaws of hashing algorithms\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11416-022-00447-w","url_text":"10.1007/s11416-022-00447-w"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:253033894","url_text":"253033894"}]},{"reference":"Kishore, Neha; Raina, Priya (2019). \"Parallel cryptographic hashing: Developments in the last 25 years\". Cryptologia. 43 (6): 504–535. doi:10.1080/01611194.2019.1609130. S2CID 201884222. RadioGatún (Bertoni et al.2006) is still secure","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01611194.2019.1609130","url_text":"10.1080/01611194.2019.1609130"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201884222","url_text":"201884222"}]},{"reference":"Thomas Pornin (2011-04-03). \"Need suggestion for faster Linux fingerprint/hash comparison\". Among those I cite, the Radiogatun and Shabal functions are currently unbroken.","urls":[{"url":"https://stackoverflow.com/questions/5522135/need-suggestion-for-faster-linux-fingerprint-hash-comparison","url_text":"\"Need suggestion for faster Linux fingerprint/hash comparison\""}]},{"reference":"Zooko Wilcox (2017-02-24). \"Lessons From The History Of Attacks On Secure Hash Functions\". Retrieved 2018-06-28. no new secure hash functions (designed after approximately the year 2000) have so far succumbed to collision attacks, either.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooko_Wilcox-O%27Hearn","url_text":"Zooko Wilcox"},{"url":"https://z.cash/technology/history-of-hash-function-attacks.html","url_text":"\"Lessons From The History Of Attacks On Secure Hash Functions\""}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-31. Retrieved 2017-07-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170131052619/http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/hash/sha-3/Aug2014/documents/perlner_XOFs.pdf","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/hash/sha-3/Aug2014/documents/perlner_XOFs.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"RadioGatún, a belt-and-mill hash function\" (PDF). 2006-07-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://radiogatun.noekeon.org/RadioGatun.pdf","url_text":"\"RadioGatún, a belt-and-mill hash function\""}]},{"reference":"\"The road from Panama to Keccak via RadioGatún\" (PDF). S2CID 2222603. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-08-05. For Keccak, we have therefore decided to remove the belt and instead increase the number of words in the mill","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180805233950/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/558b/881dc0b72a97346c265f6c28a5159994f9ce.pdf","url_text":"\"The road from Panama to Keccak via RadioGatún\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2222603","url_text":"2222603"},{"url":"https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/558b/881dc0b72a97346c265f6c28a5159994f9ce.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Khovratovich, Dmitry (2008). \"Two Attacks on RadioGatún\" (PDF). Progress in Cryptology - INDOCRYPT 2008. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 5365. pp. 53–66. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-89754-5_5. ISBN 978-3-540-89753-8. S2CID 6487398. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-08-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180807185914/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ab3c/47316b50b87c280da744a28ca15a6156ac0f.pdf","url_text":"\"Two Attacks on RadioGatún\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-89754-5_5","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-540-89754-5_5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-89753-8","url_text":"978-3-540-89753-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6487398","url_text":"6487398"},{"url":"https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ab3c/47316b50b87c280da744a28ca15a6156ac0f.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Bouillaguet, Charles; Fouque, Pierre-Alain (2009). \"Analysis of the Collision Resistance of Radio Gatún Using Algebraic Techniques\". Selected Areas in Cryptography. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 5381. pp. 245–261. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-04159-4_16. ISBN 978-3-642-04158-7.","urls":[{"url":"http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inria-00417797/en/","url_text":"\"Analysis of the Collision Resistance of Radio Gatún Using Algebraic Techniques\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-04159-4_16","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-642-04159-4_16"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-04158-7","url_text":"978-3-642-04158-7"}]},{"reference":"Fuhr, Thomas; Peyrin, Thomas (2008). \"Cryptanalysis of RadioGatun\". Cryptology ePrint Archive.","urls":[{"url":"http://eprint.iacr.org/2008/515","url_text":"\"Cryptanalysis of RadioGatun\""}]},{"reference":"\"Keccak and the SHA-3 Standardization\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/hash/sha-3/documents/Keccak-slides-at-NIST.pdf","url_text":"\"Keccak and the SHA-3 Standardization\""}]}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimbit
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Nimbit
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["1 History","1.1 Formation and early years","1.2 PreSonus ownership","2 Services","2.1 User profiles","2.2 Sales and tips","2.3 Marketing and promotion","2.4 Fundraising","2.5 FanCheck.in","2.6 Fan management","2.7 Physical products","2.8 E-tickets","3 Account options","4 Partnerships","5 References"]
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This article uses bare URLs, which are uninformative and vulnerable to link rot. Please consider converting them to full citations to ensure the article remains verifiable and maintains a consistent citation style. Several templates and tools are available to assist in formatting, such as reFill (documentation) and Citation bot (documentation). (September 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Nimbit, Inc.Company typePrivateIndustryMusicIndependent musicFounded2002; 22 years ago (2002)FoundersPhil AntoniadesPatrick FaucherJoseph TwarogHeadquartersFramingham, MassachusettsArea servedWorldwideServicesDirect-to-Fan SalesDirect-to-Fan MarketingDigital DistributionCD/DVD ManufacturingE-TicketsOwnerPreSonusWebsitenimbit.com
Nimbit, Inc. was a Massachusetts-based company (bought by PreSonus) offering sales & marketing services for independent musicians, independent record labels and other organisations, using one of the first web-based, direct-to-fan system. This includes a virtual storefront, which allows users to sell music and merchandise on Facebook and other websites, and tools for users to perform fundraising campaigns. Nimbit was closed on December 9, 2020.
History
Formation and early years
Nimbit was originally formed and incorporated by Phil Antoniades, Patrick Faucher, Matt Silbert, and Joseph Twarog in 2002, in Framingham, Massachusetts.
The company launched Nimbit WebTools in 2003, which was a content management system of website management tools and hosting services, designed for the entertainment industry. In 2004, they partnered with ASCAP to provide members with access to this package.
In 2007, Nimbit launched nimbitOMT ("Online Merch Table"), a system for selling MP3s, CDs, e-tickets and other merchandise across social networking websites, blogs and other websites. In 2008, this was followed by nimbitSkin, a customizable music storefront allowing the sale of products from any website. Also in 2008, the company introduced nimbitCards: physical cards which can be distributed to customers, who then use them for later redemption of items in the corresponding Nimbit store.
In September 2009, Nimbit released "MyStore" for Facebook, which integrated the previous promotion & sales features directly within a user's Facebook profile.
In April 2010 Nimbit announced that they were bringing on Bob Cramer as their CEO.
Nimbit's "Spotlight Store" for Facebook was released in March 2012, providing an expanded version of the original Nimbit "MyStore", optimized for Facebook's new timeline view.
PreSonus ownership
In July 2012 Nimbit announced it had been acquired by PreSonus, the manufacturer of music production software and hardware, for an undisclosed sum.
PreSonus expanded Nimbit functionality the following year by adding localisation options for language and currency in the virtual storefronts, and automatic customer follow-up from promotions.
In January 2014, several new features were added to the service, including custom fan lists, a new event check-in service, a new email marketing tool, and additions to the event management tool. Shortly afterwards, in June 2014, PreSonus announced a redesigned version of Nimbit, with new functionality. Further expansions made in 2014 included a re-designed store page, plugins for embedding Nimbit features into external websites, support for HD audio, and a re-designed product management page.
Nimbit was shut down on December 9, 2020.
Services
User profiles
Nimbit users are provided with an online interface to create a profile for themselves, including any promotional photos or videos, and a calendar of their public events. In addition, the profile provides access to the corresponding store for their music and merchandise.
Sales and tips
Nimbit provides virtual storefronts, which users can leverage for selling directly to fans. These storefronts can be embedded onto external websites. In addition, Nimbit provides means for including connections to these storefronts within other social networking websites, such as Facebook, Jango, PledgeMusic, and Fanbridge.
Users can sell both digital and physical products from these virtual storefronts, and customers can also provide additional money to them in the form of "tip jar" contributions.
Since June 2013, storefronts can be displayed in English, French, German, or Spanish, and allow users to sell in their local currency. Nimbit storefronts utilize PayPal, allowing them to accept purchases via PayPal or credit card, in any of PayPal's supported currencies.
Nimbit users have the option to define split payments, whereby an existing PayPal account can be set to automatically receive a custom percentage of profits from the storefront.
Users also have the ability to create UPCs for the products on sale and submit the resulting sales to Nielsen SoundScan for tracking.
Marketing and promotion
Nimbit's "Promotion Tool" provides the means for users to share details of specific promotions via Facebook, Twitter, Email, and embedded components on other websites. The tool includes options for embedded video, embedded audio and links to free or discounted content on the user's virtual storefront.
In September 2012, the tool's functionality was expanded to include an automatic follow-up, which would encourage customers who accessed the original promotion to make another purchase.
Fundraising
Nimbit also includes the functionality for users to conduct a fundraising campaign via the following options:
A presale item in the virtual storefront
Optional customer contributions for a free item in the virtual storefront
Physical merchandise items in the virtual storefront, each associated to different levels of campaign contribution
FanCheck.in
Introduced in 2014, FanCheck.in is an online service which allows fans to 'check-in' to a specific event which a user is hosting, using a personalized URL. The service can be configured to automatically send follow-up emails to those who check-in, including links to free or discounted items from the user's Nimbit store. These check-ins also gather data for users about their customers, which they can access in their fan management features.
Fan management
Users can access a detailed list of fans for tracking and data mining purposes, including their contact information, spending habits, and event check-ins via the FanCheck.in service. Options are provided for filtering and grouping fans, and saving custom searches for later re-use.
Physical products
Nimbit provides services for CD and DVD replication, and for short-run CD-R and DVD-R duplication. The service includes packaging (including options for jewel cases, digipacks, and other packaging types), artwork (including inserts of various page counts), UPC generation (or use of an existing UPC, if available), electronic PDF graphic proof, assembly, and wrapping.
The same service channel also provides printing options for posters and other promotional materials.
E-tickets
In addition to music and merchandise, users can also sell e-tickets to events from the Nimbit virtual storefront. Tickets can be added to the storefront once the corresponding event has been added to the user's event calendar.
Account options
Nimbit offers two account options: a free Nimbit account (formerly known as NimbitFree) and Nimbit Premium (formerly known as NimbitPlus). Nimbit Premium is a subscription plan which offers extended capabilities compared to the free account model, such as the following:
Email marketing functionality
HD audio options
Reduced sales commission fee
The ability to sell physical CDs and merchandise
Additional store customization options
FanCheck.in services
The ability to manage multiple artists from a single account
The ability to set automatic royalty splits
Creation of UPCs for products
Submission of sales tracking data to Nielsen Soundscan
Many of the additional features from Nimbit Premium can also be added onto a regular Nimbit account via separate monthly costs.
Partnerships
ASCAP and Nimbit have partnered since 2004 to offer "ASCAP Web Tools" for ASCAP members.
PledgeMusic and Nimbit partnered in October 2011 to create "PledgeStore", so that users can have a Nimbit virtual store appear on their PledgeMusic page once their pledge goal has been met, providing ways for customers to continue contributing to the campaign and access additional content. This included functionality for users to sign up for the service directly from their PledgeMusic dashboard.
Jango and Nimbit partnered in June 2012 to offer the "Nimbit Store for Jango", allowing users to have a Nimbit store page visible on their Jango profile, and providing the functionality for them to sign up for the service from directly within Jango.
References
^ "Business Matters: PreSonus Acquires Nimbit, Ushers in New Era in Direct-to-Fan Sales". Billboard. Retrieved 2018-03-21.
^ "New Music Strategies: Nimbit". newmusicstrategies.com. Retrieved 2018-03-21.
^ "Nimbit: Commerce & Data Capture". hypebot. 25 July 2008. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ a b c "Who Uses Nimbit? - Nimbit - Promote yourself". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ https://nimbit.zendesk.com/hc/en-us/articles/360049392131-Nimbit-Discontinuation-FAQ
^ "About Us - Nimbit - Promote yourself". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ "Nimbit Inc.: Private Company Information - Bloomberg". www.bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2018-03-21.
^ a b "Nimbit, ASCAP Enhance Member Services". Billboard. Retrieved 2018-03-21.
^ a b "ASCAP PARTNERS WITH NIMBIT TO OFFER PROFESSIONAL ONLINE SERVICES TO BENEFIT MEMBERS". www.ascap.com. Retrieved 2018-03-21.
^ "nimbit Extends Music Commerce Platform to Facebook.com Network". Marketwired. Retrieved 2018-03-27.
^ "Nimbit Integrates Redemption Card Program With Storefront Network on MySpace, Facebook, and Artist Websites". Marketwired. Retrieved 2018-03-27.
^ "Xconomy: Nimbit's MyStore Lets Bands Tap the Power of Facebook to Promote Music and Merchandise". Xconomy. 2009-09-16. Retrieved 2018-03-21.
^ "Nimbit Names New CEO As Competition Heats Up". hypebot. 13 April 2010. Retrieved 2018-03-21.
^ "Nimbit Adds Facebook Promo Tool, Spotlight Store". hypebot. 19 March 2012. Retrieved 2018-03-21.
^ "Business Matters: PreSonus Acquires Nimbit, Ushers in New Era in Direct-to-Fan Sales". Billboard. Retrieved 2018-03-21.
^ a b "Nimbit Extends Direct-To-Fan Sales and Promotion Platform | Press Releases | PreSonus". PreSonus. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ a b c "Nimbit Unveils First Roundtrip Promotion Tool for Musicians on Facebook and Twitter | Press Releases | PreSonus". PreSonus. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ "5 new features you should know about- Nimbit - Promote yourself". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ a b "PreSonus Unveils the All-New Nimbit | Press Releases | PreSonus". PreSonus. Retrieved 2018-03-21.
^ "Introducing the New and Improved Nimbit Store - Nimbit - Promote yourself". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ "Introducing Plugins - Nimbit - Promote yourself". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ "Your Nimbit store just went HD - Nimbit - Promote yourself". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ "Managing your products just got easier - Nimbit - Promote yourself". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ https://nimbit.zendesk.com/hc/en-us/articles/360049392131-Nimbit-Discontinuation-FAQ
^ a b c d e f "Features - Nimbit - Promote yourself". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ a b c "NimbitPlus Delivers Extended Sales and Promotion Tools for Musicians - PreSonus Blog". PreSonus Blog. 2012-07-13. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ a b "PledgeMusic Partners With Nimbit To Launch PledgeStore". hypebot. 20 October 2011. Retrieved 2018-03-21.
^ "Partner Ecosystem: Nimbit - FanBridge Blog". Fan Growth and Relationship Management | FanBridge Blog. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ a b "Support - Nimbit - Promote yourself". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-27.
^ "Nimbit Adds Facebook Promo Tool, Spotlight Store". hypebot. 19 March 2012. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ "Learn How to Fundraise Your Next Project with Nimbit - Nimbit - Promote yourself". nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-27.
^ "Introducing FanCheck.in - Nimbit - Promote yourself". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ "Introducing the Fan List - Nimbit - Promote yourself". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ a b "CD Duplication | CD Replication | CD Copies | Disc Production Services". nimbit.discproductionservices.com. Retrieved 2018-03-21.
^ "Get an Instant Quote | Disc Production Services". nimbit.discproductionservices.com. Retrieved 2018-03-27.
^ "Introducing the Nimbit Calendar - Nimbit - Promote yourself". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-27.
|
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In 2004, they partnered with ASCAP to provide members with access to this package.[8][9]In 2007, Nimbit launched nimbitOMT (\"Online Merch Table\"), a system for selling MP3s, CDs, e-tickets and other merchandise across social networking websites, blogs and other websites.[10] In 2008, this was followed by nimbitSkin, a customizable music storefront allowing the sale of products from any website.[8] Also in 2008, the company introduced nimbitCards: physical cards which can be distributed to customers, who then use them for later redemption of items in the corresponding Nimbit store.[11]In September 2009, Nimbit released \"MyStore\" for Facebook, which integrated the previous promotion & sales features directly within a user's Facebook profile.[12]In April 2010 Nimbit announced that they were bringing on Bob Cramer as their CEO.[13]Nimbit's \"Spotlight Store\" for Facebook was released in March 2012, providing an expanded version of the original Nimbit \"MyStore\", optimized for Facebook's new timeline view.[14]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PreSonus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PreSonus"},{"link_name":"music production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_music"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-17"},{"link_name":"email marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_marketing"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"HD audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-resolution_audio"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"PreSonus ownership","text":"In July 2012 Nimbit announced it had been acquired by PreSonus, the manufacturer of music production software and hardware, for an undisclosed sum.[15]PreSonus expanded Nimbit functionality the following year by adding localisation options for language and currency in the virtual storefronts,[16] and automatic customer follow-up from promotions.[17]In January 2014, several new features were added to the service, including custom fan lists, a new event check-in service, a new email marketing tool, and additions to the event management tool.[18] Shortly afterwards, in June 2014, PreSonus announced a redesigned version of Nimbit, with new functionality.[19] Further expansions made in 2014 included a re-designed store page,[20] plugins for embedding Nimbit features into external websites,[21] support for HD audio,[22] and a re-designed product management page.[23]Nimbit was shut down on December 9, 2020.[24]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-25"}],"sub_title":"User profiles","text":"Nimbit users are provided with an online interface to create a profile for themselves, including any promotional photos or videos, and a calendar of their public events. In addition, the profile provides access to the corresponding store for their music and merchandise.[25]","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-25"},{"link_name":"social networking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_networking_service"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"Jango","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jango_(website)"},{"link_name":"PledgeMusic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PledgeMusic"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-4"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:8-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-25"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-16"},{"link_name":"PayPal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PayPal"},{"link_name":"PayPal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PayPal"},{"link_name":"PayPal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PayPal"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-29"},{"link_name":"PayPal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PayPal"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-29"},{"link_name":"UPCs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Product_Code"},{"link_name":"Nielsen SoundScan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nielsen_SoundScan"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-4"}],"sub_title":"Sales and tips","text":"Nimbit provides virtual storefronts, which users can leverage for selling directly to fans.[25] These storefronts can be embedded onto external websites. In addition, Nimbit provides means for including connections to these storefronts within other social networking websites, such as Facebook, Jango, PledgeMusic, and Fanbridge.[4][26][27][28]Users can sell both digital and physical products from these virtual storefronts, and customers can also provide additional money to them in the form of \"tip jar\" contributions.[25]Since June 2013, storefronts can be displayed in English, French, German, or Spanish, and allow users to sell in their local currency.[16] Nimbit storefronts utilize PayPal, allowing them to accept purchases via PayPal or credit card, in any of PayPal's supported currencies.[29]Nimbit users have the option to define split payments, whereby an existing PayPal account can be set to automatically receive a custom percentage of profits from the storefront.[29]Users also have the ability to create UPCs for the products on sale and submit the resulting sales to Nielsen SoundScan for tracking.[4]","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"Twitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter"},{"link_name":"Email","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-17"}],"sub_title":"Marketing and promotion","text":"Nimbit's \"Promotion Tool\" provides the means for users to share details of specific promotions via Facebook, Twitter, Email, and embedded components on other websites. The tool includes options for embedded video, embedded audio and links to free or discounted content on the user's virtual storefront.[30][17]In September 2012, the tool's functionality was expanded to include an automatic follow-up, which would encourage customers who accessed the original promotion to make another purchase.[17]","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"presale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presales"}],"sub_title":"Fundraising","text":"Nimbit also includes the functionality for users to conduct a fundraising campaign via the following options:[31]A presale item in the virtual storefront\nOptional customer contributions for a free item in the virtual storefront\nPhysical merchandise items in the virtual storefront, each associated to different levels of campaign contribution","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"URL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/URL"},{"link_name":"fan management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Fan_Management"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"FanCheck.in","text":"Introduced in 2014, FanCheck.in is an online service which allows fans to 'check-in' to a specific event which a user is hosting, using a personalized URL. The service can be configured to automatically send follow-up emails to those who check-in, including links to free or discounted items from the user's Nimbit store. These check-ins also gather data for users about their customers, which they can access in their fan management features.[32]","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FanCheck.in","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#FanCheck.in"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"Fan management","text":"Users can access a detailed list of fans for tracking and data mining purposes, including their contact information, spending habits, and event check-ins via the FanCheck.in service. Options are provided for filtering and grouping fans, and saving custom searches for later re-use.[33]","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc"},{"link_name":"DVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD"},{"link_name":"replication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_(optical_media)"},{"link_name":"short-run","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-run"},{"link_name":"CD-R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-R"},{"link_name":"DVD-R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD_recordable"},{"link_name":"jewel cases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc_packaging#Jewel_case"},{"link_name":"digipacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digipak"},{"link_name":"UPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Product_Code"},{"link_name":"UPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Product_Code"},{"link_name":"PDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDF"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-34"}],"sub_title":"Physical products","text":"Nimbit provides services for CD and DVD replication, and for short-run CD-R and DVD-R duplication. The service includes packaging (including options for jewel cases, digipacks, and other packaging types), artwork (including inserts of various page counts), UPC generation (or use of an existing UPC, if available), electronic PDF graphic proof, assembly, and wrapping.[34][35]The same service channel also provides printing options for posters and other promotional materials.[34]","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"e-tickets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_ticket"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-25"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"E-tickets","text":"In addition to music and merchandise, users can also sell e-tickets to events from the Nimbit virtual storefront.[25] Tickets can be added to the storefront once the corresponding event has been added to the user's event calendar.[36]","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-19"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-26"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-25"},{"link_name":"HD audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-resolution_audio"},{"link_name":"CDs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc"},{"link_name":"FanCheck.in","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#FanCheck.in"},{"link_name":"UPCs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Product_Code"},{"link_name":"Nielsen Soundscan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nielsen_SoundScan"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-25"}],"text":"Nimbit offers two account options: a free Nimbit account (formerly known as NimbitFree) and Nimbit Premium (formerly known as NimbitPlus).[19][26] Nimbit Premium is a subscription plan which offers extended capabilities compared to the free account model, such as the following:[25]Email marketing functionality\nHD audio options\nReduced sales commission fee\nThe ability to sell physical CDs and merchandise\nAdditional store customization options\nFanCheck.in services\nThe ability to manage multiple artists from a single account\nThe ability to set automatic royalty splits\nCreation of UPCs for products\nSubmission of sales tracking data to Nielsen SoundscanMany of the additional features from Nimbit Premium can also be added onto a regular Nimbit account via separate monthly costs.[25]","title":"Account options"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ASCAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCAP"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-9"},{"link_name":"PledgeMusic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PledgeMusic"},{"link_name":"PledgeMusic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PledgeMusic"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:8-27"},{"link_name":"Jango","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jango_(website)"},{"link_name":"Jango","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jango_(website)"},{"link_name":"Jango","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jango_(website)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-26"}],"text":"ASCAP and Nimbit have partnered since 2004 to offer \"ASCAP Web Tools\" for ASCAP members.[9]PledgeMusic and Nimbit partnered in October 2011 to create \"PledgeStore\", so that users can have a Nimbit virtual store appear on their PledgeMusic page once their pledge goal has been met, providing ways for customers to continue contributing to the campaign and access additional content. This included functionality for users to sign up for the service directly from their PledgeMusic dashboard.[27]Jango and Nimbit partnered in June 2012 to offer the \"Nimbit Store for Jango\", allowing users to have a Nimbit store page visible on their Jango profile, and providing the functionality for them to sign up for the service from directly within Jango.[26]","title":"Partnerships"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Business Matters: PreSonus Acquires Nimbit, Ushers in New Era in Direct-to-Fan Sales\". Billboard. Retrieved 2018-03-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/1084660/business-matters-presonus-acquires-nimbit-ushers-in-new-era-in-direct-to","url_text":"\"Business Matters: PreSonus Acquires Nimbit, Ushers in New Era in Direct-to-Fan Sales\""}]},{"reference":"\"New Music Strategies: Nimbit\". newmusicstrategies.com. Retrieved 2018-03-21.","urls":[{"url":"http://newmusicstrategies.com/2007/07/12/nimbit/","url_text":"\"New Music Strategies: Nimbit\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nimbit: Commerce & Data Capture\". hypebot. 25 July 2008. Retrieved 2018-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hypebot.com/hypebot/2008/07/nimbit-commerce.html","url_text":"\"Nimbit: Commerce & Data Capture\""}]},{"reference":"\"Who Uses Nimbit? - Nimbit - Promote yourself\". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nimbit.com/who","url_text":"\"Who Uses Nimbit? - Nimbit - Promote yourself\""}]},{"reference":"\"About Us - Nimbit - Promote yourself\". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nimbit.com/about","url_text":"\"About Us - Nimbit - Promote yourself\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nimbit Inc.: Private Company Information - Bloomberg\". www.bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2018-03-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=28545621","url_text":"\"Nimbit Inc.: Private Company Information - Bloomberg\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nimbit, ASCAP Enhance Member Services\". Billboard. Retrieved 2018-03-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/publishing/1307487/nimbit-ascap-enhance-member-services","url_text":"\"Nimbit, ASCAP Enhance Member Services\""}]},{"reference":"\"ASCAP PARTNERS WITH NIMBIT TO OFFER PROFESSIONAL ONLINE SERVICES TO BENEFIT MEMBERS\". www.ascap.com. Retrieved 2018-03-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ascap.com/Press/2004/nimbet_022604.aspx","url_text":"\"ASCAP PARTNERS WITH NIMBIT TO OFFER PROFESSIONAL ONLINE SERVICES TO BENEFIT MEMBERS\""}]},{"reference":"\"nimbit Extends Music Commerce Platform to Facebook.com Network\". Marketwired. Retrieved 2018-03-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/nimbit-extends-music-commerce-platform-to-facebookcom-network-777414.htm","url_text":"\"nimbit Extends Music Commerce Platform to Facebook.com Network\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nimbit Integrates Redemption Card Program With Storefront Network on MySpace, Facebook, and Artist Websites\". Marketwired. Retrieved 2018-03-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/nimbit-integrates-redemption-card-program-with-storefront-network-on-myspace-facebook-907331.htm","url_text":"\"Nimbit Integrates Redemption Card Program With Storefront Network on MySpace, Facebook, and Artist Websites\""}]},{"reference":"\"Xconomy: Nimbit's MyStore Lets Bands Tap the Power of Facebook to Promote Music and Merchandise\". Xconomy. 2009-09-16. Retrieved 2018-03-21.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.xconomy.com/boston/2009/09/16/nimbits-mystore-lets-bands-tap-the-power-of-facebook-to-promote-music-and-merchandise","url_text":"\"Xconomy: Nimbit's MyStore Lets Bands Tap the Power of Facebook to Promote Music and Merchandise\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nimbit Names New CEO As Competition Heats Up\". hypebot. 13 April 2010. 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Retrieved 2018-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nimbit.com/news/newfeatures","url_text":"\"5 new features you should know about- Nimbit - Promote yourself\""}]},{"reference":"\"PreSonus Unveils the All-New Nimbit | Press Releases | PreSonus\". PreSonus. Retrieved 2018-03-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.presonus.com/press/press-releases/New-Nimbit","url_text":"\"PreSonus Unveils the All-New Nimbit | Press Releases | PreSonus\""}]},{"reference":"\"Introducing the New and Improved Nimbit Store - Nimbit - Promote yourself\". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nimbit.com/news/introducingstore","url_text":"\"Introducing the New and Improved Nimbit Store - Nimbit - Promote yourself\""}]},{"reference":"\"Introducing Plugins - Nimbit - Promote yourself\". www.nimbit.com. 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PreSonus Blog. 2012-07-13. Retrieved 2018-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://blog.presonus.com/index.php/2012/07/13/nimbitplus-delivers-extended-sales-and-promotion-tools-for-musicians/","url_text":"\"NimbitPlus Delivers Extended Sales and Promotion Tools for Musicians - PreSonus Blog\""}]},{"reference":"\"PledgeMusic Partners With Nimbit To Launch PledgeStore\". hypebot. 20 October 2011. Retrieved 2018-03-21.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hypebot.com/hypebot/2011/10/pledgemusic-partners-with-nimbit-to-launch-pedgestore.html","url_text":"\"PledgeMusic Partners With Nimbit To Launch PledgeStore\""}]},{"reference":"\"Partner Ecosystem: Nimbit - FanBridge Blog\". Fan Growth and Relationship Management | FanBridge Blog. Retrieved 2018-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fanbridge.com/blog/partner-ecosystem-nimbit#.WrlZry7waHs","url_text":"\"Partner Ecosystem: Nimbit - FanBridge Blog\""}]},{"reference":"\"Support - Nimbit - Promote yourself\". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nimbit.com/support","url_text":"\"Support - Nimbit - Promote yourself\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nimbit Adds Facebook Promo Tool, Spotlight Store\". hypebot. 19 March 2012. Retrieved 2018-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hypebot.com/hypebot/2012/03/nimbit-revamps-platform-with-new-facebook-promo-tool-and-spotlight-store.html","url_text":"\"Nimbit Adds Facebook Promo Tool, Spotlight Store\""}]},{"reference":"\"Learn How to Fundraise Your Next Project with Nimbit - Nimbit - Promote yourself\". nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://nimbit.com/news/fundraisewithnimbit","url_text":"\"Learn How to Fundraise Your Next Project with Nimbit - Nimbit - Promote yourself\""}]},{"reference":"\"Introducing FanCheck.in - Nimbit - Promote yourself\". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nimbit.com/news/introducingfancheckin","url_text":"\"Introducing FanCheck.in - Nimbit - Promote yourself\""}]},{"reference":"\"Introducing the Fan List - Nimbit - Promote yourself\". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nimbit.com/news/introducingfanlist","url_text":"\"Introducing the Fan List - Nimbit - Promote yourself\""}]},{"reference":"\"CD Duplication | CD Replication | CD Copies | Disc Production Services\". nimbit.discproductionservices.com. Retrieved 2018-03-21.","urls":[{"url":"http://nimbit.discproductionservices.com/Quoter/index.aspx","url_text":"\"CD Duplication | CD Replication | CD Copies | Disc Production Services\""}]},{"reference":"\"Get an Instant Quote | Disc Production Services\". nimbit.discproductionservices.com. Retrieved 2018-03-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://nimbit.discproductionservices.com/Quoter","url_text":"\"Get an Instant Quote | Disc Production Services\""}]},{"reference":"\"Introducing the Nimbit Calendar - Nimbit - Promote yourself\". www.nimbit.com. Retrieved 2018-03-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nimbit.com/helpfularticles/introducingcalendar","url_text":"\"Introducing the Nimbit Calendar - Nimbit - Promote yourself\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_programming_language
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Synchronous programming language
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["1 Synchronous languages","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
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A synchronous programming language is a computer programming language optimized for programming reactive systems.
Computer systems can be sorted in three main classes:
Transformational systems take some inputs, process them, deliver their outputs, and terminate their execution. A typical example is a compiler.
Interactive systems interact continuously with their environment, at their own speed. A typical example is the web.
Reactive systems interact continuously with their environment, at a speed imposed by the environment. A typical example is the automatic flight control system of modern airplanes. Reactive systems must therefore react to stimuli from the environment within strict time bounds. For this reason they are often also called real-time systems, and are found often in embedded systems.
Synchronous programming, also called synchronous reactive programming (SRP), is a computer programming paradigm supported by synchronous programming languages. The principle of SRP is to make the same abstraction for programming languages as the synchronous abstraction in digital circuits. Synchronous circuits are indeed designed at a high-level of abstraction where the timing characteristics of the electronic transistors are neglected. Each gate of the circuit (or, and, ...) is therefore assumed to compute its result instantaneously, each wire is assumed to transmit its signal instantaneously. A synchronous circuit is clocked and at each tick of its clock, it computes instantaneously its output values and the new values of its memory cells (latches) from its input values and the current values of its memory cells. In other words, the circuit behaves as if the electrons were flowing infinitely fast. The first synchronous programming languages were invented in France in the 1980s: Esterel, Lustre, and SIGNAL. Since then, many other synchronous languages have emerged.
The synchronous abstraction makes reasoning about time in a synchronous program a lot easier, thanks to the notion of logical ticks: a synchronous program reacts to its environment in a sequence of ticks, and computations within a tick are assumed to be instantaneous, i.e., as if the processor executing them were infinitely fast. The statement "a||b" is therefore abstracted as the package "ab" where "a" and "b" are simultaneous. To take a concrete example, the Esterel statement "'every 60 second emit minute" specifies that the signal "minute" is exactly synchronous with the 60-th occurrence of the signal "second". At a more fundamental level, the synchronous abstraction eliminates the non-determinism resulting from the interleaving of concurrent behaviors. This allows deterministic semantics, therefore making synchronous programs amenable to formal analysis, verification and certified code generation, and usable as formal specification formalisms.
In contrast, in the asynchronous model of computation, on a sequential processor, the statement "a||b" can be either implemented as "a;b" or as "b;a". This is known as the interleaving-based non determinism. The drawback with an asynchronous model is that it intrinsically forbids deterministic semantics (e.g., race conditions), which makes formal reasoning such as analysis and verification more complex. Nonetheless, asynchronous formalisms are very useful to model, design and verify distributed systems, because they are intrinsically asynchronous.
Also in contrast are systems with processes that basically interact synchronously. An example would be systems based on the Communicating sequential processes (CSP) model, which allows deterministic (external) and nondeterministic (internal) choice.
Synchronous languages
See also: List of synchronous programming languages
Argos
Atom (a domain-specific language in Haskell for hard realtime embedded programming)
Averest
Blech
ChucK (a synchronous reactive programming language for audio)
Esterel
LabVIEW
LEA
Lustre
PLEXIL
SIGNAL (a dataflow-oriented synchronous language enabling multi-clock specifications)
SOL
SyncCharts
See also
Asynchronous programming
Concurrency (computer science)
References
Nicolas Halbwachs. "Synchronous programming of reactive systems". Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1993. http://www-verimag.imag.fr/~halbwach/newbook.pdf
^ G. Berry and G. Gonthier. The synchronous programming language ESTEREL: Design, semantics, implementation. Science of Computer Programming, 19(2), 1992.
External links
The Synchronous group at Verimag lab.
The SIGNAL programming language.
Unification of Synchronous and Asynchronous Models for Parallel Programming Languages —Proposes parallel languages based on C, lets programmers specify and manage parallelism on a broad range of computer architectures.
vteProgramming paradigms (Comparison by language)ImperativeStructured
Jackson structures
Block-structured
Modular
Non-structured
Procedural
Programming in the large and in the small
Design by contract
Invariant-based
Nested function
Object-oriented(comparison, list)
Agent
Class-based
Prototype-based
Object-based
Immutable object
Persistent
Uniform Function Call Syntax
DeclarativeFunctional(comparison)
Recursive
Anonymous function (Partial application)
Higher-order
Purely functional
Total
Strict
GADTs
Dependent types
Functional logic
Point-free style
Expression-oriented
Applicative, Concatenative
Function-level, Value-level
Dataflow
Flow-based
Reactive (Functional reactive)
Signals
Streams
Synchronous
Logic
Abductive logic
Answer set
Constraint (Constraint logic)
Inductive logic
Nondeterministic
Ontology
Probabilistic logic
Query
DSL
Algebraic modeling
Array
Automata-based (Action)
Command (Spacecraft)
Differentiable
End-user
Grammar-oriented
Interface description
Language-oriented
List comprehension
Low-code
Modeling
Natural language
Non-English-based
Page description
Pipes and filters
Probabilistic
Quantum
Scientific
Scripting
Set-theoretic
Simulation
Stack-based
System
Tactile
Templating
Transformation (Graph rewriting, Production, Pattern)
Visual
Concurrent,distributed,parallel
Actor-based
Automatic mutual exclusion
Choreographic programming
Concurrent logic (Concurrent constraint logic)
Concurrent OO
Macroprogramming
Multitier programming
Organic computing
Parallel programming models
Partitioned global address space
Process-oriented
Relativistic programming
Service-oriented
Structured concurrency
Metaprogramming
Attribute-oriented
Automatic (Inductive)
Dynamic
Extensible
Generic
Homoiconicity
Interactive
Macro (Hygienic)
Metalinguistic abstraction
Multi-stage
Program synthesis (Bayesian, Inferential, by demonstration, by example)
Reflective
Self-modifying code
Symbolic
Template
Separationof concerns
Aspects
Components
Data-driven
Data-oriented
Event-driven
Features
Intentional
Literate
Roles
Subjects
vteTypes of programming languagesLevel
Machine
Assembly
Compiled
Interpreted
Low-level
High-level
Very high-level
Esoteric
Generation
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
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A typical example is a compiler.\nInteractive systems interact continuously with their environment, at their own speed. A typical example is the web.\nReactive systems interact continuously with their environment, at a speed imposed by the environment. A typical example is the automatic flight control system of modern airplanes. Reactive systems must therefore react to stimuli from the environment within strict time bounds. For this reason they are often also called real-time systems, and are found often in embedded systems.Synchronous programming, also called synchronous reactive programming (SRP), is a computer programming paradigm supported by synchronous programming languages. The principle of SRP is to make the same abstraction for programming languages as the synchronous abstraction in digital circuits. Synchronous circuits are indeed designed at a high-level of abstraction where the timing characteristics of the electronic transistors are neglected. Each gate of the circuit (or, and, ...) is therefore assumed to compute its result instantaneously, each wire is assumed to transmit its signal instantaneously. A synchronous circuit is clocked and at each tick of its clock, it computes instantaneously its output values and the new values of its memory cells (latches) from its input values and the current values of its memory cells. In other words, the circuit behaves as if the electrons were flowing infinitely fast. The first synchronous programming languages were invented in France in the 1980s: Esterel, Lustre, and SIGNAL. Since then, many other synchronous languages have emerged.The synchronous abstraction makes reasoning about time in a synchronous program a lot easier, thanks to the notion of logical ticks: a synchronous program reacts to its environment in a sequence of ticks, and computations within a tick are assumed to be instantaneous, i.e., as if the processor executing them were infinitely fast. The statement \"a||b\" is therefore abstracted as the package \"ab\" where \"a\" and \"b\" are simultaneous. To take a concrete example, the Esterel statement \"'every 60 second emit minute\" specifies that the signal \"minute\" is exactly synchronous with the 60-th occurrence of the signal \"second\". At a more fundamental level, the synchronous abstraction eliminates the non-determinism resulting from the interleaving of concurrent behaviors. This allows deterministic semantics, therefore making synchronous programs amenable to formal analysis, verification and certified code generation, and usable as formal specification formalisms.In contrast, in the asynchronous model of computation, on a sequential processor, the statement \"a||b\" can be either implemented as \"a;b\" or as \"b;a\". This is known as the interleaving-based non determinism. The drawback with an asynchronous model is that it intrinsically forbids deterministic semantics (e.g., race conditions), which makes formal reasoning such as analysis and verification more complex. Nonetheless, asynchronous formalisms are very useful to model, design and verify distributed systems, because they are intrinsically asynchronous.Also in contrast are systems with processes that basically interact synchronously. An example would be systems based on the Communicating sequential processes (CSP) model, which allows deterministic (external) and nondeterministic (internal) choice.","title":"Synchronous programming language"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of synchronous programming languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_synchronous_programming_languages"},{"link_name":"Argos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argos_(programming_language)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Atom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"domain-specific language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain-specific_language"},{"link_name":"Haskell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haskell_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Averest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averest"},{"link_name":"Blech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blech_(programming_language)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ChucK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChucK"},{"link_name":"Esterel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esterel"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Berry_Gonthier-1"},{"link_name":"LabVIEW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LabVIEW"},{"link_name":"LEA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LEA_(programming_language)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Lustre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lustre_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"PLEXIL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLEXIL"},{"link_name":"SIGNAL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIGNAL_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"SOL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Operations_Language"}],"text":"See also: List of synchronous programming languagesArgos\nAtom (a domain-specific language in Haskell for hard realtime embedded programming)\nAverest\nBlech\nChucK (a synchronous reactive programming language for audio)\nEsterel[1]\nLabVIEW\nLEA\nLustre\nPLEXIL\nSIGNAL (a dataflow-oriented synchronous language enabling multi-clock specifications)\nSOL\nSyncCharts","title":"Synchronous languages"}]
|
[]
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[{"title":"Asynchronous programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_programming"},{"title":"Concurrency (computer science)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrency_(computer_science)"}]
|
[]
|
[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Synchronous+programming+language%22","external_links_name":"\"Synchronous programming language\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Synchronous+programming+language%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Synchronous+programming+language%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Synchronous+programming+language%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Synchronous+programming+language%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Synchronous+programming+language%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Synchronous_programming_language&action=edit","external_links_name":"move details into the article's body"},{"Link":"http://www-verimag.imag.fr/~halbwach/newbook.pdf","external_links_name":"http://www-verimag.imag.fr/~halbwach/newbook.pdf"},{"Link":"http://www-verimag.imag.fr/SYNCHRONE/","external_links_name":"The Synchronous group"},{"Link":"http://www.irisa.fr/espresso/Polychrony/","external_links_name":"The SIGNAL programming language"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050324021405/http://ece.purdue.edu/~hankd/CARP/XPC/paper.html","external_links_name":"Unification of Synchronous and Asynchronous Models for Parallel Programming Languages"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KoalaPad
|
KoalaPad
|
["1 Description","2 KoalaPainter","2.1 Release history","2.2 Reception","2.3 File format","3 KoalaWare","4 References","5 External links"]
|
It has been suggested that this article should be split into a new article titled KoalaPainter. (discuss) (December 2023)
1980s computer graphics tablet
KoalaPadKoalaPadDeveloperKoala Technologies CorporationTypeGraphics tabletRelease date1983Inputdrawing stylus, fingerDimensions6 x 8 x 1 inches
The KoalaPad is a graphics tablet, released in 1983 by US company Koala Technologies Corporation, for the Apple II, TRS-80 Color Computer (as the TRS-80 Touch Pad), Atari 8-bit computers, Commodore 64, and IBM PC compatibles.
Originally designed by Dr. David Thornburg as a low-cost computer drawing tool for schools, the Koala Pad and the bundled drawing program, KoalaPainter, was popular with home users as well. KoalaPainter was called KoalaPaint in some versions for the Apple II, and PC Design for the IBM PC. A program called Graphics Exhibitor was included for creating slideshow presentations from KoalaPainter drawings.
Description
The pad was four inches square (i.e. roughly 10×10 cm) and mounted on a slightly inclined base with the back of the pad higher than the front. At the top, "behind" the pad, were two buttons. The pad hooked into the computer using the analog signals of the joystick ports (the so-called paddle inputs), which meant that it had a low resolution and tended to jostle the cursor if moved during use.
As an alternative to the drawing stylus, the pad could as easily be operated by the user's fingers for tasks that demanded less precision, such as selecting between menu items (thus using the pad as a kind of "indirect touch screen").
The top-mounted buttons tended to be somewhat frustrating to use, as the user had to "reach around" the stylus to push the buttons in order to start or stop drawing. A similar tablet from Atari, the Atari CX77 Touch Tablet, addressed this with a built-in button on the stylus, which some enterprising users adapted for use with their KoalaPad.
KoalaPainter
KoalaPainterC64 KoalaPainter menu screen. The "undo" command was called "Oops" (2nd row, left). The lowermost part of the screen contains the color choice chart (16 pure colors, 16 dithered). Immediately above the color chart is the brush shape bar (8 different shapes).Developer(s)Audio Light (C64) Island Graphics (Apple II, Atari 8-bit)Initial release1983; 41 years ago (1983)Operating systemApple II, TRS-80 Color Computer, Atari 8-bit, Commodore 64, IBM PCTypebitmap graphics editorLicenseProprietary
The pad shipped with a simple bitmap graphics editor developed by Audio Light, Inc called KoalaPainter, PC Design or Micro Illustrator depending on the target machine (see release history). Although bundled with the pad, KoalaPainter could also be operated using an ordinary digital joystick.
One unique feature of the program, for its time, was that it held two pictures in the computer's memory, allowing the user to flip from one to the other—a function commonly used in order to study the differences between an original and a modified picture, and to copy and paste between two different pictures.
Some third-party bitmap editors could also be used with the KoalaPad, such as Broderbund's Dazzle Draw for the Apple II.
Release history
KoalaPainter for Commodore 64 (1983) and Atari 8-bit computers (1983)
PC Design for the IBM PC (1983)
Micro Illustrator for the Apple II (1983), Atari 8-bit computers (1983) and Commodore Plus/4 (1984)
KoalaPainter II for Commodore 64 (1984)
Reception
Ahoy! called KoalaPainter "a very powerful and effective color drawing package", and concluded that it and the KoalaPad were "excellent in ease of use, a fine choice for a beginner as well as young children". BYTE's reviewer stated in December 1984 that he made far fewer errors when using an Apple Mouse with MousePaint than with a KoalaPad and its software. He found that MousePaint was easier to use and more efficient, predicting that the mouse would receive more software support than the pad.
File format
The Commodore 64 version of KoalaPainter used a fairly simple file format corresponding directly to the way bitmapped graphics are handled on the computer: A two-byte load address, followed immediately by 8,000 bytes of raw bitmap data, 1,000 bytes of raw "Video Matrix" data, 1,000 bytes of raw "Color RAM" data, and a one-byte Background Color field.
KoalaWare
Koala Technologies offered more software beyond the bundled KoalaPainter and Graphics Exhibitor for use with the pad. Among these applications, marketed under the moniker KoalaWare (like KoalaPainter itself), was educational software for use with customized keypads and overlays, such as spelling tools, music programs, and mathematics instruction software, as well as software for "translating" graphical designs into LOGO programs.
References
^ Inc, InfoWorld Media Group (October 10, 1983). "InfoWorld". InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. – via Google Books. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
^ "KoalaPad: the mother of them all - Graphics Tablet Anonymous". Graphicstablet.org. Retrieved 8 June 2016.
^ "index". Best-electronics-ca.com. Retrieved 8 June 2016.
^ "All about Commodore 64". Lemon64.com. Retrieved 8 June 2016.
^ "Atari 400 800 XL XE KoalaPainter". Atarimania. Retrieved 2018-12-08.
^ a b InfoWorld 10 Oct 1983, p. 76, at Google Books
^ "Mac GUI :: Koala Micro Illustrator". Macgui.net. Retrieved 8 June 2016.
^ "Atari 400 800 XL XE Micro Illustrator". Atarimania. Retrieved 2018-12-08.
^ "Micro Illustrator - Software Details - Plus/4 World". Plus4world.powweb.com. Retrieved 8 June 2016.
^ Kevelson, Morton (October 1984). "Graphics Programs on the Commodore 64". Ahoy!. p. 37. Retrieved 27 June 2014.
^ Eldred, Eric (December 1984). "Artistic Tools for the Apple II Family". BYTE. pp. A8. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
External links
"Vectronic's Koala Pad". Archived from the original on February 14, 2012. Retrieved November 3, 2005.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) – An Apple II collector's description of the KoalaPad and software, with photos and screenshots
vteRaster graphics editorsFree softwareFree-form drawingSimple
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Corel Painter
Corel Photo-Paint
Dazzle Draw
Deluxe Paint
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Erdas Imagine
GraphicConverter
HDR PhotoStudio
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Kid Pix
KoalaPainter
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Comparison Category
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"graphics tablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_tablet"},{"link_name":"Apple II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_II"},{"link_name":"TRS-80 Color Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRS-80_Color_Computer"},{"link_name":"Atari 8-bit computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_8-bit_computers"},{"link_name":"Commodore 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_64"},{"link_name":"IBM PC compatibles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"drawing program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitmap_graphics_editor"},{"link_name":"slideshow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slideshow"}],"text":"1980s computer graphics tabletThe KoalaPad is a graphics tablet, released in 1983 by US company Koala Technologies Corporation, for the Apple II, TRS-80 Color Computer (as the TRS-80 Touch Pad), Atari 8-bit computers, Commodore 64, and IBM PC compatibles.[1]Originally designed by Dr. David Thornburg as a low-cost computer drawing tool for schools, the Koala Pad and the bundled drawing program, KoalaPainter, was popular with home users as well. KoalaPainter was called KoalaPaint in some versions for the Apple II, and PC Design for the IBM PC. A program called Graphics Exhibitor was included for creating slideshow presentations from KoalaPainter drawings.","title":"KoalaPad"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"joystick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joystick"},{"link_name":"paddle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddle_(game_controller)"},{"link_name":"cursor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursor_(user_interface)"},{"link_name":"menu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menu_(computing)"},{"link_name":"touch screen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touch_screen"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Atari CX77 Touch Tablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_8-bit_computer_peripherals#XL_era_.281982-1984.29"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The pad was four inches square (i.e. roughly 10×10 cm) and mounted on a slightly inclined base with the back of the pad higher than the front. At the top, \"behind\" the pad, were two buttons. The pad hooked into the computer using the analog signals of the joystick ports (the so-called paddle inputs), which meant that it had a low resolution and tended to jostle the cursor if moved during use.As an alternative to the drawing stylus, the pad could as easily be operated by the user's fingers for tasks that demanded less precision, such as selecting between menu items (thus using the pad as a kind of \"indirect touch screen\").[2]The top-mounted buttons tended to be somewhat frustrating to use, as the user had to \"reach around\" the stylus to push the buttons in order to start or stop drawing. A similar tablet from Atari, the Atari CX77 Touch Tablet, addressed this with a built-in button on the stylus,[3] which some enterprising users adapted for use with their KoalaPad.","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bitmap graphics editor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raster_graphics_editor"},{"link_name":"Audio Light, Inc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Audio_Light,_Inc&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"joystick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joystick"},{"link_name":"memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory"},{"link_name":"copy and paste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copy_and_paste"},{"link_name":"Broderbund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broderbund"},{"link_name":"Dazzle Draw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dazzle_Draw"}],"text":"The pad shipped with a simple bitmap graphics editor developed by Audio Light, Inc called KoalaPainter, PC Design or Micro Illustrator depending on the target machine (see release history). Although bundled with the pad, KoalaPainter could also be operated using an ordinary digital joystick.One unique feature of the program, for its time, was that it held two pictures in the computer's memory, allowing the user to flip from one to the other—a function commonly used in order to study the differences between an original and a modified picture, and to copy and paste between two different pictures.Some third-party bitmap editors could also be used with the KoalaPad, such as Broderbund's Dazzle Draw for the Apple II.","title":"KoalaPainter"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-InfoWorld_10_Oct_1983-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-InfoWorld_10_Oct_1983-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Release history","text":"KoalaPainter for Commodore 64 (1983)[4] and Atari 8-bit computers (1983)[5]\nPC Design for the IBM PC (1983) [6]\nMicro Illustrator for the Apple II (1983),[6][7] Atari 8-bit computers (1983)[8] and Commodore Plus/4 (1984)[9]\nKoalaPainter II for Commodore 64 (1984)","title":"KoalaPainter"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ahoy!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahoy!"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kevelson198410-10"},{"link_name":"BYTE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Apple Mouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_pointing_devices"},{"link_name":"MousePaint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MousePaint"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eldred198412-11"}],"sub_title":"Reception","text":"Ahoy! called KoalaPainter \"a very powerful and effective color drawing package\", and concluded that it and the KoalaPad were \"excellent in ease of use, a fine choice for a beginner as well as young children\".[10] BYTE's reviewer stated in December 1984 that he made far fewer errors when using an Apple Mouse with MousePaint than with a KoalaPad and its software. He found that MousePaint was easier to use and more efficient, predicting that the mouse would receive more software support than the pad.[11]","title":"KoalaPainter"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"File format","text":"The Commodore 64 version of KoalaPainter used a fairly simple file format corresponding directly to the way bitmapped graphics are handled on the computer: A two-byte load address, followed immediately by 8,000 bytes of raw bitmap data, 1,000 bytes of raw \"Video Matrix\" data, 1,000 bytes of raw \"Color RAM\" data, and a one-byte Background Color field.","title":"KoalaPainter"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"educational software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_software"},{"link_name":"LOGO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logo_programming_language"}],"text":"Koala Technologies offered more software beyond the bundled KoalaPainter and Graphics Exhibitor for use with the pad. Among these applications, marketed under the moniker KoalaWare (like KoalaPainter itself), was educational software for use with customized keypads and overlays, such as spelling tools, music programs, and mathematics instruction software, as well as software for \"translating\" graphical designs into LOGO programs.","title":"KoalaWare"}]
|
[]
| null |
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St-connectivity
|
st-connectivity
|
["1 Complexity","2 References"]
|
Relevant topics onGraph connectivity
Connectivity
Algebraic connectivity
Cycle rank
Rank (graph theory)
SPQR tree
St-connectivity
K-connectivity certificate
Pixel connectivity
Vertex separator
Strongly connected component
Biconnected graph
Bridge
vte
In computer science, st-connectivity or STCON is a decision problem asking, for vertices s and t in a directed graph, if t is reachable from s.
Formally, the decision problem is given by
PATH = {⟨D, s, t⟩ | D is a directed graph with a path from vertex s to t}.
Complexity
On a sequential computer, st-connectivity can easily be solved in linear time by either depth-first search or breadth-first search. The interest in this problem in computational complexity concerns its complexity with respect to more limited forms of computation. For instance, the complexity class of problems that can be solved by a non-deterministic Turing machine using only a logarithmic amount of memory is called NL. The st-connectivity problem can be shown to be in NL, as a non-deterministic Turing machine can guess the next node of the path, while the only information which has to be stored is the total length of the path and which node is currently under consideration. The algorithm terminates if either the target node t is reached, or the length of the path so far exceeds n, the number of nodes in the graph.
The complement of st-connectivity, known as st-non-connectivity, is also in the class NL, since NL = coNL by the Immerman–Szelepcsényi theorem.
In particular, the problem of st-connectivity is actually NL-complete, that is, every problem in the class NL is reducible to connectivity under a log-space reduction. This remains true for the stronger case of first-order reductions (Immerman 1999, p. 51). The log-space reduction from any language in NL to STCON proceeds as follows: Consider the non-deterministic log-space Turing machine M that accepts a language in NL. Since there is only logarithmic space on the work tape, all possible states of the Turing machine (where a state is the state of the internal finite state machine, the position of the head and the contents of the work tape) are polynomially many. Map all possible states of the deterministic log-space machine to vertices of a graph, and put an edge between u and v if the state v can be reached from u within one step of the non-deterministic machine. Now the problem of whether the machine accepts is the same as the problem of whether there exists a path from the start state to the accepting state.
Savitch's theorem guarantees that the algorithm can be simulated in O(log2 n) deterministic space.
The same problem for undirected graphs is called undirected s-t connectivity and was shown to be in L by Omer Reingold. This research won him the 2005 Grace Murray Hopper Award. Undirected st-connectivity was previously known to be complete for the class SL, so Reingold's work showed that SL is the same class as L. On alternating graphs, the problem is P-complete (Immerman 1999, p. 54).
References
Sipser, Michael (2006), Introduction to the Theory of Computation, Thompson Course Technology, ISBN 0-534-95097-3
Immerman, Neil (1999), Descriptive Complexity, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-98600-6
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Skepticism
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Academic skepticism
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["1 Overview","2 Arcesilaus","3 Carneades","4 Philo of Larissa","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References","8 External links"]
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Skeptical period of ancient Academy
Skeptics in Raphael's School of Athens painting. 1. Pythodorus 2. Arcesilaus of Pitane 3. Carneades of Cyrene 4. Pyrrho of Elis 5. Timon of Phlius 6. Theodorus the Atheist of Cyrene
Academic skepticism refers to the skeptical period of the Academy dating from around 266 BCE, when Arcesilaus became scholarch, until around 90 BCE, when Antiochus of Ascalon rejected skepticism, although individual philosophers, such as Favorinus and his teacher Plutarch, continued to defend skepticism after this date. Unlike the existing school of skepticism, the Pyrrhonists, they maintained that knowledge of things is impossible. Ideas or notions are never true; nevertheless, there are degrees of plausibility, and hence degrees of belief, which allow one to act. The school was characterized by its attacks on the Stoics, particularly their dogma that convincing impressions led to true knowledge. The most important Academics were Arcesilaus, Carneades, and Philo of Larissa. The most extensive ancient source of information about Academic skepticism is Academica, written by the Academic skeptic philosopher Cicero.
Overview
Part of a series onPyrrhonism
Pyrrhonists
Pyrrho
Timon of Phlius
Aenesidemus
Agrippa the Skeptic
Sextus Empiricus
Concepts
Ataraxia
Acatalepsy
Adiaphora
Aporia
Dogma
Epoché
Similar philosophies
Empiric school
Epilogism
Academic skepticism
Modern influence
Münchhausen trilemma
Benson Mates
Robert Fogelin
Philosophy portalvte
Greek philosophical skepticism, as a distinct philosophical movement, began with Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360 – c. 270 BCE), with antecedents in Xenophanes and Democritus. His followers, the Pyrrhonists, pointed out the problem of the criterion: that our theories and our sense impressions are unable to accurately distinguish truth from falsehood; therefore we must suspend judgment (epoche). They were consistent enough to extend their doubt even to their own principle of doubt, making their skepticism universal, thus escaping reproach for basing it upon a fresh dogmatism. Mental imperturbability (ataraxia) was the result to be attained by cultivating such a frame of mind.
Around 266 BCE, Arcesilaus became head of the Platonic Academy. He adopted skepticism as a central tenet of Platonism, making Platonism nearly the same as Pyrrhonism. After Arcesilaus, the Academics diverged from Pyrrhonism. This skeptical period of ancient Platonism, from Arcesilaus to Philo of Larissa, became known as the new Academy, although some ancient authors added further subdivisions, such as a middle Academy. Following the death of the Pyrrhonist Timon of Phlius, the Platonic Academy became the primary advocate of skepticism until the mid-first century BCE. While early Academic skepticism was influenced in part by Pyrrho, it grew more and more dogmatic until Aenesidemus, in the first century BCE, broke with the Academic skeptics and adopted Pyrrhonism, denouncing the Academy as "Stoics fighting against Stoics."
The Academics did not doubt the existence of truth; they just doubted that humans had the capacities for obtaining it. They based this position on Plato's Phaedo, in which Socrates discusses how knowledge is not accessible to mortals.
While the objective of the Pyrrhonists was the attainment of ataraxia, after Arcesilaus the Academics did not hold up ataraxia as the central objective. The Academics focused on criticizing the dogmas of other schools of philosophy, in particular of the dogmatism of the Stoics. They acknowledged some vestiges of a moral law within, at best but a plausible guide, the possession of which, however, formed the real distinction between the sage and the fool. Slight as the difference may appear between the positions of the Academics and the Pyrrhonists, a comparison of their lives leads to the conclusion that a practical philosophical moderation was the characteristic of the Academics whereas the objectives of the Pyrrhonists were more psychological. The second-century Roman historian Aulus Gellius described the distinction between the Academic skeptics and the Pyrrhonists as follows:
"...the Academics apprehend (in some sense) the very fact that nothing can be apprehended, and they determine (in some sense) that nothing can be determined, whereas the Pyrrhonists assert that not even that seems to be true, since nothing seems to be true."
Arcesilaus
Main article: Arcesilaus
Up to Arcesilaus, the Platonic Academy accepted the principle of finding a general unity in all things, by the aid of which a principle of certainty might be found. Arcesilaus, however, broke new ground by attacking the very possibility of certainty and denied the possibility of even the Socratic minimum of certainty: "I cannot know even whether I know or not."
The doctrines of Arcesilaus, which must be gathered from the writings of others, represent an attack on the Stoic phantasia kataleptike (criterion) and are based on the skepticism which was latent in the later writings of Plato. Arcesilaus held that strength of intellectual conviction cannot be regarded as valid, inasmuch as it is characteristic equally of contradictory convictions. The uncertainty of sense data applies equally to the conclusions of reason, and therefore man must be content with probability which is sufficient as a practical guide. "We know nothing, not even our ignorance"; therefore the wise man will be content with an agnostic attitude.
Carneades
Main article: Carneades
Carneades of Cyrene, the most important of the Academic skeptics
The next stage in Academic skepticism was the moderate skepticism of Carneades, which he said owed its existence to his opposition to Chrysippus.
To the Stoic theory of perception, the phantasia kataleptike, by which they expressed a conviction of certainty arising from impressions so strong as to amount to science, he proposed the doctrine of acatalepsia, which denied any necessary correspondence between perceptions and the objects perceived. All our sensations are relative, and acquaint us, not with things as they are, but only with the impressions that things produce upon us. Experience, he said, clearly shows that there is no true impression. There is no notion that may not deceive us; it is impossible to distinguish between false and true impressions; therefore the Stoic phantasia kataleptike must be given up. There is no phantasia kataleptike ("criterion") of truth. Carneades also assailed Stoic theology and physics. In answer to the doctrine of final cause, of design in nature, he pointed to those things which cause destruction and danger to man, to the evil committed by men endowed with reason, to the miserable condition of humanity, and to the misfortunes that assail the good man. There is, he concluded, no evidence for the doctrine of a divine superintending providence. Even if there were orderly connexion of parts in the universe, this may have resulted quite naturally. No proof can be advanced to show that this world is anything but the product of natural forces.
Knowledge being impossible, a wise man should practice epoche (suspension of judgment). He will not even be sure that he can be sure of nothing. He saved himself, however, from absolute skepticism by the doctrine of plausibility, which may serve as a practical guide in life. Ideas or notions are never true, but only plausible; nevertheless, there are degrees of plausibility, and hence degrees of belief, leading to action. According to Carneades, an impression may be plausible in itself; plausible and uncontradicted (not distracted by synchronous sensations, but shown to be in harmony with them) when compared with others; plausible, uncontradicted, and thoroughly investigated and confirmed. In the first degree there is a strong persuasion of the propriety of the impression made; the second and third degrees are produced by comparisons of the impression with others associated with it, and an analysis of itself. Carneades left no written works; his opinions seem to have been systematized by his pupil Clitomachus, whose works, which included one "on suspension of judgment", were made use of by Cicero.
Philo of Larissa
Main article: Philo of Larissa
In Philo of Larissa, we find a tendency not only to reconcile the internal divergences of the Academy itself, but also to connect it with parallel systems of thought. In general, his philosophy was a reaction against the skeptic or agnostic position of the middle and new Academy in favor of the dogmatism of Plato. Philo of Larissa endeavored to show that Carneades was not opposed to Plato, and further that the apparent antagonism between Platonism and Stoicism was because they were arguing from different points of view. From this syncretism emerged the eclectic middle Platonism of Antiochus of Ascalon, the last product of Academic development.
See also
Probabilism
Scientific skepticism
Notes
^ a b c One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Scepticism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 306–309.
^ Sextus Empiricus, "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" I.33.232
^ Sextus Empiricus, "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" I.33.225–231
^ Thorsrud, Harald (2009). Ancient Scepticism. Stocksfield : Acumen. pp. 120–121. ISBN 978-1844654093. OCLC 715184861. Pyrrhonism, in whatever form it might have taken after Timon's death in 230 BCE, was utterly neglected until Aenesidemus brought it back to public attention
^ Thorsrud 2014, p. 45.
^ Thorsrud 2014, pp. 102–103.
^ a b c This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Arcesilaus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
^ Phaedo, 64–67
^ Veres, Máté (2009). "Carlos Lévy, Les Scepticismes; Markus Gabriel, Antike und moderne Skepsis zur Einführung". Rhizai. A Journal for Ancient Philosophy and Science. 6 (1): 107.: 111
^ Gellius, Aulus (2008). Noctes Atticae. Josef Feix (3. Dr ed.). Paderborn: Schöningh. ISBN 978-3140107143. OCLC 635311697.
^ a b c d e f g One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Academy, Greek". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 105–106.
^ Cicero, Acad. i. 12, iv. 24; De Orat. iii. 18; Diogenes Laertius iv. 28; Sextus Empiricus, Adv. Math. vii. 150, Pyrrh. Hyp. i. 233
^ a b One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Arcesilaus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 342.
^ a b c One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Carneades". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 363–364.
^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Clitomachus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 531.
^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Philo of Larissa". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 413.
References
Thorsrud, Harald (2014). Ancient Scepticism. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-49283-2.
External links
Groarke, Leo. "Ancient Skepticism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Harold Thorsrud. "Ancient Greek Skepticism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:School_of_Athens_Skeptics.jpg"},{"link_name":"skeptical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism"},{"link_name":"Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_Academy"},{"link_name":"Arcesilaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcesilaus"},{"link_name":"scholarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholarch"},{"link_name":"Antiochus of Ascalon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon"},{"link_name":"Favorinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Favorinus"},{"link_name":"Plutarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch"},{"link_name":"Pyrrhonists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrrhonism"},{"link_name":"knowledge of things is impossible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acatalepsia"},{"link_name":"Stoics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoics"},{"link_name":"dogma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogma"},{"link_name":"convincing impressions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalepsis"},{"link_name":"knowledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episteme"},{"link_name":"Arcesilaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcesilaus"},{"link_name":"Carneades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carneades"},{"link_name":"Philo of Larissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa"},{"link_name":"Academica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academica_(Cicero)"},{"link_name":"Cicero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero"}],"text":"Skeptics in Raphael's School of Athens painting. 1. Pythodorus 2. Arcesilaus of Pitane 3. Carneades of Cyrene 4. Pyrrho of Elis 5. Timon of Phlius 6. Theodorus the Atheist of CyreneAcademic skepticism refers to the skeptical period of the Academy dating from around 266 BCE, when Arcesilaus became scholarch, until around 90 BCE, when Antiochus of Ascalon rejected skepticism, although individual philosophers, such as Favorinus and his teacher Plutarch, continued to defend skepticism after this date. Unlike the existing school of skepticism, the Pyrrhonists, they maintained that knowledge of things is impossible. Ideas or notions are never true; nevertheless, there are degrees of plausibility, and hence degrees of belief, which allow one to act. The school was characterized by its attacks on the Stoics, particularly their dogma that convincing impressions led to true knowledge. The most important Academics were Arcesilaus, Carneades, and Philo of Larissa. The most extensive ancient source of information about Academic skepticism is Academica, written by the Academic skeptic philosopher Cicero.","title":"Academic skepticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"philosophical skepticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism"},{"link_name":"philosophical movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_movement"},{"link_name":"Pyrrho of Elis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrrho_of_Elis"},{"link_name":"Xenophanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophanes"},{"link_name":"Democritus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democritus"},{"link_name":"Pyrrhonists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrrhonism"},{"link_name":"problem of the criterion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_of_the_criterion"},{"link_name":"suspend judgment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_of_judgment"},{"link_name":"epoche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoche"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Scepticism-1"},{"link_name":"dogmatism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogmatism"},{"link_name":"ataraxia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ataraxia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Scepticism-1"},{"link_name":"Arcesilaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcesilaus"},{"link_name":"Platonic Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_Academy"},{"link_name":"Platonism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonism"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Arcesilaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcesilaus"},{"link_name":"Philo of Larissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa"},{"link_name":"new Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Academy"},{"link_name":"middle Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_Academy#Middle_Academy"},{"link_name":"Timon of Phlius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timon_of_Phlius"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorsrud201445-5"},{"link_name":"Aenesidemus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aenesidemus"},{"link_name":"Stoics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorsrud2014102%E2%80%93103-6"},{"link_name":"truth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith:Arcesilaus-7"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"Phaedo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaedo_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"ataraxia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ataraxia"},{"link_name":"dogmas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogma"},{"link_name":"Stoics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoics"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Scepticism-1"},{"link_name":"sage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith:Arcesilaus-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith:Arcesilaus-7"},{"link_name":"Aulus Gellius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus_Gellius"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Greek philosophical skepticism, as a distinct philosophical movement, began with Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360 – c. 270 BCE), with antecedents in Xenophanes and Democritus. His followers, the Pyrrhonists, pointed out the problem of the criterion: that our theories and our sense impressions are unable to accurately distinguish truth from falsehood; therefore we must suspend judgment (epoche).[1] They were consistent enough to extend their doubt even to their own principle of doubt, making their skepticism universal, thus escaping reproach for basing it upon a fresh dogmatism. Mental imperturbability (ataraxia) was the result to be attained by cultivating such a frame of mind.[1]Around 266 BCE, Arcesilaus became head of the Platonic Academy. He adopted skepticism as a central tenet of Platonism, making Platonism nearly the same as Pyrrhonism.[2] After Arcesilaus, the Academics diverged from Pyrrhonism.[3] This skeptical period of ancient Platonism, from Arcesilaus to Philo of Larissa, became known as the new Academy, although some ancient authors added further subdivisions, such as a middle Academy. Following the death of the Pyrrhonist Timon of Phlius, the Platonic Academy became the primary advocate of skepticism until the mid-first century BCE.[4] While early Academic skepticism was influenced in part by Pyrrho,[5] it grew more and more dogmatic until Aenesidemus, in the first century BCE, broke with the Academic skeptics and adopted Pyrrhonism, denouncing the Academy as \"Stoics fighting against Stoics.\"[6]The Academics did not doubt the existence of truth; they just doubted that humans had the capacities for obtaining it.[7] They based this position on Plato's Phaedo,[8] in which Socrates discusses how knowledge is not accessible to mortals.[9]While the objective of the Pyrrhonists was the attainment of ataraxia, after Arcesilaus the Academics did not hold up ataraxia as the central objective. The Academics focused on criticizing the dogmas of other schools of philosophy, in particular of the dogmatism of the Stoics.[1] They acknowledged some vestiges of a moral law within, at best but a plausible guide, the possession of which, however, formed the real distinction between the sage and the fool.[7] Slight as the difference may appear between the positions of the Academics and the Pyrrhonists, a comparison of their lives leads to the conclusion that a practical philosophical moderation was the characteristic of the Academics[7] whereas the objectives of the Pyrrhonists were more psychological. The second-century Roman historian Aulus Gellius described the distinction between the Academic skeptics and the Pyrrhonists as follows:\"...the Academics apprehend (in some sense) the very fact that nothing can be apprehended, and they determine (in some sense) that nothing can be determined, whereas the Pyrrhonists assert that not even that seems to be true, since nothing seems to be true.\"[10]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arcesilaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcesilaus"},{"link_name":"Platonic Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_Academy"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Academy-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Academy-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"phantasia kataleptike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalepsis"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Arcesilaus-13"},{"link_name":"agnostic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnostic"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Arcesilaus-13"}],"text":"Up to Arcesilaus, the Platonic Academy accepted the principle of finding a general unity in all things, by the aid of which a principle of certainty might be found.[11] Arcesilaus, however, broke new ground by attacking the very possibility of certainty and denied the possibility of even the Socratic minimum of certainty: \"I cannot know even whether I know or not.\"[11]The doctrines of Arcesilaus, which must be gathered from the writings of others,[12] represent an attack on the Stoic phantasia kataleptike (criterion) and are based on the skepticism which was latent in the later writings of Plato.[13] Arcesilaus held that strength of intellectual conviction cannot be regarded as valid, inasmuch as it is characteristic equally of contradictory convictions. The uncertainty of sense data applies equally to the conclusions of reason, and therefore man must be content with probability which is sufficient as a practical guide. \"We know nothing, not even our ignorance\"; therefore the wise man will be content with an agnostic attitude.[13]","title":"Arcesilaus"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Head_Karneades_Glyptothek_Munich.jpg"},{"link_name":"Carneades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carneades"},{"link_name":"Chrysippus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysippus"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Academy-11"},{"link_name":"acatalepsia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acatalepsia"},{"link_name":"perceptions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Academy-11"},{"link_name":"Stoic theology and physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoic_physics"},{"link_name":"evil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil"},{"link_name":"universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Carneades-14"},{"link_name":"epoche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoche"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Carneades-14"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Academy-11"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Carneades-14"},{"link_name":"Clitomachus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitomachus_(philosopher)"},{"link_name":"on suspension of judgment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoche"},{"link_name":"Cicero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Clitomachus-15"}],"text":"Carneades of Cyrene, the most important of the Academic skepticsThe next stage in Academic skepticism was the moderate skepticism of Carneades, which he said owed its existence to his opposition to Chrysippus.[11]To the Stoic theory of perception, the phantasia kataleptike, by which they expressed a conviction of certainty arising from impressions so strong as to amount to science, he proposed the doctrine of acatalepsia, which denied any necessary correspondence between perceptions and the objects perceived.[11] All our sensations are relative, and acquaint us, not with things as they are, but only with the impressions that things produce upon us. Experience, he said, clearly shows that there is no true impression. There is no notion that may not deceive us; it is impossible to distinguish between false and true impressions; therefore the Stoic phantasia kataleptike must be given up. There is no phantasia kataleptike (\"criterion\") of truth. Carneades also assailed Stoic theology and physics. In answer to the doctrine of final cause, of design in nature, he pointed to those things which cause destruction and danger to man, to the evil committed by men endowed with reason, to the miserable condition of humanity, and to the misfortunes that assail the good man. There is, he concluded, no evidence for the doctrine of a divine superintending providence. Even if there were orderly connexion of parts in the universe, this may have resulted quite naturally. No proof can be advanced to show that this world is anything but the product of natural forces.[14]Knowledge being impossible, a wise man should practice epoche (suspension of judgment).[14] He will not even be sure that he can be sure of nothing. He saved himself, however, from absolute skepticism by the doctrine of plausibility, which may serve as a practical guide in life.[11] Ideas or notions are never true, but only plausible; nevertheless, there are degrees of plausibility, and hence degrees of belief, leading to action. According to Carneades, an impression may be plausible in itself; plausible and uncontradicted (not distracted by synchronous sensations, but shown to be in harmony with them) when compared with others; plausible, uncontradicted, and thoroughly investigated and confirmed. In the first degree there is a strong persuasion of the propriety of the impression made; the second and third degrees are produced by comparisons of the impression with others associated with it, and an analysis of itself.[14] Carneades left no written works; his opinions seem to have been systematized by his pupil Clitomachus, whose works, which included one \"on suspension of judgment\", were made use of by Cicero.[15]","title":"Carneades"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Philo of Larissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Academy-11"},{"link_name":"dogmatism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogma"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Philo-16"},{"link_name":"Platonism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonism"},{"link_name":"middle Platonism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Platonism"},{"link_name":"Antiochus of Ascalon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911:Academy-11"}],"text":"In Philo of Larissa, we find a tendency not only to reconcile the internal divergences of the Academy itself, but also to connect it with parallel systems of thought.[11] In general, his philosophy was a reaction against the skeptic or agnostic position of the middle and new Academy in favor of the dogmatism of Plato.[16] Philo of Larissa endeavored to show that Carneades was not opposed to Plato, and further that the apparent antagonism between Platonism and Stoicism was because they were arguing from different points of view. From this syncretism emerged the eclectic middle Platonism of Antiochus of Ascalon, the last product of Academic development.[11]","title":"Philo of Larissa"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Scepticism_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Scepticism_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Scepticism_1-2"},{"link_name":"public domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain"},{"link_name":"Chisholm, Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm"},{"link_name":"Scepticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Scepticism"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Sextus Empiricus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Ancient Scepticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/715184861"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1844654093","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1844654093"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"715184861","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/715184861"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorsrud201445_5-0"},{"link_name":"Thorsrud 2014","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFThorsrud2014"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorsrud2014102%E2%80%93103_6-0"},{"link_name":"Thorsrud 2014","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFThorsrud2014"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Smith:Arcesilaus_7-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Smith:Arcesilaus_7-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Smith:Arcesilaus_7-2"},{"link_name":"public domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain"},{"link_name":"Smith, William","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Smith_(lexicographer)"},{"link_name":"Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_Biography_and_Mythology"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"Phaedo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaedo_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"64–67","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DPhaedo%3Apage%3D64"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"\"Carlos Lévy, Les Scepticismes; Markus Gabriel, Antike und moderne Skepsis zur Einführung\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.academia.edu/1774036"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"Noctes Atticae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/635311697"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3140107143","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3140107143"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"635311697","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/635311697"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Academy_11-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Academy_11-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Academy_11-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Academy_11-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Academy_11-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Academy_11-5"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Academy_11-6"},{"link_name":"public domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain"},{"link_name":"Chisholm, Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm"},{"link_name":"Academy, Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Academy,_Greek"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Arcesilaus_13-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Arcesilaus_13-1"},{"link_name":"public domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain"},{"link_name":"Chisholm, Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm"},{"link_name":"Arcesilaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Arcesilaus"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Carneades_14-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Carneades_14-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Carneades_14-2"},{"link_name":"public domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain"},{"link_name":"Chisholm, Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm"},{"link_name":"Carneades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Carneades"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Clitomachus_15-0"},{"link_name":"public domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain"},{"link_name":"Chisholm, Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm"},{"link_name":"Clitomachus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Clitomachus"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1911:Philo_16-0"},{"link_name":"public domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain"},{"link_name":"Chisholm, Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm"},{"link_name":"Philo of Larissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Philo_of_Larissa"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"}],"text":"^ a b c One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Scepticism\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 306–309.\n\n^ Sextus Empiricus, \"Outlines of Pyrrhonism\" I.33.232\n\n^ Sextus Empiricus, \"Outlines of Pyrrhonism\" I.33.225–231\n\n^ Thorsrud, Harald (2009). Ancient Scepticism. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen. pp. 120–121. ISBN 978-1844654093. OCLC 715184861. Pyrrhonism, in whatever form it might have taken after Timon's death in 230 BCE, was utterly neglected until Aenesidemus brought it back to public attention\n\n^ Thorsrud 2014, p. 45.\n\n^ Thorsrud 2014, pp. 102–103.\n\n^ a b c This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). \"Arcesilaus\". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.\n\n^ Phaedo, 64–67\n\n^ Veres, Máté (2009). \"Carlos Lévy, Les Scepticismes; Markus Gabriel, Antike und moderne Skepsis zur Einführung\". Rhizai. A Journal for Ancient Philosophy and Science. 6 (1): 107.: 111 \n\n^ Gellius, Aulus (2008). Noctes Atticae. Josef Feix (3. Dr ed.). Paderborn: Schöningh. ISBN 978-3140107143. OCLC 635311697.\n\n^ a b c d e f g One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Academy, Greek\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 105–106.\n\n^ Cicero, Acad. i. 12, iv. 24; De Orat. iii. 18; Diogenes Laertius iv. 28; Sextus Empiricus, Adv. Math. vii. 150, Pyrrh. Hyp. i. 233\n\n^ a b One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Arcesilaus\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 342.\n\n^ a b c One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Carneades\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 363–364.\n\n^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Clitomachus\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 531.\n\n^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Philo of Larissa\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 413.","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Skeptics in Raphael's School of Athens painting. 1. Pythodorus 2. Arcesilaus of Pitane 3. Carneades of Cyrene 4. Pyrrho of Elis 5. Timon of Phlius 6. Theodorus the Atheist of Cyrene","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/School_of_Athens_Skeptics.jpg/220px-School_of_Athens_Skeptics.jpg"},{"image_text":"Carneades of Cyrene, the most important of the Academic skeptics","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Head_Karneades_Glyptothek_Munich.jpg/220px-Head_Karneades_Glyptothek_Munich.jpg"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_Ratchet_Algorithm
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Double Ratchet Algorithm
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["1 History","2 Overview","3 Functioning","4 Applications","5 Notes","6 References","7 Literature","8 External links"]
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Cryptographic key management algorithm
"Double ratchet" redirects here. For the hand tool, see Wrench.
In cryptography, the Double Ratchet Algorithm (previously referred to as the Axolotl Ratchet) is a key management algorithm that was developed by Trevor Perrin and Moxie Marlinspike in 2013. It can be used as part of a cryptographic protocol to provide end-to-end encryption for instant messaging. After an initial key exchange it manages the ongoing renewal and maintenance of short-lived session keys. It combines a cryptographic so-called "ratchet" based on the Diffie–Hellman key exchange (DH) and a ratchet based on a key derivation function (KDF), such as a hash function, and is therefore called a double ratchet.
The algorithm provides forward secrecy for messages, and implicit renegotiation of forward keys; properties for which the protocol is named.
History
The Double Ratchet Algorithm was developed by Trevor Perrin and Moxie Marlinspike (Open Whisper Systems) in 2013 and introduced as part of the Signal Protocol in February 2014. The Double Ratchet Algorithm's design is based on the DH ratchet that was introduced by Off-the-Record Messaging (OTR) and combines it with a symmetric-key ratchet modeled after the Silent Circle Instant Messaging Protocol (SCIMP). The ratchet was initially named after the critically endangered aquatic salamander axolotl, which has extraordinary self-healing capabilities. In March 2016, the developers renamed the Axolotl Ratchet as the Double Ratchet Algorithm to better differentiate between the ratchet and the full protocol, because some had used the name Axolotl when referring to the Signal Protocol.
Overview
A mechanical ratchet
The Double Ratchet Algorithm features properties that have been commonly available in end-to-end encryption systems for a long time: encryption of contents on the entire way of transport as well as authentication of the remote peer and protection against manipulation of messages. As a hybrid of DH and KDF ratchets, it combines several desired features of both principles. From OTR messaging it takes the properties of forward secrecy and automatically reestablishing secrecy in case of compromise of a session key, forward secrecy with a compromise of the secret persistent main key, and plausible deniability for the authorship of messages. Additionally, it enables session key renewal without interaction with the remote peer by using secondary KDF ratchets. An additional key-derivation step is taken to enable retaining session keys for out-of-order messages without endangering the following keys.
It is said to detect reordering, deletion, and replay of sent messages, and improve forward secrecy properties against passive eavesdropping in comparison to OTR messaging.
Combined with public key infrastructure for the retention of pregenerated one-time keys (prekeys), it allows for the initialization of messaging sessions without the presence of the remote peer (asynchronous communication). The usage of triple Diffie–Hellman key exchange (3-DH) as initial key exchange method improves the deniability properties. An example of this is the Signal Protocol, which combines the Double Ratchet Algorithm, prekeys, and a 3-DH handshake. The protocol provides confidentiality, integrity, authentication, participant consistency, destination validation, forward secrecy, backward secrecy (aka future secrecy), causality preservation, message unlinkability, message repudiation, participation repudiation, and asynchronicity. It does not provide anonymity preservation, and requires servers for the relaying of messages and storing of public key material.
Functioning
Diagram of the working principle
A client attempts to renew session key material interactively with the remote peer using a Diffie-Hellman (DH) ratchet. If this is impossible, the clients renew the session key independently using a hash ratchet. With every message, a client advances one of two hash ratchets—one for sending and one for receiving. These two hash ratchets get seeded with a common secret from a DH ratchet. At the same time it tries to use every opportunity to provide the remote peer with a new public DH value and advance the DH ratchet whenever a new DH value from the remote peer arrives. As soon as a new common secret is established, a new hash ratchet gets initialized.
As cryptographic primitives, the Double Ratchet Algorithm uses
for the DH ratchet
Elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman (ECDH) with Curve25519,
for message authentication codes (MAC, authentication)
Keyed-hash message authentication code (HMAC) based on SHA-256,
for symmetric encryption
the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), partially in cipher block chaining mode (CBC) with padding as per PKCS #5 and partially in counter mode (CTR) without padding,
for the hash ratchet
HMAC.
Applications
The following is a list of applications that use the Double Ratchet Algorithm or a custom implementation of it:
ChatSecure
Conversations
Cryptocat
Facebook Messenger
G Data Secure Chat
Gajim
GNOME Fractal
Google Allo
Google Messages
Haven
Pond
Element
Signal
Silent Phone
Skype
Viber
WhatsApp
Wire
Notes
^ a b c d Via the OMEMO protocol
^ Only in "secret conversations"
^ a b c d e f g h Via the Signal Protocol
^ a b Via the Matrix protocol
^ Only in "incognito mode"
^ Only in one-to-one RCS chats
^ Via the Zina protocol
^ Only in "private conversations"
^ Viber "uses the same concepts of the "double ratchet" protocol used in Open Whisper Systems Signal application"
^ Via the Proteus protocol
References
^ Perrin, Trevor (30 March 2016). "Compare Revisions". GitHub. Retrieved 9 April 2016.
^ a b c Marlinspike, Moxie (30 March 2016). "Signal on the outside, Signal on the inside". Open Whisper Systems. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
^ Cohn-Gordon, K.; Cremers, C.; Garratt, L. (2016). "On Post-compromise Security". 2016 IEEE 29th Computer Security Foundations Symposium (CSF). pp. 164–178. doi:10.1109/CSF.2016.19. ISBN 978-1-5090-2607-4. S2CID 5703986.
^ Ksenia Ermoshina, Francesca Musiani. "Standardising by running code": the Signal protocol and de facto standardisation in end-to-end encrypted messaging. Internet histories, 2019, pp.1-21.
�10.1080/24701475.2019.1654697�. �halshs-02319701�
^ Cohn-Gordon et al. 2016, p. 1
^ Unger et al. 2015, p. 241
^ a b Unger et al. 2015, p. 239
^ Frosch et al. 2014
^ "Security". Cryptocat. Archived from the original on 7 April 2016. Retrieved 14 July 2016.
^ Greenberg, Andy (4 October 2016). "You Can All Finally Encrypt Facebook Messenger, So Do It". Wired. Condé Nast. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
^ Seals, Tara (17 September 2015). "G DATA Adds Encryption for Secure Mobile Chat". Infosecurity Magazine. Reed Exhibitions Ltd. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
^ "SecureChat". GitHub. G Data. Retrieved 14 July 2016.
^ Greenberg, Andy (18 May 2016). "With Allo and Duo, Google Finally Encrypts Conversations End-to-End". Wired. Condé Nast. Retrieved 14 July 2016.
^ Amadeo, Ron (2021-06-16). "Google enables end-to-end encryption for Android's default SMS/RCS app". Ars Technica. Retrieved 2022-03-03.
^ "Haven Attributions". GitHub. Guardian Project. Retrieved 22 December 2017.
^ Lee, Micah (22 December 2017). "Snowden's New App Uses Your Smartphone To Physically Guard Your Laptop". The Intercept. First Look Media. Retrieved 22 December 2017.
^ Langley, Adam (9 November 2013). "Wire in new ratchet system". GitHub (GitHub contribution). Retrieved 16 January 2016.
^ Butcher, Mike (19 September 2016). "Riot wants to be like Slack, but with the flexibility of an underlying open source platform". TechCrunch. AOL Inc. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ "Silent Circle/libzina". Github. Silent Circle. Retrieved 19 December 2017.
^ Lund, Joshua (11 January 2018). "Signal partners with Microsoft to bring end-to-end encryption to Skype". Open Whisper Systems. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
^ "Viber Encryption Overview" (PDF). Viber. 25 July 2018. Retrieved 26 October 2018.
^ Metz, Cade (5 April 2016). "Forget Apple vs. the FBI: WhatsApp Just Switched on Encryption for a Billion People". Wired. Condé Nast. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
^ "Wire Security Whitepaper" (PDF). Wire Swiss GmbH. 17 August 2018. Retrieved 28 August 2020.
Literature
Cohn-Gordon, Katriel; Cremers, Cas; Dowling, Benjamin; Garratt, Luke; Stebila, Douglas (25 October 2016). "A Formal Security Analysis of the Signal Messaging Protocol" (PDF). Cryptology ePrint Archive. International Association for Cryptologic Research (IACR).
Frosch, Tilman; Mainka, Christian; Bader, Christoph; Bergsma, Florian; Schwenk, Jörg; Holz, Thorsten (2014). "How Secure is TextSecure?" (PDF). Cryptology ePrint Archive. International Association for Cryptologic Research (IACR). Retrieved 16 January 2016.
Unger, Nik; Dechand, Sergej; Bonneau, Joseph; Fahl, Sascha; Perl, Henning; Goldberg, Ian Avrum; Smith, Matthew (2015). SoK: Secure Messaging (PDF). Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. IEEE Computer Society's Technical Committee on Security and Privacy. pp. 232–249. doi:10.1109/SP.2015.22.
External links
Specification by Open Whisper Systems
"Advanced cryptographic ratcheting", abstract description by Moxie Marlinspike
Olm: C++ implementation under the Apache 2.0 license
Vodozemac: Rust implementation of the Olm variation, under the Apache 2.0 license
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wrench","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrench"},{"link_name":"cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Perrin-2016-03-30-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-signal-inside-and-out-2"},{"link_name":"key","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_(cryptography)"},{"link_name":"Trevor Perrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trevor_Perrin&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Moxie Marlinspike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moxie_Marlinspike"},{"link_name":"cryptographic protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_protocol"},{"link_name":"end-to-end encryption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End-to-end_encryption"},{"link_name":"instant messaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_messaging"},{"link_name":"key exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key-agreement_protocol"},{"link_name":"Diffie–Hellman key exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffie%E2%80%93Hellman_key_exchange"},{"link_name":"key derivation function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_derivation_function"},{"link_name":"hash function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash_function"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"\"Double ratchet\" redirects here. For the hand tool, see Wrench.In cryptography, the Double Ratchet Algorithm (previously referred to as the Axolotl Ratchet[1][2]) is a key management algorithm that was developed by Trevor Perrin and Moxie Marlinspike in 2013. It can be used as part of a cryptographic protocol to provide end-to-end encryption for instant messaging. After an initial key exchange it manages the ongoing renewal and maintenance of short-lived session keys. It combines a cryptographic so-called \"ratchet\" based on the Diffie–Hellman key exchange (DH) and a ratchet based on a key derivation function (KDF), such as a hash function, and is therefore called a double ratchet.The algorithm provides forward secrecy for messages, and implicit renegotiation of forward keys; properties for which the protocol is named.[3]","title":"Double Ratchet Algorithm"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Open Whisper Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Whisper_Systems"},{"link_name":"Signal Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_Protocol"},{"link_name":"Off-the-Record Messaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Off-the-Record_Messaging"},{"link_name":"Silent Circle Instant Messaging Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_Circle_Instant_Messaging_Protocol"},{"link_name":"axolotl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axolotl"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-signal-inside-and-out-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cohn-Gordon-2016-p1-5"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-signal-inside-and-out-2"}],"text":"The Double Ratchet Algorithm was developed by Trevor Perrin and Moxie Marlinspike (Open Whisper Systems) in 2013 and introduced as part of the Signal Protocol in February 2014. The Double Ratchet Algorithm's design is based on the DH ratchet that was introduced by Off-the-Record Messaging (OTR) and combines it with a symmetric-key ratchet modeled after the Silent Circle Instant Messaging Protocol (SCIMP). The ratchet was initially named after the critically endangered aquatic salamander axolotl, which has extraordinary self-healing capabilities.[4] In March 2016, the developers renamed the Axolotl Ratchet as the Double Ratchet Algorithm to better differentiate between the ratchet and the full protocol,[2] because some had used the name Axolotl when referring to the Signal Protocol.[5][2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ratchet_example.gif"},{"link_name":"authentication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authentication"},{"link_name":"DH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffie%E2%80%93Hellman_key_exchange"},{"link_name":"KDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_derivation_function"},{"link_name":"OTR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Off-the-Record_Messaging"},{"link_name":"forward secrecy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_secrecy"},{"link_name":"plausible deniability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deniable_encryption"},{"link_name":"by whom?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"public key infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_key_infrastructure"},{"link_name":"asynchronous communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_communication"},{"link_name":"triple Diffie–Hellman key exchange (3-DH)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffie%E2%80%93Hellman_key_exchange#Triple_Diffie-Hellman_(3-DH)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Unger-2015-p241-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Unger-2015-p239-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Unger-2015-p239-7"}],"text":"A mechanical ratchetThe Double Ratchet Algorithm features properties that have been commonly available in end-to-end encryption systems for a long time: encryption of contents on the entire way of transport as well as authentication of the remote peer and protection against manipulation of messages. As a hybrid of DH and KDF ratchets, it combines several desired features of both principles. From OTR messaging it takes the properties of forward secrecy and automatically reestablishing secrecy in case of compromise of a session key, forward secrecy with a compromise of the secret persistent main key, and plausible deniability for the authorship of messages. Additionally, it enables session key renewal without interaction with the remote peer by using secondary KDF ratchets. An additional key-derivation step is taken to enable retaining session keys for out-of-order messages without endangering the following keys.It is said[by whom?] to detect reordering, deletion, and replay of sent messages, and improve forward secrecy properties against passive eavesdropping in comparison to OTR messaging.Combined with public key infrastructure for the retention of pregenerated one-time keys (prekeys), it allows for the initialization of messaging sessions without the presence of the remote peer (asynchronous communication). The usage of triple Diffie–Hellman key exchange (3-DH) as initial key exchange method improves the deniability properties. An example of this is the Signal Protocol, which combines the Double Ratchet Algorithm, prekeys, and a 3-DH handshake.[6] The protocol provides confidentiality, integrity, authentication, participant consistency, destination validation, forward secrecy, backward secrecy (aka future secrecy), causality preservation, message unlinkability, message repudiation, participation repudiation, and asynchronicity.[7] It does not provide anonymity preservation, and requires servers for the relaying of messages and storing of public key material.[7]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Axolotl_ratchet_scheme,_legend.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Axolotl_ratchet_scheme.svg"},{"link_name":"Curve25519","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve25519"},{"link_name":"message authentication codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message_authentication_code"},{"link_name":"Keyed-hash message authentication code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash-based_message_authentication_code"},{"link_name":"SHA-256","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SHA-256"},{"link_name":"Advanced Encryption Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Encryption_Standard"},{"link_name":"mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_cipher_mode_of_operation"},{"link_name":"padding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padding_(cryptography)"},{"link_name":"PKCS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PKCS"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Frosch-2014-8"}],"text":"Diagram of the working principleA client attempts to renew session key material interactively with the remote peer using a Diffie-Hellman (DH) ratchet. If this is impossible, the clients renew the session key independently using a hash ratchet. With every message, a client advances one of two hash ratchets—one for sending and one for receiving. These two hash ratchets get seeded with a common secret from a DH ratchet. At the same time it tries to use every opportunity to provide the remote peer with a new public DH value and advance the DH ratchet whenever a new DH value from the remote peer arrives. As soon as a new common secret is established, a new hash ratchet gets initialized.As cryptographic primitives, the Double Ratchet Algorithm usesfor the DH ratchet\nElliptic curve Diffie-Hellman (ECDH) with Curve25519,\nfor message authentication codes (MAC, authentication)\nKeyed-hash message authentication code (HMAC) based on SHA-256,\nfor symmetric encryption\nthe Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), partially in cipher block chaining mode (CBC) with padding as per PKCS #5 and partially in counter mode (CTR) without padding,\nfor the hash ratchet\nHMAC.[8]","title":"Functioning"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ChatSecure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChatSecure"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OMEMO-9"},{"link_name":"Conversations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversations_(software)"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OMEMO-9"},{"link_name":"Cryptocat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptocat"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OMEMO-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Facebook Messenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_(software)"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SIGNAL-12"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"G Data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_Data_CyberDefense"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SIGNAL-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-G_Data-14"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Gajim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gajim"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OMEMO-9"},{"link_name":"GNOME Fractal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractal_(software)"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Matrix-16"},{"link_name":"Google Allo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Allo"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SIGNAL-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Greenberg-2016-05-18-18"},{"link_name":"Google Messages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Messages"},{"link_name":"[f]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SIGNAL-12"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Haven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haven_(software)"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SIGNAL-12"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pond-23"},{"link_name":"Element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Element_(software)"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Matrix-16"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_(messaging_app)"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SIGNAL-12"},{"link_name":"Silent Phone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_Circle_(software)"},{"link_name":"[g]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zina-25"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-libzina-26"},{"link_name":"Skype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype"},{"link_name":"[h]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SIGNAL-12"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Viber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viber"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"WhatsApp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WhatsApp"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SIGNAL-12"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Metz-2016-04-05-31"},{"link_name":"Wire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire_(software)"},{"link_name":"[j]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Proteus-32"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wire_Security_Whitepaper-33"}],"text":"The following is a list of applications that use the Double Ratchet Algorithm or a custom implementation of it:ChatSecure[a]\nConversations[a]\nCryptocat[a][9]\nFacebook Messenger[b][c][10]\nG Data Secure Chat[c][11][12]\nGajim[a]\nGNOME Fractal[d]\nGoogle Allo[e][c][13]\nGoogle Messages[f][c][14]\nHaven[c][15][16]\nPond[17]\nElement[d][18]\nSignal[c]\nSilent Phone[g][19]\nSkype[h][c][20]\nViber[i][21]\nWhatsApp[c][22]\nWire[j][23]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-OMEMO_9-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-OMEMO_9-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-OMEMO_9-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-OMEMO_9-3"},{"link_name":"OMEMO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OMEMO"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-SIGNAL_12-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-SIGNAL_12-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-SIGNAL_12-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-SIGNAL_12-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-SIGNAL_12-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-SIGNAL_12-5"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-SIGNAL_12-6"},{"link_name":"h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-SIGNAL_12-7"},{"link_name":"Signal Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_Protocol"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Matrix_16-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Matrix_16-1"},{"link_name":"Matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(communication_protocol)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"RCS chats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rich_Communication_Services"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-zina_25-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-27"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-29"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Proteus_32-0"}],"text":"^ a b c d Via the OMEMO protocol\n\n^ Only in \"secret conversations\"\n\n^ a b c d e f g h Via the Signal Protocol\n\n^ a b Via the Matrix protocol\n\n^ Only in \"incognito mode\"\n\n^ Only in one-to-one RCS chats\n\n^ Via the Zina protocol\n\n^ Only in \"private conversations\"\n\n^ Viber \"uses the same concepts of the \"double ratchet\" protocol used in Open Whisper Systems Signal application\"\n\n^ Via the Proteus protocol","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"A Formal Security Analysis of the Signal Messaging Protocol\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//eprint.iacr.org/2016/1013.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"How Secure is TextSecure?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//eprint.iacr.org/2014/904.pdf"},{"link_name":"SoK: Secure Messaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//ieee-security.org/TC/SP2015/papers-archived/6949a232.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/SP.2015.22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FSP.2015.22"}],"text":"Cohn-Gordon, Katriel; Cremers, Cas; Dowling, Benjamin; Garratt, Luke; Stebila, Douglas (25 October 2016). \"A Formal Security Analysis of the Signal Messaging Protocol\" (PDF). Cryptology ePrint Archive. International Association for Cryptologic Research (IACR).\nFrosch, Tilman; Mainka, Christian; Bader, Christoph; Bergsma, Florian; Schwenk, Jörg; Holz, Thorsten (2014). \"How Secure is TextSecure?\" (PDF). Cryptology ePrint Archive. International Association for Cryptologic Research (IACR). Retrieved 16 January 2016.\nUnger, Nik; Dechand, Sergej; Bonneau, Joseph; Fahl, Sascha; Perl, Henning; Goldberg, Ian Avrum; Smith, Matthew (2015). SoK: Secure Messaging (PDF). Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. IEEE Computer Society's Technical Committee on Security and Privacy. pp. 232–249. doi:10.1109/SP.2015.22.","title":"Literature"}]
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[{"image_text":"A mechanical ratchet","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ratchet_example.gif/125px-Ratchet_example.gif"}]
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[{"reference":"Perrin, Trevor (30 March 2016). \"Compare Revisions\". GitHub. Retrieved 9 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/trevp/double_ratchet/wiki/Home/_compare/6fa4a516b01327d736df1f52014d8b561a18189a...ab41721f9ed7ca0bdac3e24ce9fc573750e0614d","url_text":"\"Compare Revisions\""}]},{"reference":"Marlinspike, Moxie (30 March 2016). \"Signal on the outside, Signal on the inside\". Open Whisper Systems. Retrieved 31 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://whispersystems.org/blog/signal-inside-and-out/","url_text":"\"Signal on the outside, Signal on the inside\""}]},{"reference":"Cohn-Gordon, K.; Cremers, C.; Garratt, L. (2016). \"On Post-compromise Security\". 2016 IEEE 29th Computer Security Foundations Symposium (CSF). pp. 164–178. doi:10.1109/CSF.2016.19. ISBN 978-1-5090-2607-4. S2CID 5703986.","urls":[{"url":"https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:241da365-1c73-4b6a-826c-f122c4c1e1b8","url_text":"\"On Post-compromise Security\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FCSF.2016.19","url_text":"10.1109/CSF.2016.19"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5090-2607-4","url_text":"978-1-5090-2607-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5703986","url_text":"5703986"}]},{"reference":"\"Security\". Cryptocat. Archived from the original on 7 April 2016. Retrieved 14 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160407125207/https://crypto.cat/security.html","url_text":"\"Security\""},{"url":"https://crypto.cat/security.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Greenberg, Andy (4 October 2016). \"You Can All Finally Encrypt Facebook Messenger, So Do It\". Wired. Condé Nast. Retrieved 5 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wired.com/2016/10/facebook-completely-encrypted-messenger-update-now/","url_text":"\"You Can All Finally Encrypt Facebook Messenger, So Do It\""}]},{"reference":"Seals, Tara (17 September 2015). \"G DATA Adds Encryption for Secure Mobile Chat\". Infosecurity Magazine. Reed Exhibitions Ltd. Retrieved 16 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/news/g-data-adds-encryption-for-secure/","url_text":"\"G DATA Adds Encryption for Secure Mobile Chat\""}]},{"reference":"\"SecureChat\". GitHub. G Data. Retrieved 14 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/GDATASoftwareAG/SecureChat","url_text":"\"SecureChat\""}]},{"reference":"Greenberg, Andy (18 May 2016). \"With Allo and Duo, Google Finally Encrypts Conversations End-to-End\". Wired. Condé Nast. Retrieved 14 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wired.com/2016/05/allo-duo-google-finally-encrypts-conversations-end-end/","url_text":"\"With Allo and Duo, Google Finally Encrypts Conversations End-to-End\""}]},{"reference":"Amadeo, Ron (2021-06-16). \"Google enables end-to-end encryption for Android's default SMS/RCS app\". Ars Technica. Retrieved 2022-03-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2021/06/google-enables-end-to-end-encryption-for-androids-default-sms-rcs-app/","url_text":"\"Google enables end-to-end encryption for Android's default SMS/RCS app\""}]},{"reference":"\"Haven Attributions\". GitHub. Guardian Project. Retrieved 22 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/guardianproject/haven#attributions","url_text":"\"Haven Attributions\""}]},{"reference":"Lee, Micah (22 December 2017). \"Snowden's New App Uses Your Smartphone To Physically Guard Your Laptop\". The Intercept. First Look Media. Retrieved 22 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://theintercept.com/2017/12/22/snowdens-new-app-uses-your-smartphone-to-physically-guard-your-laptop/","url_text":"\"Snowden's New App Uses Your Smartphone To Physically Guard Your Laptop\""}]},{"reference":"Langley, Adam (9 November 2013). \"Wire in new ratchet system\". GitHub (GitHub contribution). Retrieved 16 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/agl/pond/commit/338395668fbb8a7819c0fccf54dccaa4d7f0ae9e","url_text":"\"Wire in new ratchet system\""}]},{"reference":"Butcher, Mike (19 September 2016). \"Riot wants to be like Slack, but with the flexibility of an underlying open source platform\". TechCrunch. AOL Inc. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2016/09/19/riot-wants-to-be-like-slack-but-with-the-flexibility-of-an-underlying-open-source-platform/","url_text":"\"Riot wants to be like Slack, but with the flexibility of an underlying open source platform\""}]},{"reference":"\"Silent Circle/libzina\". Github. Silent Circle. Retrieved 19 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/SilentCircle/libzina/","url_text":"\"Silent Circle/libzina\""}]},{"reference":"Lund, Joshua (11 January 2018). \"Signal partners with Microsoft to bring end-to-end encryption to Skype\". Open Whisper Systems. Retrieved 11 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://signal.org/blog/skype-partnership/","url_text":"\"Signal partners with Microsoft to bring end-to-end encryption to Skype\""}]},{"reference":"\"Viber Encryption Overview\" (PDF). Viber. 25 July 2018. Retrieved 26 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.viber.com/app/uploads/viber-encryption-overview.pdf","url_text":"\"Viber Encryption Overview\""}]},{"reference":"Metz, Cade (5 April 2016). \"Forget Apple vs. the FBI: WhatsApp Just Switched on Encryption for a Billion People\". Wired. Condé Nast. Retrieved 5 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wired.com/2016/04/forget-apple-vs-fbi-whatsapp-just-switched-encryption-billion-people/","url_text":"\"Forget Apple vs. the FBI: WhatsApp Just Switched on Encryption for a Billion People\""}]},{"reference":"\"Wire Security Whitepaper\" (PDF). Wire Swiss GmbH. 17 August 2018. Retrieved 28 August 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://wire-docs.wire.com/download/Wire+Security+Whitepaper.pdf","url_text":"\"Wire Security Whitepaper\""}]},{"reference":"Cohn-Gordon, Katriel; Cremers, Cas; Dowling, Benjamin; Garratt, Luke; Stebila, Douglas (25 October 2016). \"A Formal Security Analysis of the Signal Messaging Protocol\" (PDF). Cryptology ePrint Archive. International Association for Cryptologic Research (IACR).","urls":[{"url":"https://eprint.iacr.org/2016/1013.pdf","url_text":"\"A Formal Security Analysis of the Signal Messaging Protocol\""}]},{"reference":"Frosch, Tilman; Mainka, Christian; Bader, Christoph; Bergsma, Florian; Schwenk, Jörg; Holz, Thorsten (2014). \"How Secure is TextSecure?\" (PDF). Cryptology ePrint Archive. International Association for Cryptologic Research (IACR). Retrieved 16 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://eprint.iacr.org/2014/904.pdf","url_text":"\"How Secure is TextSecure?\""}]},{"reference":"Unger, Nik; Dechand, Sergej; Bonneau, Joseph; Fahl, Sascha; Perl, Henning; Goldberg, Ian Avrum; Smith, Matthew (2015). SoK: Secure Messaging (PDF). Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. IEEE Computer Society's Technical Committee on Security and Privacy. pp. 232–249. doi:10.1109/SP.2015.22.","urls":[{"url":"http://ieee-security.org/TC/SP2015/papers-archived/6949a232.pdf","url_text":"SoK: Secure Messaging"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FSP.2015.22","url_text":"10.1109/SP.2015.22"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://github.com/trevp/double_ratchet/wiki/Home/_compare/6fa4a516b01327d736df1f52014d8b561a18189a...ab41721f9ed7ca0bdac3e24ce9fc573750e0614d","external_links_name":"\"Compare Revisions\""},{"Link":"https://whispersystems.org/blog/signal-inside-and-out/","external_links_name":"\"Signal on the outside, Signal on the inside\""},{"Link":"https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:241da365-1c73-4b6a-826c-f122c4c1e1b8","external_links_name":"\"On Post-compromise Security\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FCSF.2016.19","external_links_name":"10.1109/CSF.2016.19"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5703986","external_links_name":"5703986"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160407125207/https://crypto.cat/security.html","external_links_name":"\"Security\""},{"Link":"https://crypto.cat/security.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.wired.com/2016/10/facebook-completely-encrypted-messenger-update-now/","external_links_name":"\"You Can All Finally Encrypt Facebook Messenger, So Do It\""},{"Link":"http://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/news/g-data-adds-encryption-for-secure/","external_links_name":"\"G DATA Adds Encryption for Secure Mobile Chat\""},{"Link":"https://github.com/GDATASoftwareAG/SecureChat","external_links_name":"\"SecureChat\""},{"Link":"https://www.wired.com/2016/05/allo-duo-google-finally-encrypts-conversations-end-end/","external_links_name":"\"With Allo and Duo, Google Finally Encrypts Conversations End-to-End\""},{"Link":"https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2021/06/google-enables-end-to-end-encryption-for-androids-default-sms-rcs-app/","external_links_name":"\"Google enables end-to-end encryption for Android's default SMS/RCS app\""},{"Link":"https://github.com/guardianproject/haven#attributions","external_links_name":"\"Haven Attributions\""},{"Link":"https://theintercept.com/2017/12/22/snowdens-new-app-uses-your-smartphone-to-physically-guard-your-laptop/","external_links_name":"\"Snowden's New App Uses Your Smartphone To Physically Guard Your Laptop\""},{"Link":"https://github.com/agl/pond/commit/338395668fbb8a7819c0fccf54dccaa4d7f0ae9e","external_links_name":"\"Wire in new ratchet system\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2016/09/19/riot-wants-to-be-like-slack-but-with-the-flexibility-of-an-underlying-open-source-platform/","external_links_name":"\"Riot wants to be like Slack, but with the flexibility of an underlying open source platform\""},{"Link":"https://github.com/SilentCircle/libzina/","external_links_name":"\"Silent Circle/libzina\""},{"Link":"https://signal.org/blog/skype-partnership/","external_links_name":"\"Signal partners with Microsoft to bring end-to-end encryption to Skype\""},{"Link":"https://www.viber.com/app/uploads/viber-encryption-overview.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Viber Encryption Overview\""},{"Link":"https://www.wired.com/2016/04/forget-apple-vs-fbi-whatsapp-just-switched-encryption-billion-people/","external_links_name":"\"Forget Apple vs. the FBI: WhatsApp Just Switched on Encryption for a Billion People\""},{"Link":"https://wire-docs.wire.com/download/Wire+Security+Whitepaper.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Wire Security Whitepaper\""},{"Link":"https://eprint.iacr.org/2016/1013.pdf","external_links_name":"\"A Formal Security Analysis of the Signal Messaging Protocol\""},{"Link":"https://eprint.iacr.org/2014/904.pdf","external_links_name":"\"How Secure is TextSecure?\""},{"Link":"http://ieee-security.org/TC/SP2015/papers-archived/6949a232.pdf","external_links_name":"SoK: Secure Messaging"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FSP.2015.22","external_links_name":"10.1109/SP.2015.22"},{"Link":"https://signal.org/docs/specifications/doubleratchet/","external_links_name":"Specification"},{"Link":"https://signal.org/blog/advanced-ratcheting/","external_links_name":"Advanced cryptographic ratcheting"},{"Link":"https://git.matrix.org/git/olm/about/docs/olm.rst","external_links_name":"Olm"},{"Link":"https://matrix-org.github.io/vodozemac/vodozemac/index.html","external_links_name":"Vodozemac"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SB-86
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Lifeboat Associates
|
["1 Overview","2 Products","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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Software distributor and magazine publisher in the 1970s and 1980s
Lifeboat AssociatesIndustrySoftwareFounded1976/77HeadquartersNew York CityKey peopleLarry Alkoff, Tony GoldProductsT/Maker, The Boss Financial Accounting System
Lifeboat Associates was a New York City company that was one of the largest microcomputer software distributors in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Lifeboat acted as an independent software broker marketing software to major hardware vendors such as Xerox, HP and Altos. As such Lifeboat Associates was instrumental in the founding of Autodesk and also financed the creation of PC Magazine.
Overview
Lifeboat was founded in 1976 or 1977 by Larry Alkoff and Tony Gold. By mid-1981 the company had same-name affiliates in England, Switzerland, France, Germany, Japan and Oakland, California. PC Magazine in 1982 wrote that Lifeboat "has published and marketed more CP/M application programs on more 8-bit machines than anyone in the world", and in 1983 InfoWorld said that Lifeboat was the largest publisher of microcomputer software in the world.
Lifeboat Associates successfully combined many roles, including publisher and distributor, and actively solicited authors for software products that met its standards.
The company distributed T/Maker (written by Peter Roizen), one of the first spreadsheet programs designed for the personal computer user, which went a step beyond the similar VisiCalc program by offering text-processing capability, and The Boss Financial Accounting System (written by John Burns), a $2495 package for CP/M users. It was one of the first accounting programs for micro-computers. In addition Lifeboat Associates started collecting and distributing user-written "free" software, initially for the CP/M operating system. One of the first was XMODEM, which allowed reliable communication via modem and phone line.
In June 1986, Voyager Software Corp acquired Lifeboat Associates. Later in 1986, Programmer's Paradise was started by Voyager Software as a catalog marketer of technical software. In 1988, Voyager acquired Corsoft Inc., a corporate reseller founded in 1983, and combined it with the operations of the Programmer's Paradise catalog and Lifeboat Associates, both of which marketed technical software for microcomputers. In May 1995, Voyager Software Corp. changed its name to "Programmers Paradise, Inc." and consolidated its U.S. catalog and software publishing operations in a new subsidiary, Programmers Paradise Catalogs, Inc. and its wholesale distribution operations in a new subsidiary, Lifeboat Distribution, Inc. In July 1995, Programmer's Paradise completed an initial public offering of its common stock. Programmer's Paradise, Inc. changed its name to Wayside Technology Group, Inc. in August 2006.
Products
T/Maker (Table Maker) – one of the first spreadsheet programs designed for the personal computer user
The Boss – Financial Accounting System
Software Bus-80, also known as SB-80 – a version of CP/M-80 for 8080/Z80 8-bit computers
Software Bus-86, also known as SB-86 – a version of MS-DOS for x86 16-bit computers
See also
Software Bus
References
^ Walker, John. (February, 1994). "The Autodesk File". Fourmi Lab. Retrieved 2013-08-27
^ a b Programmers Paradise Inc., Form 10-K, for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1996
^ Lifeboat Associates Rescues Alien Hardware, Intelligent Machines Journal, December 11, 1978
^ Lifeboat Launches Offices in CA, Japan, InfoWorld, May 25, 1981
^ "The Microsoft/Lifeboat Battle Cry". PC Magazine. June–July 1982. pp. 159–162. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
^ Does corporate America need CP/M?, InfoWorld, August 15, 1983
^ A New Factor in Software Distribution, Computerworld, Sep 27, 1982
^ As an author this might be your most important line., Lifeboat Associates advertisement, InfoWorld, Feb 1, 1982
^ Lifeboat Distributes T/MAKER, InfoWorld, Nov 10, 1980
^ InfoNews/Software, InfoWorld, Sept 14, 1981
^ Computerize your bookkeeping without terrifying your bookkeeper., Lifeboat Associates advertisement, InfoWorld, Oct 5, 1981
^ "The Birth of PC Software". pc-history.org. 2008. Retrieved 11 September 2011. One company Lifeboat Associates made a big business out of providing application software versions that ran under CP/M in almost any type of 8080 or Z-80 computer.
^ "Programmer's Paradise Form 10-Q First Quarter 1996".
^ "Programmer's Paradise, Inc.: Information from Answers.com". answers.com. 2011. Retrieved 11 September 2011. Programmer's Paradise was incorporated in 1982 as Voyager Software Corporation and started out as a wholesaler and reseller of educational software. Backed by the venture capital firm of Hudson Technologies and other investors, the company expanded in 1986 when it acquired Lifeboat Associates, which had been founded a decade earlier to publish software and act as a wholesale distributor.
^ Wayside Technology Group, Inc., Form 10-K, for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2006
^ Susan Lammers, Programmers at Work, Microsoft Press-1986. p. 198. The Visicalc spreadsheet program was released while T/Maker was still under development.
External links
Official website of Wayside Technology
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As such Lifeboat Associates was instrumental in the founding of Autodesk[1] and also financed the creation of PC Magazine.","title":"Lifeboat Associates"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10-K-1996-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Oakland, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland,_California"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"PC Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Magazine"},{"link_name":"CP/M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP/M"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pc19820607-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"T/Maker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T/Maker"},{"link_name":"Peter Roizen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Roizen"},{"link_name":"VisiCalc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VisiCalc"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"CP/M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP/M"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"XMODEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XMODEM"},{"link_name":"modem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem"},{"link_name":"Lifeboat Distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifeboat_Distribution"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"initial public offering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_public_offering"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10-K-1996-2"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10-K-2006-15"}],"text":"Lifeboat was founded in 1976[2] or 1977 by Larry Alkoff and Tony Gold.[3] By mid-1981 the company had same-name affiliates in England, Switzerland, France, Germany, Japan and Oakland, California.[4] PC Magazine in 1982 wrote that Lifeboat \"has published and marketed more CP/M application programs on more 8-bit machines than anyone in the world\",[5] and in 1983 InfoWorld said that Lifeboat was the largest publisher of microcomputer software in the world.[6]Lifeboat Associates successfully combined many roles, including publisher and distributor, and actively solicited authors for software products that met its standards.[7][8]The company distributed T/Maker (written by Peter Roizen), one of the first spreadsheet programs designed for the personal computer user, which went a step beyond the similar VisiCalc program by offering text-processing capability,[9] and The Boss Financial Accounting System (written by John Burns), a $2495 package for CP/M users. It was one of the first accounting programs for micro-computers.[10][11] In addition Lifeboat Associates started collecting and distributing user-written \"free\" software, initially for the CP/M operating system.[12] One of the first was XMODEM, which allowed reliable communication via modem and phone line.In June 1986, Voyager Software Corp acquired Lifeboat Associates. Later in 1986, Programmer's Paradise was started by Voyager Software as a catalog marketer of technical software. In 1988, Voyager acquired Corsoft Inc., a corporate reseller founded in 1983, and combined it with the operations of the Programmer's Paradise catalog and Lifeboat Associates, both of which marketed technical software for microcomputers. In May 1995, Voyager Software Corp. changed its name to \"Programmers Paradise, Inc.\" and consolidated its U.S. catalog and software publishing operations in a new subsidiary, Programmers Paradise Catalogs, Inc. and its wholesale distribution operations in a new subsidiary, Lifeboat Distribution, Inc.[13] In July 1995, Programmer's Paradise completed an initial public offering of its common stock.[2][14] Programmer's Paradise, Inc. changed its name to Wayside Technology Group, Inc. in August 2006.[15]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"T/Maker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T/Maker"},{"link_name":"spreadsheet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadsheet"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"The Boss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Boss_(software)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"CP/M-80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP/M-80"},{"link_name":"8080","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8080"},{"link_name":"Z80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z80"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"}],"text":"T/Maker (Table Maker) – one of the first spreadsheet programs designed for the personal computer user[16]\nThe Boss – Financial Accounting System\nSoftware Bus-80, also known as SB-80 – a version of CP/M-80 for 8080/Z80 8-bit computers\nSoftware Bus-86, also known as SB-86 – a version of MS-DOS for x86 16-bit computers","title":"Products"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"Software Bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_Bus"}]
|
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|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Sasso_raid
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Gran Sasso raid
|
["1 Background","2 Preparations","2.1 Badoglio government","2.2 Mussolini's imprisonment","2.3 German tracking and planning","3 Raid","4 Aftermath","5 See also","6 Footnotes","7 External links"]
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Coordinates: 42°26′32.73″N 13°33′31.66″E / 42.4424250°N 13.5587944°E / 42.4424250; 13.5587944Rescue of Benito Mussolini by German forces
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Gran Sasso raid" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Gran Sasso raidPart of World War IIMussolini with German commandosTypePrison escape with outside helpLocationHotel Campo Imperatore, Italy42°26′32.73″N 13°33′31.66″E / 42.4424250°N 13.5587944°E / 42.4424250; 13.5587944Planned byHarald MorsTargetCampo ImperatoreDate12 September 1943; 80 years ago (1943-09-12)Executed by2nd Parachute Division502nd SS Jäger BattalionOutcomeBenito Mussolini escaped from prisonCasualties2 Italians killed, 10 Germans wounded
During World War II, the Gran Sasso raid (codenamed Unternehmen Eiche, German pronunciation: ⓘ, literally "Operation Oak", by the German military) on 12 September 1943 was a successful operation by German paratroopers and Waffen-SS commandos to rescue the deposed Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini from custody in the Gran Sasso d'Italia massif. The airborne operation was personally ordered by Adolf Hitler, approved by General Kurt Student and planned and executed by Major Harald Mors.
Background
Further information: Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy and Armistice of Cassibile
On the night between 24 and 25 July 1943, a few weeks after the Allied invasion of Sicily and bombing of Rome, the Grand Council of Fascism voted a motion of no confidence against prime minister Benito Mussolini. On the same day, King Victor Emmanuel III replaced him with Marshal Pietro Badoglio and had Mussolini arrested. This is commonly known as the Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy (or 25 Luglio in Italian); Badoglio's government at first continued the war on the Axis powers' side, but after Italian and German forces were defeated during the Allied invasion of Sicily (17 August), the Italian government began secret negotiations with the Allies to surrender. This resulted in the Armistice of Cassibile on 3 September, coinciding with the Allied invasion of mainland Italy.
Preparations
Badoglio government
The Italian high command, led by Marshal Badoglio, was well aware that the German army would probably try to seize control of Italy as soon as the government switched sides to the Allies. Therefore, the Italian government wanted the Allied troops to have landed on the mainland before the armistice took effect and was announced publicly – which happened on 8 September – so that the Allies could move north quickly to help defend especially the capital city of Rome against the looming German invasion. Indeed, Mussolini's fall prompted German military commanders to develop Operation Achse (the plans, originally codenamed Operation Alarich, were changed several times from 28 July to 30 August) to mitigate the impact of a potential Italian defection as much as possible. The Badoglio government also realised that the Germans were likely to attempt breaking Mussolini out of prison, reinstate him and rally Fascist support to keep Italy in the war on Germany's side, and so strict measures to hide and secure Mussolini were taken: he was moved several times and guarded by almost a battalion of troops.
Mussolini's imprisonment
Hotel Campo Imperatore in 1943
Mussolini was arrested on the king's orders by the Carabinieri on 25 July just after he left the king's private residence, and he was initially brought to the Podgora Carabinieri Headquarters in Trastevere. In the afternoon he was transferred to the Carabinieri Cadet School in the vía Legnano, where he was held until 27 July. On 27 July, military police led by general Francesco Saverio Pólito took Mussolini to Gaeta, boarded the ship Persefone and imprisoned Mussolini in an isolated house on the island of Ponza in the Tyrrhenian Sea from 12:00 on 28 July to 7 August. From 7-27 August, Mussolini was held in a private villa on La Maddalena. From 28 August, he was kept at the Hotel Campo Imperatore, which was built on a remote and defendable mountain plateau 2,112 metres above sea level in the Gran Sasso d'Italia mountain range. A ski station was located next to the hotel, linked with a cable car. The hotel was one of originally three planned hotels (but the only one that was ever built) shaped in the letters 'D', 'V' and 'X', together 'DVX', the Latin word meaning "leader", from which Mussolini's Italian title il Duce was derived. The D-shaped Hotel Campo Imperatore constructed to celebrate Mussolini's rule served as his prison for several weeks.
German tracking and planning
Italian military situation in September 1943
Adolf Hitler's common procedure was to give similar orders to competing German military organisations. He ordered Hauptsturmführer Otto Skorzeny to track Mussolini and simultaneously ordered the paratroop General Kurt Student to execute the liberation. On September 7, German signals intelligence intercepted a coded Italian report which indicated that Mussolini was imprisoned somewhere in the Abruzzi mountains. Next, the Germans employed a ruse to confirm the exact location in which a German doctor pretended to try to establish a hospital at the hotel on the Grand Sasso. Informants of SS-Obersturmbannführer Herbert Kappler used counterfeit notes with a face value of £100,000 forged under Operation Bernhard to help obtain information. Skorzeny used information gathered by agents to plan his raid.
Raid
This Fieseler Fi 156 helped Mussolini escape.
After the Italian government announced the Armistice of Cassibile and thereby its defection from the Axis to the Allies on 8 September, the German army launched Operation Achse and quickly occupied strategic points in northern and central Italy within days, effectively disarming hundreds of thousands of Italian soldiers who had nominally just switched sides. The Allied Italian military and political leaders including Marshal Badoglio and King Victor Emmanuel III fled to Allied-controlled territory in southern Italy.
On 12 September 1943, Skorzeny and 16 SS troopers joined the Fallschirmjäger to rescue Mussolini in a high-risk glider mission. Ten DFS 230 gliders, each carrying nine soldiers and a pilot, towed by Henschel Hs 126 planes started between 13:05 and 13:10 from the Pratica di Mare Air Base, near Rome.
The leader of the airborne operation, Oberleutnant Georg Freiherr von Berlepsch, entered the first glider while Skorzeny and his SS troopers sat in the fourth and the fifth gliders. To gain height before crossing the close by Alban Hills, the leading three glider-towing plane units flew an additional loop. All of the following units considered that manoeuvre to be unnecessary and preferred not to endanger the given time of arrival at the target. That led to both of Skorzeny's units arriving first over the target.
Meanwhile, the valley station of the funicular railway leading to the Campo Imperatore was captured at 14:00 in a ground attack by two paratrooper companies, led by Major Harald Mors, the commander-in-chief of the whole raid, which cut all telephone lines. This ground attack caused the only two deaths of the operation, Italian forestry guard Pasqualino Vitocco, who was killed while attempting to warn the garrison of the approaching German troops, and carabiniere Giovanni Natale, who was killed while preparing to open fire on the attackers. Two more carabinieri were slightly wounded by a hand grenade. At 14:05, the airborne commandos landed their ten DFS 230 gliders on the mountain near the hotel. One crashed and caused injuries.
The Fallschirmjäger and Skorzeny's special troopers overwhelmed Mussolini's captors, 200 well-equipped Carabinieri guards, without a single shot being fired. The Italian General Fernando Soleti had been forced to fly with Skorzeny on the raid, as a hostage; making himself known to the soldiers who guarded the hotel, Soleti ordered them not to shoot. Skorzeny attacked the radio operator and his equipment and stormed into the hotel, followed by his SS troopers and the paratroopers. Ten minutes after the beginning of the raid, Mussolini left the hotel, accompanied by the German soldiers. At 14:45, Mors accessed the hotel via the funicular railway and introduced himself to Mussolini.
Mussolini was then to be flown out by a Fieseler Fi 156 STOL plane that had arrived in the meantime. Although under the given circumstances the small plane was overloaded, Skorzeny insisted on accompanying Mussolini, which endangered the mission's success.
After an extremely dangerous but successful takeoff, they flew to Pratica di Mare. They then immediately continued to fly in a Heinkel He 111 to Vienna, where Mussolini stayed overnight at the Hotel Imperial. The next day he was flown to Munich, and on 14 September, he met Hitler at Führer Headquarters, in Wolf's Lair, near Rastenburg.
Aftermath
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Mussolini leaving the hotel
After hearing of Mussolini's escape, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill stated in the House of Commons: "Knowing that il Duce was hidden in a safe place and that the Government of Badoglio was committed to handing him over to the Allies, a daring attack, completely beyond all foresight, prevented this from happening".
The operation granted a rare public relations opportunity to Hermann Göring late in the war, with German propaganda hailing the operation for months afterward. The landing at Campo Imperatore was in fact led by First Lieutenant von Berlepsch, commanded by Major Mors and under orders from General Student, all of whom were Fallschirmjäger officers, but Skorzeny stewarded the Italian leader right in front of the cameras.
After an SS propaganda coup at the behest of Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler and Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels, Skorzeny and his special forces of the Waffen-SS were granted the majority of the credit for the operation.
Skorzeny received a promotion to Sturmbannführer, the award of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross and the fame that led to his image as the "most dangerous man in Europe".
Skorzeny published an autobiography in 1950 (Geheimkommando Skorzeny) and another book (Meine Kommandounternehmen) in 1976.
Historian Ulrich Trumpener (2015) stated that 'exaggerated credit was later given to a small SS detachment under Otto Skorzeny'. Historian Óscar González López stated that Skorzeny was a 'fake liberator' created by Nazi propaganda, calling the Fallschirmjäger the 'legitimate protagonists' of the Gran Sasso raid.
After the raid, Hitler put Mussolini in charge of a puppet state in German-occupied northern Italy, the Italian Social Republic, which served as a collaborationist regime of the Germans in their fight against the Allies, the Kingdom of Italy, now a co-belligerent of the Allies, and the Italian resistance.
In late April 1945, in the wake of near total defeat, Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci attempted to flee to Switzerland, but both were captured by Italian communist partisans and summarily executed by firing squad on 28 April 1945 near Lake Como.
See also
Operation Achse
Footnotes
^ López 2018, p. 17–19.
^ Whittam, John (2005). Fascist Italy. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-4004-3.
^ Annussek, Greg (2005). Hitler's Raid to Save Mussolini. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81396-2.
^ a b c d Trumpener, Ulrich (2015). "ACHSE (AXIS), Operation (9 September–October 1943)". World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 1351. ISBN 9781135812492. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ a b c d Encarta Winkler Prins Encyclopaedia (1993–2002) s.v. "Badoglio, Pietro; Mussolini, Benito Amilcare Andrea; Wereldoorlog, Tweede §3.5 Geallieerde invasie op Sicilië". Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum.
^ a b c Schuster, Carl O. (2015). "Gran Sasso raid (12 September 1943)". World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 1519. ISBN 9781135812492. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ a b López 2018, p. 17.
^ López 2018, p. 19–20.
^ López 2018, p. 20.
^ López 2018, p. 58.
^ a b c López 2018, p. 23.
^ López 2018, p. 18.
^ a b Óscar González López (2007). Fallschirmjäger at the Gran Sasso. Valladolid: AF Editores. ISBN 978-84-96935-00-6.
^ Pasqualino Vitocco e Giovanni Natale, due militari cancellati dalla storia
^ L'ospite della camera 201
^ Settembre 1943: I giorni della vergogna
^ Erich Kuby: Verrat auf deutsch. Wie das Dritte Reich Italien ruinierte. Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg 1982, ISBN 3-455-08754-X.
^ a b López, Óscar González (2018). Freeing Mussolini: Dismantling the Skorzeny Myth in the Gran Sasso Raid. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Books. ISBN 9781526719997.
^ My Commando Operations (see p. 228-284)
^ Viganò, Marino (2001), "Un'analisi accurata della presunta fuga in Svizzera", Nuova Storia Contemporanea (in Italian), 3
External links
Media related to Gran Sasso raid at Wikimedia Commons
vteBenito MussoliniHead of the Government and Duce of Fascism (1922–1943) Assassination attempts · DeathPolitics
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The airborne operation was personally ordered by Adolf Hitler, approved by General Kurt Student and planned and executed by Major Harald Mors.","title":"Gran Sasso raid"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy"},{"link_name":"Armistice of Cassibile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile"},{"link_name":"Allied invasion of Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily"},{"link_name":"bombing of Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Rome_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Grand Council of Fascism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Council_of_Fascism"},{"link_name":"motion of no confidence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_of_no_confidence"},{"link_name":"Benito Mussolini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini"},{"link_name":"Victor Emmanuel III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III"},{"link_name":"Pietro Badoglio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fital-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prisonrescue-3"},{"link_name":"Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy"},{"link_name":"Badoglio's government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badoglio_I_Cabinet"},{"link_name":"Axis powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_powers"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Trumpener-4"},{"link_name":"Allied invasion of Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily"},{"link_name":"Armistice of Cassibile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile"},{"link_name":"Allied invasion of mainland Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Encarta-5"}],"text":"Further information: Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy and Armistice of CassibileOn the night between 24 and 25 July 1943, a few weeks after the Allied invasion of Sicily and bombing of Rome, the Grand Council of Fascism voted a motion of no confidence against prime minister Benito Mussolini. On the same day, King Victor Emmanuel III replaced him with Marshal Pietro Badoglio[2] and had Mussolini arrested.[3] This is commonly known as the Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy (or 25 Luglio in Italian); Badoglio's government at first continued the war on the Axis powers' side,[4] but after Italian and German forces were defeated during the Allied invasion of Sicily (17 August), the Italian government began secret negotiations with the Allies to surrender. This resulted in the Armistice of Cassibile on 3 September, coinciding with the Allied invasion of mainland Italy.[5]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Preparations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"German army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Army_(1935%E2%80%931945)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Encarta-5"},{"link_name":"Operation Achse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Achse"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Trumpener-4"},{"link_name":"battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battalion"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schuster-6"}],"sub_title":"Badoglio government","text":"The Italian high command, led by Marshal Badoglio, was well aware that the German army would probably try to seize control of Italy as soon as the government switched sides to the Allies. Therefore, the Italian government wanted the Allied troops to have landed on the mainland before the armistice took effect and was announced publicly – which happened on 8 September[5] – so that the Allies could move north quickly to help defend especially the capital city of Rome against the looming German invasion. Indeed, Mussolini's fall prompted German military commanders to develop Operation Achse (the plans, originally codenamed Operation Alarich, were changed several times from 28 July to 30 August) to mitigate the impact of a potential Italian defection as much as possible.[4] The Badoglio government also realised that the Germans were likely to attempt breaking Mussolini out of prison, reinstate him and rally Fascist support to keep Italy in the war on Germany's side, and so strict measures to hide and secure Mussolini were taken: he was moved several times and guarded by almost a battalion of troops.[6]","title":"Preparations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-05,_Gran_Sasso,_Hotel_Campo_Imperatore.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hotel Campo Imperatore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotel_Campo_Imperatore"},{"link_name":"Carabinieri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carabinieri"},{"link_name":"king's private residence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Ada"},{"link_name":"Trastevere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trastevere"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEL%C3%B3pez201817-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEL%C3%B3pez201817-7"},{"link_name":"Gaeta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaeta"},{"link_name":"Ponza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponza"},{"link_name":"Tyrrhenian Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrrhenian_Sea"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEL%C3%B3pez201819%E2%80%9320-8"},{"link_name":"La Maddalena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Maddalena"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEL%C3%B3pez201820-9"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Encarta-5"},{"link_name":"citation 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arrested on the king's orders by the Carabinieri on 25 July just after he left the king's private residence, and he was initially brought to the Podgora Carabinieri Headquarters in Trastevere.[7] In the afternoon he was transferred to the Carabinieri Cadet School in the vía Legnano, where he was held until 27 July.[7] On 27 July, military police led by general Francesco Saverio Pólito took Mussolini to Gaeta, boarded the ship Persefone and imprisoned Mussolini in an isolated house on the island of Ponza in the Tyrrhenian Sea from 12:00 on 28 July to 7 August.[8] From 7-27 August, Mussolini was held in a private villa on La Maddalena.[9][5][citation needed] From 28 August,[10] he was kept at the Hotel Campo Imperatore, which was built on a remote and defendable mountain plateau 2,112 metres above sea level in the Gran Sasso d'Italia mountain range.[11] A ski station was located next to the hotel,[12] linked with a cable car.[citation needed] The hotel was one of originally three planned hotels (but the only one that was ever built) shaped in the letters 'D', 'V' and 'X', together 'DVX', the Latin word meaning \"leader\", from which Mussolini's Italian title il Duce was derived.[11] The D-shaped Hotel Campo Imperatore constructed to celebrate Mussolini's rule served as his prison for several weeks.[11]","title":"Preparations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Italy_September_1943.png"},{"link_name":"Adolf Hitler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Hauptsturmführer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauptsturmf%C3%BChrer"},{"link_name":"Otto Skorzeny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Skorzeny"},{"link_name":"Kurt Student","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Student"},{"link_name":"citation 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He ordered Hauptsturmführer Otto Skorzeny to track Mussolini and simultaneously ordered the paratroop General Kurt Student to execute the liberation.[citation needed] On September 7, German signals intelligence intercepted a coded Italian report which indicated that Mussolini was imprisoned somewhere in the Abruzzi mountains.[6] Next, the Germans employed a ruse to confirm the exact location in which a German doctor pretended to try to establish a hospital at the hotel on the Grand Sasso.[6] Informants of SS-Obersturmbannführer Herbert Kappler used counterfeit notes with a face value of £100,000 forged under Operation Bernhard to help obtain information.[citation needed] Skorzeny used information gathered by agents to plan his raid.[citation needed]","title":"Preparations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503C-04,_Gran_Sasso,_Fieseler_Fi_156_%C2%BBStorch%C2%AB.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fieseler Fi 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needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Pratica di Mare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomezia"},{"link_name":"Heinkel He 111","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinkel_He_111"},{"link_name":"Vienna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna"},{"link_name":"Hotel Imperial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotel_Imperial"},{"link_name":"Munich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich"},{"link_name":"Führer Headquarters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BChrer_Headquarters"},{"link_name":"Wolf's Lair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf%27s_Lair"},{"link_name":"Rastenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastenburg"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kuby-17"}],"text":"This Fieseler Fi 156 helped Mussolini escape.After the Italian government announced the Armistice of Cassibile and thereby its defection from the Axis to the Allies on 8 September, the German army launched Operation Achse and quickly occupied strategic points in northern and central Italy within days, effectively disarming hundreds of thousands of Italian soldiers who had nominally just switched sides.[4] The Allied Italian military and political leaders including Marshal Badoglio and King Victor Emmanuel III fled to Allied-controlled territory in southern Italy.[5]On 12 September 1943, Skorzeny and 16 SS troopers joined the Fallschirmjäger to rescue Mussolini in a high-risk glider mission. Ten DFS 230 gliders, each carrying nine soldiers and a pilot, towed by Henschel Hs 126 planes started between 13:05 and 13:10 from the Pratica di Mare Air Base, near Rome.[citation needed]The leader of the airborne operation, Oberleutnant Georg Freiherr von Berlepsch, entered the first glider while Skorzeny and his SS troopers sat in the fourth and the fifth gliders. To gain height before crossing the close by Alban Hills, the leading three glider-towing plane units flew an additional loop. All of the following units considered that manoeuvre to be unnecessary and preferred not to endanger the given time of arrival at the target. That led to both of Skorzeny's units arriving first over the target.[13]Meanwhile, the valley station of the funicular railway leading to the Campo Imperatore was captured at 14:00 in a ground attack by two paratrooper companies, led by Major Harald Mors, the commander-in-chief of the whole raid, which cut all telephone lines. This ground attack caused the only two deaths of the operation, Italian forestry guard Pasqualino Vitocco, who was killed while attempting to warn the garrison of the approaching German troops, and carabiniere Giovanni Natale, who was killed while preparing to open fire on the attackers. Two more carabinieri were slightly wounded by a hand grenade.[14][15][16] At 14:05, the airborne commandos landed their ten DFS 230 gliders on the mountain near the hotel. One crashed and caused injuries.[citation needed]The Fallschirmjäger and Skorzeny's special troopers overwhelmed Mussolini's captors, 200 well-equipped Carabinieri guards, without a single shot being fired. The Italian General Fernando Soleti had been forced to fly with Skorzeny on the raid, as a hostage; making himself known to the soldiers who guarded the hotel, Soleti ordered them not to shoot. Skorzeny attacked the radio operator and his equipment and stormed into the hotel, followed by his SS troopers and the paratroopers. Ten minutes after the beginning of the raid, Mussolini left the hotel, accompanied by the German soldiers. At 14:45, Mors accessed the hotel via the funicular railway and introduced himself to Mussolini.[citation needed]Mussolini was then to be flown out by a Fieseler Fi 156 STOL plane that had arrived in the meantime. Although under the given circumstances the small plane was overloaded, Skorzeny insisted on accompanying Mussolini, which endangered the mission's success.[citation needed]After an extremely dangerous but successful takeoff, they flew to Pratica di Mare. They then immediately continued to fly in a Heinkel He 111 to Vienna, where Mussolini stayed overnight at the Hotel Imperial. The next day he was flown to Munich, and on 14 September, he met Hitler at Führer Headquarters, in Wolf's Lair, near Rastenburg.[17]","title":"Raid"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J15420,_Gran_Sasso,_Mussolini_vor_Hotel.jpg"},{"link_name":"Winston Churchill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill"},{"link_name":"House of Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons"},{"link_name":"il Duce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duce"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L%C3%B3pez_2018-18"},{"link_name":"Hermann Göring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring"},{"link_name":"Campo Imperatore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campo_Imperatore"},{"link_name":"First Lieutenant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_lieutenant"},{"link_name":"Fallschirmjäger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallschirmj%C3%A4ger_(World_War_II)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Reichsführer-SS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsf%C3%BChrer-SS"},{"link_name":"Heinrich Himmler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler"},{"link_name":"Joseph Goebbels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels"},{"link_name":"Waffen-SS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waffen-SS"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Sturmbannführer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sturmbannf%C3%BChrer"},{"link_name":"Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight%27s_Cross_of_the_Iron_Cross"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L%C3%B3pez-13"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Otto Skorzeny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Skorzeny"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Trumpener-4"},{"link_name":"Nazi propaganda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda_in_Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"Fallschirmjäger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallschirmj%C3%A4ger"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L%C3%B3pez_2018-18"},{"link_name":"Italian Social Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic"},{"link_name":"collaborationist regime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaborationism"},{"link_name":"co-belligerent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-belligerent"},{"link_name":"Italian resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_resistance"},{"link_name":"Clara Petacci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clara_Petacci"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"summarily executed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summarily_executed"},{"link_name":"firing squad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad"},{"link_name":"Lake Como","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Como"}],"text":"Mussolini leaving the hotelAfter hearing of Mussolini's escape, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill stated in the House of Commons: \"Knowing that il Duce was hidden in a safe place and that the Government of Badoglio was committed to handing him over to the Allies, a daring attack, completely beyond all foresight, prevented this from happening\".[18]The operation granted a rare public relations opportunity to Hermann Göring late in the war, with German propaganda hailing the operation for months afterward. The landing at Campo Imperatore was in fact led by First Lieutenant von Berlepsch, commanded by Major Mors and under orders from General Student, all of whom were Fallschirmjäger officers, but Skorzeny stewarded the Italian leader right in front of the cameras.[citation needed]After an SS propaganda coup at the behest of Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler and Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels, Skorzeny and his special forces of the Waffen-SS were granted the majority of the credit for the operation.[citation needed]\nSkorzeny received a promotion to Sturmbannführer, the award of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross and the fame that led to his image as the \"most dangerous man in Europe\".[13]Skorzeny published an autobiography in 1950 (Geheimkommando Skorzeny) and another book (Meine Kommandounternehmen) in 1976.[19]Historian Ulrich Trumpener (2015) stated that 'exaggerated credit [for the operation] was later given to a small SS detachment under Otto Skorzeny'.[4] Historian Óscar González López stated that Skorzeny was a 'fake liberator' created by Nazi propaganda, calling the Fallschirmjäger the 'legitimate protagonists' of the Gran Sasso raid.[18]After the raid, Hitler put Mussolini in charge of a puppet state in German-occupied northern Italy, the Italian Social Republic, which served as a collaborationist regime of the Germans in their fight against the Allies, the Kingdom of Italy, now a co-belligerent of the Allies, and the Italian resistance.In late April 1945, in the wake of near total defeat, Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci attempted to flee to Switzerland,[20] but both were captured by Italian communist partisans and summarily executed by firing squad on 28 April 1945 near Lake Como.","title":"Aftermath"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEL%C3%B3pez201817%E2%80%9319_1-0"},{"link_name":"López 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Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7190-4004-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-4004-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-prisonrescue_3-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-306-81396-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81396-2"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Trumpener_4-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Trumpener_4-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Trumpener_4-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Trumpener_4-3"},{"link_name":"\"ACHSE (AXIS), Operation (9 September–October 1943)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=V6_lCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1351"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781135812492","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135812492"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Encarta_5-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Encarta_5-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Encarta_5-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Encarta_5-3"},{"link_name":"Encarta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encarta"},{"link_name":"Winkler Prins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winkler_Prins"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Schuster_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Schuster_6-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Schuster_6-2"},{"link_name":"\"Gran Sasso raid (12 September 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2018","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFL%C3%B3pez2018"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-L%C3%B3pez_13-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-L%C3%B3pez_13-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-84-96935-00-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-96935-00-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"Pasqualino Vitocco e Giovanni Natale, due militari cancellati dalla storia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.combattentiereduci.it/notizie/pasqualino-vitocco-e-giovanni-natali-due-militari-cancellati-dalla-storia"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"L'ospite della camera 201","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=XL1mEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22pasquale+vitocco%22&pg=PT142"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"Settembre 1943: I giorni della vergogna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=eT6ODAAAQBAJ&dq=%22generale+soleti%22&pg=PT148"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Kuby_17-0"},{"link_name":"Erich Kuby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Kuby"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-455-08754-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-455-08754-X"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-L%C3%B3pez_2018_18-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-L%C3%B3pez_2018_18-1"},{"link_name":"Freeing Mussolini: Dismantling the Skorzeny Myth in the Gran Sasso Raid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=e8OIDwAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781526719997","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781526719997"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"My Commando Operations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/OttoSkorzenyMyCommandoOperations/page/n3/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"}],"text":"^ López 2018, p. 17–19.\n\n^ Whittam, John (2005). Fascist Italy. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-4004-3.\n\n^ Annussek, Greg (2005). Hitler's Raid to Save Mussolini. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81396-2.\n\n^ a b c d Trumpener, Ulrich (2015). \"ACHSE (AXIS), Operation (9 September–October 1943)\". World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 1351. ISBN 9781135812492. Retrieved 7 October 2021.\n\n^ a b c d Encarta Winkler Prins Encyclopaedia (1993–2002) s.v. \"Badoglio, Pietro; Mussolini, Benito Amilcare Andrea; Wereldoorlog, Tweede §3.5 Geallieerde invasie op Sicilië\". Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum.\n\n^ a b c Schuster, Carl O. (2015). \"Gran Sasso raid (12 September 1943)\". World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 1519. ISBN 9781135812492. Retrieved 7 October 2021.\n\n^ a b López 2018, p. 17.\n\n^ López 2018, p. 19–20.\n\n^ López 2018, p. 20.\n\n^ López 2018, p. 58.\n\n^ a b c López 2018, p. 23.\n\n^ López 2018, p. 18.\n\n^ a b Óscar González López (2007). Fallschirmjäger at the Gran Sasso. Valladolid: AF Editores. ISBN 978-84-96935-00-6.\n\n^ Pasqualino Vitocco e Giovanni Natale, due militari cancellati dalla storia\n\n^ L'ospite della camera 201\n\n^ Settembre 1943: I giorni della vergogna\n\n^ Erich Kuby: Verrat auf deutsch. Wie das Dritte Reich Italien ruinierte. Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg 1982, ISBN 3-455-08754-X.\n\n^ a b López, Óscar González (2018). Freeing Mussolini: Dismantling the Skorzeny Myth in the Gran Sasso Raid. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Books. ISBN 9781526719997.\n\n^ My Commando Operations (see p. 228-284)\n\n^ Viganò, Marino (2001), \"Un'analisi accurata della presunta fuga in Svizzera\", Nuova Storia Contemporanea (in Italian), 3","title":"Footnotes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Hotel Campo Imperatore in 1943","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-05%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Hotel_Campo_Imperatore.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-05%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Hotel_Campo_Imperatore.jpg"},{"image_text":"Italian military situation in September 1943","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Italy_September_1943.png/300px-Italy_September_1943.png"},{"image_text":"This Fieseler Fi 156 helped Mussolini escape.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503C-04%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Fieseler_Fi_156_%C2%BBStorch%C2%AB.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503C-04%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Fieseler_Fi_156_%C2%BBStorch%C2%AB.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mussolini leaving the hotel","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J15420%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Mussolini_vor_Hotel.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J15420%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Mussolini_vor_Hotel.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Operation Achse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Achse"}]
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[{"reference":"Whittam, John (2005). Fascist Italy. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-4004-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hHgMm6APG_0C&q=%22Vatican+Radio%22+%22Radio+London%22+fascist","url_text":"Fascist Italy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_University_Press","url_text":"Manchester University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-4004-3","url_text":"0-7190-4004-3"}]},{"reference":"Annussek, Greg (2005). Hitler's Raid to Save Mussolini. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81396-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81396-2","url_text":"978-0-306-81396-2"}]},{"reference":"Trumpener, Ulrich (2015). \"ACHSE (AXIS), Operation (9 September–October 1943)\". World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 1351. ISBN 9781135812492. Retrieved 7 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=V6_lCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1351","url_text":"\"ACHSE (AXIS), Operation (9 September–October 1943)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135812492","url_text":"9781135812492"}]},{"reference":"Schuster, Carl O. (2015). \"Gran Sasso raid (12 September 1943)\". World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 1519. ISBN 9781135812492. Retrieved 7 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=V6_lCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1519","url_text":"\"Gran Sasso raid (12 September 1943)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135812492","url_text":"9781135812492"}]},{"reference":"Óscar González López (2007). Fallschirmjäger at the Gran Sasso. Valladolid: AF Editores. ISBN 978-84-96935-00-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-96935-00-6","url_text":"978-84-96935-00-6"}]},{"reference":"López, Óscar González (2018). Freeing Mussolini: Dismantling the Skorzeny Myth in the Gran Sasso Raid. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Books. ISBN 9781526719997.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=e8OIDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Freeing Mussolini: Dismantling the Skorzeny Myth in the Gran Sasso Raid"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781526719997","url_text":"9781526719997"}]},{"reference":"Viganò, Marino (2001), \"Un'analisi accurata della presunta fuga in Svizzera\", Nuova Storia Contemporanea (in Italian), 3","urls":[]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LOM_port
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LOM port
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["1 Implementations","2 See also","3 External links"]
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Out-of-band management platform by Sun Microsystems
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The LOM port (Lights Out Management port) is a remote access facility on a Sun Microsystems server. When the main processor is switched off, or when it is impossible to telnet to the server, an operator would use a link to the LOM port to access the server. As long as the server has power, the LOM facility will work, regardless of whether or not the main processor is switched on.
To use the LOM port, a rollover cable is connected to the LOM port, which is located at the back of the Sun server. The other end of the cable is connected to a terminal or a PC running a terminal emulator. The terminal or emulator must be set to a transmission rate of 9600 bits per second, and hardware flow control enabled.
Implementations
Specific implementations include:
Advanced Lights Out Management (ALOM), Sun Microsystems-specific and comes standard on newer Sun servers (SunFire V125/V210/V215/V240/V245/V250/V440/T1000/T2000, Sun Netra 210/240/440).
Integrated Lights Out Management (ILOM), Sun Microsystems's ALOM replacement on Sun x64 server SunFire X4100(M2)/X4200(M2)/X4600(M2)/X4140/X4240/X4440/X4150/X4250/X4450/X4170/X4270/X2250/X2270, Sun Blade 6000 Chassis Management Module/Blade Module(X6220/X6420/X6240/X6440/X6250/X6450/X6270/X6275), Sun CMT servers/blades (Sun T5120, T5220, T5240, T6340, T6320). Not to be confused with the similar-sounding HP Integrated Lights-Out management technology.
Lomlite and Lomlite2 Single-chip implementations on the Netra T1 and possibly others. In the cases of the T1-200 and X1, the OpenBoot firmware implements lom@ and lom! commands allowing access to the registers representing temperature, voltage, etc.
See also
Electronics portal
Out-of-band management
Power distribution unit
External links
Netra-T1 AC200 LOM Usage
This computer science article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"remote access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_emulation"},{"link_name":"Sun Microsystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Microsystems"},{"link_name":"telnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telnet"},{"link_name":"rollover cable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollover_cable"},{"link_name":"PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"terminal emulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_emulator"},{"link_name":"flow control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_control_(data)"}],"text":"The LOM port (Lights Out Management port) is a remote access facility on a Sun Microsystems server. When the main processor is switched off, or when it is impossible to telnet to the server, an operator would use a link to the LOM port to access the server. As long as the server has power, the LOM facility will work, regardless of whether or not the main processor is switched on.To use the LOM port, a rollover cable is connected to the LOM port, which is located at the back of the Sun server. The other end of the cable is connected to a terminal or a PC running a terminal emulator. The terminal or emulator must be set to a transmission rate of 9600 bits per second, and hardware flow control enabled.","title":"LOM port"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SunFire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SunFire"},{"link_name":"Sun Netra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Netra"},{"link_name":"HP Integrated Lights-Out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Integrated_Lights-Out"},{"link_name":"OpenBoot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBoot"}],"text":"Specific implementations include:Advanced Lights Out Management (ALOM), Sun Microsystems-specific and comes standard on newer Sun servers (SunFire V125/V210/V215/V240/V245/V250/V440/T1000/T2000, Sun Netra 210/240/440).\nIntegrated Lights Out Management (ILOM), Sun Microsystems's ALOM replacement on Sun x64 server SunFire X4100(M2)/X4200(M2)/X4600(M2)/X4140/X4240/X4440/X4150/X4250/X4450/X4170/X4270/X2250/X2270, Sun Blade 6000 Chassis Management Module/Blade Module(X6220/X6420/X6240/X6440/X6250/X6450/X6270/X6275), Sun CMT servers/blades (Sun T5120, T5220, T5240, T6340, T6320). Not to be confused with the similar-sounding HP Integrated Lights-Out management technology.\nLomlite and Lomlite2 Single-chip implementations on the Netra T1 and possibly others. In the cases of the T1-200 and X1, the OpenBoot firmware implements lom@ and lom! commands allowing access to the registers representing temperature, voltage, etc.","title":"Implementations"}]
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[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png"},{"title":"Electronics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Electronics"},{"title":"Out-of-band management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out-of-band_management"},{"title":"Power distribution unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_distribution_unit"}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22LOM+port%22","external_links_name":"\"LOM port\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22LOM+port%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22LOM+port%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22LOM+port%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22LOM+port%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22LOM+port%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061104092610/http://www.aaven.com/UNIX/Solaris/lom_commands.asp","external_links_name":"Netra-T1 AC200 LOM Usage"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LOM_port&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message-ID
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Message-ID
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["1 References","2 External links"]
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This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. (June 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Message-ID is a unique identifier for a digital message, most commonly a globally unique identifier used in email and Usenet newsgroups.
Message-IDs are required to have a specific format which is a subset of an email address and be globally unique. No two different messages must ever have the same Message-ID. If two messages have the same Message-ID, they are assumed to be the same and one version is discarded. This can cause issues if tools mangle the IDs created by other tools. Such a problem has been reported with Google MTAs mangling Message-IDs created by Outlook, making it difficult to reference other messages and breaking threading.
Message-IDs, if present, are generated by the client program sending the email or by the first mail server. A common method of generating such ID is by combining the time and domain name, for example: [email protected].
References
^ Eoghan Casey (2004). Digital evidence and computer crime: forensic science, computers and the Internet. Academic Press. p. 506. ISBN 0-12-163104-4.
^ a b Resnick, P. (October 4, 2008). Resnick, P (ed.). "Internet Message Format". RFC Series. doi:10.17487/RFC5322 – via www.rfc-editor.org.
^ Klensin, J. (October 4, 2008). "Simple Mail Transfer Protocol". RFC Series. doi:10.17487/RFC5321 – via www.rfc-editor.org.
^ Levinson, E. (August 4, 1998). "Content-ID and Message-ID Uniform Resource Locators". RFC Series. doi:10.17487/RFC2392 – via www.rfc-editor.org.
External links
Recommendations for generating Message IDs
MessageID-Finder Thunderbird extension
ThunderLink Thunderbird extension
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"unique identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unique_identifier"},{"link_name":"globally unique identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_unique_identifier"},{"link_name":"email","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email"},{"link_name":"Usenet newsgroups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usenet_newsgroup"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"email address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_address"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-2"},{"link_name":"MTAs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message_transfer_agent"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"client program sending the email","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_client"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-2"},{"link_name":"first mail server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_submission_agent"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Message-ID is a unique identifier for a digital message, most commonly a globally unique identifier used in email and Usenet newsgroups.[1]Message-IDs are required to have a specific format which is a subset of an email address[2] and be globally unique. No two different messages must ever have the same Message-ID. If two messages have the same Message-ID, they are assumed to be the same and one version is discarded. This can cause issues if tools mangle the IDs created by other tools. Such a problem has been reported with Google MTAs mangling Message-IDs created by Outlook, making it difficult to reference other messages and breaking threading.[citation needed]Message-IDs, if present, are generated by the client program sending the email[2] or by the first mail server.[3] A common method of generating such ID is by combining the time and domain name, for example: [email protected].[4]","title":"Message-ID"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"Eoghan Casey (2004). Digital evidence and computer crime: forensic science, computers and the Internet. Academic Press. p. 506. ISBN 0-12-163104-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Press","url_text":"Academic Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-163104-4","url_text":"0-12-163104-4"}]},{"reference":"Resnick, P. (October 4, 2008). Resnick, P (ed.). \"Internet Message Format\". RFC Series. doi:10.17487/RFC5322 – via www.rfc-editor.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc5322","url_text":"\"Internet Message Format\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC5322","url_text":"10.17487/RFC5322"}]},{"reference":"Klensin, J. (October 4, 2008). \"Simple Mail Transfer Protocol\". RFC Series. doi:10.17487/RFC5321 – via www.rfc-editor.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc5321","url_text":"\"Simple Mail Transfer Protocol\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC5321","url_text":"10.17487/RFC5321"}]},{"reference":"Levinson, E. (August 4, 1998). \"Content-ID and Message-ID Uniform Resource Locators\". RFC Series. doi:10.17487/RFC2392 – via www.rfc-editor.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc2392","url_text":"\"Content-ID and Message-ID Uniform Resource Locators\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC2392","url_text":"10.17487/RFC2392"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Message-ID&action=edit","external_links_name":"help improve it"},{"Link":"https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc5322","external_links_name":"\"Internet Message Format\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC5322","external_links_name":"10.17487/RFC5322"},{"Link":"https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc5321","external_links_name":"\"Simple Mail Transfer Protocol\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC5321","external_links_name":"10.17487/RFC5321"},{"Link":"https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc2392","external_links_name":"\"Content-ID and Message-ID Uniform Resource Locators\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC2392","external_links_name":"10.17487/RFC2392"},{"Link":"https://www.jwz.org/doc/mid.html","external_links_name":"Recommendations for generating Message IDs"},{"Link":"https://addons.thunderbird.net/en-us/thunderbird/addon/messageid-finder/","external_links_name":"MessageID-Finder Thunderbird extension"},{"Link":"https://addons.thunderbird.net/en-US/thunderbird/addon/thunderlink/","external_links_name":"ThunderLink Thunderbird extension"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACCO_Brands
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ACCO Brands
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["1 History","2 See also","3 Notes","4 References","5 External links"]
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American manufacturer
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "ACCO Brands" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: "ACCO Brands" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
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ACCO Brands CorporationCompany typePublicTraded asNYSE: ACCORussell 2000 ComponentIndustryManufacturerFounded1893; 131 years ago (1893) (as Clipper Manufacturing Company)
2005; 19 years ago (2005) (Merger with ACCO World and General Binding Corporation)FounderFred J. KlineHeadquartersLake Zurich, Illinois, U.S.Area servedWorldwideKey people
Boris Elisman (chairman, president, and age CEO)
Neal Fenwick (EVP, CFO)
Patrick Buchenroth
Cezary L. Monko
Thomas W. Tedford
ProductsOffice productsRevenue $ 2.059 billion (2021)
Operating income $ 176.0 million (2021)Net income $ 101.9 million (2021)Total assets $ 3.091 billion (2021)Total equity $ 864.8 million (2021)Number of employees6,000 (2021)SubsidiariesPowerAWebsitewww.accobrands.com
ACCO Brands Corporation is an American multinational company and is one of the world's largest designers, manufacturers, and marketers of premium business, technology, academic, and consumer products. It was created by the merger of ACCO World from Fortune Brands with General Binding Corporation (GBC).
History
In 1903, Fred J. Kline founded the Clipper Manufacturing Company (a maker of paper clips) in Long Island, New York. In 1910, the company became the American Clip Company, and first used the name "ACCO" as an initialism, which became the company's formal name in 1922. After many acquisitions, ACCO went public in 1983, and was acquired in 1987 by American Brands (later Fortune Brands).
In 1990, ACCO acquired Hetzel in Germany, a company selling stationery products. In 1992, ACCO UK was created from the integration of ACCO Europe and Rexel Ltd. ACCO UK is the UK's largest manufacturer of office products. In 2005, ACCO was spun off from Fortune Brands and, through the merger with the General Binding Corporation, ACCO Brands was formed.
In 2012, ACCO Brands completed a $860 million deal to combine with MeadWestvaco’s Consumer and Office Products business. The transaction added brands like Mead, Five Star, Trapper Keeper, AT-A-GLANCE, Cambridge, Day Runner, Hilroy, Tilibra and Grafons to ACCO Brands' product line.
ACCO acquired Esselte Group Holdings in 2017.
In March 2020, the company asked for Section 301 tariff relief for their Kensington laptop docking stations, which had 25% tariffs due to Trump's 2018 China–United States trade war. The company's relief application said sales had increased 200% and they were needed for healthcare workers.
ACCO acquired video game peripheral manufacturer PowerA in 2020.
See also
Companies portal
Advanced Gravis Computer Technology
Derwent Cumberland Pencil Company
General Binding Corporation
Kensington Security Slot
Swingline
Notes
^ Except Africa and the Middle East.
References
^ a b c d e f "ACCO Income Statement Acco Brands Corporation Stock – Yahoo Finance". finance.yahoo.com. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
^ "About Us | Laptop Security | Docks & Locks | Ergonomics".
^ Fortune Brands and General Binding Corporation announce further progress toward creation of ACCO Brands Corporation Joint press release of Fortune Brands and GBC dated July 19, 2005
^ "About ACCO Brands Corporation". DK Hardware Supply. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
^ "ACCO Rexel history". Archived from the original on 2013-03-26. Retrieved 2013-04-22.
^ "ACCO Hetzel products available online".
^ "ACCO Brands, Form 8-K, Current Report, Filing Date Jul 21, 2005". secdatabase.com. Retrieved Dec 29, 2012.
^ "ACCO Brands, Form 8-K, Current Report, Filing Date Jan 18, 2012". secdatabase.com. Retrieved Dec 30, 2012.
^ "ACCO Brands, Form 10-K, Annual Report, Filing Date Feb 23, 2012". secdatabase.com. Retrieved Dec 30, 2012.
^ "ACCO Brands Completes Acquisition Of Esselte Group Holdings AB". Seeking Alpha (Press release). 1 February 2017.
^ Lydia DePillis (25 June 2020). "Oyster, Air Fryer and Bicycle Companies Say Their Goods Are Essential to Fighting Coronavirus So They Can Get Tariff Relief". ProPublica. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
^ "Comment from Elizabeth Bishop". Regulations.gov. 24 March 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
^ "ACCO Brands Closes PowerA Acquisition". 17 December 2020.
External links
Business data for ACCO Brands: BloombergGoogleReutersSEC filingsYahoo!
ACCO Brands home.
Official Rexel Website
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[]
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[{"title":"Companies portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Companies"},{"title":"Advanced Gravis Computer Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Gravis_Computer_Technology"},{"title":"Derwent Cumberland Pencil Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derwent_Cumberland_Pencil_Company"},{"title":"General Binding Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Binding_Corporation"},{"title":"Kensington Security Slot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kensington_Security_Slot"},{"title":"Swingline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swingline"}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Smithies
|
Frank Smithies
|
["1 Publications","2 References","3 External links"]
|
British mathematician (1912–2002)
Frank SmithiesBorn(1912-03-10)10 March 1912Edinburgh, ScotlandDied16 November 2002(2002-11-16) (aged 90)Cambridge, EnglandAlma materUniversity of CambridgeAwardsFRSEScientific careerFieldsMathematicsInstitutionsUniversity of CambridgeThesis The Theory of Linear Integral Equations (1937)Doctoral advisorG. H. HardyDoctoral students
Graham Allan
E. N. Dancer
Douglas Northcott
Seymour Papert
John R. Ringrose
Dona Strauss
Trevor West
Frank Smithies FRSE (10 March 1912 – 16 November 2002) was a British mathematician who worked on integral equations, functional analysis, and the history of mathematics.
He was elected as a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1961.
He was an alumnus and an academic of Cambridge University.
Publications
Smithies, F. (1958), Integral equations, Cambridge Tracts in Mathematics and Mathematical Physics, vol. 49, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-06502-3, MR 0104991
Smithies, F. (1997), Cauchy and the creation of complex function theory, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-59278-X
References
^ Elliott, Joanne (1960). "Review: Integral equations by F. Smithies" (PDF). Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 66 (4): 256–257. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1960-10448-x.
^ Johnson, Dale M. (November 1998). "Review: Cauchy and the creation of complex function theory by F. Smithies". The Mathematical Gazette. 82 (495): 537–540. doi:10.2307/3619934. JSTOR 3619934. S2CID 126031597.
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Frank Smithies", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
"Frank Smithies", The Times, Obituary
External links
Works by F. Smithies at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Frank Smithies at Internet Archive
Frank Smithies at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Norway
France
BnF data
Israel
United States
Japan
Czech Republic
Netherlands
Academics
CiNii
MathSciNet
Mathematics Genealogy Project
Scopus
zbMATH
Other
IdRef
|
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[]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_shaping
|
Traffic shaping
|
["1 Functionality","2 Uses","3 Implementation","3.1 Overflow condition","3.2 Traffic classification","3.3 Self-limiting sources","3.4 Relationship to bandwidth management","4 ISPs and traffic management","5 Enterprises","6 Traffic shaping detection","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]
|
Communication bandwidth management technique
Traffic shaping is a bandwidth management technique used on computer networks which delays some or all datagrams to bring them into compliance with a desired traffic profile. Traffic shaping is used to optimize or guarantee performance, improve latency, or increase usable bandwidth for some kinds of packets by delaying other kinds. It is often confused with traffic policing, the distinct but related practice of packet dropping and packet marking.
The most common type of traffic shaping is application-based traffic shaping. In application-based traffic shaping, fingerprinting tools are first used to identify applications of interest, which are then subject to shaping policies. Some controversial cases of application-based traffic shaping include bandwidth throttling of peer-to-peer file sharing traffic. Many application protocols use encryption to circumvent application-based traffic shaping.
Another type of traffic shaping is route-based traffic shaping. Route-based traffic shaping is conducted based on previous-hop or next-hop information.
Functionality
If a link becomes utilized to the point where there is a significant level of congestion, latency can rise substantially. Traffic shaping can be used to prevent this from occurring and keep latency in check. Traffic shaping provides a means to control the volume of traffic being sent into a network in a specified period (bandwidth throttling), or the maximum rate at which the traffic is sent (rate limiting), or more complex criteria such as generic cell rate algorithm. This control can be accomplished in many ways and for many reasons; however traffic shaping is always achieved by delaying packets.
Traffic shaping is commonly applied at the network edges to control traffic entering the network, but can also be applied by the traffic source (for example, computer or network card) or by an element in the network.
Uses
Traffic shaping is sometimes applied by traffic sources to ensure the traffic they send complies with a contract which may be enforced in the network by traffic policing.
Shaping is widely used for teletraffic engineering, and appears in domestic ISPs' networks as one of several Internet Traffic Management Practices (ITMPs). Some ISPs may use traffic shaping to limit resources consumed by peer-to-peer file-sharing networks, such as BitTorrent.
Data centers use traffic shaping to maintain service level agreements for the variety of applications and the many tenants hosted as they all share the same physical network.
Audio Video Bridging includes an integral traffic-shaping provision defined in IEEE 802.1Qav.
Nodes in an IP network which buffer packets before sending on a link which is at capacity produce an unintended traffic shaping effect. This can appear across, for example, a low bandwidth link, a particularly expensive WAN link or satellite hop.
Implementation
A traffic shaper works by delaying metered traffic such that each packet complies with the relevant traffic contract. Metering may be implemented with, for example, the leaky bucket or token bucket algorithms (the former typically in ATM and the latter in IP networks). Metered packets or cells are then stored in a FIFO buffer, one for each separately shaped class, until they can be transmitted in compliance with the associated traffic contract. Transmission may occur immediately (if the traffic arriving at the shaper is already compliant), after some delay (waiting in the buffer until its scheduled release time) or never (in case of packet loss).
Overflow condition
All traffic shaper implementations have a finite buffer, and must cope with the case where the buffer is full. A simple and common approach is to drop traffic arriving while the buffer is full
a strategy known as tail drop and which results in traffic policing as well as shaping. A more sophisticated implementation could apply a dropping algorithm such as random early detection.
Traffic classification
Simple traffic shaping schemes shape all traffic uniformly. More sophisticated shapers first classify traffic. Traffic classification categorises traffic (for example, based on port number or protocol). Different classes can then be shaped separately to achieve a desired effect.
Self-limiting sources
A self-limiting source produces traffic which never exceeds some upper bound, for example media sources which cannot transmit faster than their encoded rate allows. Self-limiting sources shape the traffic they generate to a greater or lesser degree. Congestion control mechanisms can also affect traffic shaping of sorts - for example TCP's window mechanism implements a variable rate constraint related to bandwidth-delay product.
TCP Nice, a modified version of TCP developed by researchers at the University of Texas at Austin, allows applications to request that certain TCP connections be managed by the operating system as near zero-cost background transfers, or nice flows. Such flows interfere only minimally with foreground (non-nice) flows, while reaping a large fraction of spare network bandwidth.
Relationship to bandwidth management
Traffic shaping is a specific technique and one of several which combined constitute bandwidth management.
ISPs and traffic management
See also: Bandwidth throttling, Teletraffic engineering, and Traffic management
Traffic shaping is of interest especially to internet service providers (ISPs). Their high-cost, high-traffic networks are their major assets, and as such, are the focus of their attentions. They sometimes use traffic shaping to optimize the use of their network, sometimes by shaping traffic according to their assessment of importance and thus discouraging use of certain applications.
Enterprises
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Most companies with remote offices are now connected via a wide area network (WAN). Applications tend to be centrally hosted at the head office and remote offices are expected to pull data from central databases and server farms. As applications become more hungry in terms of bandwidth and prices of dedicated circuits being relatively high in most areas of the world, instead of increasing the size of their WAN circuits, companies feel the need to properly manage their circuits to make sure business-oriented traffic gets priority over other traffic. Traffic shaping is thus a good means for companies to avoid purchasing additional bandwidth while properly managing these resources.
Alternatives to traffic shaping in this regard are application acceleration and WAN optimization and compression, which are fundamentally different from traffic shaping. Traffic shaping defines bandwidth rules whereas application acceleration using multiple techniques like a TCP performance-enhancing proxy. WAN optimization, on the other hand, compresses data streams or sends only differences in file updates. The latter is quite effective for chatty protocols like CIFS.
Traffic shaping detection
There are several methods to detect and measure traffic shaping. Tools have been developed to assist with detection.
See also
Network congestion avoidance
Quality of service
Multilayer switch
TCP pacing
Broadband networks
Net neutrality
Tc (Linux) command used to manage traffic shaping
References
^ IETF RFC 2475 "An Architecture for Differentiated Services" section 2.3.3.3 - Internet standard definition of "Shaper"
^ ITU-T Recommendation I.371: Traffic control and congestion control in B-ISDN Section 7.2.7 defines traffic shaping as a traffic control mechanism which "alters the traffic characteristics of a stream of cells on a VCC or a VPC to achieve a desired modification of those traffic characteristics, in order to achieve better network efficiency whilst meeting the QoS objectives or to ensure conformance at a subsequent interface. ... Shaping modifies traffic characteristics of a cell flow with the consequence of increasing the mean cell transfer delay."
^ "Cisco Tech Notes: Comparing Traffic Policing and Traffic Shaping for Bandwidth Limiting. Document ID: 19645". Cisco Systems. Aug 10, 2005. Retrieved 2014-03-08. Graphs illustrate differences in typical output
^ Dischinger, Marcel; Mislove, Alan; Haeberlen, Andreas; Gummadi, Krishna P. (October 2008). "Detecting BitTorrent Blocking" (PDF). Proceedings of the 8th ACM SIGCOMM conference on Internet measurement conference - IMC '08. p. 3. doi:10.1145/1452520.1452523. ISBN 978-1-60558-334-1. S2CID 429226.
^ Ascertaining the Reality of Network Neutrality Violation in Backbone ISPs, ACM HotNets 2008
^ IEEE INFOCOM 2001. Arsenic: a user-accessible gigabit Ethernet interface Pratt, I., Fraser, K., Computer Laboratory, Cambridge University; Twentieth Annual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications Societies. Proceedings 2001 Volume 1, pages: 67-76 vol.1. Describes a gigabit Ethernet NIC with transmit traffic shaping.
^ Review of the Internet traffic management practices of Internet service providers (Telecom. Reg. Policy CRTC 2009-657) Canadian telecomms regulator CRTC ruling relating to traffic shaping usage by domestic ISPs.
^ "HOW TO BYPASS INTERNET CENSORSHIP". FLOSS Manuals. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 7 March 2014.
^ M. Noormohammadpour, C. S. Raghavendra, "Datacenter Traffic Control: Understanding Techniques and Trade-offs," IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, vol. PP, no. 99, pp. 1-1.
^ Helzer, Josh; Xu, Lisong (2009-02-27), Congestion Control for Multimedia Streaming with Self-Limiting Sources (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-27
^ Venkataramani, Arun; Kokku, Ravi; Dahlin, Mike. "TCP Nice: Self-tuning Network Support for Background Applications". CiteSeerX 10.1.1.81.5905. Retrieved August 27, 2023.
^ ATM Forum Traffic Management Specification, Version 4.0 Approved Specification 0056.00, Section 5.5, Traffic Shaping
^ CNet: Is Comcast's BitTorrent filtering violating the law? Analysis of Comcast's impersonation techniques for limiting BitTorrent usage.
^ ShaperProbe (Retired)
^ Glasnost (Retired)
John Evans; Clarence Filsfils (2007). Deploying IP and MPLS QoS for Multiservice Networks: Theory and Practice. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-0-12-370549-5.
External links
BBC News - Traffic Shaping and BitTorrent
IT-world.com, Traffic Shaping article comparing traffic management techniques circa 2001
Network World, 03/05/01: Where should traffic shaping occur?
Network World, 03/07/01: WAN-side traffic shaping
Linux Kernel: Traffic Control, Shaping and QoS
A Practical Guide to Linux Traffic Control
Web based traffic shaping bridge/router Archived 2012-09-09 at the Wayback Machine
Dynamisches Bandbreitenmanagement im Chemnitzer StudentenNetz (German work about "DynShaper-Software" used at CSN (student network at Chemnitz University of Technology): Manuals)
Authority control databases: National
Germany
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bandwidth management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_management"},{"link_name":"computer networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_networks"},{"link_name":"datagrams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datagram"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"latency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_latency"},{"link_name":"bandwidth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)"},{"link_name":"traffic policing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_policing_(communications)"},{"link_name":"packet dropping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_loss"},{"link_name":"packet marking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_traceback#Packet_marking"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"bandwidth throttling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_throttling"},{"link_name":"peer-to-peer file sharing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-to-peer_file_sharing"},{"link_name":"encryption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encryption"},{"link_name":"hop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hop_(telecommunications)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Traffic shaping is a bandwidth management technique used on computer networks which delays some or all datagrams to bring them into compliance with a desired traffic profile.[1][2] Traffic shaping is used to optimize or guarantee performance, improve latency, or increase usable bandwidth for some kinds of packets by delaying other kinds. It is often confused with traffic policing, the distinct but related practice of packet dropping and packet marking.[3]The most common type of traffic shaping is application-based traffic shaping.[4][failed verification] In application-based traffic shaping, fingerprinting tools are first used to identify applications of interest, which are then subject to shaping policies. Some controversial cases of application-based traffic shaping include bandwidth throttling of peer-to-peer file sharing traffic. Many application protocols use encryption to circumvent application-based traffic shaping.Another type of traffic shaping is route-based traffic shaping. Route-based traffic shaping is conducted based on previous-hop or next-hop information.[5]","title":"Traffic shaping"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"congestion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_congestion"},{"link_name":"bandwidth throttling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_throttling"},{"link_name":"rate limiting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_limiting"},{"link_name":"generic cell rate algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generic_cell_rate_algorithm"},{"link_name":"network card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_card"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"If a link becomes utilized to the point where there is a significant level of congestion, latency can rise substantially. Traffic shaping can be used to prevent this from occurring and keep latency in check. Traffic shaping provides a means to control the volume of traffic being sent into a network in a specified period (bandwidth throttling), or the maximum rate at which the traffic is sent (rate limiting), or more complex criteria such as generic cell rate algorithm. This control can be accomplished in many ways and for many reasons; however traffic shaping is always achieved by delaying packets.Traffic shaping is commonly applied at the network edges to control traffic entering the network, but can also be applied by the traffic source (for example, computer or network card[6]) or by an element in the network.","title":"Functionality"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"traffic policing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_policing_(communications)"},{"link_name":"teletraffic engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletraffic_engineering"},{"link_name":"domestic ISPs' networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ISPs_and_traffic_management"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"ISPs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISP"},{"link_name":"BitTorrent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BitTorrent"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Data centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_center"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-architecture-9"},{"link_name":"Audio Video Bridging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_Video_Bridging"}],"text":"Traffic shaping is sometimes applied by traffic sources to ensure the traffic they send complies with a contract which may be enforced in the network by traffic policing.Shaping is widely used for teletraffic engineering, and appears in domestic ISPs' networks as one of several Internet Traffic Management Practices (ITMPs).[7] Some ISPs may use traffic shaping to limit resources consumed by peer-to-peer file-sharing networks, such as BitTorrent.[8]Data centers use traffic shaping to maintain service level agreements for the variety of applications and the many tenants hosted as they all share the same physical network.[9]Audio Video Bridging includes an integral traffic-shaping provision defined in IEEE 802.1Qav.Nodes in an IP network which buffer packets before sending on a link which is at capacity produce an unintended traffic shaping effect. This can appear across, for example, a low bandwidth link, a particularly expensive WAN link or satellite hop.","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"traffic contract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_contract"},{"link_name":"leaky bucket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaky_bucket"},{"link_name":"token bucket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Token_bucket"},{"link_name":"ATM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode"},{"link_name":"IP networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol"},{"link_name":"FIFO buffer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFO_(computing_and_electronics)"},{"link_name":"packet loss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_loss"}],"text":"A traffic shaper works by delaying metered traffic such that each packet complies with the relevant traffic contract. Metering may be implemented with, for example, the leaky bucket or token bucket algorithms (the former typically in ATM and the latter in IP networks). Metered packets or cells are then stored in a FIFO buffer, one for each separately shaped class, until they can be transmitted in compliance with the associated traffic contract. Transmission may occur immediately (if the traffic arriving at the shaper is already compliant), after some delay (waiting in the buffer until its scheduled release time) or never (in case of packet loss).","title":"Implementation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tail drop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tail_drop"},{"link_name":"sophisticated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophistication"},{"link_name":"random early detection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_early_detection"}],"sub_title":"Overflow condition","text":"All traffic shaper implementations have a finite buffer, and must cope with the case where the buffer is full. A simple and common approach is to drop traffic arriving while the buffer is full \na strategy known as tail drop and which results in traffic policing as well as shaping. A more sophisticated implementation could apply a dropping algorithm such as random early detection.","title":"Implementation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"classify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_classification"},{"link_name":"port number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_number"},{"link_name":"protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_(computing)"}],"sub_title":"Traffic classification","text":"Simple traffic shaping schemes shape all traffic uniformly. More sophisticated shapers first classify traffic. Traffic classification categorises traffic (for example, based on port number or protocol). Different classes can then be shaped separately to achieve a desired effect.","title":"Implementation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Congestion control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congestion_control"},{"link_name":"TCP's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol"},{"link_name":"bandwidth-delay product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth-delay_product"},{"link_name":"nice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice_(Unix)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Self-limiting sources","text":"A self-limiting source produces traffic which never exceeds some upper bound, for example media sources which cannot transmit faster than their encoded rate allows.[10] Self-limiting sources shape the traffic they generate to a greater or lesser degree. Congestion control mechanisms can also affect traffic shaping of sorts - for example TCP's window mechanism implements a variable rate constraint related to bandwidth-delay product.TCP Nice, a modified version of TCP developed by researchers at the University of Texas at Austin, allows applications to request that certain TCP connections be managed by the operating system as near zero-cost background transfers, or nice flows. Such flows interfere only minimally with foreground (non-nice) flows, while reaping a large fraction of spare network bandwidth.[11]","title":"Implementation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bandwidth management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_management"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Relationship to bandwidth management","text":"Traffic shaping is a specific technique and one of several which combined constitute bandwidth management.[12]","title":"Implementation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bandwidth throttling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_throttling"},{"link_name":"Teletraffic engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletraffic_engineering"},{"link_name":"Traffic management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_management"},{"link_name":"internet service providers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_service_provider"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"See also: Bandwidth throttling, Teletraffic engineering, and Traffic managementTraffic shaping is of interest especially to internet service providers (ISPs). Their high-cost, high-traffic networks are their major assets, and as such, are the focus of their attentions. They sometimes use traffic shaping to optimize the use of their network, sometimes by shaping traffic according to their assessment of importance and thus discouraging use of certain applications.[13]","title":"ISPs and traffic management"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"wide area network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_area_network"},{"link_name":"databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database"},{"link_name":"server farms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_farm"},{"link_name":"WAN optimization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WAN_optimization"},{"link_name":"performance-enhancing proxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance-enhancing_proxy"},{"link_name":"CIFS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIFS"}],"text":"Most companies with remote offices are now connected via a wide area network (WAN). Applications tend to be centrally hosted at the head office and remote offices are expected to pull data from central databases and server farms. As applications become more hungry in terms of bandwidth and prices of dedicated circuits being relatively high in most areas of the world, instead of increasing the size of their WAN circuits, companies feel the need to properly manage their circuits to make sure business-oriented traffic gets priority over other traffic. Traffic shaping is thus a good means for companies to avoid purchasing additional bandwidth while properly managing these resources.Alternatives to traffic shaping in this regard are application acceleration and WAN optimization and compression, which are fundamentally different from traffic shaping. Traffic shaping defines bandwidth rules whereas application acceleration using multiple techniques like a TCP performance-enhancing proxy. WAN optimization, on the other hand, compresses data streams or sends only differences in file updates. The latter is quite effective for chatty protocols like CIFS.","title":"Enterprises"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"There are several methods to detect and measure traffic shaping. Tools have been developed to assist with detection.[14][15]","title":"Traffic shaping detection"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"Network congestion avoidance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_congestion_avoidance"},{"title":"Quality of service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_service"},{"title":"Multilayer switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilayer_switch"},{"title":"TCP pacing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP_pacing"},{"title":"Broadband networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadband_networks"},{"title":"Net neutrality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_neutrality"},{"title":"Tc (Linux)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tc_(Linux)"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loren_Carpenter
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Loren Carpenter
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["1 Biography","2 Computer animation","3 Awards","4 Bibliography","5 References","6 External links"]
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American computer graphics researcher
Loren CarpenterBorn (1947-02-07) February 7, 1947 (age 77)Brighton, MichiganEducationB.S. in mathematics,M.S. in computer scienceAlma materUniversity of WashingtonOccupationComputer graphics scientistSpouseRachelChildren1
Loren C. Carpenter (born February 7, 1947) is a computer graphics researcher and developer.
Biography
He was a co-founder and chief scientist of Pixar Animation Studios. He is the inventor of the Reyes rendering algorithm and is one of the authors of the PhotoRealistic RenderMan software which implements Reyes and renders all of Pixar's movies. Following Disney's acquisition of Pixar, Carpenter became a senior research scientist at Disney Research. He retired in early 2014.
In around 1967 Carpenter began work at Boeing Computer Services (a part of aircraft maker Boeing) in Seattle, Washington. During his time there Carpenter studied for a B.S. in mathematics (1974) and an M.S. in Computer Science (1976), both from the University of Washington. Some of his work concerned using computer technology to improve Boeing's mechanical design processes, which were still entirely done by hand on paper.
On July 14, 1980, he gave a presentation at the SIGGRAPH conference, in which he showed "Vol Libre", a 2-minute computer generated movie. This showcased his software for generating and rendering fractally generated landscapes, and was met with a standing ovation, and (as Carpenter had hoped) he was immediately invited to work at Lucasfilm's Computer Division (which would become Pixar). There Carpenter worked on the "genesis effect" scene of Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, which featured an entire fractally-landscaped planet.
He and his wife Rachel founded Cinematrix, a company that researches computer-assisted interactive audience participation.
Carpenter invented the A-buffer hidden surface determination algorithm.
The PXR24 compression scheme used in Industrial Light & Magic's Open EXR file format is based on Carpenter's work.
In 2006 made improvements to the popular Mersenne Twister random number generator.
As of 2022 Carpenter is working with Ostrich Air Inc and FireBot Labs Inc as a Private Investor and Technical Consultant for their Fully Autonomous AI Driven Fire Fighting Drone Platform.
Computer animation
Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan (1982) computer graphics: Industrial Light & Magic
André and Wally B. (1984) 3D rendering
Tin Toy (1988) elf
Toy Story (1995) modeling & animation system development/modeling team/renderman software development/shader team
A Bug's Life (1998) modeling artist
Toy Story 2 (1999) rendering software engineer
Monsters, Inc. (2001) additional effects developer
Finding Nemo (2003) studio tools research and development
The Incredibles (2004) software engineering
Cars (2006) development team: Renderman
Ratatouille (2007) renderman development
WALL-E (2008): (theme parks: Pixar studio team
Up (2009) theme parks and 360: Pixar studio team
Toy Story 3 (2010) 360 group: Pixar studio team
Cars 2 (2011) 360 group: Pixar studio team
Brave (2012) 360 group: Pixar studio team
Monsters University (2013) researcher: software research and development, Pixar Studio Team
Awards
1985, ACM SIGGRAPH Achievement Award.
1992, Scientific and Technical Academy Award (Plaque) for his contributions to the motion picture industry through the invention and development of the RenderMan software.
1994, Distinction by the Prix Ars Electronica jury for his entry Kinoetic Evolution in the category Interactive Art.
1995, Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery.
2000, Academy Award of Merit (Statuette).
2017, Cayman Islands International Film Festival Lifetime Achievement Award
Bibliography
Loren Carpenter, "The A -buffer, an antialiased hidden surface method", ACM Siggraph Computer Graphics, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 103–108, 1984
Robert L. Cook, Loren Carpenter, and Edwin Catmull. "The Reyes image rendering architecture." Computer Graphics (SIGGRAPH '87 Proceedings), pp. 95–102.
Robert L. Cook, Thomas K. Porter, Loren Carpenter, "Distributed ray tracing", ACM Siggraph Computer Graphics, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 137–145, 1984
References
Loren Carpenter at IMDb
^ a b c d e f g Perry, Tekla (April 2, 2001). "And the Oscar Goes To... Loren Carpenter". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved March 29, 2014.
^
"Disney Research - People: Loren Carpenter". Disney Research. Archived from the original on 2011-10-17.
^ Amidi, Amid (January 11, 2014). "The Man Who Invented the Name Pixar Retired Yesterday". Cartoon Brew. Retrieved March 29, 2013.
^ a b c d
Michael Rubin (October 24, 2005). Droidmaker: George Lucas And the Digital Revolution. Triad Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-937404-67-6.
^
"UW CSE Alumnus and Pixar Co-Founder Loren Carpenter". Professor Ed Lazowska, University of Washington.
^ kottke.org. 2009. Vol Libre, an amazing CG film from 1980. Available at: http://kottke.org/09/07/vol-libre-an-amazing-cg-film-from-1980
^
"Cinematrix Founders". Cinematrix Inc.
^ Florian Kainz, Rod Bogart (2009-02-18). "Technical Introduction to OpenEXR" (PDF). Industrial Light & Magic. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2011-05-25.
^
"Mersenne Twister in C, C++, C#". Professor Makoto Matsumoto, department of mathematics, Hiroshima University.
^ "About". FIREBOT LABS. Retrieved 2023-09-01.
^ "About". OSTRICH AIR. Retrieved 2023-09-01.
^
"Pixar's Catmull, Carpenter and Cook Receive Academy Award Of Merit". Pixar. March 5, 2001.
External links
Cinematrix
A chapter from Kevin Kelly's book Out of Control about Carpenter's Vol Libre animation.
Vol Libre
Authority control databases Academics
Association for Computing Machinery
DBLP
Artists
Museum of Modern Art
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphics"}],"text":"Loren C. Carpenter (born February 7, 1947) is a computer graphics researcher and developer.","title":"Loren Carpenter"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pixar Animation Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixar"},{"link_name":"Reyes rendering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reyes_rendering"},{"link_name":"PhotoRealistic RenderMan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhotoRealistic_RenderMan"},{"link_name":"Disney's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company"},{"link_name":"Disney Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney_Research"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-disney-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CBInventedPixar-3"},{"link_name":"Boeing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing"},{"link_name":"Seattle, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle,_Washington"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-droidmaker-4"},{"link_name":"University of Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washington"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lazowska-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-droidmaker-4"},{"link_name":"SIGGRAPH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIGGRAPH"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"fractally","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractal"},{"link_name":"Lucasfilm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucasfilm"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-droidmaker-4"},{"link_name":"Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Trek_II:_The_Wrath_of_Khan"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-droidmaker-4"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cinematrix-7"},{"link_name":"hidden surface determination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_surface_determination"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IEEEOscarGoes-1"},{"link_name":"Industrial Light & Magic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Light_%26_Magic"},{"link_name":"Open EXR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_EXR"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-openexr-8"},{"link_name":"Mersenne Twister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersenne_Twister"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-matsumoto-9"},{"link_name":"Ostrich Air Inc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ostrichair.com/about.html"},{"link_name":"FireBot Labs Inc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.firebotlabs.com/about.html"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"He was a co-founder and chief scientist of Pixar Animation Studios. He is the inventor of the Reyes rendering algorithm and is one of the authors of the PhotoRealistic RenderMan software which implements Reyes and renders all of Pixar's movies. Following Disney's acquisition of Pixar, Carpenter became a senior research scientist at Disney Research.[2] He retired in early 2014.[3]In around 1967 Carpenter began work at Boeing Computer Services (a part of aircraft maker Boeing) in Seattle, Washington.[4] During his time there Carpenter studied for a B.S. in mathematics (1974) and an M.S. in Computer Science (1976), both from the University of Washington.[5] Some of his work concerned using computer technology to improve Boeing's mechanical design processes, which were still entirely done by hand on paper.[4]On July 14, 1980, he gave a presentation at the SIGGRAPH conference, in which he showed \"Vol Libre\", a 2-minute computer generated movie.[6] This showcased his software for generating and rendering fractally generated landscapes, and was met with a standing ovation, and (as Carpenter had hoped) he was immediately invited to work at Lucasfilm's Computer Division (which would become Pixar).[4] There Carpenter worked on the \"genesis effect\" scene of Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, which featured an entire fractally-landscaped planet.[4]He and his wife Rachel founded Cinematrix, a company that researches computer-assisted interactive audience participation.[7]Carpenter invented the A-buffer hidden surface determination algorithm.[1]The PXR24 compression scheme used in Industrial Light & Magic's Open EXR file format is based on Carpenter's work.[8]In 2006 made improvements to the popular Mersenne Twister random number generator.[9]As of 2022 Carpenter is working with Ostrich Air Inc and FireBot Labs Inc as a Private Investor and Technical Consultant for their Fully Autonomous AI Driven Fire Fighting Drone Platform.[10][11]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Trek_II:_The_Wrath_of_Khan"},{"link_name":"Industrial Light & Magic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Light_%26_Magic"},{"link_name":"André and Wally B.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_and_Wally_B."},{"link_name":"Tin Toy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin_Toy"},{"link_name":"Toy Story","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toy_Story"},{"link_name":"A Bug's Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Bug%27s_Life"},{"link_name":"Toy Story 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toy_Story_2"},{"link_name":"Monsters, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsters,_Inc."},{"link_name":"Finding Nemo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finding_Nemo"},{"link_name":"The Incredibles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Incredibles"},{"link_name":"Cars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cars_(film)"},{"link_name":"Ratatouille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratatouille_(film)"},{"link_name":"WALL-E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WALL-E"},{"link_name":"Up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_(2009_film)"},{"link_name":"Toy Story 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toy_Story_3"},{"link_name":"Cars 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cars_2"},{"link_name":"Brave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brave_(2012_film)"},{"link_name":"Monsters University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsters_University"}],"text":"Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan (1982) computer graphics: Industrial Light & Magic\nAndré and Wally B. (1984) 3D rendering\nTin Toy (1988) elf\nToy Story (1995) modeling & animation system development/modeling team/renderman software development/shader team\nA Bug's Life (1998) modeling artist\nToy Story 2 (1999) rendering software engineer\nMonsters, Inc. (2001) additional effects developer\nFinding Nemo (2003) studio tools research and development\nThe Incredibles (2004) software engineering\nCars (2006) development team: Renderman\nRatatouille (2007) renderman development\nWALL-E (2008): (theme parks: Pixar studio team\nUp (2009) theme parks and 360: Pixar studio team\nToy Story 3 (2010) 360 group: Pixar studio team\nCars 2 (2011) 360 group: Pixar studio team\nBrave (2012) 360 group: Pixar studio team\nMonsters University (2013) researcher: software research and development, Pixar Studio Team","title":"Computer animation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ACM SIGGRAPH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACM_SIGGRAPH"},{"link_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pixar_oscar-12"},{"link_name":"Cayman Islands International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayman_Islands_International_Film_Festival"}],"text":"1985, ACM SIGGRAPH Achievement Award.\n1992, Scientific and Technical Academy Award (Plaque) for his contributions to the motion picture industry through the invention and development of the RenderMan software.\n1994, Distinction by the Prix Ars Electronica jury for his entry Kinoetic Evolution in the category Interactive Art.\n1995, Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery.\n2000, Academy Award of Merit (Statuette).[12]\n2017, Cayman Islands International Film Festival Lifetime Achievement Award","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Robert L. Cook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_L._Cook"},{"link_name":"Edwin Catmull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Catmull"},{"link_name":"Reyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reyes_rendering"},{"link_name":"SIGGRAPH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIGGRAPH"},{"link_name":"Thomas K. Porter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Porter_(Pixar)"}],"text":"Loren Carpenter, \"The A -buffer, an antialiased hidden surface method\", ACM Siggraph Computer Graphics, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 103–108, 1984\nRobert L. Cook, Loren Carpenter, and Edwin Catmull. \"The Reyes image rendering architecture.\" Computer Graphics (SIGGRAPH '87 Proceedings), pp. 95–102.\nRobert L. Cook, Thomas K. Porter, Loren Carpenter, \"Distributed ray tracing\", ACM Siggraph Computer Graphics, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 137–145, 1984","title":"Bibliography"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"Perry, Tekla (April 2, 2001). \"And the Oscar Goes To... Loren Carpenter\". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved March 29, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://spectrum.ieee.org/at-work/tech-careers/and-the-oscar-goes-to/carpenter","url_text":"\"And the Oscar Goes To... Loren Carpenter\""}]},{"reference":"\"Disney Research - People: Loren Carpenter\". Disney Research. Archived from the original on 2011-10-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111017085943/http://www.disneyresearch.com/people/senior_research_scientists/loren_carpenter.htm","url_text":"\"Disney Research - People: Loren Carpenter\""},{"url":"http://www.disneyresearch.com/people/senior_research_scientists/loren_carpenter.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Amidi, Amid (January 11, 2014). \"The Man Who Invented the Name Pixar Retired Yesterday\". Cartoon Brew. Retrieved March 29, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cartoonbrew.com/pixar/the-man-who-invented-the-name-pixar-retired-yesterday-94416.html","url_text":"\"The Man Who Invented the Name Pixar Retired Yesterday\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartoon_Brew","url_text":"Cartoon Brew"}]},{"reference":"Michael Rubin (October 24, 2005). Droidmaker: George Lucas And the Digital Revolution. Triad Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-937404-67-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/droidmakergeorge0000rubi","url_text":"Droidmaker: George Lucas And the Digital Revolution"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-937404-67-6","url_text":"978-0-937404-67-6"}]},{"reference":"\"UW CSE Alumnus and Pixar Co-Founder Loren Carpenter\". Professor Ed Lazowska, University of Washington.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cs.washington.edu/homes/lazowska/impact/carpenter.html","url_text":"\"UW CSE Alumnus and Pixar Co-Founder Loren Carpenter\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cinematrix Founders\". Cinematrix Inc.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cinematrix.com/founders.html","url_text":"\"Cinematrix Founders\""}]},{"reference":"Florian Kainz, Rod Bogart (2009-02-18). \"Technical Introduction to OpenEXR\" (PDF). Industrial Light & Magic. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2011-05-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110717152538/http://www.openexr.com/TechnicalIntroduction.pdf","url_text":"\"Technical Introduction to OpenEXR\""},{"url":"http://www.openexr.com/TechnicalIntroduction.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Mersenne Twister in C, C++, C#\". Professor Makoto Matsumoto, department of mathematics, Hiroshima University.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/VERSIONS/C-LANG/c-lang.html","url_text":"\"Mersenne Twister in C, C++, C#\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshima_University","url_text":"Hiroshima University"}]},{"reference":"\"About\". FIREBOT LABS. Retrieved 2023-09-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.firebotlabs.com/about.html","url_text":"\"About\""}]},{"reference":"\"About\". OSTRICH AIR. Retrieved 2023-09-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ostrichair.com/about.html","url_text":"\"About\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pixar's Catmull, Carpenter and Cook Receive Academy Award Of Merit\". Pixar. March 5, 2001.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pixar.com/companyinfo/press_box/news/20010305-70673.htm","url_text":"\"Pixar's Catmull, Carpenter and Cook Receive Academy Award Of Merit\""}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigfox
|
Sigfox
|
["1 Technology","2 Coverage","3 References"]
|
Sigfox S.A.Native nameSIGFOXCompany typeSociété AnonymeIndustryWireless servicesFounded2010FoundersLudovic Le Moan and Christophe FourtetHeadquartersLabège, near Toulouse, FranceArea servedGlobalKey peopleLudovic le Moan, CEO; Anne Lauvergeon, Chairman; Christophe Fourtet, Scientific DirectorServicesIoTRevenue€50 million (2017)Number of employees375 (04/2017)Websitewww.sigfox.com
Sigfox is a French global network operator founded in 2010 that built wireless networks to connect low-power objects such as electricity meters and smartwatches, which need to be continuously on and emitting small amounts of data.
Sigfox is based in Labège near Toulouse, France, and had over 375 employees. The firm also has offices in Madrid, San Francisco, Sydney and Paris.
Sigfox had raised more than $300 million from investors that included Salesforce, Intel, Samsung, NTT, SK Telecom, energy groups Total and Air Liquide. In November 2016 Sigfox was valued at around €600 million. In January 2022 it filed for bankruptcy.
In April 2022 Singapore-based IoT network firm Unabiz subsequently acquired Sigfox and its French network operations for a reported €25 million ($27m).
Technology
Sigfox employs differential binary phase-shift keying (DBPSK) and Gaussian frequency shift keying (GFSK) over the Short-range device band of 868 MHz in Europe, and the Industrial, Scientific and Medical radio band of 902 MHz in the US. It utilizes a wide-reaching signal that passes freely through solid objects, called "Ultra Narrowband" and requires little energy, being termed a "low-power wide-area network" (LPWAN). The network is based on one-hop star topology and requires a mobile operator to carry the generated traffic. The signal can also be used to easily cover large areas and to reach underground objects. As of November 2020, the Sigfox IoT network has covered a total of 5.8 million square kilometers in a total of 72 countries with 1.3 billion of the world population reached.
Sigfox has partnered with a number of firms in the LPWAN industry such as Texas Instruments, Silicon Labs and ON Semiconductor. The ISM radio bands support limited bidirectional communication. The existing standard for Sigfox communications supports up to 140 uplink messages a day, each of which can carry a payload of 12 octets at a data rate of up to 100 bits per second.
Coverage
Map of coverage and countries under roll-out
Global coverage of Sigfox network
Continent
Country
Provider
Africa
Kenya
Liquid Telecom
Africa
Mauritius
io connect
Africa
Mayotte
io connect
Africa
Réunion
io connect
Africa
South Africa
Sqwidnet
Africa
Tunisia
IoT Tunisia
Asia
Hong Kong
Thinxtra
Asia
Iran
Parsnet
Asia
Japan
Kyocera
Asia
Malaysia
Xperanti
Asia
Oman
Momkin
Asia
Singapore
UnaBiz
Asia
South Korea
Amotech
Asia
Taiwan
UnaBiz
Asia
Thailand
Things on Net
Asia
United Arab Emirates
iWire
Europe
Austria
Heliot IoT
Europe
Belgium
Citymesh
Europe
Croatia
IoT Net
Europe
Czech Republic
SimpleCell Networks
Europe
Denmark
IoT Denmark A/S
Europe
Estonia
Connected Baltics
Europe
Finland
Connected Finland
Europe
France
Sigfox
Europe
Germany
Sigfox
Europe
Hungary
Omnicell IoTnet
Europe
Ireland
VT
Europe
Italy
NetTrotter
Europe
Liechtenstein
Heliot IoT
Europe
Luxembourg
RMS
Europe
Malta
IoT Malta
Europe
Netherlands
Hyrde
Europe
Norway
IoT Norway
Europe
Poland
Sigfox Poland
Europe
Portugal
Sigfox
Europe
Romania
Simple IoT
Europe
Slovakia
SimpleCell Networks
Europe
Spain
Sigfox
Europe
Sweden
IoT Sweden
Europe
Switzerland
Heliot IoT
Europe
Turkey
UNA IoT
Europe
Ukraine
Utilix.one
Europe
United Kingdom
WND Group
North America
Costa Rica
WND Group
North America
El Salvador
WND Group
North America
Guadeloupe
IDEO Caraïbes
North America
Martinique
IDEO Caraïbes
North America
Mexico
WND Group
North America
Panama
WND Group
North America
United States
Sigfox
Oceania
Australia
Thinxtra
Oceania
French Polynesia
VITI
Oceania
New Caledonia
iSMAC-NC
Oceania
New Zealand
Thinxtra
South America
Argentina
WND Group
South America
Brazil
WND Group
South America
Chile
WND Group
South America
Colombia
WND Group
South America
Ecuador
WND Group
South America
French Guiana
IDEO Caraïbes
References
^ "Sigfox presents 2017 results and 2018 roadmap". Sigfox. 14 February 2018. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
^ "Our Story | Sigfox". Sigfox. 2020.
^ "Residents". Partech Shaker. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
^ Renault, Enguérand (2014-07-09). "Le Shaker, une fabrique à start-up, s'installe au cœur de Paris". Le Figaro. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
^ "Sigfox, the French IoT startup that had raised more than $300M, files for bankruptcy protection as it seeks a buyer". Techcrunch.com. Techcrunch. 27 January 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
^ "Sigfox's parent company UnaBiz raises another $25 million in Series B round extension". datacenterdynamics.com. datacenterdynamics. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
^ Giedre Dregvaite; Robertas Damasevicius (30 October 2016). Information and Software Technologies: 22nd International Conference, ICIST 2016, Druskininkai, Lithuania, October 13-15, 2016, Proceedings. Springer. pp. 665–. ISBN 978-3-319-46254-7.
^ Khaldoun Al Agha; Guy Pujolle; Tara Ali Yahiya (17 August 2016). Mobile and Wireless Networks. Wiley. pp. 241–. ISBN 978-1-119-00755-5.
^ "Our Story | Sigfox". Sigfox. 2020. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
^ Augustin, Aloÿs; Yi, Jiazi; Clausen, Thomas; Townsley, William Mark (2016-09-09). Kim, Dongkyun (ed.). "A Study of LoRa: Long Range & Low Power Networks for the Internet of Things". Sensors. 16 (9): 2–3. Bibcode:2016Senso..16.1466A. doi:10.3390/s16091466. PMC 5038744. PMID 27618064.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"wireless networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network"},{"link_name":"electricity meters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_meter"},{"link_name":"smartwatches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartwatch"},{"link_name":"Labège","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lab%C3%A8ge"},{"link_name":"Toulouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toulouse"},{"link_name":"Madrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrid"},{"link_name":"San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Partech_Shaker-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Figaro-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bankruptcy-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Purchase-6"}],"text":"Sigfox is a French global network operator founded in 2010[2] that built wireless networks to connect low-power objects such as electricity meters and smartwatches, which need to be continuously on and emitting small amounts of data.Sigfox is based in Labège near Toulouse, France, and had over 375 employees. The firm also has offices in Madrid, San Francisco, Sydney and Paris.[3][4]Sigfox had raised more than $300 million from investors that included Salesforce, Intel, Samsung, NTT, SK Telecom, energy groups Total and Air Liquide. In November 2016 Sigfox was valued at around €600 million. In January 2022 it filed for bankruptcy.[5]In April 2022 Singapore-based IoT network firm Unabiz subsequently acquired Sigfox and its French network operations for a reported €25 million ($27m).[6]","title":"Sigfox"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"phase-shift keying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-shift_keying"},{"link_name":"Gaussian frequency shift keying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency-shift_keying#Gaussian_frequency-shift_keying"},{"link_name":"Short-range device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-range_device"},{"link_name":"Industrial, Scientific and Medical radio band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial,_Scientific_and_Medical_radio_band"},{"link_name":"Ultra Narrowband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_Narrowband"},{"link_name":"low-power wide-area network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LPWAN"},{"link_name":"LPWAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LPWAN"},{"link_name":"star topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_topology#Star"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DregvaiteDamasevicius2016-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AghaPujolle2016-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Texas Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments"},{"link_name":"Silicon Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Labs"},{"link_name":"ON Semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ON_Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"octets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octet_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Sigfox employs differential binary phase-shift keying (DBPSK) and Gaussian frequency shift keying (GFSK) over the Short-range device band of 868 MHz in Europe, and the Industrial, Scientific and Medical radio band of 902 MHz in the US. It utilizes a wide-reaching signal that passes freely through solid objects, called \"Ultra Narrowband\" and requires little energy, being termed a \"low-power wide-area network\" (LPWAN). The network is based on one-hop star topology and requires a mobile operator to carry the generated traffic.[7] The signal can also be used to easily cover large areas and to reach underground objects.[8] As of November 2020, the Sigfox IoT network has covered a total of 5.8 million square kilometers in a total of 72 countries with 1.3 billion of the world population reached.[9]Sigfox has partnered with a number of firms in the LPWAN industry such as Texas Instruments, Silicon Labs and ON Semiconductor. The ISM radio bands support limited bidirectional communication. The existing standard for Sigfox communications supports up to 140 uplink messages a day, each of which can carry a payload of 12 octets at a data rate of up to 100 bits per second.[10]","title":"Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Map of coverage and countries under roll-out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.sigfox.com/en/coverage"}],"text":"Map of coverage and countries under roll-out","title":"Coverage"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Delium
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Battle of Delium
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["1 Prelude","2 Battle","3 Aftermath","4 References","5 Sources"]
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Coordinates: 38°20′53″N 23°38′57″E / 38.34806°N 23.64917°E / 38.34806; 23.64917424 BC military engagement during the Peloponnesian WarThis article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Battle of Delium (Delion)Part of the Peloponnesian WarSocrates at the Battle of Delium (Thomas Couture, 1843)Date424 BCLocationDeliumResult
Boeotian victoryBelligerents
Athens
BoeotiaCommanders and leaders
Hippocrates †
PagondasStrength
17,000 total
7,000 hoplites10,000 metics
18,500 total
7,000 hoplites10,000 light-armed troops1,000 cavalry500 peltastsCasualties and losses
About 1,200
About 500
vtePeloponnesian War
Sybota
Potidaea
Spartolos
Rhium
Naupactus
Plataea
1st Mytilene
Tanagra
Aetolia
Olpae
Idomene
Pylos
Sphacteria
Megara
Delium
Amphipolis
Mantinea
Hysiae
Orneae
Melos
Sicilian Expedition
Syme
Eretria
Cynossema
Abydos
Cyzicus
Notium
2nd Mytilene
Arginusae
Aegospotami
The Battle of Delium (or Delion, a city in Boeotia) took place in 424 BC, during the Peloponnesian War. It was fought between the Athenians and the Boeotians, who were allies of the Spartans, and ended with the siege of Delium in the following weeks.
Prelude
In 424 BC, the Athenian generals Demosthenes and Hippocrates planned to invade Boeotia. Demosthenes mistakenly sailed too early and landed at Siphae, where his plans were betrayed by a Phocian named Nicomachus. As Hippocrates had not yet arrived, Demosthenes could not attack and was forced to withdraw.
Hippocrates eventually arrived in Boeotia with an Athenian army and began to fortify the temple at Delium. After five days, the fortifications were complete, and Hippocrates set up a garrison and sent the rest of his army back to Athens. At the same time, the Boeotians gathered their army to challenge Hippocrates, but when they saw that the Athenians were leaving, many of them thought that it was pointless to attack. Pagondas of Thebes, the commander of the Boeotian forces, urged them to attack anyway because he knew that the Athenians would eventually return and use Delium as a base for further invasions.
Battle
Troop movements during the battle
Pagondas moved his army into position near the Athenians although both armies were hidden from each other by a hill. The Boeotians had 7,000 hoplites, 1,000 cavalry, 500 peltasts and 10,000 light troops. The right wing was formed by troops from Thebes, and the Thebans drew themselves up to a depth of 25 men, rather than the usual 8; the centre by men from Haliartus, Coronea, and Copiae; and the left wing by troops from Thespiae, Tanagra, and Orchomenus. They were later joined by the Locrians. When Hippocrates learned of the Boeotian army, he joined the main Athenian force, leaving 300 cavalry behind at Delium. The Athenians had about the same numbers of hoplites and cavalry, but had fewer lightly armed troops, mostly from their allied cities. They lined up at the usual depth. Because of the asymmetry in deployment, the Theban right wing would almost certainly be victorious but also because of their deployment the Athenian hoplite line was longer and would outflank the Boeotian left line. That unique deployment by the Theban general Pagondas explains the subsequent unfolding and progress of the battle.
The Boeotians charged unexpectedly while Hippocrates was giving a speech to his men. The centre lines saw the heaviest fighting. As Thucydides reports, the Boeotian left wing was surrounded and close to defeat, and only the Thespian contingent stood its ground. The victorious Athenian line got into confusion as it circled round the Thespian contingent and surrounded it. Some of the Athenian hoplites fought and killed one another when they met at the other end, mistaking their countrymen for the enemy. That was history's first documented incident of "friendly fire" It is thought the incident occurred in part because no "state" shield devices were in use, which did not seem to have become general until the Second Battle of Mantinea, fought in 362 BC between the Thebans and the Spartans (and each side's allies) . In any case, Pagondas sent his cavalry to support the Boeotian left wing and the Athenians were defeated in turn. Meanwhile, the Boeotian right wing was also victorious, and the Athenians fighting there fled. When the Athenian centre saw that its two wings had been defeated, it also fled. About 500 Boeotians and 1,000 Athenians had been killed, including Hippocrates.
One of the Athenian hoplites in the battle was the philosopher Socrates. Plato has Alcibiades give the following account of the retreat of the Athenians at Delium, and Socrates' own actions then:
Furthermore, men, it was worthwhile to behold Socrates when the army retreated in flight from Delium; for I happened to be there on horseback and he was a hoplite. The soldiers were then in rout, and while he and Laches were retreating together, I came upon them by chance. And as soon as I saw them, I at once urged the two of them to take heart, and I said I would not leave them behind. I had an even finer opportunity to observe Socrates there than I had had at Potidaea, for I was less in fear because I was on horseback. First of all, how much more sensible he was than Laches; and secondly, it was my opinion, Aristophanes (and this point is yours); that walking there just as he does here in Athens, 'stalking like a pelican, his eyes darting from side to side,' quietly on the lookout for friends and foes, he made it plain to everyone even at a great distance that if one touches this real man, he will defend himself vigorously. Consequently, he went away safely, both he and his comrade; for when you behave in war as he did, then they just about do not even touch you; instead they pursue those who turn in headlong flight.
The Boeotians chased the Athenians until nightfall. Most of the Athenians returned to the fort at Delium, where a Boeotian herald announced that they were offending land that was sacred to the Boeotians and must leave. The Athenians replied that the land was now theirs and was now sacred to them and that they held it in self-defense from the Boeotians.
Aftermath
For two weeks, there was no action, but the Boeotians were joined by 2,000 hoplites from Corinth, as well as other troops from their various allies. The Boeotians constructed a strange device, which, according to the description in Thucydides (4.100), seems to have been a kind of flamethrower and used the weapon to set fire to Delium and chase away the Athenians. Only about 200 Athenians were killed; the rest were allowed to escape. After Delium had been recaptured, Demosthenes and his forces finally arrived, but the lack of communication between him and Hippocrates meant that his arrival was essentially useless. He landed near Sicyon but was quickly defeated.
Boeotian flame thrower (model), Thessaloniki Science Center and Technology Museum
Boeotian Flamethrower. Study-design: Th. P. Tassios Drawing: J. Nakas
In addition to showing an innovative use of a new technology, Pagondas made use of planned tactical warfare for one of the first times in recorded history. In the previous centuries, battles between Greek city-states had been relatively simple encounters between massed formations of hoplites. Cavalry played no important role, and all depended on the unity and force of the massed ranks of the infantry, straining against the opponent. At Delium, Pagondas made use of deeper ranks, reserves, cavalry interventions, light-armed skirmishers (peltasts) and gradual changes in tactics during the battle.
References
^ a b Kagan, Donald (1974), the Archidamian War, p. 281.
^ a b c d Kagan, Donald (1974), the Archidamian War, p. 282.
^ Regan, Geoffrey (1995). Back Fire. London: Robson Books.
^ Plato, Symposium, 220d–221c)
Sources
Hanson, Victor Davis. Ripples of Battle: How Wars Fought Long Ago Still Determine How We Fight, How We Live, and How We Think. Doubleday, 2003. ISBN 0-385-50400-4
Plato, Plato's Symposium. Trans. Seth Benardete. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001.
Authority control databases: National
Israel
United States
38°20′53″N 23°38′57″E / 38.34806°N 23.64917°E / 38.34806; 23.64917
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It was fought between the Athenians and the Boeotians, who were allies of the Spartans, and ended with the siege of Delium in the following weeks.","title":"Battle of Delium"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Demosthenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demosthenes_(general)"},{"link_name":"Hippocrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates_of_Athens"},{"link_name":"Siphae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siphae"},{"link_name":"Phocian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phocis"},{"link_name":"Pagondas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagondas"},{"link_name":"Thebes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thebes,_Greece"}],"text":"In 424 BC, the Athenian generals Demosthenes and Hippocrates planned to invade Boeotia. Demosthenes mistakenly sailed too early and landed at Siphae, where his plans were betrayed by a Phocian named Nicomachus. As Hippocrates had not yet arrived, Demosthenes could not attack and was forced to withdraw.Hippocrates eventually arrived in Boeotia with an Athenian army and began to fortify the temple at Delium. After five days, the fortifications were complete, and Hippocrates set up a garrison and sent the rest of his army back to Athens. At the same time, the Boeotians gathered their army to challenge Hippocrates, but when they saw that the Athenians were leaving, many of them thought that it was pointless to attack. Pagondas of Thebes, the commander of the Boeotian forces, urged them to attack anyway because he knew that the Athenians would eventually return and use Delium as a base for further invasions.","title":"Prelude"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_delium_map.png"},{"link_name":"hoplites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoplite"},{"link_name":"cavalry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalry"},{"link_name":"peltasts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peltast"},{"link_name":"Haliartus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haliartus"},{"link_name":"Coronea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronea"},{"link_name":"Copiae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copia_(Boeotia)"},{"link_name":"Thespiae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thespiae"},{"link_name":"Tanagra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanagra"},{"link_name":"Orchomenus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchomenus_(Boeotia)"},{"link_name":"Locrians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locrians"},{"link_name":"Thucydides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydides"},{"link_name":"friendly fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendly_fire"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Second Battle of Mantinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mantinea_(362_BC)"},{"link_name":"Spartans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spartans"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20050404070722/http://www.ospreypublishing.com/content4.php/cid%3D203"},{"link_name":"Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"Alcibiades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcibiades"},{"link_name":"Potidaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potidaea"},{"link_name":"Laches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laches_(general)"},{"link_name":"Aristophanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristophanes"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Troop movements during the battlePagondas moved his army into position near the Athenians although both armies were hidden from each other by a hill. The Boeotians had 7,000 hoplites, 1,000 cavalry, 500 peltasts and 10,000 light troops. The right wing was formed by troops from Thebes, and the Thebans drew themselves up to a depth of 25 men, rather than the usual 8; the centre by men from Haliartus, Coronea, and Copiae; and the left wing by troops from Thespiae, Tanagra, and Orchomenus. They were later joined by the Locrians. When Hippocrates learned of the Boeotian army, he joined the main Athenian force, leaving 300 cavalry behind at Delium. The Athenians had about the same numbers of hoplites and cavalry, but had fewer lightly armed troops, mostly from their allied cities. They lined up at the usual depth. Because of the asymmetry in deployment, the Theban right wing would almost certainly be victorious but also because of their deployment the Athenian hoplite line was longer and would outflank the Boeotian left line. That unique deployment by the Theban general Pagondas explains the subsequent unfolding and progress of the battle.The Boeotians charged unexpectedly while Hippocrates was giving a speech to his men. The centre lines saw the heaviest fighting. As Thucydides reports, the Boeotian left wing was surrounded and close to defeat, and only the Thespian contingent stood its ground. The victorious Athenian line got into confusion as it circled round the Thespian contingent and surrounded it. Some of the Athenian hoplites fought and killed one another when they met at the other end, mistaking their countrymen for the enemy. That was history's first documented incident of \"friendly fire\"[3] It is thought the incident occurred in part because no \"state\" shield devices were in use, which did not seem to have become general until the Second Battle of Mantinea, fought in 362 BC between the Thebans and the Spartans (and each side's allies) [1]. In any case, Pagondas sent his cavalry to support the Boeotian left wing and the Athenians were defeated in turn. Meanwhile, the Boeotian right wing was also victorious, and the Athenians fighting there fled. When the Athenian centre saw that its two wings had been defeated, it also fled. About 500 Boeotians and 1,000 Athenians had been killed, including Hippocrates.One of the Athenian hoplites in the battle was the philosopher Socrates. Plato has Alcibiades give the following account of the retreat of the Athenians at Delium, and Socrates' own actions then:Furthermore, men, it was worthwhile to behold Socrates when the army retreated in flight from Delium; for I happened to be there on horseback and he was a hoplite. The soldiers were then in rout, and while he and Laches were retreating together, I came upon them by chance. And as soon as I saw them, I at once urged the two of them to take heart, and I said I would not leave them behind. I had an even finer opportunity to observe Socrates there than I had had at Potidaea, for I was less in fear because I was on horseback. First of all, how much more sensible he was than Laches; and secondly, it was my opinion, Aristophanes (and this point is yours); that walking there just as he does here in Athens, 'stalking like a pelican, his eyes darting from side to side,' quietly on the lookout for friends and foes, he made it plain to everyone even at a great distance that if one touches this real man, he will defend himself vigorously. Consequently, he went away safely, both he and his comrade; for when you behave in war as he did, then they just about do not even touch you; instead they pursue those who turn in headlong flight.[4]The Boeotians chased the Athenians until nightfall. Most of the Athenians returned to the fort at Delium, where a Boeotian herald announced that they were offending land that was sacred to the Boeotians and must leave. The Athenians replied that the land was now theirs and was now sacred to them and that they held it in self-defense from the Boeotians.","title":"Battle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thucydides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydides"},{"link_name":"flamethrower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flamethrower"},{"link_name":"Sicyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicyon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boeotian_flame_thrower,_5th_century_BC,_Greece_(model).jpg"},{"link_name":"Thessaloniki Science Center and Technology Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaloniki_Science_Center_and_Technology_Museum"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boeotian_Flamethrower.png"}],"text":"For two weeks, there was no action, but the Boeotians were joined by 2,000 hoplites from Corinth, as well as other troops from their various allies. The Boeotians constructed a strange device, which, according to the description in Thucydides (4.100), seems to have been a kind of flamethrower and used the weapon to set fire to Delium and chase away the Athenians. Only about 200 Athenians were killed; the rest were allowed to escape. After Delium had been recaptured, Demosthenes and his forces finally arrived, but the lack of communication between him and Hippocrates meant that his arrival was essentially useless. He landed near Sicyon but was quickly defeated.Boeotian flame thrower (model), Thessaloniki Science Center and Technology Museum\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBoeotian Flamethrower. Study-design: Th. P. Tassios Drawing: J. NakasIn addition to showing an innovative use of a new technology, Pagondas made use of planned tactical warfare for one of the first times in recorded history. In the previous centuries, battles between Greek city-states had been relatively simple encounters between massed formations of hoplites. Cavalry played no important role, and all depended on the unity and force of the massed ranks of the infantry, straining against the opponent. At Delium, Pagondas made use of deeper ranks, reserves, cavalry interventions, light-armed skirmishers (peltasts) and gradual changes in tactics during the battle.","title":"Aftermath"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-385-50400-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-50400-4"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1424844#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007537459105171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2003001270"},{"link_name":"38°20′53″N 23°38′57″E / 38.34806°N 23.64917°E / 38.34806; 23.64917","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Battle_of_Delium¶ms=38_20_53_N_23_38_57_E_type:landmark_source:kolossus-elwiki"}],"text":"Hanson, Victor Davis. Ripples of Battle: How Wars Fought Long Ago Still Determine How We Fight, How We Live, and How We Think. Doubleday, 2003. ISBN 0-385-50400-4\nPlato, Plato's Symposium. Trans. Seth Benardete. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001.Authority control databases: National \nIsrael\nUnited States38°20′53″N 23°38′57″E / 38.34806°N 23.64917°E / 38.34806; 23.64917","title":"Sources"}]
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[{"image_text":"Troop movements during the battle","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Battle_of_delium_map.png/220px-Battle_of_delium_map.png"}]
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[{"reference":"Regan, Geoffrey (1995). Back Fire. London: Robson Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Regan","url_text":"Regan, Geoffrey"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Battle_of_Delium¶ms=38_20_53_N_23_38_57_E_type:landmark_source:kolossus-elwiki","external_links_name":"38°20′53″N 23°38′57″E / 38.34806°N 23.64917°E / 38.34806; 23.64917"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050404070722/http://www.ospreypublishing.com/content4.php/cid%3D203","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007537459105171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2003001270","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Battle_of_Delium¶ms=38_20_53_N_23_38_57_E_type:landmark_source:kolossus-elwiki","external_links_name":"38°20′53″N 23°38′57″E / 38.34806°N 23.64917°E / 38.34806; 23.64917"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Shijie
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Zhu Shijie
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["1 Suanxue qimeng","2 Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns","3 References","4 External links"]
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Chinese mathematician during the Yuan dynasty
For the artist, see Zhu Shijie (painter).
This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
In this Chinese name, the family name is Zhu.
SIYUAN YUJIAN PDF-036-036
Zhu Shijie (simplified Chinese: 朱世杰; traditional Chinese: 朱世傑; pinyin: Zhū Shìjié; Wade–Giles: Chu Shih-chieh, 1249–1314), courtesy name Hanqing (漢卿), pseudonym Songting (松庭), was a Chinese mathematician and writer during the Yuan Dynasty. Zhu was born close to today's Beijing. Two of his mathematical works have survived: Introduction to Computational Studies (算學啓蒙 Suan hsüeh Ch'i-mong) and Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns.
Suanxue qimeng
Suanxue qimeng
The Suan hsüeh Ch'i-mong (算學啓蒙), written in 1299, is an elementary textbook on mathematics in three volumes, 20 chapters and 259 problems. This book also showed how to measure two-dimensional shapes and three-dimensional solids. The Introduction strongly influenced the development of mathematics in Japan. The book was once lost in China, until the Qing dynasty mathematician Luo Shilin bought a Korean printed edition and republished it in Yangzhou.
Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns
Illustrations in Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns
Zhu's second book, Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns (1303) is his most important work, advancing Chinese algebra. The first four of the 288 solved problems illustrate his method of the four unknowns. He shows how to convert a problem stated verbally into a system of polynomial equations (up to 14th order), by using up to four unknowns: 天 Heaven, 地 Earth, 人 Man, 物 Matter, and then how to reduce the system to a single polynomial equation in one unknown by successive elimination of unknowns. He then solves the high order equation by "Ling long kai fang" method of Southern Song dynasty mathematician Qin Jiushao (from Shùshū Jiǔzhāng, “Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections” of 1247). This was more than 570 years before English mathematician William Horner's method using synthetic division. Zhu makes use of what is currently known as Pascal's triangle, which he refers to as discovered by Jia Xian before 1050. The final equation and one of its solutions is given for each of the 288 problems.
Zhu also found square and cube roots by solving quadratic and cubic equations, and added to the understanding of series and progressions, classifying them according to the coefficients of the Pascal triangle. He also showed how to solve systems of linear equations by reducing the matrix of their coefficients to diagonal form. He moreover applied these methods to algebraic equations, using a version of the resultant. His methods pre-date Blaise Pascal, William Horner, and modern matrix methods by many centuries. The preface of the book describes how Zhu traveled China for 20 years teaching mathematics.
The methods of Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns form the foundation for Wu's method of characteristic set.
References
^ "Zhu Shijie - Biography". Maths History. Retrieved 2023-07-03.
^ Mumford 2010, p. 122.
Du, Shiran, "Zhu Shijie". Encyclopedia of China (Mathematics Edition), 1st ed.
GRATTAN-GUINNESS, I.: The Norton History of the Mathematical Sciences, 1998.
Guo Shuchun (tr. modern Chinese), Chen Zaixin (English tr.), Guo Jinhai (annotation), Zhu Shijie: Jade mirror of the Four Unknowns, Chinese and English bilingual, vol I & 2, Liaoning education Press, China, 2006. ISBN 7-5382-6923-1
HO Peng-Yoke: Article on Chu Shih-chieh in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography, New York, 1970.hi
Hoe, J.: The jade mirror of the four unknowns, Mingming Bookroom, New Zealand, 2007. ISBN 1-877209-14-7
Hoe, J.: Les systèmes d'équations polynômes dans le Siyuan Yujian (1303), Paris, Collège de France (Mémoires de l'Institut des Hautes Etudes Chinoises, Vol VI),1977.
KONANTZ, E.L.:The Precious Mirror of the Four Elements, China journal of Science and Arts, Vol 2, No 4, 1924.
LAM Lay-yong: Chu shih-chieh's Suan hsüeh ch'i-meng, Archive for the history of sciences, Vol 21, Berlin, 1970.
MARTZLOFF, J-C.: A history of Chinese Mathematics, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1997.
MIKAMI Yoshio, Development of Mathematics in China and Japan, Chapter 14 Chu Shih-chieh p89-98. 1913 Leipzig. Library of Congress catalog card number 61-13497.
Mumford, David, "What’s so Baffling About Negative Numbers? — a Cross-Cultural Comparison", in C. S. Seshadri (Ed.), Studies in the History of Indian Mathematics, 2010.
External links
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Zhu Shijie", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
2
VIAF
2
WorldCat
National
Germany
Israel
United States
2
Australia
Korea
Netherlands
Academics
CiNii
zbMATH
Other
IdRef
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Zhu Shijie (painter)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Shijie_(painter)"},{"link_name":"Chinese name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_name"},{"link_name":"family name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_surname"},{"link_name":"Zhu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_(surname)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SIYUAN_YUJIAN_PDF-036-036.jpg"},{"link_name":"simplified Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"traditional Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Wade–Giles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles"},{"link_name":"courtesy name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtesy_name"},{"link_name":"pseudonym","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudonym"},{"link_name":"Yuan Dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Dynasty"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jade_Mirror_of_the_Four_Unknowns"}],"text":"For the artist, see Zhu Shijie (painter).In this Chinese name, the family name is Zhu.SIYUAN YUJIAN PDF-036-036Zhu Shijie (simplified Chinese: 朱世杰; traditional Chinese: 朱世傑; pinyin: Zhū Shìjié; Wade–Giles: Chu Shih-chieh, 1249–1314), courtesy name Hanqing (漢卿), pseudonym Songting (松庭), was a Chinese mathematician and writer during the Yuan Dynasty.[1] Zhu was born close to today's Beijing. Two of his mathematical works have survived: Introduction to Computational Studies (算學啓蒙 Suan hsüeh Ch'i-mong) and Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns.","title":"Zhu Shijie"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%9C%B1%E4%B8%96%E6%9D%B0%E7%AE%97%E5%AD%A6%E5%90%AF%E8%92%99%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E5%A4%A9%E5%85%83%E6%9C%AF.JPG"},{"link_name":"mathematics in Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_mathematics"}],"text":"Suanxue qimengThe Suan hsüeh Ch'i-mong (算學啓蒙), written in 1299, is an elementary textbook on mathematics in three volumes, 20 chapters and 259 problems. This book also showed how to measure two-dimensional shapes and three-dimensional solids. The Introduction strongly influenced the development of mathematics in Japan. The book was once lost in China, until the Qing dynasty mathematician Luo Shilin bought a Korean printed edition and republished it in Yangzhou.","title":"Suanxue qimeng"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E5%9B%9B%E5%85%83%E8%87%AA%E4%B9%98%E6%BC%94%E6%AE%B5%E5%9B%BE.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jade_Mirror_of_the_Four_Unknowns"},{"link_name":"Southern Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Song"},{"link_name":"Qin Jiushao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_Jiushao"},{"link_name":"Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_Treatise_in_Nine_Sections"},{"link_name":"William Horner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_George_Horner"},{"link_name":"Pascal's triangle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_triangle"},{"link_name":"Jia Xian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jia_Xian"},{"link_name":"linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_equation"},{"link_name":"diagonal form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagonal_form"},{"link_name":"algebraic equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_equation"},{"link_name":"resultant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resultant"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Blaise Pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pascal"},{"link_name":"Wu's method of characteristic set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu%27s_method_of_characteristic_set"}],"text":"Illustrations in Jade Mirror of the Four UnknownsZhu's second book, Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns (1303) is his most important work, advancing Chinese algebra. The first four of the 288 solved problems illustrate his method of the four unknowns. He shows how to convert a problem stated verbally into a system of polynomial equations (up to 14th order), by using up to four unknowns: 天 Heaven, 地 Earth, 人 Man, 物 Matter, and then how to reduce the system to a single polynomial equation in one unknown by successive elimination of unknowns. He then solves the high order equation by \"Ling long kai fang\" method of Southern Song dynasty mathematician Qin Jiushao (from Shùshū Jiǔzhāng, “Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections” of 1247). This was more than 570 years before English mathematician William Horner's method using synthetic division. Zhu makes use of what is currently known as Pascal's triangle, which he refers to as discovered by Jia Xian before 1050. The final equation and one of its solutions is given for each of the 288 problems.Zhu also found square and cube roots by solving quadratic and cubic equations, and added to the understanding of series and progressions, classifying them according to the coefficients of the Pascal triangle. He also showed how to solve systems of linear equations by reducing the matrix of their coefficients to diagonal form. He moreover applied these methods to algebraic equations, using a version of the resultant.[2] His methods pre-date Blaise Pascal, William Horner, and modern matrix methods by many centuries. The preface of the book describes how Zhu traveled China for 20 years teaching mathematics.The methods of Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns form the foundation for Wu's method of characteristic set.","title":"Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Zhu Shijie - Biography\". Maths History. Retrieved 2023-07-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Zhu_Shijie/","url_text":"\"Zhu Shijie - Biography\""}]},{"reference":"O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., \"Zhu Shijie\", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson","url_text":"Robertson, Edmund F."},{"url":"https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Zhu_Shijie.html","url_text":"\"Zhu Shijie\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive","url_text":"MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews","url_text":"University of St Andrews"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Zhu_Shijie/","external_links_name":"\"Zhu Shijie - Biography\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070929095946/http://203.72.198.245/web/Content.asp?ID=43658&Query=1","external_links_name":"\"Zhu Shijie\""},{"Link":"https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Zhu_Shijie.html","external_links_name":"\"Zhu Shijie\""},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1859902/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000064366926","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000050442545","external_links_name":"2"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/76215499","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/6785463","external_links_name":"2"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJjtf6qw7gDB7W9gb6y8G3","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/1258841673","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007316969605171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/nr96026903","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n2004058081","external_links_name":"2"},{"Link":"https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an36721329","external_links_name":"Australia"},{"Link":"https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC2020J5556","external_links_name":"Korea"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p222367903","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA10314479?l=en","external_links_name":"CiNii"},{"Link":"https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:zhu.shijie.1","external_links_name":"zbMATH"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/243034679","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Experiment_Note
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Internet Experiment Note
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["1 External links"]
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Technical publications related to development of precursors of the modern Internet
An Internet Experiment Note (IEN) is a sequentially numbered document in a series of technical publications issued by the participants of the early development work groups that created the precursors of the modern Internet.
After DARPA began the Internet program in earnest in 1977, the project members were in need of communication and documentation of their work in order to realize the concepts laid out by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf some years before. The Request for Comments (RFC) series was considered the province of the ARPANET project and the Network Working Group (NWG) which defined the network protocols used on it. Thus, the members of the Internet project decided on publishing their own series of documents, Internet Experiment Notes, which were modeled after the RFCs.
Jon Postel became the editor of the new series, in addition to his existing role of administering the long-standing RFC series. Between March, 1977, and September, 1982, 206 IENs were published. After that, with the plan to terminate support of the Network Control Protocol (NCP) on the ARPANET and switch to TCP/IP, the production of IENs was discontinued, and all further publication was conducted within the existing RFC system.
External links
IEN scan archive at the University of Minnesota
IEN index at rfc-editor.org
This computer networking article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"DARPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA"},{"link_name":"Bob Kahn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Kahn"},{"link_name":"Vint Cerf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vint_Cerf"},{"link_name":"Request for Comments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments"},{"link_name":"ARPANET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET"},{"link_name":"network protocols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_protocols"},{"link_name":"Jon Postel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Postel"},{"link_name":"Network Control Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Control_Protocol_(ARPANET)"},{"link_name":"TCP/IP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP"}],"text":"An Internet Experiment Note (IEN) is a sequentially numbered document in a series of technical publications issued by the participants of the early development work groups that created the precursors of the modern Internet.After DARPA began the Internet program in earnest in 1977, the project members were in need of communication and documentation of their work in order to realize the concepts laid out by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf some years before. The Request for Comments (RFC) series was considered the province of the ARPANET project and the Network Working Group (NWG) which defined the network protocols used on it. Thus, the members of the Internet project decided on publishing their own series of documents, Internet Experiment Notes, which were modeled after the RFCs.Jon Postel became the editor of the new series, in addition to his existing role of administering the long-standing RFC series. Between March, 1977, and September, 1982, 206 IENs were published. After that, with the plan to terminate support of the Network Control Protocol (NCP) on the ARPANET and switch to TCP/IP, the production of IENs was discontinued, and all further publication was conducted within the existing RFC system.","title":"Internet Experiment Note"}]
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[]
| null |
[]
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[{"Link":"https://archives.lib.umn.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/49529","external_links_name":"IEN scan archive at the University of Minnesota"},{"Link":"http://www.rfc-editor.org/ien/ien-index.html","external_links_name":"IEN index at rfc-editor.org"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_Experiment_Note&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_California
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Coastal California
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["1 Geography","1.1 Climate","1.2 Counties","2 Demographics","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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Coastal portion of the U.S. state of California
Map of counties commonly seen as constituting coastal California
Coastal California, also known as the California Coastline and the Golden Coast, refers to the coastal regions of the U.S. state of California. The term is not primarily geographical as it also describes an area distinguished by cultural, economic and political attributes.
Geography
See also: North Coast (California), Central Coast (California), and South Coast (California)
The Three Arch Bay gated community along the coastline of Laguna Beach, Orange County
The area includes the North Coast, San Francisco Bay Area, Central Coast, and South Coast. The coastline is slowly eroding due to natural processes accelerated by climate change, though much more slowly in other places in the United States. In the last 100 years, the water line has risen less than 6 in (150 mm) along the coast of California. In the next 100 years, the water is expected to surge as much as 9 ft (2.7 m), bringing into question the fate of the many million dollar homes settled right on the edge of the sea.
Climate
Coastal California is heavily influenced by east–west distances to the dominant cold California Current as well as microclimates. Due to hills and coast ranges having strong meteorological effects, summer and winter temperatures (other than occasional heat waves) are heavily moderated by ocean currents and fog with strong seasonal lags compared to interior valleys as little as 10 mi (16 km) away. Point Conception tends to divide the Coastal region by mid-summer into warmer (south and east) and cooler zones (north). Peak and often intense heat tends to arrive in September much later than the rest of the nation or state. Over time, droughts and wildfires have increased in frequency and become less seasonal and more year-round, further straining the region's water security. Furthermore, extended droughts and decadal changes in land use are causing severe shoreline retreat to the coast of the Gulf of Santa Catalina.
Counties
Refugio State Beach near Gaviota, Santa Barbara County
Monterey Bay shoreline, Pacific Grove, Monterey County
Ocean Beach, San Francisco
The counties commonly seen as constituting coastal California are:
South Coast
Los Angeles
Orange
San Diego
Central Coast
Monterey
San Benito
San Luis Obispo
Santa Barbara
Santa Cruz
Ventura
San Francisco Bay Area
Alameda
Contra Costa
Marin
Napa
San Francisco
San Mateo
Santa Clara
Solano
Sonoma
North Coast
Del Norte
Humboldt
Mendocino
Demographics
During the 2000 Census, roughly a third of households had incomes exceeding $75,000, compared to 17.6% in the Central Valley and 22.5% at the national average. While the area has always been relatively expensive, when compared to inland regions and the national average, the recent real estate boom has left it as the most expensive housing market in the nation. An October 2004 CNN Money publication found that a 2,200-square-foot (200 m2) home in a "middle management neighborhood" would cost an average of $1.8 million.
See also
California Coast Ranges
California Coastal Records Project low altitude photographs of the entire coast
California State Route 1
California's congressional districts
Greater Los Angeles Area
Left Coast
References
^ Xia, Rosanna (July 7, 2019). "The California coast is disappearing under the rising sea. Our choices are grim". Retrieved July 8, 2019.
^ Milman, Oliver (October 11, 2018). "Sinking Santa Cruz: climate change threatens famed California beach town". The Guardian. Retrieved 2020-02-04.
^ www.drought.gov https://www.drought.gov. Retrieved November 20, 2021. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
^ Boxall, Bettina; St. John, Paige (November 10, 2018). "California's most destructive wildfire should not have come as a surprise". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 11, 2018.
^ "Advancing Drought Science and Preparedness across the Nation". National Integrated Drought Information System. Archived from the original on November 11, 2018. Retrieved November 11, 2018.
^ "Communications Earth & Environment, Shoreline retreat and beach nourishment are projected to increase in Southern California". Retrieved 2024-05-28.
^ "CNN Money, housing markets". Retrieved 2007-05-28.
External links
Media related to California Coast at Wikimedia Commons
Geology of the California Coast Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine by geologist Andrew Alden Archived 2016-11-10 at the Wayback Machine
Shoreline retreat and beach nourishment are projected to increase in Southern California
vteState of CaliforniaSacramento (capital)Topics
Culture
Abortion
food
music
languages
California sound
sports
California Dream
Crime
Demographics
Earthquakes
Economy
agriculture
Education
Environment
Geography
climate
ecology
flora
fauna
Government
Capitol
districts
governor
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Healthcare
History
Law
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National Historic Landmarks
National Natural Landmarks
NRHP listings
Politics
congressional delegations
elections
People
Protected areas
state parks
state historic landmarks
Symbols
Transportation
Water
Index of articles
Regions
Antelope Valley
Big Sur
California Coast Ranges
Cascade Range
Central California
Central Coast
Central Valley
Channel Islands
Coachella Valley
Coastal California
Conejo Valley
Cucamonga Valley
Death Valley
East Bay (SF Bay Area)
East County (SD)
Eastern California
Emerald Triangle
Gold Country
Great Basin
Greater San Bernardino
Inland Empire
Klamath Basin
Lake Tahoe
Greater Los Angeles
Los Angeles Basin
Lost Coast
Mojave Desert
Mountain Empire
North Bay (SF)
North Coast
North County (SD)
Northern California
Orange Coast
Owens Valley
Oxnard Plain
Peninsular Ranges
Pomona Valley
Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta
Sacramento Valley
Saddleback Valley
Salinas Valley
San Fernando Valley
San Francisco Bay Area
San Francisco Peninsula
San Gabriel Valley
San Joaquin Valley
Santa Clara Valley
Santa Clara River Valley
Santa Clarita Valley
Santa Ynez Valley
Shasta Cascade
Sierra Nevada
Silicon Valley
South Bay (LA)
South Bay (SD)
South Bay (SF)
South Coast
Southern Border Region
Southern California
Transverse Ranges
Tri-Valley
Victor Valley
Wine Country
Metro regions
Fresno–Madera
Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim
Sacramento–Roseville
Riverside–San Bernardino–Ontario
San Diego–Tijuana
San Jose–San Francisco–Oakland
Counties
Alameda
Alpine
Amador
Butte
Calaveras
Colusa
Contra Costa
Del Norte
El Dorado
Fresno
Glenn
Humboldt
Imperial
Inyo
Kern
Kings
Lake
Lassen
Los Angeles
Madera
Marin
Mariposa
Mendocino
Merced
Modoc
Mono
Monterey
Napa
Nevada
Orange
Placer
Plumas
Riverside
Sacramento
San Benito
San Bernardino
San Diego
San Francisco
San Joaquin
San Luis Obispo
San Mateo
Santa Barbara
Santa Clara
Santa Cruz
Shasta
Sierra
Siskiyou
Solano
Sonoma
Stanislaus
Sutter
Tehama
Trinity
Tulare
Tuolumne
Ventura
Yolo
Yuba
Most populouscities
Los Angeles
San Diego
San Jose
San Francisco
Fresno
Sacramento
Long Beach
Oakland
Bakersfield
Anaheim
California portal
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coastal_California_Map.svg"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"}],"text":"Map of counties commonly seen as constituting coastal CaliforniaCoastal California, also known as the California Coastline and the Golden Coast, refers to the coastal regions of the U.S. state of California. The term is not primarily geographical as it also describes an area distinguished by cultural, economic and political attributes.","title":"Coastal California"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"North Coast (California)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Coast_(California)"},{"link_name":"Central Coast (California)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Coast_(California)"},{"link_name":"South Coast (California)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Coast_(California)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Three_Arch_Bay_Photo_Taken_by_pilot_Don_Ramey_Logan.jpg"},{"link_name":"Three Arch Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Arch_Bay"},{"link_name":"Laguna Beach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laguna_Beach,_California"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Bay Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LAT_Sea_Level_Rise-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"See also: North Coast (California), Central Coast (California), and South Coast (California)The Three Arch Bay gated community along the coastline of Laguna Beach, Orange CountyThe area includes the North Coast, San Francisco Bay Area, Central Coast, and South Coast. The coastline is slowly eroding due to natural processes accelerated by climate change, though much more slowly in other places in the United States. In the last 100 years, the water line has risen less than 6 in (150 mm) along the coast of California. In the next 100 years, the water is expected to surge as much as 9 ft (2.7 m), bringing into question the fate of the many million dollar homes settled right on the edge of the sea.[1][2]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"California Current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Current"},{"link_name":"microclimates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microclimates"},{"link_name":"seasonal lags","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_lag"},{"link_name":"Point Conception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_Conception"},{"link_name":"tends to arrive in September much later","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncdc.noaa.gov/news/warmest-day-of-the-year"},{"link_name":"droughts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droughts_in_California"},{"link_name":"wildfires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_California_wildfires"},{"link_name":"water security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_security"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Communications_Earth_&_Environment-6"}],"sub_title":"Climate","text":"Coastal California is heavily influenced by east–west distances to the dominant cold California Current as well as microclimates. Due to hills and coast ranges having strong meteorological effects, summer and winter temperatures (other than occasional heat waves) are heavily moderated by ocean currents and fog with strong seasonal lags compared to interior valleys as little as 10 mi (16 km) away. Point Conception tends to divide the Coastal region by mid-summer into warmer (south and east) and cooler zones (north). Peak and often intense heat tends to arrive in September much later than the rest of the nation or state. Over time, droughts and wildfires have increased in frequency and become less seasonal and more year-round, further straining the region's water security.[3][4][5] Furthermore, extended droughts and decadal changes in land use are causing severe shoreline retreat to the coast of the Gulf of Santa Catalina.[6]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Surfers_south_of_Gaviota,_California.jpg"},{"link_name":"Refugio State Beach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugio_State_Beach"},{"link_name":"Gaviota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaviota,_California"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monterey_Bay_Seascape.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pacific Grove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Grove,_California"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ocean_Beach_San_Francisco_aerial_view.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ocean Beach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_Beach,_San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"South Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Coast_(California)"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Orange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_County,_California"},{"link_name":"San Diego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Central Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Coast_(California)"},{"link_name":"Monterey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monterey_County,_California"},{"link_name":"San Benito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Benito_County,_California"},{"link_name":"San Luis Obispo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Luis_Obispo_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Santa Barbara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Barbara_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Santa Cruz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Cruz_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Ventura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventura_County,_California"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Bay Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area"},{"link_name":"Alameda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alameda_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Contra Costa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contra_Costa_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Marin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marin_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Napa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napa_County,_California"},{"link_name":"San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"San Mateo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Mateo_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Santa Clara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Clara_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Solano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solano_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Sonoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonoma_County,_California"},{"link_name":"North Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Coast_(California)"},{"link_name":"Del Norte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Del_Norte_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Humboldt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldt_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Mendocino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendocino_County,_California"}],"sub_title":"Counties","text":"Refugio State Beach near Gaviota, Santa Barbara CountyMonterey Bay shoreline, Pacific Grove, Monterey CountyOcean Beach, San FranciscoThe counties commonly seen as constituting coastal California are:South CoastLos Angeles\nOrange\nSan DiegoCentral CoastMonterey\nSan Benito\nSan Luis Obispo\nSanta Barbara\nSanta Cruz\nVenturaSan Francisco Bay AreaAlameda\nContra Costa\nMarin\nNapa\nSan Francisco\nSan Mateo\nSanta Clara\nSolano\nSonomaNorth CoastDel Norte\nHumboldt\nMendocino","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"incomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Central Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Valley_(California)"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CNN_Money,_housing_markets-7"}],"text":"During the 2000 Census, roughly a third of households had incomes exceeding $75,000, compared to 17.6% in the Central Valley and 22.5% at the national average. While the area has always been relatively expensive, when compared to inland regions and the national average, the recent[when?] real estate boom has left it as the most expensive housing market in the nation. An October 2004 CNN Money publication found that a 2,200-square-foot (200 m2) home in a \"middle management neighborhood\" would cost an average of $1.8 million.[7]","title":"Demographics"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Map of counties commonly seen as constituting coastal California","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Coastal_California_Map.svg/250px-Coastal_California_Map.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The Three Arch Bay gated community along the coastline of Laguna Beach, Orange County","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Three_Arch_Bay_Photo_Taken_by_pilot_Don_Ramey_Logan.jpg/350px-Three_Arch_Bay_Photo_Taken_by_pilot_Don_Ramey_Logan.jpg"},{"image_text":"Refugio State Beach near Gaviota, Santa Barbara County","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Surfers_south_of_Gaviota%2C_California.jpg/350px-Surfers_south_of_Gaviota%2C_California.jpg"},{"image_text":"Monterey Bay shoreline, Pacific Grove, Monterey County","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Monterey_Bay_Seascape.jpg/350px-Monterey_Bay_Seascape.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ocean Beach, San Francisco","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Ocean_Beach_San_Francisco_aerial_view.jpg/350px-Ocean_Beach_San_Francisco_aerial_view.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"California Coast Ranges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Coast_Ranges"},{"title":"California Coastal Records Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Coastal_Records_Project"},{"title":"California State Route 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Route_1"},{"title":"California's congressional districts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California%27s_congressional_districts"},{"title":"Greater Los Angeles Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Los_Angeles_Area"},{"title":"Left Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_Coast"}]
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[{"reference":"Xia, Rosanna (July 7, 2019). \"The California coast is disappearing under the rising sea. Our choices are grim\". Retrieved July 8, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/projects/la-me-sea-level-rise-california-coast/","url_text":"\"The California coast is disappearing under the rising sea. Our choices are grim\""}]},{"reference":"Milman, Oliver (October 11, 2018). \"Sinking Santa Cruz: climate change threatens famed California beach town\". The Guardian. Retrieved 2020-02-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/oct/11/santa-cruz-sinking-climate-change-beaches-surfing","url_text":"\"Sinking Santa Cruz: climate change threatens famed California beach town\""}]},{"reference":"www.drought.gov https://www.drought.gov. Retrieved November 20, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.drought.gov/","url_text":"https://www.drought.gov"}]},{"reference":"Boxall, Bettina; St. John, Paige (November 10, 2018). \"California's most destructive wildfire should not have come as a surprise\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 11, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-camp-fire-science-20181110-story.html","url_text":"\"California's most destructive wildfire should not have come as a surprise\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Advancing Drought Science and Preparedness across the Nation\". National Integrated Drought Information System. Archived from the original on November 11, 2018. Retrieved November 11, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181111042024/https://www.drought.gov/drought/","url_text":"\"Advancing Drought Science and Preparedness across the Nation\""},{"url":"https://www.drought.gov/drought/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Communications Earth & Environment, Shoreline retreat and beach nourishment are projected to increase in Southern California\". Retrieved 2024-05-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01388-6","url_text":"\"Communications Earth & Environment, Shoreline retreat and beach nourishment are projected to increase in Southern California\""}]},{"reference":"\"CNN Money, housing markets\". Retrieved 2007-05-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://money.cnn.com/popups/2006/real_estate/best_worst/5.html","url_text":"\"CNN Money, housing markets\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/news/warmest-day-of-the-year","external_links_name":"tends to arrive in September much later"},{"Link":"https://www.latimes.com/projects/la-me-sea-level-rise-california-coast/","external_links_name":"\"The California coast is disappearing under the rising sea. Our choices are grim\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/oct/11/santa-cruz-sinking-climate-change-beaches-surfing","external_links_name":"\"Sinking Santa Cruz: climate change threatens famed California beach town\""},{"Link":"https://www.drought.gov/","external_links_name":"https://www.drought.gov"},{"Link":"https://latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-camp-fire-science-20181110-story.html","external_links_name":"\"California's most destructive wildfire should not have come as a surprise\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181111042024/https://www.drought.gov/drought/","external_links_name":"\"Advancing Drought Science and Preparedness across the Nation\""},{"Link":"https://www.drought.gov/drought/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01388-6","external_links_name":"\"Communications Earth & Environment, Shoreline retreat and beach nourishment are projected to increase in Southern California\""},{"Link":"https://money.cnn.com/popups/2006/real_estate/best_worst/5.html","external_links_name":"\"CNN Money, housing markets\""},{"Link":"http://geology.about.com/od/geology_ca/ig/CAcoast/introsfgate.htm","external_links_name":"Geology of the California Coast"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304102458/http://geology.about.com/od/geology_ca/ig/CAcoast/introsfgate.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://geology.about.com/bio/Andrew-Alden-453.htm","external_links_name":"Andrew Alden"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161110203731/http://geology.about.com/bio/Andrew-Alden-453.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01388-6","external_links_name":"Shoreline retreat and beach nourishment are projected to increase in Southern California"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Station_X_(TV_documentary)
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Station X (British TV series)
|
["1 Episodes","1.1 The keys to the Reich","1.2 The goose that laid the golden eggs","1.3 The Ultra Secret","1.4 The war of the machines","2 Critical reception","3 References","4 External links"]
|
British documentary television series on the breaking of the Enigma code during World War II
Station XCountry of originUnited KingdomNo. of episodes4ProductionExecutive producerJohn SmithsonOriginal releaseNetworkChannel 4ReleaseJanuary 19, 1999 (1999-01-19)
The Enigma cipher machine
Enigma machine
Enigma rotors
Breaking Enigma
Polish Cipher Bureau
Doubles
Grill
Clock
Cyclometer
Bomba
Zygalski sheets
Bletchley Park
Banburismus
Herivel tip
Crib
Bombe
Hut 3
Hut 4
Hut 6
Hut 8
PC Bruno
Cadix
Related
Ultra
vte
Station X is a British television documentary series detailing the story of how Germany's Enigma code was broken. It was broadcast on Channel 4 in 1999. John Smithson was executive producer. It was accompanied by the "Channel 4 Books" publication Station X: The Codebreakers of Bletchley Park (1998), authored by Michael Smith which became a UK Number 1 bestseller. The first episode aired on Channel 4 on 19 January 1999. Tim Gardam, Channel 4's director of programmes, insisted that Station X be broadcast at the peak viewing time.
The programme maker Peter Bate used full-scale reconstructions. Instead of a chronological narrative; Bate relied on short dramatised shots and anecdotes by various Bletchley veterans. Those featured included Peter Calvocoressi, Ralph Bennett, Mavis Batey, John Herivel, Lord Briggs, Donald Michie, Shaun Wylie, Leslie Yoxall and Alan Rogers. The story covered the contributions of various real life characters including Hans-Thilo Schmidt, Marian Rejewski, Henryk Zygalski, Jerzy Różycki, Geoffrey Tandy, Dilly Knox, Josh Cooper and Andrew Cunningham.
The stories covered various aspects of the breaking of the Enigma naval codes, the captures from the U-boat U-110 and other relevant material from German weather ship Lauenburg and München and the German armed trawler Krebs during the Lofoten raid.
Episodes
The series was split into four episodes 1. The keys to the Reich, 2. The goose, that laid the golden eggs, 3. The Ultra Secret, and 4. The war of the machines.
The keys to the Reich
The first episode revealed that Station X was the cover name for the World War II radio interception station co-located with the Government Code & Cypher School at Bletchley Park. In 1938 the British Secret Service bought Bletchley Park, installing wireless receiver (call-sign: "Station X") to pick up German messages. A small group of aristocratic codebreakers visited the Country house with their staff and butlers under the guise of "Captain Ridley's shooting party" to establish its suitability.
With war Military Intelligence began to recruit various skillsets. Geoffrey Tandy, a marine biologist expert in Cryptogams, was selected when someone confused these with cryptograms. The youthfulness of many staff was noted by biographer Andrew Hodges, who noted that young people had the keys to the Reich.
The goose that laid the golden eggs
The programme includes analysis of discusses The Herivel Tip, an imaginative cracking method which relied on the laziness of the Enigma operators when setting up their machines in the morning.
The Ultra Secret
The programme starts with the 1941 Invasion of Russia. Contributors include David Kahn
In a speech Winston Churchill publicises mass executions and the systematic slaughter of Jews, feeling the outrage greater than the imperative to protect the source.
Loris Gherardi's role in the Theft of the Black Code, and its continued use under Colonel Norman Fiske and Bonner Fellers, is reconstructed.
The war of the machines
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (January 2019)
Critical reception
Tom Hibbert of The Observer and Sandy Smithies of The Guardian both found the first episode fascinating. James Delingpole, Ludovic Kennedy and other critics found the documentary portentous and plodding. Robert Hanks of The Independent found the explanations were too brief to make the technicalities penetrable.
References
^ a b Brown, Maggie, The Guardian, 15 March 1999
^ Sheffield, Emily. My grandmother, my hero, Evening Standard, 15 January 1999
^ a b c Hanks, Robert. Television Review The Independent 20 January 1999
^ Burge, Jim. Essay: On the reconstruction... , The Independent, 14 February 1999
^ Hewson, David. A cracking good story Sunday Times 17 January 1999
^ Marchant, Herbert Secrets of Station X The Observer, 15 October 1978
^ a b Smithies, Sandy. Television Tuesday Watching brief, The Guardian 19 January 1999
^ Davies, Mike. Cracking the code at last of Station X Birmingham Post 20 January 1999
^ John Herivel: Obituaries The Daily Telegraph 22 January 2011
^ Hibbert, Tom, Preview The Observer, 17 January 1999
^ Letters, The Spectator, 13 February 1999
External links
Station X at IMDb
|
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It was broadcast on Channel 4 in 1999.[1] John Smithson was executive producer. It was accompanied by the \"Channel 4 Books\" publication Station X: The Codebreakers of Bletchley Park (1998), authored by Michael Smith which became a UK Number 1 bestseller.[clarification needed] The first episode aired on Channel 4 on 19 January 1999.[2] Tim Gardam, Channel 4's director of programmes, insisted that Station X be broadcast at the peak viewing time.[1]The programme maker Peter Bate used full-scale reconstructions. Instead of a chronological narrative; Bate relied on short dramatised shots and anecdotes by various Bletchley veterans.[3][4] Those featured included Peter Calvocoressi, Ralph Bennett, Mavis Batey, John Herivel, Lord Briggs, Donald Michie, Shaun Wylie, Leslie Yoxall and Alan Rogers. The story covered the contributions of various real life characters including Hans-Thilo Schmidt, Marian Rejewski, Henryk Zygalski, Jerzy Różycki, Geoffrey Tandy, Dilly Knox, Josh Cooper and Andrew Cunningham.The stories covered various aspects of the breaking of the Enigma naval codes, the captures from the U-boat U-110 and other relevant material from German weather ship Lauenburg and München and the German armed trawler Krebs during the Lofoten raid.","title":"Station X (British TV series)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DHST-5"}],"text":"The series was split into four episodes 1. The keys to the Reich,[5] 2. The goose, that laid the golden eggs, 3. The Ultra Secret, and 4. The war of the machines.","title":"Episodes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Government Code & Cypher School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_Code_%26_Cypher_School"},{"link_name":"Bletchley Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bletchley_Park"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"British Secret Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Secret_Service"},{"link_name":"Bletchley Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bletchley_Park"},{"link_name":"call-sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call-sign"},{"link_name":"Cryptogams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptogams"},{"link_name":"cryptograms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptograms"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RHTI-3"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Andrew Hodges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Hodges"}],"sub_title":"The keys to the Reich","text":"The first episode revealed that Station X was the cover name for the World War II radio interception station co-located with the Government Code & Cypher School at Bletchley Park.[6] In 1938 the British Secret Service bought Bletchley Park, installing wireless receiver (call-sign: \"Station X\") to pick up German messages. A small group of aristocratic codebreakers visited the Country house with their staff and butlers under the guise of \"Captain Ridley's shooting party\" to establish its suitability.With war Military Intelligence began to recruit various skillsets. Geoffrey Tandy, a marine biologist expert in Cryptogams, was selected when someone confused these with cryptograms.[3][7][8] The youthfulness of many staff was noted by biographer Andrew Hodges, who noted that young people had the keys to the Reich.","title":"Episodes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Herivel Tip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herivelismus"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"The goose that laid the golden eggs","text":"The programme includes analysis of discusses The Herivel Tip,[clarification needed] an imaginative cracking method which relied on the laziness of the Enigma operators when setting up their machines in the morning.[9]","title":"Episodes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1941 Invasion of Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1941_Invasion_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"David Kahn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Kahn_(writer)"},{"link_name":"Theft of the Black Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theft_of_the_Black_Code"},{"link_name":"Bonner Fellers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonner_Fellers"}],"sub_title":"The Ultra Secret","text":"The programme starts with the 1941 Invasion of Russia. Contributors include David KahnIn a speech Winston Churchill publicises mass executions and the systematic slaughter of Jews, feeling the outrage greater than the imperative to protect the source.Loris Gherardi's role in the Theft of the Black Code, and its continued use under Colonel Norman Fiske and Bonner Fellers, is reconstructed.","title":"Episodes"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"The war of the machines","title":"Episodes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tom Hibbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Hibbert"},{"link_name":"The Observer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Observer"},{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-7"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-THO-10"},{"link_name":"James Delingpole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Delingpole"},{"link_name":"Ludovic Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludovic_Kennedy"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"The Independent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RHTI-3"}],"text":"Tom Hibbert of The Observer and Sandy Smithies of The Guardian both found the first episode fascinating.[7][10] James Delingpole, Ludovic Kennedy and other critics found the documentary portentous and plodding.[11] Robert Hanks of The Independent found the explanations were too brief to make the technicalities penetrable.[3]","title":"Critical reception"}]
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[]
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[]
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[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Station_X_(British_TV_series)&action=edit§ion=","external_links_name":"adding to it"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt4881644/","external_links_name":"Station X"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_body
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Professional association
|
["1 Roles","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
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Typically nonprofit organization seeking to further a particular profession
A professional association (also called a professional body, professional organization, or professional society) is a group that usually seeks to further a particular profession, the interests of individuals and organisations engaged in that profession, and the public interest. In the United States, such an association is typically a nonprofit business league for tax purposes. In the UK, they may take a variety of legal forms.
Roles
The roles of professional associations have been variously defined: "A group of people in a learned occupation who are entrusted with maintaining control or oversight of the legitimate practice of the occupation;" also a body acting "to safeguard the public interest;" organizations which "represent the interest of the professional practitioners," and so "act to maintain their own privileged and powerful position as a controlling body." Professional associations are ill defined although often have commonality in purpose and activities. In the UK the Science Council defines a professional body as "an organisation with individual members practicing a profession or occupation in which the organisation maintains an oversight of the knowledge, skills, conduct and practice of that profession or occupation". The Quality Assurance Agency distinguishes between statutory bodies and regulators that "have powers mandated by Parliament to regulate a profession or group of professions and protect the use of professional titles" and professional bodies that "are independent membership organisations that oversee the activities of a particular profession and represent the interests of members" and which "may offer registration or certification of unregulated occupations on a voluntary basis."
Many professional bodies are involved in accrediting degrees, defining and examining the skills and competencies necessary to practice, and granting professional certifications to indicate that a person is qualified in the subject area.
Many professional bodies also act as learned societies for the academic disciplines underlying their professions, such as the American Statistical Association.
See also
Advocacy
Bar association
Guild
Regulatory college
Inter-professional association
List of international professional associations
Licensure
Syndicate
Trade association
Trade union
Working group
Affinity group
References
^ a b Speight, James (2014-12-10). Educating Scientists and Engineers for Academic and Non-Academic Career Success. CRC Press. p. 59. ISBN 9781466553576. Archived from the original on 2020-01-26. Retrieved 24 August 2018.
^ Holmes, CS. "The Nature, Form And Purpose Of Contemporary Professional Associations: An Extended Case Study Of The British Association For Counselling And Psychotherapy". Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
^ Harvey, L. (2004). "Professional body". Quality Research International. Analytic Quality Glossary. Archived from the original on 2019-02-16. Retrieved 2008-09-14.
^ a b Harvey, L.; Mason, S.; Ward, R. (1995). Role of Professional Bodies in Higher Education Quality Monitoring. Birmingham: Quality in Higher Education Project. ISBN 1-85920-108-3.
^ Holmes, CS. "The Nature, Form And Purpose Of Contemporary Professional Associations: An Extended Case Study Of The British Association For Counselling And Psychotherapy". Retrieved 13 October 2021.
^ "Our definition of a Professional Body". Science Council. Archived from the original on 24 February 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
^ "UK Quality Code for Higher Education: Part A: Seeing and Maintaining Academic Standards" (PDF). Quality Assurance Agency. 2018. pp. 5–6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
^ "Professional bodies and professional qualification". Target Jobs. Archived from the original on 24 February 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
^ Sha, Mandy (2019-05-14). "Professional Association and Pathways to Leadership in Our Profession". Survey Practice. 12 (1). doi:10.29115/SP-2018-0039. Archived from the original on Nov 24, 2023.
External links
List of Professional bodies in the United Kingdom
List of Professional bodies in Australia
List of Professional bodies in Canada
Anders Kjellberg Union density and specialist/professional unions in Sweden, Lund University: Studies in Social Policy, Industrial Relations, Working Life and Mobility. Research Reports 2013:2
Authority control databases: National
Spain
Germany
Israel
United States
Czech Republic
2
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"further","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advocacy"},{"link_name":"profession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profession"},{"link_name":"public interest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_interest"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Speight-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"}],"text":"A professional association (also called a professional body, professional organization, or professional society) is a group that usually seeks to further a particular profession, the interests of individuals and organisations engaged in that profession, and the public interest. In the United States, such an association is typically a nonprofit business league for tax purposes.[1] In the UK, they may take a variety of legal forms.[2]","title":"Professional association"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harvey_1995-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harvey_1995-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Science Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Council"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Quality Assurance Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_Assurance_Agency"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"professional certifications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_certification"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"learned societies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_societies"},{"link_name":"academic disciplines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_disciplines"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Speight-1"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"American Statistical Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Statistical_Association"}],"text":"The roles of professional associations have been variously defined: \"A group of people in a learned occupation who are entrusted with maintaining control or oversight of the legitimate practice of the occupation;\"[3] also a body acting \"to safeguard the public interest;\"[4] organizations which \"represent the interest of the professional practitioners,\" and so \"act to maintain their own privileged and powerful position as a controlling body.\"[4] Professional associations are ill defined although often have commonality in purpose and activities.[5] In the UK the Science Council defines a professional body as \"an organisation with individual members practicing a profession or occupation in which the organisation maintains an oversight of the knowledge, skills, conduct and practice of that profession or occupation\".[6] The Quality Assurance Agency distinguishes between statutory bodies and regulators that \"have powers mandated by Parliament to regulate a profession or group of professions and protect the use of professional titles\" and professional bodies that \"are independent membership organisations that oversee the activities of a particular profession and represent the interests of [their] members\" and which \"may offer registration or certification of unregulated occupations on a voluntary basis.\"[7]Many professional bodies are involved in accrediting degrees, defining and examining the skills and competencies necessary to practice, and granting professional certifications to indicate that a person is qualified in the subject area.[8]Many professional bodies also act as learned societies for the academic disciplines underlying their professions,[1][9] such as the American Statistical Association.","title":"Roles"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"Advocacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advocacy"},{"title":"Bar association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_association"},{"title":"Guild","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild"},{"title":"Regulatory college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulatory_college"},{"title":"Inter-professional association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-professional_association"},{"title":"List of international professional associations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_professional_associations"},{"title":"Licensure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licensure"},{"title":"Syndicate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndicate"},{"title":"Trade association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_association"},{"title":"Trade union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_union"},{"title":"Working group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_group"},{"title":"Affinity group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity_group"}]
|
[{"reference":"Speight, James (2014-12-10). Educating Scientists and Engineers for Academic and Non-Academic Career Success. CRC Press. p. 59. ISBN 9781466553576. Archived from the original on 2020-01-26. Retrieved 24 August 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9B7cBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA59","url_text":"Educating Scientists and Engineers for Academic and Non-Academic Career Success"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781466553576","url_text":"9781466553576"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200126120918/https://books.google.com/books?id=9B7cBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA59","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Holmes, CS. \"The Nature, Form And Purpose Of Contemporary Professional Associations: An Extended Case Study Of The British Association For Counselling And Psychotherapy\". Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.794007","url_text":"\"The Nature, Form And Purpose Of Contemporary Professional Associations: An Extended Case Study Of The British Association For Counselling And Psychotherapy\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230103113040/https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.794007","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Harvey, L. (2004). \"Professional body\". Quality Research International. Analytic Quality Glossary. Archived from the original on 2019-02-16. Retrieved 2008-09-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Harvey_(academic)","url_text":"Harvey, L."},{"url":"http://www.qualityresearchinternational.com/glossary/professionalbody.htm","url_text":"\"Professional body\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190216011251/http://www.qualityresearchinternational.com/glossary/professionalbody.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Harvey, L.; Mason, S.; Ward, R. (1995). Role of Professional Bodies in Higher Education Quality Monitoring. Birmingham: Quality in Higher Education Project. ISBN 1-85920-108-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Harvey_(academic)","url_text":"Harvey, L."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85920-108-3","url_text":"1-85920-108-3"}]},{"reference":"Holmes, CS. \"The Nature, Form And Purpose Of Contemporary Professional Associations: An Extended Case Study Of The British Association For Counselling And Psychotherapy\". Retrieved 13 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://leicester.figshare.com/articles/thesis/The_Nature_Form_And_Purpose_Of_Contemporary_Professional_Associations_An_Extended_Case_Study_Of_The_British_Association_For_Counselling_And_Psychotherapy/11335652/1","url_text":"\"The Nature, Form And Purpose Of Contemporary Professional Associations: An Extended Case Study Of The British Association For Counselling And Psychotherapy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Our definition of a Professional Body\". Science Council. Archived from the original on 24 February 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-professional-body/","url_text":"\"Our definition of a Professional Body\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Council","url_text":"Science Council"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190224173359/https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-professional-body/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"UK Quality Code for Higher Education: Part A: Seeing and Maintaining Academic Standards\" (PDF). Quality Assurance Agency. 2018. pp. 5–6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190412150951/https://www.qaa.ac.uk/docs/qaa/quality-code/part-a.pdf","url_text":"\"UK Quality Code for Higher Education: Part A: Seeing and Maintaining Academic Standards\""},{"url":"https://www.qaa.ac.uk/docs/qaa/quality-code/part-a.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Professional bodies and professional qualification\". Target Jobs. Archived from the original on 24 February 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190224115843/https://targetjobs.co.uk/professional-qualification-and-accreditation","url_text":"\"Professional bodies and professional qualification\""},{"url":"https://targetjobs.co.uk/professional-qualification-and-accreditation","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Sha, Mandy (2019-05-14). \"Professional Association and Pathways to Leadership in Our Profession\". Survey Practice. 12 (1). doi:10.29115/SP-2018-0039. Archived from the original on Nov 24, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.surveypractice.org/article/8192-professional-association-and-pathways-to-leadership-in-our-profession","url_text":"\"Professional Association and Pathways to Leadership in Our Profession\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.29115%2FSP-2018-0039","url_text":"10.29115/SP-2018-0039"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231124073241/https://www.surveypractice.org/article/8192-professional-association-and-pathways-to-leadership-in-our-profession","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foveon
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Foveon
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["1 Details","2 References","3 External links"]
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American manufacturer of image sensors
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Foveon" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Foveon, Inc., is an American company that manufactures and distributes image sensor technology. It makes the Foveon X3 sensor, which captures images in some digital cameras.
Foveon was founded in 1997 and is based in Santa Clara, California. In 2008 it was bought by Sigma Corporation.
Details
The company, founded in 1997 by Carver Mead, Richard Lyon, Richard B. Merrill, Richard Turner, Richard Nedwich, and others, was a spin-off of National Semiconductor and Synaptics. The founding directors were: Federico Faggin (president and CEO of Synaptics), Brian Halla (chairman, president/CEO of National Semiconductor), and Dick Sanquini (VP of National Semiconductor).
It is based in Santa Clara, California. Foveon was initially known for their high-end digital portrait camera systems built around a color-separation beam-splitter prism assembly. Later, the X3 pixel sensor became the company's main product. Both the prism system and the X3 technology derive their benefit from sampling all three primary colors at all pixel locations, instead of employing a Bayer pattern approach sampling a specific color at each pixel location.: 136–137
Foveon was previously known as Foveonics. The name is derived from the fovea of the human eye, which enables sharp imaging while reading or watching television.
George Gilder wrote The Silicon Eye, which tells the story of Foveon and its founders.
On 11 November 2008, when Federico Faggin was the CEO, all shares of Foveon stock were acquired by Sigma Corporation. The company continued in a new location as a wholly owned portion of Sigma.
References
^ Ltd, Magezine Publishing. "Sigma acquire Foveon". ePHOTOzine. Retrieved 2020-04-14.
^ Sorrel, Charlie (2008-11-11). "Lens Maker Sigma Buys Imaging Chip Maker Foveon". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 2020-04-14.
^ Hendrie, Gardner (2006). "Oral History of Federico Faggin" (PDF). Computer History Museum. Retrieved 12 March 2023.
External links
Official website
Italian Foveon Community
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal_scrolling
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Scrolling
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["1 Computing","1.1 Implementation","1.2 UI paradigms","1.3 Infinite scrolling","1.4 Text","1.5 Demos","2 Film and television","3 Video games","4 Studies","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References"]
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Sliding motion vertically or horizontally over display devices
For other uses, see Scroll (disambiguation).
Look up scrolling in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Parallax scrolling
In computer displays, filmmaking, television production, and other kinetic displays, scrolling is sliding text, images or video across a monitor or display, vertically or horizontally. "Scrolling," as such, does not change the layout of the text or pictures but moves (pans or tilts) the user's view across what is apparently a larger image that is not wholly seen. A common television and movie special effect is to scroll credits, while leaving the background stationary. Scrolling may take place completely without user intervention (as in film credits) or, on an interactive device, be triggered by touchscreen or a keypress and continue without further intervention until a further user action, or be entirely controlled by input devices.
Scrolling may take place in discrete increments (perhaps one or a few lines of text at a time), or continuously (smooth scrolling). Frame rate is the speed at which an entire image is redisplayed. It is related to scrolling in that changes to text and image position can only happen as often as the image can be redisplayed. When frame rate is a limiting factor, one smooth scrolling technique is to blur images during movement that would otherwise appear to "jump".
Computing
Implementation
Scrolling is often carried out on a computer by the CPU (software scrolling) or by a graphics processor. Some systems feature hardware scrolling, where an image may be offset as it is displayed, without any frame buffer manipulation (see also hardware windowing). This was especially common in 8 and 16bit video game consoles.
UI paradigms
In a WIMP-style graphical user interface (GUI), user-controlled scrolling is carried out by manipulating a scrollbar with a mouse, or using keyboard shortcuts, often the arrow keys. Scrolling is often supported by text user interfaces and command line interfaces. Older computer terminals changed the entire contents of the display one screenful ("page") at a time; this paging mode requires fewer resources than scrolling. Scrolling displays often also support page mode. Typically certain keys or key combinations page up or down; on PC-compatible keyboards the page up and page down keys or the space bar are used; earlier computers often used control key combinations. Some computer mice have a scroll wheel, which scrolls the display, often vertically, when rolled; others have scroll balls or tilt wheels which allow both vertical and horizontal scrolling.
Some software supports other ways of scrolling. Adobe Reader has a mode identified by a small hand icon ("hand tool") on the document, which can then be dragged by clicking on it and moving the mouse as if sliding a large sheet of paper. When this feature is implemented on a touchscreen it is called kinetic scrolling. Touch-screens often use inertial scrolling, in which the scrolling motion of an object continues in a decaying fashion after release of the touch, simulating the appearance of an object with inertia. An early implementation of such behavior was in the "Star7" PDA of Sun Microsystems ca. 1991–1992.
Scrolling can be controlled in other software-dependent ways by a PC mouse. Some scroll wheels can be pressed down, functioning like a button. Depending on the software, this allows both horizontal and vertical scrolling by dragging in the direction desired; when the mouse is moved to the original position, scrolling stops. A few scroll wheels can also be tilted, scrolling horizontally in one direction until released. On touchscreen devices, scrolling is a multi-touch gesture, done by swiping a finger on the screen vertically in the direction opposite to where the user wants to scroll to.
If any content is too wide to fit on a display, horizontal scrolling is required to view all of it. In applications such as graphics and spreadsheets there is often more content than can fit either the width or the height of the screen at a comfortable scale, and scrolling in both directions is necessary.
Infinite scrolling
In 2006, Aza Raskin developed the infinite scrolling technique, whereby pagination of web pages is eliminated, in favor of continuously loading content as the user scrolls down the page. Raskin later expressed regret at the invention, describing it as "one of the first products designed to not simply help a user, but to deliberately keep them online for as long as possible". Usability research suggests infinite scrolling can present an accessibility issue. The lack of stopping cues has been described as a pathway to smartphone addiction and social media addiction.
Text
In languages written horizontally, such as most Western languages, text documents longer than will fit on the screen are often displayed wrapped and sized to fit the screen width, and scrolled vertically to bring desired content into view. It is possible to display lines too long to fit the display without wrapping, scrolling horizontally to view each entire line. However, this requires inconvenient constant line-by-line scrolling, while vertical scrolling is only needed after reading a full screenful.
Software such as word processors and web browsers normally uses word-wrapping to display as many words in a single line as will fit the width of the screen or window or, for text organised in columns, each column.
Demos
Scrolling texts, also referred to as scrolltexts or scrollers, played an important part in the birth of the computer demo culture. The software crackers often used their deep knowledge of computer platforms to transform the information that accompanied their releases into crack intros. The sole role of these intros was to scroll the text on the screen in an impressive way.
Film and television
Scrolling is commonly used to display the credits at the end of films and television programs.
Scrolling is often used in the form of a news ticker towards the bottom of the picture for content such as television news, scrolling sideways across the screen, delivering short-form content.
Video games
See also: Side-scrolling video game, Vertically scrolling video game, Parallax scrolling, and 2.5D
In computer and video games, scrolling of a playing field allows the player to control an object in a large contiguous area. Early examples of this method include Taito's 1974 vertical-scrolling racing video game Speed Race, Sega's 1976 forward-scrolling racing games Moto-Cross (Fonz) and Road Race, and Super Bug. Previously the flip-screen method was used to indicate moving backgrounds.
The Namco Galaxian arcade system board introduced with Galaxian in 1979 pioneered a sprite system that animated pre-loaded sprites over a scrolling background, which became the basis for Nintendo's Radar Scope and Donkey Kong arcade hardware and home consoles such as the Nintendo Entertainment System.
Parallax scrolling, which was first featured in Moon Patrol, involves several semi-transparent layers (called playfields), which scroll on top of each other at varying rates in order to give an early pseudo-3D illusion of depth.
Belt scrolling is a method used in side-scrolling beat 'em up games with a downward camera angle where players can move up and down in addition to left and right.
Studies
A 1993 article by George Fitzmaurice studied spatially aware palmtop computers. These devices had a 3D sensor, and moving the device caused the contents to move as if the contents were fixed in place. This interaction could be referred to as “moving to scroll.” Also, if the user moved the device away from their body, they would zoom in; conversely, the device would zoom out if the user pulled the device closer to them. Smartphone cameras and “optical flow” image analysis utilize this technique nowadays.
A 1996 research paper by Jun Rekimoto analyzed tilting operations as scrolling techniques on small screen interfaces. Users could not only tilt to scroll, but also tilt to select menu items. These techniques proved especially useful for field workers, since they only needed to hold and control the device with one hand.
A study from 2013 by Selina Sharmin, Oleg Špakov, and Kari-Jouko Räihä explored the action of reading text on a screen while the text auto-scrolls based on the user's eye tracking patterns. The control group simply read text on a screen and manually scrolled. The study found that participants preferred to read primarily at the top of the screen, so the screen scrolled down whenever participants’ eyes began to look toward the bottom of the screen. This auto-scrolling caused no statistically significant difference in reading speed or performance.
A undated study occurring during or after 2010 by Dede Frederick, James Mohler, Mihaela Vorvoreanu, and Ronald Glotzbach noted that parallax scrolling "may cause certain people to experience nausea."
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Scrolling.
Flip page – an alternate visual effect for navigating digital publications
Notes
^ The widely used Wordstar word processor used the "diamond" of Ctrl-S/E/D/X to move the cursor left, up, right, and down, and Ctrl-R and Ctrl-C to page up and down.
References
^ "Scroll". Encyclopedia.com. 2009. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
^ JamesAGosling. "Star7 Demo". Retrieved 8 February 2019 – via YouTube.
^ a b Murano, Pietro; Sharma, Sushil (2020-02-18). "A usability evaluation of Web user interface scrolling types". First Monday. 25 (3). doi:10.5210/fm.v25i3.10309. hdl:10642/8218. S2CID 216020691. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
^ Knowles, Tom (2019-04-27). "I'm so sorry, says inventor of endless online scrolling". Retrieved 10 September 2022.
^ Noë, Beryl; Turner, Liam D.; Linden, David E.J.; Allen, Stuart M.; Winkens, Bjorn; Whitaker, Roger M. (October 2019). "Identifying Indicators of Smartphone Addiction Through User-App Interaction". Computers in Human Behavior. 99: 56–65. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.04.023. PMC 6686626. PMID 31582873.
^ Purohit, Aditya Kumar; Barclay, Louis; Holzer, Adrian (April 2020). "Designing for Digital Detox: Making Social Media Less Addictive with Digital Nudges". Extended Abstracts of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. pp. 1–9. doi:10.1145/3334480.3382810. ISBN 9781450368193. S2CID 218483516.
^ "PC Demoscene FAQ". tomaes.32x.de. Archived from the original on 9 December 2003. Retrieved 6 June 2022.
^ Speed Race at the Killer List of Videogames
^ Moto-Cross at the Killer List of Videogames
^ Fonz at the Killer List of Videogames
^ Road Race at the Killer List of Videogames
^ Making the Famicom a Reality, Nikkei Electronics (September 12, 1994)
^ "Gaming's Most Important Evolutions". GamesRadar. October 8, 2010. p. 3. Retrieved 2011-04-27.
^ Fitzmaurice, George W. (1993-07-01). "Situated Information Spaces and Spatially Aware Palmtop Computers". Commun. ACM. 36 (7): 39–49. doi:10.1145/159544.159566. ISSN 0001-0782. S2CID 16997188.
^ Rekimoto, Jun (1996-01-01). "Tilting operations for small screen interfaces". Proceedings of the 9th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology - UIST '96. New York, NY, USA: ACM. pp. 167–168. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.19.8330. doi:10.1145/237091.237115. ISBN 978-0897917988. S2CID 15104495.
^ Sharmin, Selina; Špakov, Oleg; Räihä, Kari-Jouko (2013-01-01). "Reading on-screen text with gaze-based auto-scrolling". Proceedings of the 2013 Conference on Eye Tracking South Africa. ETSA '13. New York, NY, USA: ACM. pp. 24–31. doi:10.1145/2509315.2509319. ISBN 9781450321105. S2CID 18759763.
^ Frederick, Dede. "The Effects of Parallax Scrolling on User Experience in Web Design". Journal of User Experience. 10 (2).
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scroll (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scroll_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"scrolling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/scrolling"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Parallax_scrolling_example_scene.gif"},{"link_name":"Parallax scrolling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax_scrolling"},{"link_name":"computer displays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_display"},{"link_name":"filmmaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filmmaking"},{"link_name":"television production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_production"},{"link_name":"pans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panning_(camera)"},{"link_name":"tilts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilt_(camera)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"touchscreen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchscreen"},{"link_name":"input devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input_device"},{"link_name":"Frame rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_rate"}],"text":"For other uses, see Scroll (disambiguation).Look up scrolling in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.Parallax scrollingIn computer displays, filmmaking, television production, and other kinetic displays, scrolling is sliding text, images or video across a monitor or display, vertically or horizontally. \"Scrolling,\" as such, does not change the layout of the text or pictures but moves (pans or tilts) the user's view across what is apparently a larger image that is not wholly seen.[1] A common television and movie special effect is to scroll credits, while leaving the background stationary. Scrolling may take place completely without user intervention (as in film credits) or, on an interactive device, be triggered by touchscreen or a keypress and continue without further intervention until a further user action, or be entirely controlled by input devices.Scrolling may take place in discrete increments (perhaps one or a few lines of text at a time), or continuously (smooth scrolling). Frame rate is the speed at which an entire image is redisplayed. It is related to scrolling in that changes to text and image position can only happen as often as the image can be redisplayed. When frame rate is a limiting factor, one smooth scrolling technique is to blur images during movement that would otherwise appear to \"jump\".","title":"Scrolling"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Computing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"graphics processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processor"},{"link_name":"frame buffer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_buffer"},{"link_name":"hardware windowing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hardware_windowing&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"sub_title":"Implementation","text":"Scrolling is often carried out on a computer by the CPU (software scrolling) or by a graphics processor. Some systems feature hardware scrolling, where an image may be offset as it is displayed, without any frame buffer manipulation (see also hardware windowing). This was especially common in 8 and 16bit video game consoles.","title":"Computing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"WIMP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIMP_(computing)"},{"link_name":"graphical user interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface"},{"link_name":"scrollbar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrollbar"},{"link_name":"keyboard shortcuts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyboard_shortcut"},{"link_name":"arrow keys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrow_key"},{"link_name":"text user interfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_user_interface"},{"link_name":"command line interfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_line_interface"},{"link_name":"computer terminals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_terminal"},{"link_name":"key combinations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_combination"},{"link_name":"PC-compatible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC-compatible"},{"link_name":"page up and page down keys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Page_up_and_page_down_keys"},{"link_name":"space bar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_bar"},{"link_name":"control key","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_key"},{"link_name":"[notes 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"computer mice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_mouse"},{"link_name":"scroll wheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scroll_wheel"},{"link_name":"scroll balls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scroll_ball"},{"link_name":"tilt wheels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilt_wheel"},{"link_name":"Adobe Reader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Reader"},{"link_name":"hand tool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand_tool"},{"link_name":"touchscreen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchscreen"},{"link_name":"Touch-screens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchscreen"},{"link_name":"inertia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia"},{"link_name":"PDA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant"},{"link_name":"Sun Microsystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Microsystems"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"touchscreen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchscreen"},{"link_name":"multi-touch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-touch"},{"link_name":"graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics"},{"link_name":"spreadsheets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadsheet"}],"sub_title":"UI paradigms","text":"In a WIMP-style graphical user interface (GUI), user-controlled scrolling is carried out by manipulating a scrollbar with a mouse, or using keyboard shortcuts, often the arrow keys. Scrolling is often supported by text user interfaces and command line interfaces. Older computer terminals changed the entire contents of the display one screenful (\"page\") at a time; this paging mode requires fewer resources than scrolling. Scrolling displays often also support page mode. Typically certain keys or key combinations page up or down; on PC-compatible keyboards the page up and page down keys or the space bar are used; earlier computers often used control key combinations.[notes 1] Some computer mice have a scroll wheel, which scrolls the display, often vertically, when rolled; others have scroll balls or tilt wheels which allow both vertical and horizontal scrolling.Some software supports other ways of scrolling. Adobe Reader has a mode identified by a small hand icon (\"hand tool\") on the document, which can then be dragged by clicking on it and moving the mouse as if sliding a large sheet of paper. When this feature is implemented on a touchscreen it is called kinetic scrolling. Touch-screens often use inertial scrolling, in which the scrolling motion of an object continues in a decaying fashion after release of the touch, simulating the appearance of an object with inertia. An early implementation of such behavior was in the \"Star7\" PDA of Sun Microsystems ca. 1991–1992.[2]Scrolling can be controlled in other software-dependent ways by a PC mouse. Some scroll wheels can be pressed down, functioning like a button. Depending on the software, this allows both horizontal and vertical scrolling by dragging in the direction desired; when the mouse is moved to the original position, scrolling stops. A few scroll wheels can also be tilted, scrolling horizontally in one direction until released. On touchscreen devices, scrolling is a multi-touch gesture, done by swiping a finger on the screen vertically in the direction opposite to where the user wants to scroll to.If any content is too wide to fit on a display, horizontal scrolling is required to view all of it. In applications such as graphics and spreadsheets there is often more content than can fit either the width or the height of the screen at a comfortable scale, and scrolling in both directions is necessary.","title":"Computing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aza Raskin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aza_Raskin"},{"link_name":"pagination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagination"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-INF_SCROLL_USABILITY-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-INF_SCROLL_USABILITY-4"},{"link_name":"smartphone addiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problematic_smartphone_use"},{"link_name":"social media addiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problematic_social_media_use"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Infinite scrolling","text":"In 2006, Aza Raskin developed the infinite scrolling technique, whereby pagination of web pages is eliminated, in favor of continuously loading content as the user scrolls down the page.[3] Raskin later expressed regret at the invention, describing it as \"one of the first products designed to not simply help a user, but to deliberately keep them online for as long as possible\".[4] Usability research suggests infinite scrolling can present an accessibility issue.[3] The lack of stopping cues has been described as a pathway to smartphone addiction and social media addiction.[5][6]","title":"Computing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"languages written horizontally","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal_and_vertical_writing_in_East_Asian_scripts"},{"link_name":"wrapped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_wrap"},{"link_name":"word processors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_processor"},{"link_name":"web browsers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browser"}],"sub_title":"Text","text":"In languages written horizontally, such as most Western languages, text documents longer than will fit on the screen are often displayed wrapped and sized to fit the screen width, and scrolled vertically to bring desired content into view. It is possible to display lines too long to fit the display without wrapping, scrolling horizontally to view each entire line. However, this requires inconvenient constant line-by-line scrolling, while vertical scrolling is only needed after reading a full screenful.Software such as word processors and web browsers normally uses word-wrapping to display as many words in a single line as will fit the width of the screen or window or, for text organised in columns, each column.","title":"Computing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"demo culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demo_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"software crackers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_cracking"},{"link_name":"computer platforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_platform"},{"link_name":"crack intros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crack_intro"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Demos","text":"Scrolling texts, also referred to as scrolltexts or scrollers, played an important part in the birth of the computer demo culture. The software crackers often used their deep knowledge of computer platforms to transform the information that accompanied their releases into crack intros. The sole role of these intros was to scroll the text on the screen in an impressive way.[7]","title":"Computing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"films","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film"},{"link_name":"television programs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_program"},{"link_name":"news ticker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_ticker"},{"link_name":"television news","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_news"}],"text":"Scrolling is commonly used to display the credits at the end of films and television programs.Scrolling is often used in the form of a news ticker towards the bottom of the picture for content such as television news, scrolling sideways across the screen, delivering short-form content.","title":"Film and television"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Side-scrolling video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side-scrolling_video_game"},{"link_name":"Vertically scrolling video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertically_scrolling_video_game"},{"link_name":"Parallax scrolling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax_scrolling"},{"link_name":"2.5D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2.5D"},{"link_name":"computer and video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"Taito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taito"},{"link_name":"racing video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racing_video_game"},{"link_name":"Speed Race","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_Race"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Sega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega"},{"link_name":"forward-scrolling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2.5D"},{"link_name":"racing games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racing_game"},{"link_name":"Moto-Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonz_(arcade)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moto-Cross-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fonz-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Road-Race-12"},{"link_name":"flip-screen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip-screen"},{"link_name":"Namco Galaxian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco_Galaxian"},{"link_name":"arcade system board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_system_board"},{"link_name":"Galaxian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxian"},{"link_name":"sprite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"Nintendo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo"},{"link_name":"Radar Scope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_Scope"},{"link_name":"Donkey Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donkey_Kong_(arcade_game)"},{"link_name":"home consoles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_console"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Entertainment System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Parallax scrolling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax_scroll"},{"link_name":"Moon Patrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_Patrol"},{"link_name":"semi-transparent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_(optics)"},{"link_name":"pseudo-3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2.5D"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"beat 'em up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_%27em_up"}],"text":"See also: Side-scrolling video game, Vertically scrolling video game, Parallax scrolling, and 2.5DIn computer and video games, scrolling of a playing field allows the player to control an object in a large contiguous area. Early examples of this method include Taito's 1974 vertical-scrolling racing video game Speed Race,[8] Sega's 1976 forward-scrolling racing games Moto-Cross[9] (Fonz)[10] and Road Race,[11] and Super Bug. Previously the flip-screen method was used to indicate moving backgrounds.The Namco Galaxian arcade system board introduced with Galaxian in 1979 pioneered a sprite system that animated pre-loaded sprites over a scrolling background, which became the basis for Nintendo's Radar Scope and Donkey Kong arcade hardware and home consoles such as the Nintendo Entertainment System.[12]Parallax scrolling, which was first featured in Moon Patrol, involves several semi-transparent layers (called playfields), which scroll on top of each other at varying rates in order to give an early pseudo-3D illusion of depth.[13]Belt scrolling is a method used in side-scrolling beat 'em up games with a downward camera angle where players can move up and down in addition to left and right.","title":"Video games"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"palmtop computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmtop_computer"},{"link_name":"Smartphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"cameras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera"},{"link_name":"optical flow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_flow"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Jun Rekimoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jun_Rekimoto"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"eye tracking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_tracking"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"A 1993 article by George Fitzmaurice studied spatially aware palmtop computers. These devices had a 3D sensor, and moving the device caused the contents to move as if the contents were fixed in place. This interaction could be referred to as “moving to scroll.” Also, if the user moved the device away from their body, they would zoom in; conversely, the device would zoom out if the user pulled the device closer to them. Smartphone cameras and “optical flow” image analysis utilize this technique nowadays.[14]A 1996 research paper by Jun Rekimoto analyzed tilting operations as scrolling techniques on small screen interfaces. Users could not only tilt to scroll, but also tilt to select menu items. These techniques proved especially useful for field workers, since they only needed to hold and control the device with one hand.[15]A study from 2013 by Selina Sharmin, Oleg Špakov, and Kari-Jouko Räihä explored the action of reading text on a screen while the text auto-scrolls based on the user's eye tracking patterns. The control group simply read text on a screen and manually scrolled. The study found that participants preferred to read primarily at the top of the screen, so the screen scrolled down whenever participants’ eyes began to look toward the bottom of the screen. This auto-scrolling caused no statistically significant difference in reading speed or performance.[16]A undated study occurring during or after 2010 by Dede Frederick, James Mohler, Mihaela Vorvoreanu, and Ronald Glotzbach noted that parallax scrolling \"may cause certain people to experience nausea.\"[17]","title":"Studies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Wordstar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wordstar"}],"text":"^ The widely used Wordstar word processor used the \"diamond\" of Ctrl-S/E/D/X to move the cursor left, up, right, and down, and Ctrl-R and Ctrl-C to page up and down.","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Parallax scrolling","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Parallax_scrolling_example_scene.gif/220px-Parallax_scrolling_example_scene.gif"}]
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[{"title":"Scrolling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Scrolling"},{"title":"Flip page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip_page"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Scroll\". Encyclopedia.com. 2009. Retrieved 23 February 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/computers-and-computing/scroll","url_text":"\"Scroll\""}]},{"reference":"JamesAGosling. \"Star7 Demo\". Retrieved 8 February 2019 – via YouTube.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1CsTH9S79qI&t=4m28s","url_text":"\"Star7 Demo\""}]},{"reference":"Murano, Pietro; Sharma, Sushil (2020-02-18). \"A usability evaluation of Web user interface scrolling types\". First Monday. 25 (3). doi:10.5210/fm.v25i3.10309. hdl:10642/8218. S2CID 216020691. Retrieved 10 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/10309/9400","url_text":"\"A usability evaluation of Web user interface scrolling types\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5210%2Ffm.v25i3.10309","url_text":"10.5210/fm.v25i3.10309"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/10642%2F8218","url_text":"10642/8218"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216020691","url_text":"216020691"}]},{"reference":"Knowles, Tom (2019-04-27). \"I'm so sorry, says inventor of endless online scrolling\". Retrieved 10 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/i-m-so-sorry-says-inventor-of-endless-online-scrolling-9lrv59mdk","url_text":"\"I'm so sorry, says inventor of endless online scrolling\""}]},{"reference":"Noë, Beryl; Turner, Liam D.; Linden, David E.J.; Allen, Stuart M.; Winkens, Bjorn; Whitaker, Roger M. (October 2019). \"Identifying Indicators of Smartphone Addiction Through User-App Interaction\". Computers in Human Behavior. 99: 56–65. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.04.023. PMC 6686626. PMID 31582873.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6686626","url_text":"\"Identifying Indicators of Smartphone Addiction Through User-App Interaction\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chb.2019.04.023","url_text":"10.1016/j.chb.2019.04.023"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6686626","url_text":"6686626"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31582873","url_text":"31582873"}]},{"reference":"Purohit, Aditya Kumar; Barclay, Louis; Holzer, Adrian (April 2020). \"Designing for Digital Detox: Making Social Media Less Addictive with Digital Nudges\". Extended Abstracts of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. pp. 1–9. doi:10.1145/3334480.3382810. ISBN 9781450368193. S2CID 218483516.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F3334480.3382810","url_text":"10.1145/3334480.3382810"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781450368193","url_text":"9781450368193"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218483516","url_text":"218483516"}]},{"reference":"\"PC Demoscene FAQ\". tomaes.32x.de. Archived from the original on 9 December 2003. Retrieved 6 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20031209225520/http://tomaes.32x.de/text/faq.php#2.3","url_text":"\"PC Demoscene FAQ\""},{"url":"http://tomaes.32x.de/text/faq.php#2.3","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Gaming's Most Important Evolutions\". GamesRadar. October 8, 2010. p. 3. Retrieved 2011-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gamesradar.com/f/gamings-most-important-evolutions/a-20101008102331322035/p-3","url_text":"\"Gaming's Most Important Evolutions\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamesRadar","url_text":"GamesRadar"}]},{"reference":"Fitzmaurice, George W. (1993-07-01). \"Situated Information Spaces and Spatially Aware Palmtop Computers\". Commun. ACM. 36 (7): 39–49. doi:10.1145/159544.159566. ISSN 0001-0782. S2CID 16997188.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F159544.159566","url_text":"\"Situated Information Spaces and Spatially Aware Palmtop Computers\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F159544.159566","url_text":"10.1145/159544.159566"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0001-0782","url_text":"0001-0782"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16997188","url_text":"16997188"}]},{"reference":"Rekimoto, Jun (1996-01-01). \"Tilting operations for small screen interfaces\". Proceedings of the 9th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology - UIST '96. New York, NY, USA: ACM. pp. 167–168. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.19.8330. doi:10.1145/237091.237115. ISBN 978-0897917988. S2CID 15104495.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.19.8330","url_text":"10.1.1.19.8330"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F237091.237115","url_text":"10.1145/237091.237115"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0897917988","url_text":"978-0897917988"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15104495","url_text":"15104495"}]},{"reference":"Sharmin, Selina; Špakov, Oleg; Räihä, Kari-Jouko (2013-01-01). \"Reading on-screen text with gaze-based auto-scrolling\". Proceedings of the 2013 Conference on Eye Tracking South Africa. ETSA '13. New York, NY, USA: ACM. pp. 24–31. doi:10.1145/2509315.2509319. ISBN 9781450321105. S2CID 18759763.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2509315.2509319","url_text":"10.1145/2509315.2509319"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781450321105","url_text":"9781450321105"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18759763","url_text":"18759763"}]},{"reference":"Frederick, Dede. \"The Effects of Parallax Scrolling on User Experience in Web Design\". Journal of User Experience. 10 (2).","urls":[]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Whaley
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Ben Whaley
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["1 References","2 External links"]
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American football and basketball coach (1926–2001)
Ben WhaleyBiographical detailsBorn(1926-10-14)October 14, 1926Richmond, Virginia, U.S.DiedNovember 4, 2001(2001-11-04) (aged 75)Richmond, Virginia, U.S.Playing careerFootball1944Virginia State1946–1948Virginia State1949Los Angeles Dons
Position(s)Tackle, guardCoaching career (HC unless noted)Football?–1953North Carolina College (line)1954–1956Hampton (assistant)1957–1964HamptonBasketball1954–1957HamptonBaseball?–1954North Carolina College1958–1962Hampton
Head coaching recordOverall35–37–1 (football)20–49 (basketball, Hampton only)
Benjamin Franklyn Whaley (October 14, 1926 – November 4, 2001) was an American college football and basketball coach and National Football League player.
References
^ "Benjamin Whaley". Pro-Football-Reference. Retrieved July 3, 2018.
External links
Career statistics and player information from NFL.com · Pro Football Reference
vteHampton Pirates head football coaches
Terry Monroe (1902–1911)
Bill Armstrong (1912)
L. L. Peppin (1913)
Charles Holston Williams (1914–1917)
John Harvey (1918)
Charles Holston Williams (1919–1920)
Gideon Smith (1921–1940)
James Griffin (1941–1942)
Sylvius Moore (1943–1944)
Herman Heilson (1945–1946)
James Griffin (1947–1948)
Harry R. Jefferson (1949–1956)
Ben Whaley (1957–1964)
Mel Labat (1965–1968)
Whitney L. Van Cleve (1969–1973)
Walter Lovett (1974–1980)
Ed Wyche (1981–1983)
Fred Freeman (1984–1991)
Joe Taylor (1992–2007)
Jerry Holmes (2008)
Donovan Rose (2009–2013)
Connell Maynor (2014–2017)
Robert Prunty (2018–2019)
No team (2020)
Robert Prunty (2021–2023)
Trenton Boykin # (2024– )
# denotes interim head coach
vteHampton Pirates men's head basketball coaches
John McLendon (1952–1954)
Ben Whaley (1954–1957)
Frank Enty (1957–1961)
Willie Smith (1961–1962)
Frank Enty (1962–1963)
Lee Royster (1963–1964)
Ike Moorehead (1964–1971)
Louis Shackleford (1971–1973)
Soloman Frazier (1973–1975)
Joe Buggs # (1975)
Hank Ford (1975–1987)
Malcolm Avery (1987–1995)
Byron Samuels (1995–1997)
Steve Merfeld (1997–2002)
Bobby Collins (2002–2006)
Kevin Nickelberry (2006–2009)
Edward Joyner (2009–2024)
Ivan Thomas (2024– )
# denotes interim head coach
This biographical article relating to a United States basketball player, coach, or other figure born in the 1920s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This biographical article relating to a college football coach is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubris
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Hubris
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["1 Ancient Greek origin","1.1 Mythological usage","1.2 Legal usage","1.3 Early Christianity","2 Modern usage","2.1 Arrogance","3 References","4 Further reading","5 External links"]
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Extreme pride or overconfidence, often in combination with arrogance
For the album, see Hubris (album).
"Arrogance" redirects here. For other uses, see Arrogance (disambiguation).
This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (August 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Hubris (/ˈhjuːbrɪs/; from Ancient Greek ὕβρις (húbris) 'pride, insolence, outrage'), or less frequently hybris (/ˈhaɪbrɪs/), describes a personality quality of extreme or excessive pride or dangerous overconfidence and complacency, often in combination with (or synonymous with) arrogance. The term arrogance comes from the Latin adrogare, meaning "to feel that one has a right to demand certain attitudes and behaviors from other people". To arrogate means "to claim or seize without justification... To make undue claims to having", or "to claim or seize without right... to ascribe or attribute without reason". The term pretension is also associated with the term hubris, but is not synonymous with it.
According to studies, hubris, arrogance, and pretension are related to the need for victory (even if it does not always mean winning) instead of reconciliation, which "friendly" groups might promote. Hubris is usually perceived as a characteristic of an individual rather than a group, although the group the offender belongs to may suffer collateral consequences from wrongful acts. Hubris often indicates a loss of contact with reality and an overestimation of one's own competence, accomplishments, or capabilities. The adjectival form of the noun hubris/hybris is hubristic/hybristic.
The term hubris originated in Ancient Greek, where it had several different meanings depending on the context. In legal usage, it meant assault or sexual crimes and theft of public property, and in religious usage it meant emulation of divinity or transgression against a god.
Ancient Greek origin
In ancient Greek, hubris referred to "outrage": actions that violated natural order, or which shamed and humiliated the victim, sometimes for the pleasure or gratification of the abuser.
Mythological usage
Black-figure pottery (550 BC) depicting Prometheus serving his sentence, tied to a column
Hesiod and Aeschylus used the word "hubris" to describe transgressions against the gods. A common way that hubris was committed was when a mortal claimed to be better than a god in a particular skill or attribute. Claims like these were rarely left unpunished, and so Arachne, a talented young weaver, was transformed into a spider when she said that her skills exceeded those of the goddess Athena, even though her claim was true. Additional examples include Icarus, Phaethon, Salmoneus, Niobe, Cassiopeia, Tantalus, and Tereus.
The goddess Hybris is described in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition as having "insolent encroachment upon the rights of others".
These events were not limited to myth, and certain figures in history were considered to have been punished for committing hubris through their arrogance. One such person was king Xerxes as portrayed in Aeschylus's play The Persians, and who allegedly threw chains to bind the Hellespont sea as punishment for daring to destroy his fleet.
What is common in all of these examples is the breaching of limits, as the Greeks believed that the Fates (Μοῖραι) had assigned each being with a particular area of freedom, an area that even the gods could not breach.
Legal usage
In ancient Athens, hubris was defined as the use of violence to shame the victim (this sense of hubris could also characterize rape). In legal terms, hubristic violations of the law included what might today be termed assault-and-battery, sexual crimes, or the theft of public or sacred property. In some contexts, the term had a sexual connotation. Shame was frequently reflected upon the perpetrator, as well.
Crucial to this definition are the ancient Greek concepts of honour (τιμή, timē) and shame (αἰδώς, aidōs). The concept of honour included not only the exaltation of the one receiving honour, but also the shaming of the one overcome by the act of hubris. This concept of honour is akin to a zero-sum game. Rush Rehm simplifies this definition of hubris to the contemporary concept of "insolence, contempt, and excessive violence".
Two well-known cases are found in the speeches of Demosthenes, a prominent statesman and orator in ancient Greece. These two examples occurred when first Midias punched Demosthenes in the face in the theatre (Against Midias), and second when (in Against Conon) a defendant allegedly assaulted a man and crowed over the victim. Yet another example of hubris appears in Aeschines' Against Timarchus, where the defendant, Timarchus, is accused of breaking the law of hubris by submitting himself to prostitution and anal intercourse. Aeschines brought this suit against Timarchus to bar him from the rights of political office and his case succeeded.Aristotle defined hubris as shaming the victim, not because of anything that happened to the committer or might happen to the committer, but merely for that committer's own gratification:
to cause shame to the victim, not in order that anything may happen to you, nor because anything has happened to you, but merely for your own gratification. Hubris is not the requital of past injuries; this is revenge. As for the pleasure in hubris, its cause is this: naive men think that by ill-treating others they make their own superiority the greater.
Early Christianity
Illustration for John Milton's Paradise Lost by Gustave Doré (1866). The spiritual descent of Lucifer into Satan, one of the most famous examples of hubris.
In the Septuagint, the "hubris is overweening pride, superciliousness or arrogance, often resulting in fatal retribution or nemesis". The word hubris as used in the New Testament parallels the Hebrew word pesha, meaning "transgression". It represents a pride that "makes a man defy God", sometimes to the degree that he considers himself an equal.
Modern usage
In its modern usage, hubris denotes overconfident pride combined with arrogance. Hubris is also referred to as "pride that blinds" because it often causes a committer of hubris to act in foolish ways that belie common sense.
Hubris has also been presented as a positive trait: Larry Wall promoted "the three great virtues of a programmer: laziness, impatience, and hubris".
Arrogance
Look up arrogance in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines "arrogance" in terms of "high or inflated opinion of one's own abilities, importance, etc., that gives rise to presumption or excessive self-confidence, or to a feeling or attitude of being superior to others ." Adrian Davies sees arrogance as more generic and less severe than hubris.
References
^ a b "hybris". CollinsDictionary.com. HarperCollins.
^ "Examples and Definition of Hubris in Literature". Literary Devices. 2020-12-01. Retrieved 2021-04-23.
^ "hubris". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 2016-04-22.
^ a b Picone, P. M.; Dagnino, G. B.; Minà, A. (2014). "The origin of failure: A multidisciplinary appraisal of the hubris hypothesis and proposed research agenda". Academy of Management Perspectives. 28 (4): 447–468. doi:10.5465/amp.2012.0177.
^ Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, p. 63, G. & C. Merriam Company (8th ed. 1976).
^ Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, p. 77 (2d Coll. ed. 1978).
^ Yasmin (2019-06-07). "O que é uma pessoa arrogante? Por que evitar a arrogância?". Definição.net (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 2020-04-16.
^ "What Makes the Arrogant Person So Arrogant?". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2020-04-16.
^ a b David Cohen, "Law, society and homosexuality or hermaphrodity in Classical Athens" in Studies in ancient Greek and Roman society By Robin Osborne; p. 64
^ a b Aeschines "Against Timarchus" from Thomas K. Hubbard's Homosexuality in Greece and Rome: A Sourcebook of Basic Documents
^ a b The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Hubris", Encyclopaedia Britannica
^ Roman, Luke; Roman, Monica (2010). Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman Mythology. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1438126395.
^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Themis" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 758.
^ Cornelius Castoriadis. Ce qui fait la Grèce, tome 1: D'Homère à Héraclite, chapitre V. Editeur: Seuil (9 mars 2004).
^ "Hubris". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
^ Cartledge; Paul Millett (2003). Nomos: Essays in Athenian Law, Politics and Society. Cambridge University Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0521522090. Retrieved 2011-11-14.
^ Rehm, Rush (2014). Radical Theatre: Greek Tragedy in the Modern World. A&C Black. p. 75. ISBN 978-1472502339. Retrieved 2 October 2018 – via Google Books.
^ Aristotle, Rhetoric 1378b.
^ Cohen, David (1995). Law, Violence, and Community in Classical Athens. Cambridge University Press. p. 145. ISBN 0521388376. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ Ludwig, Paul W. (2002). Eros and Polis: Desire and Community in Greek Political Theory. Cambridge University Press. p. 178. ISBN 1139434179. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ Skof, Lenart; Hawke, Shé M. (2021). Shame, Gender Violence, and Ethics: Terrors of Injustice. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1793604682.
^ Stanley J. Grenz, Theology for the Community of God, Pub: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000 – "The Greek word hubris, which occurs occasionally in the New Testament (e.g., Acts 27:10, 21; 2 Cor.12:10). parallels the Hebrew pasha. William Barclay offers a helpful definition of the term. Hubris, he writes, 'is mingled pride and cruelty. Hubris is the pride which makes a man defy God, and the arrogant contempt which makes him trample on the hearts of his fellow men.' Hence, it is the forgetting of personal creatureliness and the attempt to be equal with God."
^ Hollow, Matthew (2014). "The 1920 Farrow's Bank Failure: A Case of Managerial Hubris". Journal of Management History. 20 (2). Durham University: 164–178. doi:10.1108/JMH-11-2012-0071. Retrieved October 1, 2014.
^
Wall, Larry; Schwartz, Randal L.; Christiansen, Tom; Potter, Stephen (1991). Wall, Larry; Talbot, Steve (eds.). Programming Perl. Unix Programming (2 ed.). O'Reilly & Associates (published 1996). p. xiii. ISBN 978-1565921498. Retrieved 22 August 2020. We will encourage you to develop the three great virtues of a programmer: laziness, impatience, and hubris.
^ "arrogance". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
^
Davies, Adrian (2011). "How Can Human Nature and Corporate Governance Be Reconciled?". The Globalisation of Corporate Governance: The Challenge of Clashing Cultures (reprint ed.). London: Routledge (published 2016). p. 68. ISBN 978-1317030102. Retrieved 22 August 2020. hubris – a form of overweening pride and arrogance. In modern usage hubris is an extreme form of arrogance, often in the face of facts .
Further reading
Nicolas R. E. Fisher, Hybris: A Study in the Values of Honour and Shame in Ancient Greece, Warminster, Aris & Phillips, 1992.
Cairns, Douglas L. (1996). "Hybris, Dishonour, and Thinking Big" (PDF). Journal of Hellenic Studies. 116: 1–32. doi:10.2307/631953. hdl:20.500.11820/d7c5e485-cef7-490a-b67d-1b1eb4a200ef. JSTOR 631953. S2CID 59361502.
MacDowell, Douglas (1976). "Hybris in Athens". Greece and Rome. 23 (1): 14–31. doi:10.1017/S0017383500018210. S2CID 163033169.
Michael DeWilde, "The Psychological and Spiritual Roots of a Universal Affliction"
Hubris on 2012's Encyclopædia Britannica
"How to Use Hubris Correctly". Grammarist. 24 September 2017.
Robert A. Stebbins, From Humility to Hubris among Scholars and Politicians: Exploring Expressions of Self-Esteem and Achievement. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing, 2017.
External links
Look up hubris in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Hubris.
Media related to Hubris at Wikimedia Commons
The dictionary definition of hubris at Wiktionary
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IdRef
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hubris (album)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubris_(album)"},{"link_name":"Arrogance (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrogance_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"/ˈhjuːbrɪs/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"ὕβρις","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BD%95%CE%B2%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%82#Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"/ˈhaɪbrɪs/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-collins-1"},{"link_name":"pride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"overconfidence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconfidence"},{"link_name":"complacency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/complacency"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"arrogance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/arrogance"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Picone-4"},{"link_name":"adrogare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adrogare#Latin"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ancient1-7"},{"link_name":"need quotation to verify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-collins-1"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-superstition2-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-superstition3-10"},{"link_name":"emulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/emulation"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-superstition4-11"}],"text":"For the album, see Hubris (album).\"Arrogance\" redirects here. For other uses, see Arrogance (disambiguation).Hubris (/ˈhjuːbrɪs/; from Ancient Greek ὕβρις (húbris) 'pride, insolence, outrage'), or less frequently hybris (/ˈhaɪbrɪs/),[1] describes a personality quality of extreme or excessive pride[2] or dangerous overconfidence and complacency,[3] often in combination with (or synonymous with) arrogance.[4] The term arrogance comes from the Latin adrogare, meaning \"to feel that one has a right to demand certain attitudes and behaviors from other people\". To arrogate means \"to claim or seize without justification... To make undue claims to having\",[5] or \"to claim or seize without right... to ascribe or attribute without reason\".[6] The term pretension is also associated with the term hubris, but is not synonymous with it.[7][need quotation to verify]According to studies, hubris, arrogance, and pretension are related to the need for victory (even if it does not always mean winning) instead of reconciliation, which \"friendly\" groups might promote.[8] Hubris is usually perceived as a characteristic of an individual rather than a group, although the group the offender belongs to may suffer collateral consequences from wrongful acts. Hubris often indicates a loss of contact with reality and an overestimation of one's own competence, accomplishments, or capabilities. The adjectival form of the noun hubris/hybris is hubristic/hybristic.[1]The term hubris originated in Ancient Greek,[9] where it had several different meanings depending on the context. In legal usage, it meant assault or sexual crimes and theft of public property,[10] and in religious usage it meant emulation of divinity or transgression against a god.[11]","title":"Hubris"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"}],"text":"In ancient Greek, hubris referred to \"outrage\": actions that violated natural order, or which shamed and humiliated the victim, sometimes for the pleasure or gratification of the abuser.","title":"Ancient Greek origin"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atlas_Typhoeus_Prometheus.png"},{"link_name":"Black-figure pottery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-figure_pottery"},{"link_name":"Prometheus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheus"},{"link_name":"Hesiod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiod"},{"link_name":"Aeschylus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeschylus"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-superstition4-11"},{"link_name":"Arachne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachne"},{"link_name":"Athena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena"},{"link_name":"Icarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icarus"},{"link_name":"Phaethon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaethon"},{"link_name":"Salmoneus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmoneus"},{"link_name":"Niobe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobe"},{"link_name":"Cassiopeia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassiopeia_(Queen_of_Aethiopia)"},{"link_name":"Tantalus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalus"},{"link_name":"Tereus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tereus"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Hybris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybris_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Xerxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I"},{"link_name":"The Persians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Persians"},{"link_name":"bind the Hellespont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes%27_Pontoon_Bridges"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Fates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moirai"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Mythological usage","text":"Black-figure pottery (550 BC) depicting Prometheus serving his sentence, tied to a columnHesiod and Aeschylus used the word \"hubris\" to describe transgressions against the gods.[11] A common way that hubris was committed was when a mortal claimed to be better than a god in a particular skill or attribute. Claims like these were rarely left unpunished, and so Arachne, a talented young weaver, was transformed into a spider when she said that her skills exceeded those of the goddess Athena, even though her claim was true. Additional examples include Icarus, Phaethon, Salmoneus, Niobe, Cassiopeia, Tantalus, and Tereus.[12]The goddess Hybris is described in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition as having \"insolent encroachment upon the rights of others\".[13]These events were not limited to myth, and certain figures in history were considered to have been punished for committing hubris through their arrogance. One such person was king Xerxes as portrayed in Aeschylus's play The Persians, and who allegedly threw chains to bind the Hellespont sea as punishment for daring to destroy his fleet.[citation needed]What is common in all of these examples is the breaching of limits, as the Greeks believed that the Fates (Μοῖραι) had assigned each being with a particular area of freedom, an area that even the gods could not breach.[14]","title":"Ancient Greek origin"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ancient Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Athens"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Britannica-15"},{"link_name":"assault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault"},{"link_name":"battery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(crime)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-superstition2-9"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"honour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honour"},{"link_name":"aidōs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aidos"},{"link_name":"zero-sum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-sum"},{"link_name":"Rush Rehm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rush_Rehm"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Demosthenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demosthenes"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"Midias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midias"},{"link_name":"Against Midias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_Midias"},{"link_name":"Aeschines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeschines"},{"link_name":"Against Timarchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_Timarchus"},{"link_name":"prostitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostitution"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-superstition3-10"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-law-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eros-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"sub_title":"Legal usage","text":"In ancient Athens, hubris was defined as the use of violence to shame the victim (this sense of hubris could also characterize rape).[15] In legal terms, hubristic violations of the law included what might today be termed assault-and-battery, sexual crimes, or the theft of public or sacred property. In some contexts, the term had a sexual connotation.[9] Shame was frequently reflected upon the perpetrator, as well.[16]Crucial to this definition are the ancient Greek concepts of honour (τιμή, timē) and shame (αἰδώς, aidōs). The concept of honour included not only the exaltation of the one receiving honour, but also the shaming of the one overcome by the act of hubris. This concept of honour is akin to a zero-sum game. Rush Rehm simplifies this definition of hubris to the contemporary concept of \"insolence, contempt, and excessive violence\".[17]Two well-known cases are found in the speeches of Demosthenes, a prominent statesman and orator in ancient Greece. These two examples occurred when first Midias punched Demosthenes in the face in the theatre (Against Midias), and second when (in Against Conon) a defendant allegedly assaulted a man and crowed over the victim. Yet another example of hubris appears in Aeschines' Against Timarchus, where the defendant, Timarchus, is accused of breaking the law of hubris by submitting himself to prostitution and anal intercourse. Aeschines brought this suit against Timarchus to bar him from the rights of political office and his case succeeded.[10]Aristotle defined hubris as shaming the victim, not because of anything that happened to the committer or might happen to the committer, but merely for that committer's own gratification:to cause shame to the victim, not in order that anything may happen to you, nor because anything has happened to you, but merely for your own gratification. Hubris is not the requital of past injuries; this is revenge. As for the pleasure in hubris, its cause is this: naive men think that by ill-treating others they make their own superiority the greater.[18][19][20][21]","title":"Ancient Greek origin"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paradise_Lost_12.jpg"},{"link_name":"John Milton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Milton"},{"link_name":"Paradise Lost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradise_Lost"},{"link_name":"Gustave Doré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Lucifer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucifer"},{"link_name":"Satan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satan"},{"link_name":"Septuagint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint"},{"link_name":"overweening","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/overweening"},{"link_name":"superciliousness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/supercilious"},{"link_name":"nemesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nemesis"},{"link_name":"New Testament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-superstition6-22"}],"sub_title":"Early Christianity","text":"Illustration for John Milton's Paradise Lost by Gustave Doré (1866). The spiritual descent of Lucifer into Satan, one of the most famous examples of hubris.In the Septuagint, the \"hubris is overweening pride, superciliousness or arrogance, often resulting in fatal retribution or nemesis\". The word hubris as used in the New Testament parallels the Hebrew word pesha, meaning \"transgression\". It represents a pride that \"makes a man defy God\", sometimes to the degree that he considers himself an equal.[22]","title":"Ancient Greek origin"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Picone-4"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Larry Wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Wall"},{"link_name":"programmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmer"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"In its modern usage, hubris denotes overconfident pride combined with arrogance.[4] Hubris is also referred to as \"pride that blinds\" because it often causes a committer of hubris to act in foolish ways that belie common sense.[23]Hubris has also been presented as a positive trait: Larry Wall promoted \"the three great virtues of a programmer: laziness, impatience, and hubris\".[24]","title":"Modern usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"arrogance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/arrogance"},{"link_name":"Oxford English Dictionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Arrogance","text":"Look up arrogance in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.The Oxford English Dictionary defines \"arrogance\" in terms of \"high or inflated opinion of one's own abilities, importance, etc., that gives rise to presumption or excessive self-confidence, or to a feeling or attitude of being superior to others [...].\"[25] Adrian Davies sees arrogance as more generic and less severe than hubris.[26]","title":"Modern usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN missing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"\"Hybris, Dishonour, and Thinking Big\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11874467/Hybris_Dishonour_and_Thinking_Big.pdf"},{"link_name":"Journal of Hellenic Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Hellenic_Studies"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/631953","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F631953"},{"link_name":"hdl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"20.500.11820/d7c5e485-cef7-490a-b67d-1b1eb4a200ef","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hdl.handle.net/20.500.11820%2Fd7c5e485-cef7-490a-b67d-1b1eb4a200ef"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"631953","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/631953"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"59361502","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:59361502"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1017/S0017383500018210","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017383500018210"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"163033169","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163033169"},{"link_name":"\"The Psychological and Spiritual Roots of a Universal Affliction\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//docshare01.docshare.tips/files/17331/173310202.pdf"},{"link_name":"Hubris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/274625/hubris"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica"},{"link_name":"\"How to Use Hubris Correctly\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//grammarist.com/usage/hubris/"},{"link_name":"Grammarist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grammarist&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ISBN missing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"}],"text":"Nicolas R. E. Fisher, Hybris: A Study in the Values of Honour and Shame in Ancient Greece, Warminster, Aris & Phillips, 1992. [ISBN missing]\nCairns, Douglas L. (1996). \"Hybris, Dishonour, and Thinking Big\" (PDF). Journal of Hellenic Studies. 116: 1–32. doi:10.2307/631953. hdl:20.500.11820/d7c5e485-cef7-490a-b67d-1b1eb4a200ef. JSTOR 631953. S2CID 59361502.\nMacDowell, Douglas (1976). \"Hybris in Athens\". Greece and Rome. 23 (1): 14–31. doi:10.1017/S0017383500018210. S2CID 163033169.\nMichael DeWilde, \"The Psychological and Spiritual Roots of a Universal Affliction\"\nHubris on 2012's Encyclopædia Britannica\n\"How to Use Hubris Correctly\". Grammarist. 24 September 2017.\nRobert A. Stebbins, From Humility to Hubris among Scholars and Politicians: Exploring Expressions of Self-Esteem and Achievement. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing, 2017. [ISBN missing]","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Black-figure pottery (550 BC) depicting Prometheus serving his sentence, tied to a column","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Atlas_Typhoeus_Prometheus.png/220px-Atlas_Typhoeus_Prometheus.png"},{"image_text":"Illustration for John Milton's Paradise Lost by Gustave Doré (1866). The spiritual descent of Lucifer into Satan, one of the most famous examples of hubris.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Paradise_Lost_12.jpg/220px-Paradise_Lost_12.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"\"hybris\". CollinsDictionary.com. HarperCollins.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/hybris","url_text":"\"hybris\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CollinsDictionary.com","url_text":"CollinsDictionary.com"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins","url_text":"HarperCollins"}]},{"reference":"\"Examples and Definition of Hubris in Literature\". Literary Devices. 2020-12-01. Retrieved 2021-04-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://literarydevices.net/hubris/","url_text":"\"Examples and Definition of Hubris in Literature\""}]},{"reference":"\"hubris\". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 2016-04-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hubris","url_text":"\"hubris\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merriam-Webster","url_text":"Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary"}]},{"reference":"Picone, P. M.; Dagnino, G. B.; Minà, A. (2014). \"The origin of failure: A multidisciplinary appraisal of the hubris hypothesis and proposed research agenda\". Academy of Management Perspectives. 28 (4): 447–468. doi:10.5465/amp.2012.0177.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Management_Perspectives","url_text":"Academy of Management Perspectives"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5465%2Famp.2012.0177","url_text":"10.5465/amp.2012.0177"}]},{"reference":"Yasmin (2019-06-07). \"O que é uma pessoa arrogante? Por que evitar a arrogância?\". Definição.net (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 2020-04-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://definicao.net/arrogante/","url_text":"\"O que é uma pessoa arrogante? Por que evitar a arrogância?\""}]},{"reference":"\"What Makes the Arrogant Person So Arrogant?\". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2020-04-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/fulfillment-any-age/201705/what-makes-the-arrogant-person-so-arrogant","url_text":"\"What Makes the Arrogant Person So Arrogant?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_Today","url_text":"Psychology Today"}]},{"reference":"Roman, Luke; Roman, Monica (2010). Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman Mythology. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1438126395.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tOgWfjNIxoMC&q=%22Hubris%22+Icarus,+Phaethon,+Salmoneus,+Niobe,+Cassiopeia,+Tantalus","url_text":"Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman Mythology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1438126395","url_text":"978-1438126395"}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Themis\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 758.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Themis","url_text":"\"Themis\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"\"Hubris\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 21 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/topic/hubris","url_text":"\"Hubris\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Cartledge; Paul Millett (2003). Nomos: Essays in Athenian Law, Politics and Society. Cambridge University Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0521522090. Retrieved 2011-11-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Cartledge","url_text":"Cartledge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Millett","url_text":"Paul Millett"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3nCSw5Cr4PUC&pg=PA123","url_text":"Nomos: Essays in Athenian Law, Politics and Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521522090","url_text":"978-0521522090"}]},{"reference":"Rehm, Rush (2014). Radical Theatre: Greek Tragedy in the Modern World. A&C Black. p. 75. ISBN 978-1472502339. Retrieved 2 October 2018 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rush_Rehm","url_text":"Rehm, Rush"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8eanAgAAQBAJ&q=Rush+Rehm+hubris&pg=PA75","url_text":"Radical Theatre: Greek Tragedy in the Modern World"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1472502339","url_text":"978-1472502339"}]},{"reference":"Cohen, David (1995). Law, Violence, and Community in Classical Athens. Cambridge University Press. p. 145. ISBN 0521388376. Retrieved March 6, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SJ9GjorvJGkC&pg=PA145","url_text":"Law, Violence, and Community in Classical Athens"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521388376","url_text":"0521388376"}]},{"reference":"Ludwig, Paul W. (2002). Eros and Polis: Desire and Community in Greek Political Theory. Cambridge University Press. p. 178. ISBN 1139434179. Retrieved March 6, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=TvqTEy-til8C&pg=PA172","url_text":"Eros and Polis: Desire and Community in Greek Political Theory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1139434179","url_text":"1139434179"}]},{"reference":"Skof, Lenart; Hawke, Shé M. (2021). Shame, Gender Violence, and Ethics: Terrors of Injustice. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1793604682.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Y78TEAAAQBAJ&q=%22Hubris%22+%22naive+men+think+that+by+ill-treating+others+they+make+their+own+superiority+the+greater%22&pg=PA58","url_text":"Shame, Gender Violence, and Ethics: Terrors of Injustice"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1793604682","url_text":"978-1793604682"}]},{"reference":"Hollow, Matthew (2014). \"The 1920 Farrow's Bank Failure: A Case of Managerial Hubris\". Journal of Management History. 20 (2). Durham University: 164–178. doi:10.1108/JMH-11-2012-0071. Retrieved October 1, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/6081830","url_text":"\"The 1920 Farrow's Bank Failure: A Case of Managerial Hubris\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1108%2FJMH-11-2012-0071","url_text":"10.1108/JMH-11-2012-0071"}]},{"reference":"Wall, Larry; Schwartz, Randal L.; Christiansen, Tom; Potter, Stephen (1991). Wall, Larry; Talbot, Steve (eds.). Programming Perl. Unix Programming (2 ed.). O'Reilly & Associates (published 1996). p. xiii. ISBN 978-1565921498. Retrieved 22 August 2020. We will encourage you to develop the three great virtues of a programmer: laziness, impatience, and hubris.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Wall","url_text":"Wall, Larry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randal_L._Schwartz","url_text":"Schwartz, Randal L."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Christiansen","url_text":"Christiansen, Tom"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Wall","url_text":"Wall, Larry"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=IJxQAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"Programming Perl"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1565921498","url_text":"978-1565921498"}]},{"reference":"\"arrogance\". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=arrogance","url_text":"\"arrogance\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary","url_text":"Oxford English Dictionary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"}]},{"reference":"Davies, Adrian (2011). \"How Can Human Nature and Corporate Governance Be Reconciled?\". The Globalisation of Corporate Governance: The Challenge of Clashing Cultures (reprint ed.). London: Routledge (published 2016). p. 68. ISBN 978-1317030102. Retrieved 22 August 2020. [...] hubris – a form of overweening pride and arrogance. [...] In modern usage hubris is an extreme form of arrogance, often in the face of facts [...].","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4nC1CwAAQBAJ","url_text":"The Globalisation of Corporate Governance: The Challenge of Clashing Cultures"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317030102","url_text":"978-1317030102"}]},{"reference":"Cairns, Douglas L. (1996). \"Hybris, Dishonour, and Thinking Big\" (PDF). Journal of Hellenic Studies. 116: 1–32. doi:10.2307/631953. hdl:20.500.11820/d7c5e485-cef7-490a-b67d-1b1eb4a200ef. JSTOR 631953. S2CID 59361502.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11874467/Hybris_Dishonour_and_Thinking_Big.pdf","url_text":"\"Hybris, Dishonour, and Thinking Big\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Hellenic_Studies","url_text":"Journal of Hellenic Studies"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F631953","url_text":"10.2307/631953"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11820%2Fd7c5e485-cef7-490a-b67d-1b1eb4a200ef","url_text":"20.500.11820/d7c5e485-cef7-490a-b67d-1b1eb4a200ef"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/631953","url_text":"631953"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:59361502","url_text":"59361502"}]},{"reference":"MacDowell, Douglas (1976). \"Hybris in Athens\". Greece and Rome. 23 (1): 14–31. doi:10.1017/S0017383500018210. S2CID 163033169.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017383500018210","url_text":"10.1017/S0017383500018210"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163033169","url_text":"163033169"}]},{"reference":"\"How to Use Hubris Correctly\". Grammarist. 24 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://grammarist.com/usage/hubris/","url_text":"\"How to Use Hubris Correctly\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grammarist&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Grammarist"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discriminant_Book
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Discriminant Book
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["1 History","2 Design","3 Naval Enigma operation","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]
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Kenngruppenbuch for use in configuring Naval Enigma
The Discriminant Book (German: Kenngruppenbuch; literally: Groups to identify the key to the receiver) shortened to K-Book (K. Buch), and also known as the indicator group book or identification group book was a secret distribution list in booklet form, which listed trigraphs in random order. The Kenngruppenbuch was introduced in May 1937, and used by the Kriegsmarine (German War Navy) during World War II as part of the Naval Enigma message encipherment procedure, to ensure secret and confidential communication between Karl Dönitz, Commander of Submarines (BdU) in the Atlantic and in the Mediterranean operating German submarines. The Kenngruppenbuch was used in the generation of the Enigma message Key that was transmitted within the message Indicator. The Kenngruppenbuch was used from 5 October 1941, for the Enigma Model M3, and from 1 February 1942 exclusively for the Enigma M4. It must not be confused with the Kenngruppenheft which was used with the Short Signal Book (German: Kurzsignalbuch).
History
The Kenngruppenbuch was a large document with the first edition coming into force in 1938, that mostly remained unchanged when a second edition was released in 1941. The Zuteilungsliste, however, was continually updated. After 1 May 1937, the Kriegsmarine had stopped using an Indicating system with a repetition of message key within the indicator, a serious security flaw, which was still being used by the Luftwaffe (German Airforce) and Heer (German Army) at the beginning of 1940, making the Naval Enigma more secure. The introduction of the K Book was designed to avert this serious security flaw.
On 9 May 1941, when a version of the K Book was recovered from U-boat U-110, Joan Clarke, and her compatriots at Hut 8, the section at Bletchley Park tasked with solving German naval (Kriegsmarine) Enigma messages, noticed that German telegraphists were not acting in a random way, which they were supposed to when making up the message Indicator. Rather than selecting a random trigram out of the K Book, the telegraphist had a tendency to choose a trigram from either the top of the column list, or near the bottom and grouped in the middle. It was a problem that the Kriegsmarine later corrected with the introduction of new rules, later in 1941.
Design
Early copy of the Zuteilungsliste. Notice how additional Naval Enigma ciphers have been added at a later date.
The Kenngruppenbuch consisted of two main parts. The first half consisted of the Column List (German:Spaltenliste) which consisted of all 17,576 of trigrams (Kenngruppen), divided into 733 numbered columns of 24 trigrams displayed in random order. The second half consists of the group list (German:Gruppenlist) where the trigrams are sorted in alphabetical order. After each trigram are 2 numbers, the first giving the number of the column in the Spaltenliste in which the trigram occurs, the second giving the position of the trigram in the column. The table pointer, or table selection chart (German:Tauschtafelplan) told the operator which column of a given table was used to select the required trigrams. By means of the Assignation list (German:Zuteilungsliste) told the radio man which table he should use for a particular cipher net. Large keys would be given several blocks of columns, small keys as few as 10.
Copy of heavily revised Tauschtafelplan
Naval Enigma operation
Naval Enigma used an indicator to define a key mechanism, with the key being transmitted along with the ciphertext. The starting position for the rotors was transmitted just before the ciphertext, usually after having been enciphered by Naval Enigma. The exact method used was termed the indicator procedure. A properly self-reciprocal bipartite digraphic encryption algorithm was used for the super-encipherment of the indicators (German:Spruchschlüssel) with basic wheel settings The Enigma Cipher Keys called Heimische Gewässer (English Codename: Dolphin), (Plaice), Triton (Shark), Niobe (Narwhal) and Sucker all used the Kenngruppenbuch and bigram tables to build up the Indicator. The Indicator was built up as follows:
Two Trigrams were chosen at random. The first trigraph was taken from the Key Identification Group table (German:Schlüsselkenngruppe), from the Kenngruppenbuch as determined in the Zuteilungsliste. The second trigraph was taken from the encryption indicator group or Process characteristic groups table (German:Verfahrenkenngrupp), also taken from the Kenngruppenbuch and also determined in the Zuteilungsliste.
For example:
S W Q - and R A F,
and arranged in the scheme:
∗ S W Q
R A F ∗
with the empty position would be filled in a random letter:
X S W Q
R A F P
Encipherment with a Bigram table called double-letter conversion table (German:Doppelbuchstabentauschtafel), arranged with vertical pairs, was as follow:
X→V S→G W→V Q→X
R→I A→F F→T P→T
which would give
V G V X
I F T T
This was read out vertically, giving:
VIGF VTXT
and this was sent without further encoding, and preceding the encrypted message. The message was sent by Morse and on the receiving end the procedure was reversed. Nine bigram tables were known to exist, including FLUSS or FLUSZ (English:River)). Other bigram booklets existed and were used including BACH (1940), STROM (1941) and TEICH, UFER etc.
See also
Short Weather Cipher
Short Signal Book
References
^ a b Michael Smith (20 January 2011). The Bletchley Park Codebreakers, Appendix III. Biteback Publishing. p. 390. ISBN 978-1-84954-623-2. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
^ a b c d e Alan Mathison Turing; B. J. Copeland (9 September 2004). The Essential Turing. Oxford University Press. p. 271. ISBN 978-0-19-825079-1.
^ a b c d Sebag-Montefiore, Hugh (21 July 2011). Enigma:The Battle For The Code. Victoria Embankment, London: Orion Publishing Group. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-78022-123-6.
^ a b c d e f Friedrich L. Bauer (2006). Decrypted Secrets - Methods and Maxims of Cryptology (4 ed.). Berlin: Springer. p. 61. ISBN 3-540-24502-2.
^ Friedrich L. Bauer (2006). Decrypted Secrets - Methods and Maxims of Cryptology (4 ed.). Berlin: Springer. p. 61. ISBN 3-540-24502-2.
Further reading
Arthur O. Bauer: Direction finding as Allied weapon against German submarines from 1939 to 1945. Selbstverlag, Diemen Netherlands 1997. ISBN 3-00-002142-6
Friedrich L. Bauer : Decrypted Secrets. Methods and Maxims of Cryptology. 3rd revised and expanded edition. Springer, Berlin and others 2000 ISBN 3-540-67931-6 .
Rijmenants, Dirk (2010). "Enigma Message Procedures Used by the Army, Air Force and Navy". Cryptologia. 34 (4): 329–339. doi:10.1080/01611194.2010.486257. S2CID 27996390.
External links
Full scan (PDF; 120 pages; 71.5 MB) of an authentic Kenngruppenbuch
|
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Buch), and also known as the indicator group book or identification group book was a secret distribution list in booklet form, which listed trigraphs in random order.[1] The Kenngruppenbuch was introduced in May 1937, and used by the Kriegsmarine (German War Navy) during World War II as part of the Naval Enigma message encipherment procedure, to ensure secret and confidential communication between Karl Dönitz, Commander of Submarines (BdU) in the Atlantic and in the Mediterranean operating German submarines. The Kenngruppenbuch was used in the generation of the Enigma message Key that was transmitted within the message Indicator.[1] The Kenngruppenbuch was used from 5 October 1941, for the Enigma Model M3, and from 1 February 1942 exclusively for the Enigma M4. 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The second trigraph was taken from the encryption indicator group or Process characteristic groups table (German:Verfahrenkenngrupp), also taken from the Kenngruppenbuch and also determined in the Zuteilungsliste.[2]For example:\nS W Q - and R A F,and arranged in the scheme:[4]∗ S W Q\nR A F ∗with the empty position would be filled in a random letter:[4]X S W Q\nR A F PEncipherment with a Bigram table called double-letter conversion table (German:Doppelbuchstabentauschtafel), arranged with vertical pairs, was as follow:X→V S→G W→V Q→X\nR→I A→F F→T P→Twhich would giveV G V X\nI F T TThis was read out vertically, giving:VIGF VTXTand this was sent without further encoding, and preceding the encrypted message. The message was sent by Morse and on the receiving end the procedure was reversed.[4] Nine bigram tables were known to exist, including FLUSS or FLUSZ (English:River)).[5] Other bigram booklets existed and were used including BACH (1940), STROM (1941) and TEICH, UFER etc.[4]","title":"Naval Enigma operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-00-002142-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-00-002142-6"},{"link_name":"Friedrich L. Bauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_L._Bauer"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-540-67931-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-67931-6"},{"link_name":"\"Enigma Message Procedures Used by the Army, Air Force and Navy\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ciphermachinesandcryptology.com/en/enigmaproc.htm"},{"link_name":"Cryptologia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptologia"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1080/01611194.2010.486257","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1080%2F01611194.2010.486257"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"27996390","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27996390"}],"text":"Arthur O. Bauer: Direction finding as Allied weapon against German submarines from 1939 to 1945. Selbstverlag, Diemen Netherlands 1997. ISBN 3-00-002142-6\nFriedrich L. Bauer : Decrypted Secrets. Methods and Maxims of Cryptology. 3rd revised and expanded edition. Springer, Berlin and others 2000 ISBN 3-540-67931-6 .\nRijmenants, Dirk (2010). \"Enigma Message Procedures Used by the Army, Air Force and Navy\". Cryptologia. 34 (4): 329–339. doi:10.1080/01611194.2010.486257. S2CID 27996390.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Kenngruppenbuch for use in configuring Naval Enigma","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/87/Kenngruppenbuch.jpg/220px-Kenngruppenbuch.jpg"},{"image_text":"Early copy of the Zuteilungsliste. Notice how additional Naval Enigma ciphers have been added at a later date.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Zuteilungsliste_B_from_Kenngruppenbuch.jpg/150px-Zuteilungsliste_B_from_Kenngruppenbuch.jpg"},{"image_text":"Copy of heavily revised Tauschtafelplan","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Tauschtafelplan_Bruno_from_set_Quelle.jpg/150px-Tauschtafelplan_Bruno_from_set_Quelle.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Short Weather Cipher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_Weather_Cipher"},{"title":"Short Signal Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurzsignale"}]
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[{"reference":"Michael Smith (20 January 2011). The Bletchley Park Codebreakers, Appendix III. Biteback Publishing. p. 390. ISBN 978-1-84954-623-2. Retrieved 22 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lwKuAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT390","url_text":"The Bletchley Park Codebreakers, Appendix III"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84954-623-2","url_text":"978-1-84954-623-2"}]},{"reference":"Alan Mathison Turing; B. J. Copeland (9 September 2004). The Essential Turing. Oxford University Press. p. 271. ISBN 978-0-19-825079-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dSUTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA271","url_text":"The Essential Turing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-825079-1","url_text":"978-0-19-825079-1"}]},{"reference":"Sebag-Montefiore, Hugh (21 July 2011). Enigma:The Battle For The Code. Victoria Embankment, London: Orion Publishing Group. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-78022-123-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Sebag-Montefiore","url_text":"Sebag-Montefiore, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78022-123-6","url_text":"978-1-78022-123-6"}]},{"reference":"Friedrich L. Bauer (2006). Decrypted Secrets - Methods and Maxims of Cryptology (4 ed.). Berlin: Springer. p. 61. ISBN 3-540-24502-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin","url_text":"Berlin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-24502-2","url_text":"3-540-24502-2"}]},{"reference":"Friedrich L. Bauer (2006). Decrypted Secrets - Methods and Maxims of Cryptology (4 ed.). Berlin: Springer. p. 61. ISBN 3-540-24502-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin","url_text":"Berlin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-24502-2","url_text":"3-540-24502-2"}]},{"reference":"Rijmenants, Dirk (2010). \"Enigma Message Procedures Used by the Army, Air Force and Navy\". Cryptologia. 34 (4): 329–339. doi:10.1080/01611194.2010.486257. S2CID 27996390.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ciphermachinesandcryptology.com/en/enigmaproc.htm","url_text":"\"Enigma Message Procedures Used by the Army, Air Force and Navy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptologia","url_text":"Cryptologia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01611194.2010.486257","url_text":"10.1080/01611194.2010.486257"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27996390","url_text":"27996390"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lwKuAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT390","external_links_name":"The Bletchley Park Codebreakers, Appendix III"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dSUTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA271","external_links_name":"The Essential Turing"},{"Link":"https://www.ciphermachinesandcryptology.com/en/enigmaproc.htm","external_links_name":"\"Enigma Message Procedures Used by the Army, Air Force and Navy\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01611194.2010.486257","external_links_name":"10.1080/01611194.2010.486257"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27996390","external_links_name":"27996390"},{"Link":"https://www.cryptomuseum.com/crypto/enigma/m4/files/KBuch_1941_992_q50.pdf","external_links_name":"Full scan (PDF; 120 pages; 71.5 MB)"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Minority_Report
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The Minority Report
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["1 Synopsis","2 Precrime","2.1 Precogs","2.2 Majority and minority reports","2.3 Multiple time paths","2.4 Police Commissioner John A. Anderton","3 Media adaptation","3.1 Differences between short story and film","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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1956 science fiction novella by Philip K. Dick
For other uses, see Minority Report (disambiguation).
"The Minority Report" was originally published in Fantastic Universe in 1956.
"The Minority Report" is a 1956 science fiction novella by American writer Philip K. Dick, first published in Fantastic Universe. In a future society, three mutants foresee all crime before it occurs. Plugged into a great machine, these "precogs" allow a division of the police called Precrime to arrest suspects before they can commit any actual crimes. When the head of Precrime, John Anderton, is himself predicted to murder a man whom he has never heard of, Anderton is convinced a great conspiracy is afoot.
The story reflects many of Philip K. Dick's personal Cold War anxieties, particularly questioning the relationship between authoritarianism and individual autonomy. Like many stories dealing with knowledge of future events, "The Minority Report" questions the existence of free will. The title refers to the dissenting opinion of one of the precogs.
In 2002, the story was adapted into a film directed by Steven Spielberg, which starred Tom Cruise, Colin Farrell, Samantha Morton, and Max von Sydow. Spielberg's film was followed by a series of the same name, which debuted on the Fox Broadcasting Company on September 21, 2015.
Synopsis
In a near-future version of the United States, John Allison Anderton is the aging creator and head police commissioner of the Precrime Division, in which three mutant humans called "precogs" predict all crimes before they occur. While showing his new second-in-command Ed Witwer around the premises, Anderton is shocked to receive a report that he, Anderton, is predicted to murder a man within the coming week. Believing Witwer has framed him in order to steal his job, Anderton tells his much younger wife Lisa, who is a fellow police official. Becoming paranoid, he soon suspects that she and Witwer may be joined in a conspiracy against him.
Knowing that a copy of the report is automatically sent to the Army as a safeguard, Anderton rushes home. He is suddenly abducted and brought before Leopold Kaplan, a retired general and Anderton's expected murder victim, although the two have never met. Kaplan hears Anderton's claims of ignorance, but still moves to hand him over to police custody. However, a mysterious man named Fleming crashes Anderton's transport vehicle and, claiming that Anderton is being framed by Witwer, allows him to escape.
Anderton contacts a friend at Precrime to inquire about a "minority report": a type of dissenting opinion in which one of the three precogs' predictions conflicts with those of the other two. Indeed, he learns that a minority report exists: one of the precogs predicted that Anderton would refrain from murdering Kaplan once he became aware of the situation. Anderton must now decide whether to remain silent and turn himself in, or speak up about the minority report and thus reveal a flaw that could discredit the entire Precrime system.
Lisa confronts Anderton, claiming that no conspiracy is taking place. She attempts to help him escape using a police helicopter, but Fleming ambushes and attacks her. Anderton subdues Fleming, revealing that the latter is one of Kaplan's men. Anderton realizes that his escape and "framing" was staged by the military. By preventing Anderton from murdering Kaplan, while also preventing Anderton from being arrested, Kaplan hopes to destroy Precrime's credibility by showing that arrested "criminals" may not always become guilty of the crimes they are predicted to commit. Anderton finally reads each of the precog reports, then goes to an Army rally where Kaplan is moments away from reading aloud Anderton's minority report to the public. Before Kaplan is able to do so, Anderton shoots and kills him.
Anderton is arrested and both he and Lisa, as his accomplice, are scheduled for penal transportation to another planet. Before they leave Earth, Anderton explains to Witwer his reasoning for shooting Kaplan. After obtaining the three precog reports, he discovered that each of them predicted a different outcome. He further realized that the reports had not been generated simultaneously, and that each had been affected by his knowledge of all preceding ones. The first indicated that he would kill Kaplan in order to prevent Precrime from being discredited and shut down; the second predicted that, after reading the first, he would decide to not kill Kaplan. According to the third report, Kaplan had planned to discredit Precrime in order to enact a state of emergency and martial law, resulting in a military coup in which the Army would replace Precrime. Wanting to preserve the status quo, Anderton decided to fulfill the prediction and assassinate Kaplan rather than letting his own innocence destroy the system he helped create. The entire situation thus became a self-fulfilling prophecy. As Anderton and Lisa are about to be transported, Anderton warns Witwer, who has nervously inherited Anderton's job, that the same predicament could happen to him at any time.
Precrime
Precrime is a predictive policing system dedicated to apprehending and detaining people before they have the opportunity to commit a given crime. At the time of the story, it has been operating for thirty years. This method has replaced the traditional system of discovering a crime and its perpetrator after the crime has already been committed, then issuing punishment after the fact. As Witwer says early on in the story, "punishment was never much of a deterrent and could scarcely have afforded comfort to a victim already dead". Unlike the film adaptation, the story version of Precrime does not deal solely with cases of murder, but all crimes. As Commissioner John A. Anderton (the founder of Precrime) states, "Precrime has cut down felonies by 99.8%."
Three mutants, known as precogs, have precognitive abilities they can use to see up to two weeks into the future. The precogs are strapped into machines, nonsensically babbling as a computer listens and converts this gibberish into predictions of the future. This information is transcribed onto conventional punched cards that are ejected into various coded slots. These cards appear simultaneously at Precrime and the army headquarters to prevent systemic corruption.
Precogs
Precogs are mutants, identified talents further developed in a government-operated training school—for example, one precog was initially diagnosed as "a hydro-cephalic idiot" but the precog talent was found under layers of damaged brain tissue. The precogs are kept in rigid position by metal bands, clamps and wiring, strapping them into special high-backed chairs. Their physical needs are taken care of automatically and Anderton claims that they have no spiritual needs. Their physical appearance is distorted from an ordinary human, with enlarged heads and wasted bodies. Precogs are "deformed" and "retarded" as "the talent absorbs everything"; "the esp-lobe shrivels the balance of the frontal area". They do not understand their predictions; only through technological and mechanical aid can their nonsense be unraveled. The data produced does not always pertain to crime or murder, but this information is then passed on to other groups of people who use the precog necessities to create other future necessities.
Majority and minority reports
Each of the three precogs generates its own report or prediction.
The reports of all the precogs are analyzed by a computer and, if these reports differ from one another, the computer identifies the two reports with the greatest overlap and produces a "majority report", taking this as the accurate prediction of the future. But the existence of majority reports implies the existence of a "minority report". In the story, Precrime Police Commissioner John A. Anderton believes that the prediction that he will commit a murder has been generated as a majority report. He sets out to find the minority report, which would give him an alternate future.
However, as Anderton finds out, sometimes all three reports differ quite significantly, and there may be no majority report, even though two reports may have had enough in common for the computer to link them as such. In the storyline, all of the reports about Anderton differ because they predict events occurring sequentially, and thus each is a minority report. Anderton's situation is explained as unique, because he, as Police Commissioner, received notice of the precogs' predictions, allowing him to change his mind and invalidate earlier precog predictions.
Multiple time paths
The existence of three apparent minority reports suggests the possibility of three future time paths, all existing simultaneously, any of which an individual could choose to follow or be sent along following an enticement (as in Anderton's being told he was going to murder an unknown man). In this way, the time-paths overlap, and the future of one is able to affect the past of another. It is in this way that the story weaves a complicated web of crossing time paths and makes a linear journey for Anderton harder to identify. This idea of multiple futures lets the precogs of Precrime be of benefit—because if only one time-path existed, the predictions of the precogs would be worthless since the future would be unalterable. Precrime is based on the notion that once one unpleasant future pathway is identified, an alternative, better one can be created with the arrest of the potential perpetrator.
Police Commissioner John A. Anderton
John A. Anderton is the protagonist of The Minority Report. At first, he is highly insecure, suspicious of those closest to him—his wife, his assistant Witwer. He has complete faith in the Precrime system and its authority over individuals and their freedom of choice. The poor living condition of the precogs and the imprisonment of would-be criminals are necessary consequences for the greater good of a safe society. When his own autonomy comes under attack, Anderton retains this faith and convinces himself that the system has somehow been corrupted.
Anderton struggles to find an appropriate balance between Precrime authority and individual liberty. Ultimately, Anderton decides to kill Leopold Kaplan to affirm the majority report and thereby preserve the validity of the Precrime system.
Media adaptation
The 2002 film Minority Report, directed by Steven Spielberg and with Tom Cruise as main actor, was based on the story.
A video game, Minority Report: Everybody Runs, published in 2002 by Activision, was based on the film.
A sequel television series, more than a decade after the events of the movie and also titled Minority Report, premiered on Fox on September 21, 2015.
In September 2023, it was announced that David Haig was adapting the story for the stage, to premiere at the Lyric Hammersmith the following spring.
Differences between short story and film
While the film uses the backdrop of Washington, D.C., Baltimore and Northern Virginia, the location of the original story is New York City.
In the story, John Anderton is a 50-year-old balding, out-of-shape police officer who created Precrime, while in the movie Anderton is in his late 30s, handsome, drug addict, athletic, with a full head of hair who joined Precrime after his son's kidnapping. Instead, a man named Lamar Burgess creates Precrime.
Anderton's wife in the short story is named Lisa, while his ex-wife in the film is named Lara.
The precogs were originally named Mike, Donna, and Jerry, and were deformed and intellectually disabled. In the adaptation, they are called Agatha, Dashiell, and Arthur—after crime writers Agatha Christie, Dashiell Hammett, and Arthur Conan Doyle—children of drug addicts whose mutations led them to dream of future murders, which are captured by machines. They are "deified" by the Precrime officers, and are implied to be intelligent (Agatha guides Anderton successfully through a crowded mall while being pursued by Precrime, and the trio are seen reading large piles of books at the end of the film). In the end of the movie they retire to a rural cottage where they continue their lives in freedom and peace.
In the short story, the precogs can see other crimes, not just murder. In the movie, the precogs can only clearly see murder.
In the short story, Anderton's future victim is General Leopold Kaplan, who wants to discredit Precrime in order to replace this police force with a military authority. At the end of the story, Anderton kills him to prevent the destruction of Precrime. In the movie, Anderton is supposed to kill someone named Leo Crow, but later finds out Crow is just part of a set up to prevent Anderton from discovering a different murder that his superior, Lamar Burgess, committed years ago. At the end of the film, Anderton confronts Burgess, who commits suicide and sends Precrime into oblivion.
In the short story, Anderton seeks the precogs to hear their "minority reports". In the movie, Anderton kidnaps a precog in order to discover his own "minority report" and extract the information for a mysterious crime.
In the film, a major plot point was that there was no minority report. The story ends with Anderton describing how the minority report was based on his knowledge of the other two reports.
The short story ends with Anderton and Lisa exiled to a space colony after Kaplan's murder. The movie finishes with John and Lara reunited after the conspiracy's resolution, expecting a second child.
See also
Precrime
"Law and Oracle" (2011), an episode of the show Futurama in which central character Fry joins a police division heavily inspired by both the novella and film.
"All the Troubles of the World" (1958), an Asimov short story in which society accepts the automatic prediction of crime
Psycho-Pass (2012), an anime series with a similar premise
References
Notes
^ Dick, Philip K. (2002) Selected Stories of Philip K. Dick. New York: Pantheon ISBN 9780375421518
^ Andreeva, Nellie (September 8, 2014). "Fox Nabs 'Minority Report' Series From Steven Spielberg's Amblin TV With Big Put Pilot Commitment". Deadline Hollywood. Penske Business Media, LLC. Retrieved August 17, 2015.
^ Prudom, Laura (September 18, 2015). "Nick Zano joins Fox's 'Minority Report'". Variety. Penske Business Media, LLC. Retrieved August 17, 2015.
^ Akbar, Arifa (25 September 2023). "Minority Report drama to feature in Lyric Hammersmith's 'really bold' spring lineup". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 September 2023.
^ "The Duck Speaks: Minority Report". Archived from the original on 2007-05-05. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
^ "Comparison Paper on Minority Report: "From Story to Screen"". Retrieved 2007-03-25.
^ Landrith, James (April 12, 2004). "The Minority Report: In Print and On Screen". Retrieved 2007-03-25.
Bibliography
Dick, Philip K. (1991) The Minority Report, Volume 4 of The Collected Stories of Philip K. Dick. Secaucus, New Jersey: Citadel Twilight. ISBN 0-8065-1276-8 (contains 18 short stories, an introduction by James Tiptreee Jr., and notes)
Dick, Philip K. (2002) Minority Report London: Gollancz. (ISBN 1-85798-738-1 or ISBN 0-575-07478-7) (contains nine short stories, including most of those that were adapted into films. Also released in audio book form ISBN 0-06-009526-1 containing only five stories, read by Keir Dullea)
External links
The Minority Report title listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
vtePhilip K. Dick
Bibliography
Lost works
Novels
Gather Yourselves Together (1950)
Voices from the Street (1952)
Solar Lottery (1954)
Mary and the Giant (1954)
The World Jones Made (1954)
Eye in the Sky (1955)
The Man Who Japed (1955)
A Time for George Stavros (1956)
Pilgrim on the Hill (1956)
The Broken Bubble (1956)
The Cosmic Puppets (1957)
Puttering About in a Small Land (1957)
Nicholas and the Higs (1958)
Time Out of Joint (1958)
In Milton Lumky Territory (1958)
Confessions of a Crap Artist (1959)
The Man Whose Teeth Were All Exactly Alike (1960)
Humpty Dumpty in Oakland (1960)
Vulcan's Hammer (1960)
Dr. Futurity (1960)
The Man in the High Castle (1961)
We Can Build You (1962)
Martian Time-Slip (1962)
Dr. Bloodmoney, or How We Got Along After the Bomb (1963)
The Game-Players of Titan (1963)
The Simulacra (1963)
The Crack in Space (1963)
Clans of the Alphane Moon (1964)
The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch (1964)
The Zap Gun (1964)
The Penultimate Truth (1964)
The Unteleported Man (1964)
The Ganymede Takeover (1965)
Counter-Clock World (1965)
Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (1966)
Nick and the Glimmung (1966)
Now Wait for Last Year (1966)
Ubik (1966)
Galactic Pot-Healer (1968)
A Maze of Death (1968)
Our Friends from Frolix 8 (1969)
Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said (1974)
Deus Irae (1976)
Radio Free Albemuth (1976; published 1985)
A Scanner Darkly (1977)
VALIS (1981)
The Divine Invasion (1981)
The Transmigration of Timothy Archer (1982)
The Owl in Daylight (unfinished)
Collections
A Handful of Darkness (1955)
The Variable Man (1956)
The Preserving Machine (1969)
The Book of Philip K. Dick (1973)
The Best of Philip K. Dick (1977)
The Golden Man (1980)
Robots, Androids, and Mechanical Oddities (1984)
I Hope I Shall Arrive Soon (1985)
The Collected Stories of Philip K. Dick (1987)
Beyond Lies the Wub (1988)
The Dark Haired Girl (1989)
The Father-Thing (1989)
Second Variety (1989)
The Days of Perky Pat (1990)
The Little Black Box (1990)
The Short Happy Life of the Brown Oxford (1990)
We Can Remember It for You Wholesale (1990)
The Minority Report (1991)
Second Variety (1991)
The Eye of the Sibyl (1992)
The Philip K. Dick Reader (1997)
Minority Report (2002)
Selected Stories of Philip K. Dick (2002)
Paycheck (2004)
Vintage PKD (2006)
The Exegesis of Philip K. Dick (2011)
Short stories
"Beyond Lies the Wub" (1952)
"The Gun" (1952)
"The Skull" (1952)
"The Little Movement" (1952)
"The Defenders" (1953)
"Mr. Spaceship" (1953)
"Piper in the Woods" (1953)
"Roog" (1953)
"The Infinites" (1953)
"Second Variety" (1953)
"Colony" (1953)
"The Cookie Lady" (1953)
"Impostor" (1953)
"Paycheck" (1953)
"The Preserving Machine" (1953)
"Expendable" (1953)
"The Indefatigable Frog" (1953)
"The Commuter" (1953)
"Out in the Garden" (1953)
"The Great C" (1953)
"The King of the Elves" (1953)
"The Trouble with Bubbles" (1953)
"The Variable Man" (1953)
"The Impossible Planet" (1953)
"Planet for Transients" (1953)
"The Builder" (1953)
"Tony and the Beetles" (1953)
"The Hanging Stranger" (1953)
"Prize Ship" (1954)
"Beyond the Door" (1954)
"The Crystal Crypt" (1954)
"The Short Happy Life of the Brown Oxford" (1954)
"The Golden Man" (1954)
"Sales Pitch" (1954)
"Breakfast at Twilight" (1954)
"The Crawlers" (1954)
"Exhibit Piece" (1954)
"Adjustment Team" (1954)
"Shell Game" (1954)
"Meddler" (1954)
"A World of Talent" (1954)
"The Last of the Masters" (1954)
"Upon the Dull Earth" (1954)
"The Father-thing" (1954)
"Strange Eden" (1954)
"The Turning Wheel" (1954)
"Foster, You're Dead!" (1955)
"Human Is" (1955)
"War Veteran" (1955)
"Captive Market" (1955)
"Nanny" (1955)
"The Chromium Fence" (1955)
"Service Call" (1955)
"The Mold of Yancy" (1955)
"Autofac" (1955)
"Psi-man Heal My Child!" (1955)
"The Hood Maker" (1955)
"The Minority Report" (1956)
"Pay for the Printer" (1956)
"A Glass of Darkness" (1956)
"The Unreconstructed M" (1957)
"Null-O" (1958)
"Explorers We" (1959)
"Recall Mechanism" (1959)
"Fair Game" (1959)
"War Game" (1959)
"All We Marsmen" (1963)
"What'll We Do with Ragland Park?" (1963)
"The Days of Perky Pat" (1963)
"If There Were No Benny Cemoli" (1963)
"Waterspider" (1964)
"Novelty Act" (1964)
"Oh, to Be a Blobel!" (1964)
"The War with the Fnools" (1964)
"What the Dead Men Say" (1964)
"Orpheus with Clay Feet" (1964)
"Cantata 140" (1964)
"The Unteleported Man" (1964)
"The Little Black Box" (1964)
"Retreat Syndrome" (1965)
"Project Plowshare (later "The Zap Gun")" (1965)
"We Can Remember It for You Wholesale" (1966)
"Holy Quarrel" (1966)
"Faith of Our Fathers" (1967)
"Not by Its Cover" (1968)
"The Electric Ant" (1969)
"A. Lincoln, Simulacrum" (1969)
"The Pre-persons" (1974)
"A Little Something for Us Tempunauts" (1974)
"The Exit Door Leads In" (1979)
"Rautavaara's Case" (1980)
"I Hope I Shall Arrive Soon" (1980)
"The Eye of the Sibyl" (1987)
"Stability" (1987)
AdaptationsFilms
Blade Runner (1982)
Total Recall (1990)
Barjo (1992)
Screamers (1995)
Impostor (2001)
Minority Report (2002)
Paycheck (2003)
A Scanner Darkly (2006)
Next (2007)
Screamers: The Hunting (2009)
Radio Free Albemuth (2010)
The Adjustment Bureau (2011)
Total Recall (2012)
Blade Runner 2049 (2017)
2036: Nexus Dawn (2017)
2048: Nowhere to Run (2017)
Blade Runner Black Out 2022 (2017)
TV series
Total Recall 2070 (1999)
The Man in the High Castle (2015)
Minority Report (2015)
Philip K. Dick's Electric Dreams (2017)
Blade Runner: Black Lotus (2021)
Works about
Only Apparently Real (1986 biography)
I Am Alive and You Are Dead (1993 biography)
Your Name Here (2008 drama film)
Related
Isa Dick Hackett (daughter)
Philip K. Dick Award
vtePhilip K. Dick's "The Minority Report"Film
Minority Report (2002)
themes
technologies
Lexus 2054
TV
Minority Report (2015 series)
"Law and Oracle" (2011 Futurama episode)
Other
Minority Report: Everybody Runs (2002 video game)
Authority control databases
MusicBrainz work
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Minority Report (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minority_Report_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fantastic_universe_195601.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fantastic Universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantastic_Universe"},{"link_name":"science fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction"},{"link_name":"novella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novella"},{"link_name":"Philip K. Dick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_K._Dick"},{"link_name":"Fantastic Universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantastic_Universe"},{"link_name":"precogs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precognition"},{"link_name":"free will","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will"},{"link_name":"adapted into a film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minority_Report_(film)"},{"link_name":"Steven Spielberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Spielberg"},{"link_name":"Tom Cruise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Cruise"},{"link_name":"Colin Farrell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Farrell"},{"link_name":"Samantha Morton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samantha_Morton"},{"link_name":"Max von Sydow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_von_Sydow"},{"link_name":"series of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minority_Report_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Fox Broadcasting Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company"}],"text":"For other uses, see Minority Report (disambiguation).\"The Minority Report\" was originally published in Fantastic Universe in 1956.\"The Minority Report\" is a 1956 science fiction novella by American writer Philip K. Dick, first published in Fantastic Universe. In a future society, three mutants foresee all crime before it occurs. Plugged into a great machine, these \"precogs\" allow a division of the police called Precrime to arrest suspects before they can commit any actual crimes. When the head of Precrime, John Anderton, is himself predicted to murder a man whom he has never heard of, Anderton is convinced a great conspiracy is afoot.The story reflects many of Philip K. Dick's personal Cold War anxieties, particularly questioning the relationship between authoritarianism and individual autonomy. Like many stories dealing with knowledge of future events, \"The Minority Report\" questions the existence of free will. The title refers to the dissenting opinion of one of the precogs.In 2002, the story was adapted into a film directed by Steven Spielberg, which starred Tom Cruise, Colin Farrell, Samantha Morton, and Max von Sydow. Spielberg's film was followed by a series of the same name, which debuted on the Fox Broadcasting Company on September 21, 2015.","title":"The Minority Report"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"near-future version","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near_future_in_fiction"},{"link_name":"penal transportation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_transportation"},{"link_name":"state of emergency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_emergency"},{"link_name":"martial law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martial_law"},{"link_name":"military coup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_coup"},{"link_name":"self-fulfilling prophecy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy"}],"text":"In a near-future version of the United States, John Allison Anderton is the aging creator and head police commissioner of the Precrime Division, in which three mutant humans called \"precogs\" predict all crimes before they occur. While showing his new second-in-command Ed Witwer around the premises, Anderton is shocked to receive a report that he, Anderton, is predicted to murder a man within the coming week. Believing Witwer has framed him in order to steal his job, Anderton tells his much younger wife Lisa, who is a fellow police official. Becoming paranoid, he soon suspects that she and Witwer may be joined in a conspiracy against him.Knowing that a copy of the report is automatically sent to the Army as a safeguard, Anderton rushes home. He is suddenly abducted and brought before Leopold Kaplan, a retired general and Anderton's expected murder victim, although the two have never met. Kaplan hears Anderton's claims of ignorance, but still moves to hand him over to police custody. However, a mysterious man named Fleming crashes Anderton's transport vehicle and, claiming that Anderton is being framed by Witwer, allows him to escape.Anderton contacts a friend at Precrime to inquire about a \"minority report\": a type of dissenting opinion in which one of the three precogs' predictions conflicts with those of the other two. Indeed, he learns that a minority report exists: one of the precogs predicted that Anderton would refrain from murdering Kaplan once he became aware of the situation. Anderton must now decide whether to remain silent and turn himself in, or speak up about the minority report and thus reveal a flaw that could discredit the entire Precrime system.Lisa confronts Anderton, claiming that no conspiracy is taking place. She attempts to help him escape using a police helicopter, but Fleming ambushes and attacks her. Anderton subdues Fleming, revealing that the latter is one of Kaplan's men. Anderton realizes that his escape and \"framing\" was staged by the military. By preventing Anderton from murdering Kaplan, while also preventing Anderton from being arrested, Kaplan hopes to destroy Precrime's credibility by showing that arrested \"criminals\" may not always become guilty of the crimes they are predicted to commit. Anderton finally reads each of the precog reports, then goes to an Army rally where Kaplan is moments away from reading aloud Anderton's minority report to the public. Before Kaplan is able to do so, Anderton shoots and kills him.Anderton is arrested and both he and Lisa, as his accomplice, are scheduled for penal transportation to another planet. Before they leave Earth, Anderton explains to Witwer his reasoning for shooting Kaplan. After obtaining the three precog reports, he discovered that each of them predicted a different outcome. He further realized that the reports had not been generated simultaneously, and that each had been affected by his knowledge of all preceding ones. The first indicated that he would kill Kaplan in order to prevent Precrime from being discredited and shut down; the second predicted that, after reading the first, he would decide to not kill Kaplan. According to the third report, Kaplan had planned to discredit Precrime in order to enact a state of emergency and martial law, resulting in a military coup in which the Army would replace Precrime. Wanting to preserve the status quo, Anderton decided to fulfill the prediction and assassinate Kaplan rather than letting his own innocence destroy the system he helped create. The entire situation thus became a self-fulfilling prophecy. As Anderton and Lisa are about to be transported, Anderton warns Witwer, who has nervously inherited Anderton's job, that the same predicament could happen to him at any time.","title":"Synopsis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Precrime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precrime"},{"link_name":"predictive policing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictive_policing"},{"link_name":"punched cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Precrime is a predictive policing system dedicated to apprehending and detaining people before they have the opportunity to commit a given crime. At the time of the story, it has been operating for thirty years. This method has replaced the traditional system of discovering a crime and its perpetrator after the crime has already been committed, then issuing punishment after the fact. As Witwer says early on in the story, \"punishment was never much of a deterrent and could scarcely have afforded comfort to a victim already dead\". Unlike the film adaptation, the story version of Precrime does not deal solely with cases of murder, but all crimes. As Commissioner John A. Anderton (the founder of Precrime) states, \"Precrime has cut down felonies by 99.8%.\"Three mutants, known as precogs, have precognitive abilities they can use to see up to two weeks into the future. The precogs are strapped into machines, nonsensically babbling as a computer listens and converts this gibberish into predictions of the future. This information is transcribed onto conventional punched cards that are ejected into various coded slots. These cards appear simultaneously at Precrime and the army headquarters to prevent systemic corruption.[1]","title":"Precrime"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hydro-cephalic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocephalus"},{"link_name":"idiot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiot_(usage)"},{"link_name":"brain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain"},{"link_name":"frontal area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontal_lobe"}],"sub_title":"Precogs","text":"Precogs are mutants, identified talents further developed in a government-operated training school—for example, one precog was initially diagnosed as \"a hydro-cephalic idiot\" but the precog talent was found under layers of damaged brain tissue. The precogs are kept in rigid position by metal bands, clamps and wiring, strapping them into special high-backed chairs. Their physical needs are taken care of automatically and Anderton claims that they have no spiritual needs. Their physical appearance is distorted from an ordinary human, with enlarged heads and wasted bodies. Precogs are \"deformed\" and \"retarded\" as \"the talent absorbs everything\"; \"the esp-lobe shrivels the balance of the frontal area\". They do not understand their predictions; only through technological and mechanical aid can their nonsense be unraveled. The data produced does not always pertain to crime or murder, but this information is then passed on to other groups of people who use the precog necessities to create other future necessities.","title":"Precrime"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Majority and minority reports","text":"Each of the three precogs generates its own report or prediction. \nThe reports of all the precogs are analyzed by a computer and, if these reports differ from one another, the computer identifies the two reports with the greatest overlap and produces a \"majority report\", taking this as the accurate prediction of the future. But the existence of majority reports implies the existence of a \"minority report\". In the story, Precrime Police Commissioner John A. Anderton believes that the prediction that he will commit a murder has been generated as a majority report. He sets out to find the minority report, which would give him an alternate future.However, as Anderton finds out, sometimes all three reports differ quite significantly, and there may be no majority report, even though two reports may have had enough in common for the computer to link them as such. In the storyline, all of the reports about Anderton differ because they predict events occurring sequentially, and thus each is a minority report. Anderton's situation is explained as unique, because he, as Police Commissioner, received notice of the precogs' predictions, allowing him to change his mind and invalidate earlier precog predictions.","title":"Precrime"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Multiple time paths","text":"The existence of three apparent minority reports suggests the possibility of three future time paths, all existing simultaneously, any of which an individual could choose to follow or be sent along following an enticement (as in Anderton's being told he was going to murder an unknown man). In this way, the time-paths overlap, and the future of one is able to affect the past of another. It is in this way that the story weaves a complicated web of crossing time paths and makes a linear journey for Anderton harder to identify. This idea of multiple futures lets the precogs of Precrime be of benefit—because if only one time-path existed, the predictions of the precogs would be worthless since the future would be unalterable. Precrime is based on the notion that once one unpleasant future pathway is identified, an alternative, better one can be created with the arrest of the potential perpetrator.","title":"Precrime"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Police Commissioner John A. Anderton","text":"John A. Anderton is the protagonist of The Minority Report. At first, he is highly insecure, suspicious of those closest to him—his wife, his assistant Witwer. He has complete faith in the Precrime system and its authority over individuals and their freedom of choice. The poor living condition of the precogs and the imprisonment of would-be criminals are necessary consequences for the greater good of a safe society. When his own autonomy comes under attack, Anderton retains this faith and convinces himself that the system has somehow been corrupted.Anderton struggles to find an appropriate balance between Precrime authority and individual liberty. Ultimately, Anderton decides to kill Leopold Kaplan to affirm the majority report and thereby preserve the validity of the Precrime system.","title":"Precrime"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002_in_film"},{"link_name":"Minority Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minority_Report_(film)"},{"link_name":"Steven Spielberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Spielberg"},{"link_name":"Tom Cruise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Cruise"},{"link_name":"video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"Minority Report: Everybody Runs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minority_Report:_Everybody_Runs"},{"link_name":"Activision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activision"},{"link_name":"Minority Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minority_Report_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"David Haig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Haig"},{"link_name":"Lyric Hammersmith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyric_Hammersmith"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The 2002 film Minority Report, directed by Steven Spielberg and with Tom Cruise as main actor, was based on the story.\nA video game, Minority Report: Everybody Runs, published in 2002 by Activision, was based on the film.\nA sequel television series, more than a decade after the events of the movie and also titled Minority Report, premiered on Fox[2] on September 21, 2015.[3]\nIn September 2023, it was announced that David Haig was adapting the story for the stage, to premiere at the Lyric Hammersmith the following spring.[4]","title":"Media adaptation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"Baltimore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore"},{"link_name":"Northern Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Virginia"},{"link_name":"intellectually disabled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_disability"},{"link_name":"crime writers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_crime"},{"link_name":"Agatha Christie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agatha_Christie"},{"link_name":"Dashiell Hammett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dashiell_Hammett"},{"link_name":"Arthur Conan Doyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doyle"},{"link_name":"drug addicts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance_dependence"},{"link_name":"General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_officer"},{"link_name":"space colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_colonization"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Differences between short story and film","text":"While the film uses the backdrop of Washington, D.C., Baltimore and Northern Virginia, the location of the original story is New York City.\nIn the story, John Anderton is a 50-year-old balding, out-of-shape police officer who created Precrime, while in the movie Anderton is in his late 30s, handsome, drug addict, athletic, with a full head of hair who joined Precrime after his son's kidnapping. Instead, a man named Lamar Burgess creates Precrime.\nAnderton's wife in the short story is named Lisa, while his ex-wife in the film is named Lara.\nThe precogs were originally named Mike, Donna, and Jerry, and were deformed and intellectually disabled. In the adaptation, they are called Agatha, Dashiell, and Arthur—after crime writers Agatha Christie, Dashiell Hammett, and Arthur Conan Doyle—children of drug addicts whose mutations led them to dream of future murders, which are captured by machines. They are \"deified\" by the Precrime officers, and are implied to be intelligent (Agatha guides Anderton successfully through a crowded mall while being pursued by Precrime, and the trio are seen reading large piles of books at the end of the film). In the end of the movie they retire to a rural cottage where they continue their lives in freedom and peace.\nIn the short story, the precogs can see other crimes, not just murder. In the movie, the precogs can only clearly see murder.\nIn the short story, Anderton's future victim is General Leopold Kaplan, who wants to discredit Precrime in order to replace this police force with a military authority. At the end of the story, Anderton kills him to prevent the destruction of Precrime. In the movie, Anderton is supposed to kill someone named Leo Crow, but later finds out Crow is just part of a set up to prevent Anderton from discovering a different murder that his superior, Lamar Burgess, committed years ago. At the end of the film, Anderton confronts Burgess, who commits suicide and sends Precrime into oblivion.\nIn the short story, Anderton seeks the precogs to hear their \"minority reports\". In the movie, Anderton kidnaps a precog in order to discover his own \"minority report\" and extract the information for a mysterious crime.\nIn the film, a major plot point was that there was no minority report. The story ends with Anderton describing how the minority report was based on his knowledge of the other two reports.\nThe short story ends with Anderton and Lisa exiled to a space colony after Kaplan's murder. The movie finishes with John and Lara reunited after the conspiracy's resolution, expecting a second child.[5][6][7]","title":"Media adaptation"}]
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[{"image_text":"\"The Minority Report\" was originally published in Fantastic Universe in 1956.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Fantastic_universe_195601.jpg/220px-Fantastic_universe_195601.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Precrime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precrime"},{"title":"Law and Oracle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_and_Oracle"},{"title":"Futurama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurama"},{"title":"All the Troubles of the World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_the_Troubles_of_the_World"},{"title":"Psycho-Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycho-Pass"}]
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[{"reference":"Andreeva, Nellie (September 8, 2014). \"Fox Nabs 'Minority Report' Series From Steven Spielberg's Amblin TV With Big Put Pilot Commitment\". Deadline Hollywood. Penske Business Media, LLC. Retrieved August 17, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2014/09/minority-report-series-steven-spielberg-fox-829426/","url_text":"\"Fox Nabs 'Minority Report' Series From Steven Spielberg's Amblin TV With Big Put Pilot Commitment\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadline_Hollywood","url_text":"Deadline Hollywood"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penske_Media_Corporation","url_text":"Penske Business Media, LLC"}]},{"reference":"Prudom, Laura (September 18, 2015). \"Nick Zano joins Fox's 'Minority Report'\". Variety. Penske Business Media, LLC. Retrieved August 17, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://variety.com/2015/tv/news/minority-report-nick-zano-stark-sands-twin-1201531924/","url_text":"\"Nick Zano joins Fox's 'Minority Report'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)","url_text":"Variety"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penske_Media_Corporation","url_text":"Penske Business Media, LLC"}]},{"reference":"Akbar, Arifa (25 September 2023). \"Minority Report drama to feature in Lyric Hammersmith's 'really bold' spring lineup\". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2023/sep/25/minority-report-drama-to-feature-in-lyric-hammersmiths-really-bold-spring-lineup","url_text":"\"Minority Report drama to feature in Lyric Hammersmith's 'really bold' spring lineup\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]},{"reference":"\"The Duck Speaks: Minority Report\". Archived from the original on 2007-05-05. Retrieved 2007-03-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070505231029/http://badmovieplanet.com/duckspeaks/reviews/2004/minority-report","url_text":"\"The Duck Speaks: Minority Report\""},{"url":"http://badmovieplanet.com/duckspeaks/reviews/2004/minority-report","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Comparison Paper on Minority Report: \"From Story to Screen\"\". Retrieved 2007-03-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://mason.gmu.edu/~wfetzer/fromstorytoscreen.html","url_text":"\"Comparison Paper on Minority Report: \"From Story to Screen\"\""}]},{"reference":"Landrith, James (April 12, 2004). \"The Minority Report: In Print and On Screen\". Retrieved 2007-03-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://jameslandrith.com/2004/04/12/minority-report-in-print-and-on-screen/","url_text":"\"The Minority Report: In Print and On Screen\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://deadline.com/2014/09/minority-report-series-steven-spielberg-fox-829426/","external_links_name":"\"Fox Nabs 'Minority Report' Series From Steven Spielberg's Amblin TV With Big Put Pilot Commitment\""},{"Link":"https://variety.com/2015/tv/news/minority-report-nick-zano-stark-sands-twin-1201531924/","external_links_name":"\"Nick Zano joins Fox's 'Minority Report'\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2023/sep/25/minority-report-drama-to-feature-in-lyric-hammersmiths-really-bold-spring-lineup","external_links_name":"\"Minority Report drama to feature in Lyric Hammersmith's 'really bold' spring lineup\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070505231029/http://badmovieplanet.com/duckspeaks/reviews/2004/minority-report","external_links_name":"\"The Duck Speaks: Minority Report\""},{"Link":"http://badmovieplanet.com/duckspeaks/reviews/2004/minority-report","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://mason.gmu.edu/~wfetzer/fromstorytoscreen.html","external_links_name":"\"Comparison Paper on Minority Report: \"From Story to Screen\"\""},{"Link":"http://jameslandrith.com/2004/04/12/minority-report-in-print-and-on-screen/","external_links_name":"\"The Minority Report: In Print and On Screen\""},{"Link":"https://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?58214","external_links_name":"The Minority Report"},{"Link":"https://musicbrainz.org/work/16de7a4c-0621-409a-9e47-f4dc1cc662ff","external_links_name":"MusicBrainz work"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZZT
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ZZT
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["1 Gameplay","2 Development","3 Reception","4 Legacy","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]
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1991 video gameZZTTitle screen of Town of ZZTDeveloper(s)Potomac Computer SystemsPublisher(s)Potomac Computer SystemsDesigner(s)Tim SweeneyPlatform(s)MS-DOSReleaseNA: January 15, 1991Genre(s)Action-adventure, game creation system, puzzleMode(s)Single-player
ZZT is a 1991 action-adventure puzzle video game and game creation system developed and published by Potomac Computer Systems for MS-DOS. It was later released as freeware in 1997. It is an early game allowing user-generated content using object-oriented programming. Players control a smiley face to battle various creatures and solve puzzles in different grid-based boards in a chosen world. It has four worlds where players explore different boards and interact with objects such as ammo, bombs, and scrolls to reach the end of the game. It includes an in-game editor, allowing players to develop worlds using the game's scripting language, ZZT-OOP.
The game was designed by mechanical engineering student Tim Sweeney in roughly six to nine months. It was built from a text editor conceived in 1989 to build a better editor for Pascal, after he disliked editors that came with other programming languages. During development, he experimented with adding creatures and characters. He built boards that grew into worlds and refined the editor he used to create his own games—while studying at university. Initially, he made the game for himself, but after positive reception from his friends and neighbors, and seeing the potential for making a profit by releasing the game under shareware, he released it publicly. He marketed the game by distributing it across shareware vendors and bulletin board systems, earning money through mail orders for registered worlds.
ZZT was a commercial success, with around 4,000–5,000 copies by 2009. The game received mixed reception. Much of the positive reception focused on the gameplay, editor, and the community it developed. Criticisms focused on the game's graphical and audio limitations and perceived unfair difficulty. The sequel is Super ZZT (1991). Other ZZT worlds were published later as Best of ZZT (1992) and ZZT's Revenge (1992). ZZT's success led Sweeney to change his company's name to Epic MegaGames, and focus on competing as a video game company using shareware to distribute commercial games. Epic MegaGames later developed other successful games including Jill of the Jungle (1992) and Unreal (1998), using lessons from ZZT's success by focusing on developing the editor and engine to allow others to more easily make games. The game inspired one of the earliest active modding communities, which has grown by making new worlds, editing tools, and source ports, and inspiring some in the community to pursue a career in the video game industry.
Gameplay
ZZT is a top-down action-adventure puzzle video game and game creation system. Players control a white smiley face on a navy blue rectangle that can move around in four directions. Players can interact with objects by touching or shooting at them. Touching ammo containers, gems, torches, and keys adds them to your status bar. Boxes of ammo allow players to fire bullets at objects, gems increase health and are used as currency, torches light up a small area around the player in dark boards, and colored keys allow players to open same-colored doors. Other objects in the game include bombs, doors, and scrolls. One type of object called "Object" interacts based on written scripts using the game's scripting language, ZZT-OOP. As an example, the object could be programmed to give the player health, or fire bullets at the player, flashing text in response. At any time, players can save their progress, and return to the game's exact state.
Game worlds are made up of objects within grid boards that connect to each other. Players can move across different boards by either reaching the edge of the board or entering teleporters. Six game worlds were made for the game's release; four of them are game worlds, and each of the four starts in a different area. Town of ZZT starts in a hub world with four buildings mixed with six exits, Caves of ZZT opens with a sparse area of torches and a scroll, Dungeons of ZZT starts with a linear opening sequence with gates that lock the player inside, and City of ZZT opens with a city street as a hub with a few structures. Two other worlds were included, serving different purposes. Guided Tour ZZT's Other Worlds previews boards of each game worlds, and Demo of the ZZT World Editor creates parallels to a museum by showing all of the items, terrains, and creatures that make up ZZT. The goal for players are to reach the end board, progressing either by collecting purple keys to open locked doors, or gathering objects throughout the world. Boards can contain action or puzzles. Action boards have the player face off against creatures. Creatures include lions, tigers, and bears. When creatures, bullets, or stars touch the player, health is lost. Once the player runs out of health, the game ends. Puzzles consist of untangling combinations of boulders, sliders, and pushers, or mazes that can include invisible walls and teleporters. Some puzzles can trap the player, leading players to require returning to an earlier save.
ZZT includes an in-game editor, allowing players to make their own worlds. Players start with yellow normal walls surrounding a new board as a blank screen. The editor allows players to add and arrange items, creatures, and terrain, and connect different boards together. Each board can be set to include specific settings, such as adding a time limit, making the board dark so the player could not see the board without a torch, or limiting the number of bullets on screen at any given time. Each board had its own isolated variables within the game, and through scripting players could create ten different boolean flags for the environment, shared across boards. Using ZZT-OOP, objects can be named, given commands for actions, and can send and receive messages. Everything within ZZT is displayed in the 255 characters of the IBM PC's character set to create environments. The game supports sixteen colors, but the editor only permits seven colors for colorable objects, and has limits in the amount of objects being placed in each board. Players eventually learned additional ways to add more colors to the game utilizing commands and different text characters, and editing world files. The PC speaker permits seven notes at several different octaves, and instruments with unique pitches of clicks, pops, and snaps to represent percussion. Sounds are played through normal gameplay, or making custom sounds through scripting.
Development
Tim Sweeney at the Game Developers Choice Awards 2017
Video game programmer Tim Sweeney, studying mechanical engineering at the University of Maryland, first developed ZZT as a text editor in Turbo Pascal. During this time, Tim did not know how to program graphics and only had a 286 computer and a Model M keyboard. The text editor idea came from disliking the included editors for the programming languages he tried on his PC. Instead he wanted to recreate his previously made Pascal-like programming environment for the Apple II. He experimented with adding collision to text characters, and made the cursor a controllable character. He found it more fun to make it into a game by adding bullets and creatures to fight. From there, he designed his first levels from text files, creating different boards similar in style to Atari's Adventure, while continually offering additions to the game and editor. Sweeney studied during the day, and worked on his game during the night. The text-based graphics allowed him to produce ideas such as talking trees or interesting characters without breaking immersion. Most of these additions were his own, but he occasionally took ideas from Kroz, such as the bomb. Development took around six to nine months, with under 1,000 hours of time spent developing the game, and making around 20,000 lines of Pascal code.
He shared it with friends and neighborhood kids, taking notes of their joy and excitement playing his own game. He discovered that making games allowed him to share something to the world, and could earn more income compared to wage earners, and chose to sell the game. The game's episodic model took inspiration from Apogee's shareware model, and he encouraged spreading the game across shareware vendors, user groups, and bulletin board systems. He operated his company out of his bedroom, having orders sent to his parents' address, where he would send the remaining episodes on floppy disks by mail delivery. During development, he wrote to Scott Miller for advice and to learn more about the industry. Miller responded with advice and encouragement. Sweeney chose the name so it would be listed last alphabetically in shareware catalogs and on bulletin board systems, though a fan later suggested the backronym of "Zoo of Zero Tolerance", which Sweeney endorsed. He sold it as the first major game with object-oriented programming. ZZT was released on January 15, 1991. Town of ZZT alongside the in-game editor was distributed freely, while the other official worlds could be ordered to receive a single floppy disk including the purchased worlds, and drawn maps of each of the worlds. At one point, City of ZZT was also distributed as ZZT's City, through Softdisk's On Disk Monthly service. Each of the remaining official worlds, along with other ZZT games were later released as freeware on October 10, 1997.
Reception
Following ZZT's release, about three to four copies were sold daily, at around 800 copies by November 1991, and around 4,000 to 5,000 copies in total by 2009. Sweeney earned around US$100 (equivalent to $220 in 2023) per day by November 1991, and around $30,000 (equivalent to $55,000 in 2023) from ZZT by May 1999, of which most of the profit came from its first year. After Sweeney moved out of his parents' house to establish proper corporate headquarters for Potomac Computer Systems, then renamed Epic MegaGames, his father Paul Sweeney, continued fulfilling mail orders to the original address under the Epic Classics label, allowing for purchase of physical copies of ZZT. The final copy of ZZT was shipped to game designer Zack Hiwiller in November 2013.
Contemporary and retrospective reviews from critics were mixed. A comment from Computer Gaming World billed ZZT as "truly charming", finding the gameplay simple to learn. Scott Wolf of PC Gamer (US) stated the graphics and sound for ZZT to be "truly awful", while the gameplay serves as a flashback to "when gameplay was not overshadowed by flashy video and animation". Benj Edwards has called ZZT an "influential and underrated game", crediting its current enjoyment from playing community made worlds and making unexpected things with the "fairly robust" built in editor. This is while crediting the official worlds for being a "depthy adventure game full of puzzles, challenge, and humor". Chris Kohler of Wired called it a simple, fun, and not always intuitive game design tool under the façade of a simple adventure game, blending seamless game design and play that makes it attractive and user-friendly. He found making a game fun, due to the interface being nearly identical to the game, allowing for the easy placement of objects and terrain. Rock Paper Shotgun's Ollie Toms focused on the editor, finding the game to be "a colourful, characterful, years-long course in scripting and programming games". He wrote that though ZZT-OOP was basic and limited, children could learn about and make games without knowing anything about programming. Hardcore Gaming 101 in a podcast episode stated ZZT was "not all that fun", criticizing that official worlds and community made worlds included unavoidable damage, and instant death. They found that games that attempted to expand and push the engine further are generally "rough around the edges", or "more functional rather than good". Rather, they admired ZZT like a science experiment or a demo from a demoscene, existing to study and push the limits of ZZT, finding the game itself and the community that built from it technically impressive.
Legacy
By getting $100 per day from ZZT, Sweeney was convinced he could earn enough from the shareware industry, and decided to work in the video game industry. He renamed the company to Epic MegaGames in October 1991. Shortly after the release of ZZT, Sweeney started a level designer contest for registered users to make their own worlds and submit them to him. Over 200 users submitted their custom worlds. The best collaboration games that won the contest were included in The Best of ZZT and ZZT's Revenge, released in 1992. The winners of the contest received prizes of gift certificates, while others would receive honorable mentions. The six winning custom worlds that made up ZZT's Revenge earned the designers employment in Epic MegaGames, with the winning worlds being "Ezanya", "Fantasy", "Crypt", "Smiley Guy", "Manor", and "Darbytown". Sweeney later asked one of these developers, Allen Pilgrim, to create the shareware world "Monster Zoo" for the sequel to ZZT, Super ZZT, released on October 15, 1991. Other worlds available for purchase were "Proving Grounds" and "Lost Forest". The game plays similarly to ZZT, while adding more features such as greater colors accessible within its editor, new enemies and objects, and scrolling map screens that allowed for larger boards than in ZZT. Although Super ZZT incorporated several additions to ZZT, it never caught on with the ZZT community like the original ZZT did, and very few games were ever created for Super ZZT, with one reason being due to the editor being hidden during normal play.
After publishing Best of ZZT and ZZT's Revenge, Sweeney realized the community began creating worlds that reached or exceeded the quality of his work. Furthermore, he believed that games with cutting edge graphics and sound similar in commercial quality to Super Nintendo Entertainment System or Sega Genesis games would have higher sales in the shareware model, taking influence from Commander Keen and Duke Nukem. As such, he moved away from ZZT indefinitely to work on other projects like Jill of the Jungle. He has commented on wanting to build a massive-multiplayer online version of ZZT during an interview, but his future focus on the company was to move forward with new franchises, while learning from the success of ZZT. Sweeney and Mark Rein later credited that much of the core idea of Unreal and Unreal Engine came from what Sweeney learned from the success of ZZT, with a focus on building games with clean code and editing tools, so that others can build their own games. Mark Rein has claimed that Unreal Tournament became a spiritual successor to the game thanks to the game's modding community and versatile developer tools.
An early modding community emerged within Prodigy, America Online, Compuserve, and the Internet. Many fan-made worlds and editing tools are curated on a fan website, Museum of ZZT. The game provided the community with an outlet for creativity and self-expression without artistic or programming skills, especially among stigmatized groups such as transgender people. As of 2021, more than 3,000 worlds have been created using the built in editor, or third party editors such as KevEdit. Tim Sweeney has claimed that tens of thousands of workers in the game industry have previously made worlds in ZZT. A port called Zeta allows for playing ZZT games on Windows or a web browser, and another source port, DreamZZT, allows ports to consoles, specifically the Dreamcast and Nintendo DS. Worlds continue to be developed that have expanded beyond its intended genre, creating shoot 'em ups, falling block puzzle games, complex role-playing games, and point-and-click adventure games, sometimes deriving from other entertainment releases. The source code of ZZT was lost in a computer crash, a community developer, Adrian Siekierka, reconstructed and released the source code in 2020, creating a binary accurate executable of ZZT with Sweeney's permission.
On January 28, 2023, the original source code for ZZT 3.0 (without third party content) was uploaded to GitHub under the MIT License with permission of Tim Sweeney.
Other games have been inspired by ZZT, such as MegaZeux, PuzzleScript, and Frog Fractions 2, and authors of ZZT worlds became professional video game developers. Rock Paper Shotgun has made comparisons to Minecraft and Roblox, in its ability to serve as a start for new video game developers. Wired and Hardcore Gaming 101 found similarities in its seamless blend of gameplay and editing to LittleBigPlanet.
References
^ a b c Anthropy, Anna (2014). ZZT. Los Angeles, CA: Boss Fight Books. ISBN 978-1-940535-02-9. OCLC 887992348. Archived from the original on February 13, 2022. Retrieved November 26, 2021.
^ Dr. Dos (July 22, 2018). "Closer Look: Caves of ZZT". Museum of ZZT. Archived from the original on December 3, 2021. Retrieved December 3, 2021.
^ Dr. Dos (June 19, 2017). "Closer Look: City of ZZT". Museum of ZZT. Archived from the original on December 3, 2021. Retrieved December 3, 2021.
^ Fiadotau, Mikhail (2016). "Game Engine Conventions and Games that Challenge them: Subverting Conventions as Metacommentary". Replay. The Polish Journal of Game Studies. 3 (1): 47–65. doi:10.18778/2391-8551.03.03. hdl:11089/22427. ISSN 2449-8394.
^ Dr. Dos (September 18, 2016). "640x350x16 A History of ZZT's Graphics". Museum of ZZT. Archived from the original on February 2, 2022. Retrieved April 9, 2022.
^ a b c d Edwards, Benj (May 25, 2009). "From The Past To The Future: Tim Sweeney Talks". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on February 4, 2017. Retrieved March 27, 2018.
^ Thomsen, Mike (June 15, 2012) . "History of the Unreal Engine". IGN. Archived from the original on January 8, 2022. Retrieved January 8, 2022.
^ a b Conditt, Jess (March 20, 2019). "Epic Games has 250 million 'Fortnite' players and a lot of plans". Engadget. Archived from the original on March 20, 2019. Retrieved December 13, 2021.
^ Totilo, Stephen (July 12, 2011). "The Quiet Tinkerer Who Makes Games Beautiful Finally Gets His Due". Kotaku. Archived from the original on June 3, 2020. Retrieved December 3, 2021.
^ Boudreau, Ian (April 5, 2020). "When it comes to keyboards, Tim Sweeney sticks with the classics". PCGamesN. Archived from the original on December 14, 2021. Retrieved December 14, 2021.
^ a b Hercules (November 17, 2000). "Hercules meets Tim Sweeney". Interactive Fantasies. Archived from the original on August 24, 2017. Retrieved March 28, 2018.
^ a b Takahashi, Dean (January 20, 2012). "Epic's 3D graphics wizard Tim Sweeney says business and technology are "intricately linked" (interview)". VentureBeat. Archived from the original on December 17, 2021. Retrieved December 17, 2021.
^ a b Sweeney, Tim. "The Official ZZT Home Page". Epic Games. Archived from the original on October 10, 1999.
^ a b c d e Dr. Dos (January 15, 2021). "ZZT and Epic Newsletter Scans". Museum of ZZT. Archived from the original on January 16, 2021. Retrieved January 15, 2021.
^ a b Circle Reader Service #12 (July 1991). "Taking a Peek" (PDF). Computer Gaming World. No. 84. p. 78. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 27, 2020. Retrieved April 1, 2018.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ a b Pitcher, Jenna (November 21, 2013). "Epic Classics ships last copy of ZZT". Polygon. Archived from the original on May 19, 2016. Retrieved March 28, 2018.
^ Dr. Dos (October 15, 2019). "Closer Look: ZZT's City + Interview With Stuart Hardwick". Museum of ZZT. Archived from the original on December 15, 2021. Retrieved December 15, 2021.
^ "News Update". Epic MegaGames. October 10, 1997. Archived from the original on February 14, 1998. Retrieved December 15, 2021.
^ a b Bovelander, Wouter (May 25, 1999). "Tim Sweeney -- interview". Planet ZZT++. Archived from the original on October 11, 2000. Retrieved December 3, 2021.
^ a b Dr. Dos (February 15, 2021). "The Epic Mega Haul". Museum of ZZT. Archived from the original on December 13, 2021. Retrieved December 13, 2021.
^ Wolf, Scott (December 1995). Bennet, Dan (ed.). "Lupine Online". PC Gamer (US). Vol. 2, no. 12. Burlingame, CA: Imagine Publishing. p. 297. ISSN 1059-2180.
^ a b Edwards, Benj (February 19, 2021). "Before Fortnite, There Was ZZT: Meet Epic's First Game". How-To Geek. Archived from the original on December 28, 2021. Retrieved December 28, 2021.
^ Edwards, Benj (September 3, 2007). "Great Moments in Shareware: ZZT". Vintage Computing and Gaming. Archived from the original on December 28, 2021. Retrieved December 28, 2021.
^ Edwards, Benj (March 10, 2016). "7 Classic PC Games With ASCII Graphics". PC Magazine. Archived from the original on July 18, 2016. Retrieved December 28, 2021.
^ a b Kohler, Chris (October 12, 2005). "Chapter 8, Playing at Game Design". In Jepson, Brian (ed.). Retro Gaming Hacks: Tips & Tools for Playing the Classics. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 441. ISBN 978-1-4493-0390-7. Archived from the original on January 8, 2022. Retrieved June 18, 2018.
^ a b Kohler, Chris (October 1, 2008). "First Impressions: LittleBigPlanet's Ever-Expanding World of Wonder". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Archived from the original on March 4, 2021. Retrieved April 9, 2022.
^ a b Toms, Ollie (October 23, 2019). "Have you played… ZZT?". Rock Paper Shotgun. Archived from the original on December 18, 2021. Retrieved December 17, 2021.
^ a b Switter (May 14, 2018). "Episode 99: Kirby's Dream Land 3, ZZT". Top 47,858 Games of All Time (Podcast). Hardcore Gaming 101. Archived from the original on December 28, 2021. Retrieved December 28, 2021.
^ DOSGuy (April 27, 2015). "Allen Pilgrim Interview". RGB Classic Games. Archived from the original on February 7, 2022. Retrieved February 7, 2022.
^ Elig (July 15, 2007). "An Interview with Tim Sweeney". dMZX Forums. Archived from the original on December 28, 2021. Retrieved December 28, 2021.
^ Kohler, Chris (February 5, 2007). "Interview: Epic's Mark Rein". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Archived from the original on February 13, 2022. Retrieved December 17, 2021.
^ Au, Wagner James (April 16, 2004). "Triumph of the mod". Salon. Archived from the original on July 3, 2015. Retrieved January 8, 2022.
^ Schreiner, Lukas; von Mammen, Sebastian (August 3, 2021). "Modding Support of Game Engines". The 16th International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games (FDG) 2021. FDG'21. New York, NY, US: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 1–9. doi:10.1145/3472538.3472574. ISBN 978-1-4503-8422-3. S2CID 239053857.
^ Welch, Tom (December 2018). "The Affectively Necessary Labour of Queer Mods". Game Studies. 18 (3). ISSN 1604-7982. Archived from the original on December 9, 2020. Retrieved December 28, 2021.
^ Dr. Dos. "Mass Downloads". Museum of ZZT. Archived from the original on December 28, 2021. Retrieved December 27, 2021.
^ Dr. Dos. "Closer Look: Modern ZZT Editing With KevEdit". Museum of ZZT. Archived from the original on April 18, 2018. Retrieved April 17, 2018.
^ Carless, Simon (2004). Gaming Hacks (1st ed.). Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 67. ISBN 9780596007140. OCLC 326649266. Archived from the original on January 8, 2022. Retrieved April 17, 2018.
^ Gipp, Stuart (March 17, 2020). "ZZT's source code has been reconstructed - Reconstruction of ZZT is a game-changer for the ZZT community". Retronauts. Archived from the original on March 18, 2020. Retrieved April 12, 2020.
^ Siekierka, Adrian (August 4, 2020). "ZZT Stories: The Reconstruction". asie's blog. Archived from the original on July 24, 2021. Retrieved July 18, 2021.
^ Siekierka, Adrian (January 28, 2023). "According to , the original ZZT source code was lost in the early 90s: " I had it, I'd release it, but I lost it in a crash a long time ago." But they were all of them deceived, for another backup was made" (Tweet). Archived from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023 – via Twitter.
^ Warren, Jonah (June 18–21, 2019). "Tiny online game engines". 2019 IEEE Games, Entertainment, Media Conference (GEM). New Haven, CT, US: IEEE. pp. 1–7. doi:10.1109/GEM.2019.8901975. ISBN 978-1-7281-2404-9. S2CID 208210552. Archived from the original on January 8, 2022. Retrieved February 7, 2022 – via IEEE Xplore.
^ Graft, Kris (February 20, 2018). "Frog Fractions 2 ARG co-creator reflects on what makes a good alternate reality game". Game Developer. Archived from the original on December 14, 2021. Retrieved December 14, 2021.
Portals: 1990s Video games
Further reading
Anthropy, Anna (2014). ZZT. Boss Fight Books. ISBN 978-1-940535-02-9.
External links
Official website at the Wayback Machine (archived January 26, 2002)
ZZT at MobyGames
Mostly complete source code repository for ZZT 3.0 on GitHub
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It was later released as freeware in 1997. It is an early game allowing user-generated content using object-oriented programming. Players control a smiley face to battle various creatures and solve puzzles in different grid-based boards in a chosen world. It has four worlds where players explore different boards and interact with objects such as ammo, bombs, and scrolls to reach the end of the game. It includes an in-game editor, allowing players to develop worlds using the game's scripting language, ZZT-OOP.The game was designed by mechanical engineering student Tim Sweeney in roughly six to nine months. It was built from a text editor conceived in 1989 to build a better editor for Pascal, after he disliked editors that came with other programming languages. During development, he experimented with adding creatures and characters. He built boards that grew into worlds and refined the editor he used to create his own games—while studying at university. Initially, he made the game for himself, but after positive reception from his friends and neighbors, and seeing the potential for making a profit by releasing the game under shareware, he released it publicly. He marketed the game by distributing it across shareware vendors and bulletin board systems, earning money through mail orders for registered worlds.ZZT was a commercial success, with around 4,000–5,000 copies by 2009. The game received mixed reception. Much of the positive reception focused on the gameplay, editor, and the community it developed. Criticisms focused on the game's graphical and audio limitations and perceived unfair difficulty. The sequel is Super ZZT (1991). Other ZZT worlds were published later as Best of ZZT (1992) and ZZT's Revenge (1992). ZZT's success led Sweeney to change his company's name to Epic MegaGames, and focus on competing as a video game company using shareware to distribute commercial games. Epic MegaGames later developed other successful games including Jill of the Jungle (1992) and Unreal (1998), using lessons from ZZT's success by focusing on developing the editor and engine to allow others to more easily make games. The game inspired one of the earliest active modding communities, which has grown by making new worlds, editing tools, and source ports, and inspiring some in the community to pursue a career in the video game industry.","title":"ZZT"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"top-down","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-down_perspective"},{"link_name":"action-adventure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action-adventure_game"},{"link_name":"puzzle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puzzle_video_game"},{"link_name":"game creation system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_creation_system"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:03-1"},{"link_name":"status bar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HUD_(video_gaming)"},{"link_name":"health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_(game_terminology)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"invisible walls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisible_wall"},{"link_name":"boolean flags","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_data_type"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"255 characters of the IBM PC's character set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_437"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"PC speaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_speaker"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"ZZT is a top-down action-adventure puzzle video game and game creation system. Players control a white smiley face on a navy blue rectangle that can move around in four directions.[1] Players can interact with objects by touching or shooting at them. Touching ammo containers, gems, torches, and keys adds them to your status bar. Boxes of ammo allow players to fire bullets at objects, gems increase health and are used as currency, torches light up a small area around the player in dark boards, and colored keys allow players to open same-colored doors. Other objects in the game include bombs, doors, and scrolls. One type of object called \"Object\" interacts based on written scripts using the game's scripting language, ZZT-OOP. As an example, the object could be programmed to give the player health, or fire bullets at the player, flashing text in response. At any time, players can save their progress, and return to the game's exact state.Game worlds are made up of objects within grid boards that connect to each other. Players can move across different boards by either reaching the edge of the board or entering teleporters. Six game worlds were made for the game's release; four of them are game worlds, and each of the four starts in a different area.[2] Town of ZZT starts in a hub world with four buildings mixed with six exits, Caves of ZZT opens with a sparse area of torches and a scroll, Dungeons of ZZT starts with a linear opening sequence with gates that lock the player inside, and City of ZZT opens with a city street as a hub with a few structures. Two other worlds were included, serving different purposes. Guided Tour ZZT's Other Worlds previews boards of each game worlds, and Demo of the ZZT World Editor creates parallels to a museum by showing all of the items, terrains, and creatures that make up ZZT. The goal for players are to reach the end board, progressing either by collecting purple keys to open locked doors, or gathering objects throughout the world.[3] Boards can contain action or puzzles. Action boards have the player face off against creatures. Creatures include lions, tigers, and bears. When creatures, bullets, or stars touch the player, health is lost. Once the player runs out of health, the game ends. Puzzles consist of untangling combinations of boulders, sliders, and pushers, or mazes that can include invisible walls and teleporters. Some puzzles can trap the player, leading players to require returning to an earlier save.ZZT includes an in-game editor, allowing players to make their own worlds. Players start with yellow normal walls surrounding a new board as a blank screen. The editor allows players to add and arrange items, creatures, and terrain, and connect different boards together. Each board can be set to include specific settings, such as adding a time limit, making the board dark so the player could not see the board without a torch, or limiting the number of bullets on screen at any given time. Each board had its own isolated variables within the game, and through scripting players could create ten different boolean flags for the environment, shared across boards.[4] Using ZZT-OOP, objects can be named, given commands for actions, and can send and receive messages. Everything within ZZT is displayed in the 255 characters of the IBM PC's character set to create environments. The game supports sixteen colors, but the editor only permits seven colors for colorable objects, and has limits in the amount of objects being placed in each board.[5] Players eventually learned additional ways to add more colors to the game utilizing commands and different text characters, and editing world files. The PC speaker permits seven notes at several different octaves, and instruments with unique pitches of clicks, pops, and snaps to represent percussion. Sounds are played through normal gameplay, or making custom sounds through scripting.[citation needed]","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tim_sweeney_GDCA_2017.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tim Sweeney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Sweeney_(game_developer)"},{"link_name":"Game Developers Choice Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Developers_Choice_Awards"},{"link_name":"Video game programmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_programmer"},{"link_name":"University of Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Maryland,_College_Park"},{"link_name":"text editor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_editor"},{"link_name":"Turbo Pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo_Pascal"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZZT-GU2-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"286","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80286"},{"link_name":"Model M keyboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_M_keyboard"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"programming languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"link_name":"Apple II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_II_series"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZZT-InterFanta2-11"},{"link_name":"Atari's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari,_Inc."},{"link_name":"Adventure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventure_(1980_video_game)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:03-1"},{"link_name":"Kroz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kroz"},{"link_name":"Pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:42-12"},{"link_name":"Apogee's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_Realms"},{"link_name":"shareware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shareware"},{"link_name":"bulletin board systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_board_system"},{"link_name":"floppy disks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk"},{"link_name":"Scott Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Miller_(entrepreneur)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tim-Note2-13"},{"link_name":"backronym","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backronym"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZZT-Museum912-14"},{"link_name":"object-oriented programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZZT-CGW2-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZZT-Museum912-14"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Polygon-Last2-16"},{"link_name":"Softdisk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softdisk"},{"link_name":"On Disk Monthly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Disk_Monthly"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"freeware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeware"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"Tim Sweeney at the Game Developers Choice Awards 2017Video game programmer Tim Sweeney, studying mechanical engineering at the University of Maryland, first developed ZZT as a text editor in Turbo Pascal.[6][7] During this time, Tim did not know how to program graphics and only had a 286 computer and a Model M keyboard.[8][9][10] The text editor idea came from disliking the included editors for the programming languages he tried on his PC. Instead he wanted to recreate his previously made Pascal-like programming environment for the Apple II.[11] He experimented with adding collision to text characters, and made the cursor a controllable character. He found it more fun to make it into a game by adding bullets and creatures to fight. From there, he designed his first levels from text files, creating different boards similar in style to Atari's Adventure, while continually offering additions to the game and editor. Sweeney studied during the day, and worked on his game during the night. The text-based graphics allowed him to produce ideas such as talking trees or interesting characters without breaking immersion.[1] Most of these additions were his own, but he occasionally took ideas from Kroz, such as the bomb. Development took around six to nine months, with under 1,000 hours of time spent developing the game, and making around 20,000 lines of Pascal code.[12]He shared it with friends and neighborhood kids, taking notes of their joy and excitement playing his own game. He discovered that making games allowed him to share something to the world, and could earn more income compared to wage earners, and chose to sell the game. The game's episodic model took inspiration from Apogee's shareware model, and he encouraged spreading the game across shareware vendors, user groups, and bulletin board systems. He operated his company out of his bedroom, having orders sent to his parents' address, where he would send the remaining episodes on floppy disks by mail delivery. During development, he wrote to Scott Miller for advice and to learn more about the industry. Miller responded with advice and encouragement.[13] Sweeney chose the name so it would be listed last alphabetically in shareware catalogs and on bulletin board systems, though a fan later suggested the backronym of \"Zoo of Zero Tolerance\", which Sweeney endorsed.[14] He sold it as the first major game with object-oriented programming.[15] ZZT was released on January 15, 1991.[14] Town of ZZT alongside the in-game editor was distributed freely, while the other official worlds could be ordered to receive a single floppy disk including the purchased worlds, and drawn maps of each of the worlds.[16] At one point, City of ZZT was also distributed as ZZT's City, through Softdisk's On Disk Monthly service.[17] Each of the remaining official worlds, along with other ZZT games were later released as freeware on October 10, 1997.[18]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZZT-Museum912-14"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZZT-GU2-6"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZZT-Museum912-14"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:33-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:23-20"},{"link_name":"Epic MegaGames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_MegaGames"},{"link_name":"mail orders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_order"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Polygon-Last2-16"},{"link_name":"Computer Gaming World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Gaming_World"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZZT-CGW2-15"},{"link_name":"PC Gamer (US)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Gamer"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:53-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Wired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-26"},{"link_name":"Rock Paper Shotgun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Paper_Shotgun"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:63-27"},{"link_name":"Hardcore Gaming 101","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardcore_Gaming_101"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Switter-Host3-28"},{"link_name":"science experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment"},{"link_name":"demoscene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demoscene"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Following ZZT's release, about three to four copies were sold daily, at around 800 copies by November 1991,[14] and around 4,000 to 5,000 copies in total by 2009.[6] Sweeney earned around US$100 (equivalent to $220 in 2023) per day by November 1991, and around $30,000 (equivalent to $55,000 in 2023) from ZZT by May 1999, of which most of the profit came from its first year.[14][19][20] After Sweeney moved out of his parents' house to establish proper corporate headquarters for Potomac Computer Systems, then renamed Epic MegaGames, his father Paul Sweeney, continued fulfilling mail orders to the original address under the Epic Classics label, allowing for purchase of physical copies of ZZT.[16] The final copy of ZZT was shipped to game designer Zack Hiwiller in November 2013.Contemporary and retrospective reviews from critics were mixed. A comment from Computer Gaming World billed ZZT as \"truly charming\", finding the gameplay simple to learn.[15] Scott Wolf of PC Gamer (US) stated the graphics and sound for ZZT to be \"truly awful\", while the gameplay serves as a flashback to \"when gameplay was not overshadowed by flashy video and animation\".[21] Benj Edwards has called ZZT an \"influential and underrated game\", crediting its current enjoyment from playing community made worlds and making unexpected things with the \"fairly robust\" built in editor.[22][23][24] This is while crediting the official worlds for being a \"depthy adventure game full of puzzles, challenge, and humor\". Chris Kohler of Wired called it a simple, fun, and not always intuitive game design tool under the façade of a simple adventure game, blending seamless game design and play that makes it attractive and user-friendly.[25][26] He found making a game fun, due to the interface being nearly identical to the game, allowing for the easy placement of objects and terrain. Rock Paper Shotgun's Ollie Toms focused on the editor, finding the game to be \"a colourful, characterful, years-long course in scripting and programming games\".[27] He wrote that though ZZT-OOP was basic and limited, children could learn about and make games without knowing anything about programming. Hardcore Gaming 101 in a podcast episode stated ZZT was \"not all that fun\", criticizing that official worlds and community made worlds included unavoidable damage, and instant death.[28] They found that games that attempted to expand and push the engine further are generally \"rough around the edges\", or \"more functional rather than good\". Rather, they admired ZZT like a science experiment or a demo from a demoscene, existing to study and push the limits of ZZT, finding the game itself and the community that built from it technically impressive.[citation needed]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"shareware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shareware"},{"link_name":"video game industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_industry"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZZT-GU2-6"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:23-20"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZZT-Museum912-14"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:03-1"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZZT-InterFanta2-11"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:33-19"},{"link_name":"Super Nintendo Entertainment System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Nintendo_Entertainment_System"},{"link_name":"Sega Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Genesis"},{"link_name":"Commander Keen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander_Keen"},{"link_name":"Duke Nukem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Nukem_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Jill of the Jungle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jill_of_the_Jungle"},{"link_name":"massive-multiplayer online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_game"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Unreal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unreal_(1998_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Unreal Engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unreal_Engine"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-8"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:53-22"},{"link_name":"Unreal Tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unreal_Tournament"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Prodigy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodigy_(online_service)"},{"link_name":"America Online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AOL"},{"link_name":"Compuserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CompuServe"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"transgender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:42-12"},{"link_name":"Dreamcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamcast"},{"link_name":"Nintendo DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_DS"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"shoot 'em ups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoot_%27em_up"},{"link_name":"falling block puzzle games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Tetris_variants"},{"link_name":"role-playing games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role-playing_video_game"},{"link_name":"point-and-click adventure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-and-click_Adventure"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-25"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Switter-Host3-28"},{"link_name":"source code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code"},{"link_name":"crash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crash_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZZT-GU2-6"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tim-Note2-13"},{"link_name":"reconstructed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_engineering"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"GitHub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub"},{"link_name":"MIT License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_License"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Frog Fractions 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frog_Fractions_2"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Minecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minecraft"},{"link_name":"Roblox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roblox"},{"link_name":"video game developers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_developer"},{"link_name":"LittleBigPlanet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LittleBigPlanet"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:63-27"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-26"}],"text":"By getting $100 per day from ZZT, Sweeney was convinced he could earn enough from the shareware industry, and decided to work in the video game industry.[6] He renamed the company to Epic MegaGames in October 1991.[20] Shortly after the release of ZZT, Sweeney started a level designer contest for registered users to make their own worlds and submit them to him.[14] Over 200 users submitted their custom worlds. The best collaboration games that won the contest were included in The Best of ZZT and ZZT's Revenge, released in 1992. The winners of the contest received prizes of gift certificates, while others would receive honorable mentions. The six winning custom worlds that made up ZZT's Revenge earned the designers employment in Epic MegaGames, with the winning worlds being \"Ezanya\", \"Fantasy\", \"Crypt\", \"Smiley Guy\", \"Manor\", and \"Darbytown\".[1] Sweeney later asked one of these developers, Allen Pilgrim, to create the shareware world \"Monster Zoo\" for the sequel to ZZT, Super ZZT, released on October 15, 1991.[29] Other worlds available for purchase were \"Proving Grounds\" and \"Lost Forest\". The game plays similarly to ZZT, while adding more features such as greater colors accessible within its editor, new enemies and objects, and scrolling map screens that allowed for larger boards than in ZZT. Although Super ZZT incorporated several additions to ZZT, it never caught on with the ZZT community like the original ZZT did, and very few games were ever created for Super ZZT, with one reason being due to the editor being hidden during normal play.[11]After publishing Best of ZZT and ZZT's Revenge, Sweeney realized the community began creating worlds that reached or exceeded the quality of his work.[19] Furthermore, he believed that games with cutting edge graphics and sound similar in commercial quality to Super Nintendo Entertainment System or Sega Genesis games would have higher sales in the shareware model, taking influence from Commander Keen and Duke Nukem. As such, he moved away from ZZT indefinitely to work on other projects like Jill of the Jungle. He has commented on wanting to build a massive-multiplayer online version of ZZT during an interview, but his future focus on the company was to move forward with new franchises, while learning from the success of ZZT.[30] Sweeney and Mark Rein later credited that much of the core idea of Unreal and Unreal Engine came from what Sweeney learned from the success of ZZT, with a focus on building games with clean code and editing tools, so that others can build their own games.[8][22] Mark Rein has claimed that Unreal Tournament became a spiritual successor to the game thanks to the game's modding community and versatile developer tools.[31]An early modding community emerged within Prodigy, America Online, Compuserve, and the Internet.[32][33] Many fan-made worlds and editing tools are curated on a fan website, Museum of ZZT. The game provided the community with an outlet for creativity and self-expression without artistic or programming skills, especially among stigmatized groups such as transgender people.[34] As of 2021, more than 3,000 worlds have been created using the built in editor, or third party editors such as KevEdit.[35][36] Tim Sweeney has claimed that tens of thousands of workers in the game industry have previously made worlds in ZZT.[12] A port called Zeta allows for playing ZZT games on Windows or a web browser, and another source port, DreamZZT, allows ports to consoles, specifically the Dreamcast and Nintendo DS.[37] Worlds continue to be developed that have expanded beyond its intended genre, creating shoot 'em ups, falling block puzzle games, complex role-playing games, and point-and-click adventure games, sometimes deriving from other entertainment releases.[25][28] The source code of ZZT was lost in a computer crash,[6][13] a community developer, Adrian Siekierka, reconstructed and released the source code in 2020, creating a binary accurate executable of ZZT with Sweeney's permission.[38][39]On January 28, 2023, the original source code for ZZT 3.0 (without third party content) was uploaded to GitHub under the MIT License with permission of Tim Sweeney.[40]Other games have been inspired by ZZT, such as MegaZeux, PuzzleScript, and Frog Fractions 2, and authors of ZZT worlds became professional video game developers.[41][42] Rock Paper Shotgun has made comparisons to Minecraft and Roblox, in its ability to serve as a start for new video game developers. Wired and Hardcore Gaming 101 found similarities in its seamless blend of gameplay and editing to LittleBigPlanet.[27][26]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anthropy, Anna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Anthropy"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-940535-02-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-940535-02-9"}],"text":"Anthropy, Anna (2014). ZZT. Boss Fight Books. ISBN 978-1-940535-02-9.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Tim Sweeney at the Game Developers Choice Awards 2017","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Tim_sweeney_GDCA_2017.jpg/220px-Tim_sweeney_GDCA_2017.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Anthropy, Anna (2014). ZZT. Los Angeles, CA: Boss Fight Books. ISBN 978-1-940535-02-9. OCLC 887992348. Archived from the original on February 13, 2022. Retrieved November 26, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/887992348","url_text":"ZZT"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boss_Fight_Books","url_text":"Boss Fight Books"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-940535-02-9","url_text":"978-1-940535-02-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/887992348","url_text":"887992348"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220213084922/https://www.worldcat.org/title/zzt/oclc/887992348","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Dr. Dos (July 22, 2018). \"Closer Look: Caves of ZZT\". Museum of ZZT. Archived from the original on December 3, 2021. Retrieved December 3, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://museumofzzt.com/article/304/closer-look-caves-of-zzt","url_text":"\"Closer Look: Caves of ZZT\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211203124828/https://museumofzzt.com/article/304/closer-look-caves-of-zzt","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Dr. Dos (June 19, 2017). \"Closer Look: City of ZZT\". Museum of ZZT. Archived from the original on December 3, 2021. Retrieved December 3, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://museumofzzt.com/article/230/page/1/closer-look-city-of-zzt","url_text":"\"Closer Look: City of ZZT\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211203124827/https://museumofzzt.com/article/230/page/1/closer-look-city-of-zzt","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Fiadotau, Mikhail (2016). \"Game Engine Conventions and Games that Challenge them: Subverting Conventions as Metacommentary\". Replay. The Polish Journal of Game Studies. 3 (1): 47–65. doi:10.18778/2391-8551.03.03. hdl:11089/22427. ISSN 2449-8394.","urls":[{"url":"https://czasopisma.uni.lodz.pl/Replay/article/view/2007","url_text":"\"Game Engine Conventions and Games that Challenge them: Subverting Conventions as Metacommentary\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.18778%2F2391-8551.03.03","url_text":"10.18778/2391-8551.03.03"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/11089%2F22427","url_text":"11089/22427"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2449-8394","url_text":"2449-8394"}]},{"reference":"Dr. Dos (September 18, 2016). \"640x350x16 A History of ZZT's Graphics\". Museum of ZZT. Archived from the original on February 2, 2022. Retrieved April 9, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://museumofzzt.com/article/175/640x350x16-a-history-of-zzts-graphics/","url_text":"\"640x350x16 A History of ZZT's Graphics\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220202055729/https://museumofzzt.com/article/175/640x350x16-a-history-of-zzts-graphics","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Edwards, Benj (May 25, 2009). \"From The Past To The Future: Tim Sweeney Talks\". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on February 4, 2017. Retrieved March 27, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/132426/from_the_past_to_the_future_tim_.php","url_text":"\"From The Past To The Future: Tim Sweeney Talks\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamasutra","url_text":"Gamasutra"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170204115638/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/132426/from_the_past_to_the_future_tim_.php","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Thomsen, Mike (June 15, 2012) [February 24, 2010]. \"History of the Unreal Engine\". IGN. Archived from the original on January 8, 2022. 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|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baden
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Baden
|
["1 History","2 Geography","3 See also","4 References"]
|
Historical territory in South Germany and North Switzerland
For other uses, see Baden (disambiguation).
Grand Duchy of Baden with the Margraviate (red) and gains after 1803
Hohenbaden Castle on the Battert above Baden-Baden
Monument to Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden in front of Karlsruhe Palace
Baden (/ˈbɑːdən/; German: ) is a historical territory in South Germany. In earlier times it was considered to be on both sides of the Upper Rhine, but since the Napoleonic Wars, it has been considered only East of the Rhine.
History
The margraves of Baden originated from the House of Zähringen. Baden is named after the margraves' residence, Hohenbaden Castle in Baden-Baden. Hermann II of Baden first claimed the title of Margrave of Baden in 1112. A united Margraviate of Baden existed from this time until 1535, when it was split into the two Margraviates of Baden-Durlach and Baden-Baden. Following a devastating fire in Baden-Baden in 1689, the capital was moved to Rastatt.
The two parts were reunited in 1771 under Margrave Charles Frederick. The restored Margraviate with its capital Karlsruhe was elevated to the status of electorate in 1803. In 1806, the Electorate of Baden, receiving territorial additions, became the Grand Duchy of Baden.
The Grand Duchy of Baden was a state within the German Confederation until 1866 and the German Empire until 1918, succeeded by the Republic of Baden within the Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany. From 1945 to 1952, South Baden and Württemberg-Baden were territories under French and American occupation, respectively. They were united with Württemberg-Hohenzollern to form the modern Federal State of Baden-Württemberg in 1952.
Geography
Baden lies in the southwest of Germany, with most of its major cities on the Upper Rhine Plain. Bounded by Lake Constance on the south and by the river Rhine on the south and west, the region of Baden stretches from the Linzgau, Lörrach and Freiburg im Breisgau to Karlsruhe and then on to Mannheim, leading to the Main and Tauber rivers.
To its west lies the French historical region of Alsace, to its south Switzerland, the Palatinate to its northwest, Hesse to the north, and parts of Bavaria to the northeast. Its eastern border with the region of Württemberg runs from the Kraichgau through the Black Forest, and from some parts of the forest to the Rhine the distances become as low as 18 kilometres (11 mi) in the so-called "Wespentaille" near Gaggenau.
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Baden.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Baden
History of Baden-Württemberg
List of states in the Holy Roman Empire
References
^ "Baden, historical state, Germany". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2008-07-26. Retrieved 2018-05-09.
Baden (D) in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.
Authority control databases International
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Germany
Israel
United States
Czech Republic
Other
Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
|
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In earlier times it was considered to be on both sides of the Upper Rhine, but since the Napoleonic Wars, it has been considered only East of the Rhine.","title":"Baden"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"House of Zähringen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Z%C3%A4hringen"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ebrit-1"},{"link_name":"Hohenbaden Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hohenbaden_Castle"},{"link_name":"Baden-Baden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baden-Baden"},{"link_name":"Hermann II of Baden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_II,_Margrave_of_Baden"},{"link_name":"Margraviate of Baden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margraviate_of_Baden"},{"link_name":"Rastatt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastatt"},{"link_name":"Margrave Charles Frederick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Frederick,_Grand_Duke_of_Baden"},{"link_name":"Karlsruhe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlsruhe"},{"link_name":"electorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince-elector"},{"link_name":"Electorate of Baden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electorate_of_Baden"},{"link_name":"Grand Duchy of Baden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden"},{"link_name":"state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_states_of_Germany"},{"link_name":"German Confederation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Confederation"},{"link_name":"German Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire"},{"link_name":"Republic of Baden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Baden"},{"link_name":"Weimar Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Republic"},{"link_name":"Nazi Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"South Baden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Baden"},{"link_name":"Württemberg-Baden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%BCrttemberg-Baden"},{"link_name":"Württemberg-Hohenzollern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%BCrttemberg-Hohenzollern"},{"link_name":"Baden-Württemberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg"}],"text":"The margraves of Baden originated from the House of Zähringen.[1] Baden is named after the margraves' residence, Hohenbaden Castle in Baden-Baden. Hermann II of Baden first claimed the title of Margrave of Baden in 1112. A united Margraviate of Baden existed from this time until 1535, when it was split into the two Margraviates of Baden-Durlach and Baden-Baden. Following a devastating fire in Baden-Baden in 1689, the capital was moved to Rastatt.The two parts were reunited in 1771 under Margrave Charles Frederick. The restored Margraviate with its capital Karlsruhe was elevated to the status of electorate in 1803. In 1806, the Electorate of Baden, receiving territorial additions, became the Grand Duchy of Baden.The Grand Duchy of Baden was a state within the German Confederation until 1866 and the German Empire until 1918, succeeded by the Republic of Baden within the Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany. From 1945 to 1952, South Baden and Württemberg-Baden were territories under French and American occupation, respectively. They were united with Württemberg-Hohenzollern to form the modern Federal State of Baden-Württemberg in 1952.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Upper Rhine Plain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Rhine_Plain"},{"link_name":"Lake Constance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Constance"},{"link_name":"Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhine"},{"link_name":"Linzgau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linzgau"},{"link_name":"Lörrach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6rrach"},{"link_name":"Freiburg im Breisgau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freiburg_im_Breisgau"},{"link_name":"Karlsruhe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlsruhe"},{"link_name":"Mannheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannheim"},{"link_name":"Main","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_(river)"},{"link_name":"Tauber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tauber"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Alsace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alsace"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Palatinate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatinate_(region)"},{"link_name":"Hesse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesse"},{"link_name":"Bavaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavaria"},{"link_name":"Württemberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%BCrttemberg"},{"link_name":"Kraichgau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraichgau"},{"link_name":"Black Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Forest"},{"link_name":"Gaggenau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaggenau"}],"text":"Baden lies in the southwest of Germany, with most of its major cities on the Upper Rhine Plain. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_Who_Knew_Infinity
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The Man Who Knew Infinity
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["1 Plot","2 Cast","3 Production","4 Reception","5 Release","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
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This article is about the 2015 film. For the book the film is based off, see The Man Who Knew Infinity (book).
2015 British filmThe Man Who Knew InfinityTheatrical release posterDirected byMatthew BrownScreenplay byMatthew BrownBased onThe Man Who Knew Infinityby Robert KanigelProduced byEdward R. PressmanJim YoungJoe ThomasStarringDev PatelJeremy IronsDevika BhiseToby JonesStephen FryJeremy NorthamKevin McNallyEnzo CilentiArundhati NagDhritiman ChatterjeeCinematographyLarry SmithEdited byJC BondMusic byCoby BrownProductioncompaniesPressman FilmXeitgeist Entertainment GroupCayenne Pepper ProductionsDistributed byWarner Bros. Pictures (United Kingdom)Mister Smith Entertainment (International)Release dates
17 September 2015 (2015-09-17) (TIFF)
8 April 2016 (2016-04-08) (United Kingdom)
Running time108 minutesCountryUnited KingdomLanguageEnglishBudget$10 millionBox office$12.3 million
The Man Who Knew Infinity is a 2015 British biographical drama film about the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan, based on the 1991 book of the same name by Robert Kanigel.
The film stars Dev Patel as Srinivasa Ramanujan, a real-life mathematician who, after growing up poor in Madras, India, earns admittance to Cambridge University during World War I, where he becomes a pioneer in mathematical theories with the guidance of his professor, G. H. Hardy, portrayed by Jeremy Irons.
Filming began in August 2014 at Trinity College, Cambridge after eight years in development. The film had its world premiere as a gala presentation at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival, and was selected as the opening gala of the 2015 Zurich Film Festival. It also played other film festivals including Singapore International Film Festival and Dubai International Film Festival.
Plot
At the turn of the twentieth century, Srinivasa Ramanujan is a struggling and indigent citizen in the city of Madras in India working at menial jobs at the edge of poverty. While performing his menial labor, his employers notice that he seems to have exceptional skills in mathematics and they begin to make use of him for rudimentary accounting tasks. It becomes equally clear to his employers, who are college-educated, that Ramanujan's mathematical insights exceed the simple accounting tasks they are assigning to him and soon they encourage him to make his personal writings in mathematics available to the general public and to start to contact professors of mathematics at universities by writing to them. One such letter is sent to G.H. Hardy, a famous mathematician at University of Cambridge, who begins to take a special interest in Ramanujan.
Hardy soon invites Ramanujan to Cambridge to test his mettle as a potential theoretical mathematician. Ramanujan is overwhelmed by the opportunity and decides to pursue Hardy's offer, even though this means he must leave his wife Janaki for an extended period. He parts lovingly with Janaki and promises to keep up his correspondence with her.
Upon arrival at Cambridge, Ramanujan encounters various forms of racial prejudice and finds his adjustment to life in England more difficult than expected. Hardy, though much impressed by Ramanujan's abilities, remains concerned about Ramanujan's ability to communicate effectively due to his lack of experience in writing proofs, but with perseverance, he manages to get Ramanujan published in a major journal. In the meantime, Ramanujan is diagnosed with tuberculosis and his frequent letters home to his wife remain unanswered after many months. Hardy continues to see much more promise in Ramanujan. However, he remains unaware of the personal difficulties his student is having with his housing and with his lack of contact with his family back home in India. Ramanujan's health worsens while he continues delving into deeper and more profound research interests in mathematics under the guidance of Hardy and others at Cambridge.
Janaki, after much elapsed time, wonders why she has not heard from Ramanujan and eventually discovers that his mother has been intercepting his letters, and withholding hers to him. Hardy makes special efforts to get Ramanujan's now recognizably exceptional mathematical skills accepted by the university, by nominating Ramanujan for a fellowship of Trinity College. At first, Hardy fails for reasons related to college politics and racial prejudice. By gaining the support of key members of the college, Hardy again successfully nominates Ramanujan as a Fellow of the Royal Society, thereby forcing his acceptance as a fellow of Trinity. Ramanujan is eventually reunited with his family in India, though his declining health, exacerbated by poor housing and harsh winter weather in England, ultimately takes its toll and leads to his death aged 32, soon after his recognition as a mathematician of international merit and importance.
Cast
Dev Patel as Srinivasa Ramanujan
Jeremy Irons as G. H. Hardy
Devika Bhise as Janaki
Toby Jones as John Edensor Littlewood
Stephen Fry as Sir Francis Spring
Jeremy Northam as Bertrand Russell
Kevin McNally as Major MacMahon
Enzo Cilenti as Doctor
Arundhati Nag as Ramanujan's mother
Dhritiman Chatterjee as Narayana Iyer
Shazad Latif as Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis
Roger Narayan as an iyengar
While Irons is more than 40 years Patel's senior, the real Hardy was only 10 years older than Ramanujan.
Production
Tamil actor R. Madhavan was initially selected to portray the lead role in the film after agreeing terms during January 2012, but the makers eventually decided they wanted an international actor to play Ramanujan.
Reception
Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 63% of critics gave the film a positive rating, based on 131 reviews with an average score of 6.2/10. The critics' consensus reads: "The Man Who Knew Infinity might be a tad too conventional to truly do its subject justice, but Dev Patel (Srinivasa Ramanujan) and Jeremy Irons (G.H. Hardy) elevate the end result beyond mere biopic formula." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 56 out of 100 based on 26 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".
After the film's world premiere, Allan Hunter in Screen Daily found the film to be "a well-heeled, sincere production following the memories of Ramanujan's English mentor and friend ... The film tells such a good story that it is hard to resist. The old-fashioned virtues of a well-told tale and a particularly fine performance from Jeremy Irons should endear the film to that supposedly under-served older demographic who like to turn out for a weekday matinee ... Mathematics plays a key role in the story, but in a way that is entirely accessible, allowing the viewer to comprehend the advances that Ramanujan made and why his legacy remains so important almost a century after his death."
Deborah Young in The Hollywood Reporter found the film to be a "respectable but all too conventional biopic".
Mathematicians Ken Ono and Manjul Bhargava collaborated on the film, which has been praised by mathematicians and scientists for its accurate mathematics and authentic portrayal of mathematicians.
George E. Andrews, former President of the American Mathematical Society, praised the film for its moving portrayal of the deep relationship between Ramanujan and Hardy.
The London Mathematical Society proclaimed that the film "outshines Good Will Hunting in almost every way".
Reviewing the film for Nature, Andrew Robinson wrote that "the film took more than ten years to create. It is worth the wait."
Release
Mister Smith Entertainment handled international sales of the film. Warner Bros. released the film in the United Kingdom on 8 April 2016. IFC Films released it in the U.S. on 29 April 2016.
See also
Ramanujan – a 2014 Indian biopic of Ramanujan
List of films about mathematicians
References
^ "The Man Who Knew Infinity – PowerGrind". The Wrap. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 13 August 2017.
^ "The Man Who Knew Infinity (2016)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
^ "Dev Patel's 'The Man Who Knew Infinity' Moves to Production After 8 Years in Development". Variety. 15 July 2014. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
^ Matt Brennan (14 October 2015). "IFC Films Acquires Math Genius Biopic 'The Man Who Knew Infinity,' with Jeremy Irons and Dev Patel". Indiewire / Thompson on Hollywood!. Retrieved 24 February 2016.
^ "The Man Who Knew Infinity ". TIFF.net. Toronto International Film Festival. Archived from the original on 20 March 2016. Retrieved 24 February 2016.
^ Zack Sharf (25 August 2015). "'The Man Who Knew Infinity' Selected as Zurich Film Festival Opening Night Film". Indiewire. Retrieved 24 February 2016.
^ "The Man Who Knew Infinity". SGIFF. 2015. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
^ "The Man Who Knew Infinity". DIFF. 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
^ Webster, Andy (28 April 2016). "Review: 'The Man Who Knew Infinity' Gives a Mathematical Genius His Due". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 12 August 2017.
^ "The Man Who Knew Infinity is a by the numbers biopic – review". The Telegraph. Retrieved 12 August 2017.
^ Joseph, Raveena (28 July 2016). "Tales from a journeyman". The Hindu.
^ Warrier, Shobha (24 January 2012). "Madhavan as Ramanujan, the Mathematical genius". Rediff. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
^ "The Man Who Knew Infinity (2016)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
^ "The Man Who Knew Infinity". Metacritic. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
^ Allan Hunter (15 September 2015). "'The Man Who Knew Infinity': Review". Screen Daily. Retrieved 26 February 2016.
^ Deborah Young (14 September 2015). "'The Man Who Knew Infinity': TIFF Review". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 24 February 2016. Brown's screenplay brings math into the dialogue often and without embarrassment.
^ George Andrews (February 2016). "Film Review: 'The Man Who Knew Infinity'" (PDF). Notices of the American Mathematical Society.
^ Armando Martino and David Singerman (March 2016). "The Man Who Knew Infinity: film review" (PDF). London Mathematical Society Newsletter.
^ Andrew Robinson (31 March 2016). "Film: In search of Ramanujan". Nature. 531 (7596): 576–577. Bibcode:2016Natur.531..576R. doi:10.1038/531576a.
^ N'Duka, Amanda (10 September 2015). "'The Man Who Knew Infinity' Clip: Toronto Film About Math Genius Ramanujan".
^ Matt Brennan (14 October 2015). "IFC Films Acquires Math Genius Biopic 'The Man Who Knew Infinity,' with Jeremy Irons and Dev Patel". Indiewire / Thompson on Hollywood!. Retrieved 24 February 2016.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to The Man Who Knew Infinity.
The Man Who Knew Infinity at IMDb
The Man Who Knew Infinity at Rotten Tomatoes
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Hardy, portrayed by Jeremy Irons.Filming began in August 2014 at Trinity College, Cambridge after eight years in development.[3] The film had its world premiere as a gala presentation at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival,[4][5] and was selected as the opening gala of the 2015 Zurich Film Festival.[6] It also played other film festivals including Singapore International Film Festival[7] and Dubai International Film Festival.[8]","title":"The Man Who Knew Infinity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Srinivasa Ramanujan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srinivasa_Ramanujan"},{"link_name":"Madras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"G.H. 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It becomes equally clear to his employers, who are college-educated, that Ramanujan's mathematical insights exceed the simple accounting tasks they are assigning to him and soon they encourage him to make his personal writings in mathematics available to the general public and to start to contact professors of mathematics at universities by writing to them. One such letter is sent to G.H. Hardy, a famous mathematician at University of Cambridge, who begins to take a special interest in Ramanujan.[9]Hardy soon invites Ramanujan to Cambridge to test his mettle as a potential theoretical mathematician. Ramanujan is overwhelmed by the opportunity and decides to pursue Hardy's offer, even though this means he must leave his wife Janaki for an extended period. He parts lovingly with Janaki and promises to keep up his correspondence with her.Upon arrival at Cambridge, Ramanujan encounters various forms of racial prejudice and finds his adjustment to life in England more difficult than expected. Hardy, though much impressed by Ramanujan's abilities, remains concerned about Ramanujan's ability to communicate effectively due to his lack of experience in writing proofs, but with perseverance, he manages to get Ramanujan published in a major journal.[10] In the meantime, Ramanujan is diagnosed with tuberculosis and his frequent letters home to his wife remain unanswered after many months. Hardy continues to see much more promise in Ramanujan. However, he remains unaware of the personal difficulties his student is having with his housing and with his lack of contact with his family back home in India. Ramanujan's health worsens while he continues delving into deeper and more profound research interests in mathematics under the guidance of Hardy and others at Cambridge.Janaki, after much elapsed time, wonders why she has not heard from Ramanujan and eventually discovers that his mother has been intercepting his letters, and withholding hers to him. Hardy makes special efforts to get Ramanujan's now recognizably exceptional mathematical skills accepted by the university, by nominating Ramanujan for a fellowship of Trinity College. At first, Hardy fails for reasons related to college politics and racial prejudice. By gaining the support of key members of the college, Hardy again successfully nominates Ramanujan as a Fellow of the Royal Society, thereby forcing his acceptance as a fellow of Trinity. Ramanujan is eventually reunited with his family in India, though his declining health, exacerbated by poor housing and harsh winter weather in England, ultimately takes its toll and leads to his death aged 32, soon after his recognition as a mathematician of international merit and importance.","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dev Patel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dev_Patel"},{"link_name":"Srinivasa Ramanujan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srinivasa_Ramanujan"},{"link_name":"Jeremy Irons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Irons"},{"link_name":"G. H. 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H. Hardy\nDevika Bhise as Janaki\nToby Jones as John Edensor Littlewood\nStephen Fry as Sir Francis Spring\nJeremy Northam as Bertrand Russell\nKevin McNally as Major MacMahon\nEnzo Cilenti as Doctor\nArundhati Nag as Ramanujan's mother\nDhritiman Chatterjee as Narayana Iyer\nShazad Latif as Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis\nRoger Narayan as an iyengar[11]While Irons is more than 40 years Patel's senior, the real Hardy was only 10 years older than Ramanujan.","title":"Cast"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"R. Madhavan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._Madhavan"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Tamil actor R. Madhavan was initially selected to portray the lead role in the film after agreeing terms during January 2012, but the makers eventually decided they wanted an international actor to play Ramanujan.[12]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rotten Tomatoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotten_Tomatoes"},{"link_name":"Dev Patel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dev_Patel"},{"link_name":"Jeremy Irons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Irons"},{"link_name":"biopic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopic"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Metacritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Screen Daily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_Daily"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"The Hollywood Reporter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Ken Ono","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Ono"},{"link_name":"Manjul Bhargava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manjul_Bhargava"},{"link_name":"George E. Andrews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_E._Andrews"},{"link_name":"American Mathematical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mathematical_Society"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"London Mathematical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Mathematical_Society"},{"link_name":"Good Will Hunting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Will_Hunting"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 63% of critics gave the film a positive rating, based on 131 reviews with an average score of 6.2/10. The critics' consensus reads: \"The Man Who Knew Infinity might be a tad too conventional to truly do its subject justice, but Dev Patel (Srinivasa Ramanujan) and Jeremy Irons (G.H. Hardy) elevate the end result beyond mere biopic formula.\"[13] Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 56 out of 100 based on 26 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".[14]After the film's world premiere, Allan Hunter in Screen Daily found the film to be \"a well-heeled, sincere production following the memories of Ramanujan's English mentor and friend ... The film tells such a good story that it is hard to resist. The old-fashioned virtues of a well-told tale and a particularly fine performance from Jeremy Irons should endear the film to that supposedly under-served older demographic who like to turn out for a weekday matinee ... Mathematics plays a key role in the story, but in a way that is entirely accessible, allowing the viewer to comprehend the advances that Ramanujan made and why his legacy remains so important almost a century after his death.\"[15]\nDeborah Young in The Hollywood Reporter found the film to be a \"respectable but all too conventional biopic\".[16]Mathematicians Ken Ono and Manjul Bhargava collaborated on the film, which has been praised by mathematicians and scientists for its accurate mathematics and authentic portrayal of mathematicians.\nGeorge E. Andrews, former President of the American Mathematical Society, praised the film for its moving portrayal of the deep relationship between Ramanujan and Hardy.[17]\nThe London Mathematical Society proclaimed that the film \"outshines Good Will Hunting in almost every way\".[18]\nReviewing the film for Nature, Andrew Robinson wrote that \"the film took more than ten years to create. It is worth the wait.\"[19]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mister Smith Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mister_Smith_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Warner Bros.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warner_Bros."},{"link_name":"IFC Films","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFC_Films"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Mister Smith Entertainment handled international sales of the film.[20] Warner Bros. released the film in the United Kingdom on 8 April 2016. IFC Films released it in the U.S. on 29 April 2016.[21]","title":"Release"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Ramanujan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramanujan_(film)"},{"title":"List of films about mathematicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_films_about_mathematicians"}]
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[{"reference":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity – PowerGrind\". The Wrap. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 13 August 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170703030110/http://powergrid.thewrap.com/project/man-who-knew-infinity","url_text":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity – PowerGrind\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wrap","url_text":"The Wrap"},{"url":"http://powergrid.thewrap.com/project/man-who-knew-infinity","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity (2016)\". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 23 August 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=themanwhoknewinfinity.htm","url_text":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity (2016)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_Office_Mojo","url_text":"Box Office Mojo"}]},{"reference":"\"Dev Patel's 'The Man Who Knew Infinity' Moves to Production After 8 Years in Development\". Variety. 15 July 2014. Retrieved 7 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://variety.com/2014/film/news/dev-patels-the-man-who-knew-infinity-moves-to-production-after-8-years-in-development-1201262436/","url_text":"\"Dev Patel's 'The Man Who Knew Infinity' Moves to Production After 8 Years in Development\""}]},{"reference":"Matt Brennan (14 October 2015). \"IFC Films Acquires Math Genius Biopic 'The Man Who Knew Infinity,' with Jeremy Irons and Dev Patel\". Indiewire / Thompson on Hollywood!. Retrieved 24 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://blogs.indiewire.com/thompsononhollywood/ifc-films-acquires-math-genius-biopic-the-man-who-knew-infinity-with-jeremy-irons-and-dev-patel-20151014","url_text":"\"IFC Films Acquires Math Genius Biopic 'The Man Who Knew Infinity,' with Jeremy Irons and Dev Patel\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity [programme note]\". TIFF.net. Toronto International Film Festival. Archived from the original on 20 March 2016. Retrieved 24 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160320221423/http://tiff.net/festivals/festival15/galapresentations/the-man-who-knew-infinity","url_text":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity [programme note]\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_International_Film_Festival","url_text":"Toronto International Film Festival"},{"url":"http://tiff.net/festivals/festival15/galapresentations/the-man-who-knew-infinity","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Zack Sharf (25 August 2015). \"'The Man Who Knew Infinity' Selected as Zurich Film Festival Opening Night Film\". Indiewire. Retrieved 24 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.indiewire.com/article/the-man-who-knew-infinity-selected-as-zurich-film-festival-opening-night-film-20150825","url_text":"\"'The Man Who Knew Infinity' Selected as Zurich Film Festival Opening Night Film\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity\". SGIFF. 2015. Retrieved 7 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://sgiff.com/browse-all-films/man-who-knew-infinity","url_text":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity\". DIFF. 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://dubaifilmfest.com/en/films/43159/the_man_who_knew_infinity.html","url_text":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity\""}]},{"reference":"Webster, Andy (28 April 2016). \"Review: 'The Man Who Knew Infinity' Gives a Mathematical Genius His Due\". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 12 August 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/29/movies/the-man-who-knew-infinity-review.html","url_text":"\"Review: 'The Man Who Knew Infinity' Gives a Mathematical Genius His Due\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","url_text":"0362-4331"}]},{"reference":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity is a by the numbers biopic – review\". The Telegraph. Retrieved 12 August 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/film/the-man-who-knew-infinity/review/","url_text":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity is a by the numbers biopic – review\""}]},{"reference":"Joseph, Raveena (28 July 2016). \"Tales from a journeyman\". The Hindu.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Tales-from-a-journeyman/article14513152.ece","url_text":"\"Tales from a journeyman\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hindu","url_text":"The Hindu"}]},{"reference":"Warrier, Shobha (24 January 2012). \"Madhavan as Ramanujan, the Mathematical genius\". Rediff. Retrieved 7 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-interview-with-r-madhavan/20120124.htm#3","url_text":"\"Madhavan as Ramanujan, the Mathematical genius\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity (2016)\". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 1 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/the_man_who_knew_infinity//","url_text":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity (2016)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotten_Tomatoes","url_text":"Rotten Tomatoes"}]},{"reference":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity\". Metacritic. Retrieved 6 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.metacritic.com/movie/the-man-who-knew-infinity","url_text":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic","url_text":"Metacritic"}]},{"reference":"Allan Hunter (15 September 2015). \"'The Man Who Knew Infinity': Review\". Screen Daily. Retrieved 26 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.screendaily.com/reviews/the-man-who-knew-infinity-review/5093140.article","url_text":"\"'The Man Who Knew Infinity': Review\""}]},{"reference":"Deborah Young (14 September 2015). \"'The Man Who Knew Infinity': TIFF Review\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 24 February 2016. Brown's screenplay brings math into the dialogue often and without embarrassment.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/review/man-who-knew-infinity-tiff-823301","url_text":"\"'The Man Who Knew Infinity': TIFF Review\""}]},{"reference":"George Andrews (February 2016). \"Film Review: 'The Man Who Knew Infinity'\" (PDF). Notices of the American Mathematical Society.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ams.org/journals/notices/201602/rnoti-p178.pdf","url_text":"\"Film Review: 'The Man Who Knew Infinity'\""}]},{"reference":"Armando Martino and David Singerman (March 2016). \"The Man Who Knew Infinity: film review\" (PDF). London Mathematical Society Newsletter.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lms.ac.uk/sites/lms.ac.uk/files/Publications/newsletter/201604.pdf","url_text":"\"The Man Who Knew Infinity: film review\""}]},{"reference":"Andrew Robinson (31 March 2016). \"Film: In search of Ramanujan\". Nature. 531 (7596): 576–577. Bibcode:2016Natur.531..576R. doi:10.1038/531576a.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F531576a","url_text":"\"Film: In search of Ramanujan\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016Natur.531..576R","url_text":"2016Natur.531..576R"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F531576a","url_text":"10.1038/531576a"}]},{"reference":"N'Duka, Amanda (10 September 2015). \"'The Man Who Knew Infinity' Clip: Toronto Film About Math Genius Ramanujan\".","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2015/09/the-man-who-knew-infinity-exclusive-clip-1201519730/","url_text":"\"'The Man Who Knew Infinity' Clip: Toronto Film About Math Genius Ramanujan\""}]},{"reference":"Matt Brennan (14 October 2015). \"IFC Films Acquires Math Genius Biopic 'The Man Who Knew Infinity,' with Jeremy Irons and Dev Patel\". Indiewire / Thompson on Hollywood!. Retrieved 24 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://blogs.indiewire.com/thompsononhollywood/ifc-films-acquires-math-genius-biopic-the-man-who-knew-infinity-with-jeremy-irons-and-dev-patel-20151014","url_text":"\"IFC Films Acquires Math Genius Biopic 'The Man Who Knew Infinity,' with Jeremy Irons and Dev Patel\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Ham_Pastrami
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User talk:Ham Pastrami
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["1 Punkbuster","2 Why you remove the links in Magic Online Article","3 Why you remove the two linke in Mingw page","4 Re: Virtual Economy","5 Re: MTGO - Redemption","6 Re: MTGO - Shortages","7 Orphaned non-free media (Image:Warhammer Armies Orcs & Goblins cover.jpg)","8 Disputed fair use rationale for Image:Reversing secrets of reverse engineering cover.jpg","9 Disputed fair use rationale for Image:Warhammer Armies Orcs & Goblins cover2.jpeg","10 Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Apache James","11 Dungeons & Dragons: Dragonshard","12 Chaos League Starforce cracked?","13 Copyright notices.","14 Pasta code","15 Apache James","16 MfD for early computers wikiproject userbox","17 Footnotes.","18 May 2008","19 Micromanagement (gameplay)","20 Destroy All Humans! Big Willy Unleashed","21 Your Recent Edits to Floppy Disk Article","22 Orphaned non-free media (Image:Darkstalkers3 boxshot.jpg)","23 Orphaned non-free media (Image:Darkstalkers boxshot.jpg)","24 Intergrated banner for WikiProject Computer networking","25 x86open","26 NimbleX","27 What's with all the prod templates ?","27.1 Comments from StuRat","27.2 Comments from DGG","27.3 Comments from Jebba","27.4 Comments from gvy","28 \"Procedural nomination\"","29 real-time strategy","30 Plot tag in The Legend of Dragoon","31 First-person shooter","32 Character creation: Gamecleanup?","33 Image copyright problem with File:Hector ruiz.jpg","34 Orphaned non-free media (File:Dexplorer screenshot.jpg)","35 Console hardware in game testing","36 Pic on Blood Bowl","37 Heroes of Might and Magic II article got nerfed by you","38 Re:HTIC Box-Art","39 Talk:ASRock","40 Re: Unofficial patch for Unreal Tournament","41 WikiProject Software IRC","42 Orphaned non-free media (File:Homm2 GBC box.jpg)","43 Proposed deletion of DXGM (video codec)","44 Arguments in deletion debates","45 Any Ideas?","46 Removal of PROD from FinalBurn Alpha","47 Please update your status with WP:VG","48 Removal of PROD from NeoRAGEx","49 Proposed deletion of DXGM (FourCC)","50 Unreal article","51 Articles for deletion nomination of DXGM (FourCC)","52 More video-game article problems: MechWarrior_4:_Vengeance","53 Red Game Genie","54 Photo request for SF IV stick","55 JuanJose","56 Notability-based restrictions for infobox credits?","57 Gametap Article","58 False etymology > Folk Etymology","59 Replaceable fair use File:Mm3 automap.png","60 Orphaned non-free image File:Mm3 automap.png","61 Replaceability","62 Line Break","63 RE: Please don't make up bogus rationale for edits","64 Freeware","65 Orphaned non-free image File:Warhammer Armies Orcs & Goblins cover2.jpeg","66 homepage info of dead companies","67 Orphaned non-free image File:Night warriors boxshot.jpg","68 Orphaned non-free image File:ASRock logo.png","69 Dilemma","70 Windows RT Edit War (sigh)","71 Misc publishers addition to the WP:VG Reference Library","72 Nomination of VirusTotal for deletion","73 Proposed deletion of Timeskip","74 Proposed deletion of List of Unreal characters","75 Nomination of List of Unreal characters for deletion","76 ArbCom elections are now open!","77 Template talk:Short pages monitor","78 Nomination of List of Unreal characters for deletion","79 Nomination of List of games with XInput support for deletion","80 ArbCom Elections 2016: Voting now open!","81 A page you started (Cygames) has been reviewed!","82 ArbCom 2017 election voter message","83 Proposed deletion of Timeskip","84 Orphaned non-free image File:Cygames logo.png","85 ArbCom 2018 election voter message","86 Orphaned non-free image File:Might and Magic Trilogy box cover.jpg","87 Nomination for deletion of Template:Form factors","88 Nomination of Timeskip for deletion","89 \"Template:Compsci\" listed at Redirects for discussion","90 Speedy deletion nomination of First-person shooter (disambiguation)","91 ArbCom 2023 Elections voter message","92 Proposed deletion of Ultra ATX","93 Deletion discussion about Ultra ATX","94 XMLHttpRequest"]
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Punkbuster
In the Punkbuster article you made a specific claim that people were getting banned from games, due to strings embedded in images on Internet forums. Theres a lot of controversy and hearsay surrounding software like Punkbuster and this claim is unsubstantiated. Also people tend to be somewhat technically ignorant and attribute their problems to the wrong things so there needs to be a source other than hearsay. I added a fact tag and I'm just letting you know so you can do that if you wish, before it gets deleted. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.83.71.178 (talk) 13:57, 29 August 2009 (UTC)
I was not the one who added that claim, though I may have edited the paragraph where it appeared. Please do a little more digging into the article history to notify the correct person. IIRC there was a source provided for that claim, and it may have been removed for some reason. Actually, the source is still attached to that sentence, so the claim is not OR as you seemed to be suggesting. If you have a problem with the source, you should bring it up on the article's talk page to see if other editors agree. Ham Pastrami (talk) 05:30, 30 August 2009 (UTC)
Why you remove the links in Magic Online Article
Firstly, i can understand why you would remove the CerealKillaz link, even though it is the most active site about the game not sponsored by Wizards, but why remove the puremtgo links and other link that have been there for years with no issues? Meuslix (talk) 18:50, 11 May 2009 (UTC)
Except that there were issues, as evidenced by the fact that this is the second time someone has warned you about it. The fact that you continually re-add them does not mean there are no issues. As to the "why", I already stated the reasons in my edit summary. They do not meet Wikipedia's guidelines for external links. Ham Pastrami (talk) 01:23, 12 May 2009 (UTC)
except that the first warning was only about the Cerealkillaz link, and except for the fact that some of those links are vital to the community that play magic online. i am attempting to solve this dispute without requesting a mediator. but, you should know that some of those links will be returning. If i get blocked from editing Wikipedia over adding non-spam links, then, fine, i will simply have the thousands of people that are at my disposal across the internet to put them back each time. as a matter of fact, the only two links that i EVER ADDED to the EL section were the CerealKillaz.org link and the MyMtgo.com link, so please get your facts straight. please let me know if we need to request Arbitration on this issue, as it is obvious to me from many of your edits and many parts of your talk page concerning the said article that you are not connected to the community of players that play this game, then please let me know. Meuslix (talk) 02:06, 12 May 2009 (UTC)
Yes, please call a moderator. Ham Pastrami (talk) 02:10, 12 May 2009 (UTC)
Why you remove the two linke in Mingw page
I think these two pages are relative to Mingw, Why did you remove them? Ollydbg (talk) 11:48, 17 March 2009 (UTC)
They don't seem to meet the external link guidelines WP:EL, and I don't really see the value of having those links in the article. Ham Pastrami (talk) 01:54, 18 March 2009 (UTC)
Re: Virtual Economy
There is no evidence that a virtual economy was part of Wizards' original design. Use of tickets are currency appears to have been a player invention. If this is incorrect, provide proof. Also, MTGO is now referred to by its owner as a Trading Card Game. Therefore, collectibility is inapplicable. If you have proof that Wizards intended the cards to be collectible (in the sense of having monetary value), please provide it. --BentFranklin BentFranklin (talk) 16:27, 1 May 2008 (UTC)
I have added sources for the claim made in the article which provide first-party statements of the intention for players to collect cards. Note also that a virtual economy does not require tickets or currency. If you claim that it does, provide proof of your theory. "Collectibility" is an English word, not a trademark; the cards are collectible regardless of whether the product is called a CCG or TCG, as both "collecting" and "trading" are advertised features of the game. Note also that collectibles need not be intended to have monetary value. If you claim otherwise, provide proof of your theory. Ham Pastrami (talk) 23:17, 1 May 2008 (UTC)
Collectible is different from collectable. The first sense includes postage stamps, coins, art, and other things that have monetary value. The second means only able-to-be-collected, like Pogs. A virtual economy includes several facets as discussed in the Wiki page to which you link. See "5. Property Rights: The world must record which goods and services belong to which user identity, and the code must allow that user to dispose of the good or service according to whim." The MTGO code does not allow users to dispose of the goods at whim. Trading is not disposal - that is covered by the preceding point "4. Trade: Users must be able to transfer goods and services to and from other users." Therefore, by Wikipedia's own standard, MTGO is not a virtual economy in the same sense of Second Life (with Linden Dollars) or WoW (with Station Exchange).BentFranklin (talk) 15:35, 2 May 2008 (UTC)
Collectible vs collectable are merely different spellings, as noted in the article with sources from a dictionary. If you claim that the two words have distinct meanings, provide proof of this usage. For "disposal" of goods according to "whim", it means the ability to give away goods according to the desire of the user, as opposed to the desire of the manufacturer. If you claim that a person must be able to "throw away" virtual goods in order for the system to qualify as a virtual economy, provide proof of this theory. Point 4 says that users must be "able" to trade, not that trades are guaranteed to occur. Your conclusion is therefore invalid. Ham Pastrami (talk) 15:55, 2 May 2008 (UTC)
In addition, you are quoting an unsourced portion of the article. I have replaced it with a sourced definition, and it makes no such restrictions. Ham Pastrami (talk) 17:37, 2 May 2008 (UTC)
You misunderstand "disposal on a whim." It means the property owners can sell the objects whenever they wish without getting anyone else's permission. Users cannot sell their objects *for money* without violating the vendor's stated policies. Therefore, the vendor does not offer a virtual economy - any virtual economy that exists emerged from the users and against the vendor's explicit warnings. Therefore it is inappropriate to have the very first sentence of this article refer to the virtual economy as if it were designed into the program. All that was designed within their system was trading among accounts. Your source for virtual economy states that not all of their criteria need apply, but surely trading objects for money or some sort of real value is necessary if not sufficient. 69.95.133.32 (talk) 14:00, 8 May 2008 (UTC)
You're making a tenuous distinction between legal ownership of the object and a freely transferable right to use such objects. The definition of "virtual property" does not make this distinction (and again, it is stated to be interpreted with flexibility). The fact is that the objects in an account can, in fact, be traded for real money, and this is not against the vendor's terms of use. Ham Pastrami (talk) 19:31, 8 May 2008 (UTC)
The distinction, while tenuous, is very much ingrained into the community of player's mindset while playing the game. Each time a user logs on, they must agree that the objects are not theirs. In short, Bent makes a very good point. Meuslix (talk) 02:15, 12 May 2009 (UTC)
Nope. Ham Pastrami (talk) 02:28, 12 May 2009 (UTC)
Re: MTGO - Redemption
I agree that some of the things I originally said are POV. However, it is a fact that the cost of redemption is baked into the purchase price of packs. Therefore, I believe removing "players feel that" is entirely justified. --BentFranklin
Well, no, the point is that it's not a fact (if it is, provide proof). It is a fact that some players feel that redemption is baked into the pack price. Ham Pastrami (talk) 09:19, 10 April 2008 (UTC)
When you purchase packs there is a promise that you may redeem full sets at no additional cost, other than shipping and handling. Since there is no additional cost, that must must be included in the original purchcase price. No source is needed in lieu of simple logic. Nevertheless, I would refer you to the Terms of Service http://magiconlinestore.wizards.com/help/tos.htm if Wizards wasn't redirecting that page. Try this instead http://www.mtgnews.com/F/Pages/1078455887477/006.html.—Preceding unsigned comment added by BentFranklin (talk • contribs) 15:11, 10 April 2008 (UTC)
Bent, please review WP:V, which is a Wikipedia policy. All claims (but especially ones that may be controversial) made in Wikipedia articles must be verifiable. There is nothing in either the TOS or the article you linked to that suggests that redemption would be free or otherwise subsidized by any other cost of the game. The TOS in fact states "Wizards reserves the right...to limit or modify this exchange opportunity...by...charging additional fees for this service." How you interpret their pricing for this service is exactly that, an interpretation. You have not provided any evidence for the specific claim that you are making: that the cost of redemption is included with the purchase of cards from the store. This seems to be something that you inferred, perhaps from early sales pitches. If you can find an old copy of the TOS or official marketing material that does suggest this, then that could be used as evidence -- however, even if that is the case, you can only present the facts, not create an editorial around them. Ham Pastrami (talk) 06:27, 11 April 2008 (UTC)
Very well, you have convinced me on the facts. I now agree that "players feel that" is best. You can stop quoting Wiki policies. I don't need to read them for it to be perfectly obvious what style is appropriate for encyclopedia content.
Re: MTGO - Shortages
The net effect of IPA as prizes is *identical* to selling the packs, not just similar. Packs in circulation (opened and unopened) that would have been from current standard sets are instead IPA and the amount of money spent on the game is the same, if not more (due to the lure of IPA in tournaments).
Also, this paragraph needs some sort of conclusion statement about the impact of this on collectibility. --BentFranklin
Nowhere near as many IPA packs are distributed as prizes, as the amount that would be if they were on sale at the store. So the net effect is not identical, because the volume is much lower. I'm not sure what you're trying to get at by talking about other sets; I am only talking about the effect on IPA itself. The rest, at any rate, is more conjecture on your part. Again, you need to provide proof if you want to present it as fact. The paragraph does not "need" a conclusion that is not supportable with evidence, and that would be in violation of several content policies. It is not Wikipedia's job to publish opinions. Ham Pastrami (talk) 09:24, 10 April 2008 (UTC)
The net effect per pack *is* identical. For the same amount of revenue collected by WotC, packs in circulation that would otherwise be from standard sets are instead IPA packs. Consider two scenarios: (a) current situation where, for discussion purposes, WotC gives out 100 IPA packs are prizes and sells 100 packs of standard at the store and (b) same situation but instead, the prizes are standard packs and WotC sells 100 IPA packs at the store. The two outcomes are identical, so it's not a matter of opinion. —Preceding unsigned comment added by BentFranklin (talk • contribs) 15:14, 10 April 2008 (UTC)
Per-pack effect is not net effect. That's why they're two different things. Yes, having one pack given out as a prize is the same as receiving one pack from any other source. This is obvious, and doesn't really say anything. That's also not the claim you made in the article. The claim you made was that the net effect of giving out IPA prizes was the same as if the packs were on sale at the store. This claim is saying that IPA prices now are the same as they would be if packs were on sale. If you insist that it's true, then it would also follow that actually putting them on sale would have no effect at all on the current market (since, by your argument, giving them out as prizes is the exact same thing). I don't think you will find any other person who can agree with that, much less actual evidence that such is the case. Ham Pastrami (talk) 06:32, 11 April 2008 (UTC)
WotC said they would not sell IPA packs again. If they would then make even only 100 packs available at the store, that would be breaking their promise. But giving 100 packs as prizes has exactly the same outcome as selling them at the store (WotC has money and packs are in circulation). Perhaps we could agree on the following wording: "...so the net effect was the same as if they had sold that many packs at the store." —Preceding unsigned comment added by BentFranklin (talk • contribs) 15:03, 11 April 2008 (UTC)
But what that really says is "opening 100 packs from a tournament produces the same amount of cards as opening 100 packs from the store", which borders on stating the obvious because it's true of all sets, not just IPA. I don't see that it contributes anything meaningful to that section of the article. Ham Pastrami (talk) 17:39, 11 April 2008 (UTC)
It's meaningful because Wizards stated they would never sell the cards again, yet they did essentially just that. Just because it was not a huge number of cards is not relevant. To the extent that they sold additional IPA cards, they took that value from the collections of their customers. The fact that they would make this kind of end run around a promise is very significant. It is a precedent. It shows that they are willing to break their promises. Breaking a promise is a very bad thing for a vendor of digital objects to do. It is a black mark on their record and it should be recorded as such. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.245.187.52 (talk) 03:49, 14 April 2008 (UTC)
They said they would never sell cards out of print again. You took it to mean "No more objects of this type will ever be created". What they say and what you heard are not the same. WoTC is not responsible for your misunderstanding. 67.187.27.29 (talk) 17:53, 8 May 2008 (UTC)
Ok, so what you actually want to say is that WotC has broken promises; that is the claim that you should be making in the article, and trying to find evidence for. It doesn't do any good to argue the point if you can't verify it with documentation. Ham Pastrami (talk) 04:20, 14 April 2008 (UTC)
Okay. Do we agree that WotC made that promise or do I have to document that? Do we agree that WotC broke that promise or do I have to document that? Do we agree that keeping promises is important for digital object vendors or do I have to document that also? Keep in mind that if I feel I have to document obvious or well-known facts or logical lines of reasoning, I may apply that same standard to anything else written in this article
Ideally, you should try to document every claim. Stop thinking of it as a burden. That is entirely the wrong attitude to have for an encyclopedia. If you want to a place to vent about your personal dissatisfaction, there are many places on the internet where you may do so. Wikipedia simply isn't one of them. You absolutely must document claims that are challenged. You may challenge any other unsourced claim you wish in the article, but be sure you are not editing to make a point or otherwise disrupting the article in bad faith. In other words, don't try to game the wiki. We have guidelines for that. Ham Pastrami (talk) 19:37, 8 May 2008 (UTC)
Orphaned non-free media (Image:Warhammer Armies Orcs & Goblins cover.jpg)
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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Apache James
RE: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Apache James
If you think you can write a properly-sourced article--and it appears you may have found sources--then you definitely should. I'll move the deleted content of Apache James to User:Ham Pastrami/Apache James and you can work on it there. When you've got it up to speed, drop me a line. If it looks good, I'll help you move it (if you need help). Cool? — Scientizzle 16:24, 22 February 2008 (UTC)
Ok, sounds good. Thanks. Ham Pastrami (talk) 16:43, 22 February 2008 (UTC)
Here are a couple other links that might be useful--I don't really know as the topic is a bit esoteric for me.
Keep up the good work. — Scientizzle 19:13, 22 February 2008 (UTC)
Dungeons & Dragons: Dragonshard
Hello. Thanks for your improvements to this article, it's in much better shape thanks to your edits. Regarding this edit, the discussion referred to was this RFC: Talk:Baldur's Gate#Sorcerer's Place link. Regards. --Muchness (talk) 11:24, 28 February 2008 (UTC)
Chaos League Starforce cracked?
You've added a comment to that apge that says just that but it has no citation. Now I know wiki isn't really for this but where is this cracking link/method? I'd like to crack Chaos League: Sudden Death you see. Cheers. Stabby Joe (talk) 20:19, 30 March 2008 (UTC)
Copyright notices.
More a matter for talk pages, but the reason I was somewhat snippy was due to your first line:
Looks like all the images in the article have conspicuous copyright notices, as if somebody is trying to tell us something.
I interpreted this as "these notices are clearly here thanks to WotC plants." Which would be, uh, me, apparently. Glad to see that apparently there was a misunderstanding somewhere? If you're willing to remove/strike this line, I'll certainly remove my comment as well. SnowFire (talk) 21:01, 8 April 2008 (UTC)
It was my initial suspicion that WotC was behind it, but I did not accuse you personally of being a WotC plant, and after lifebaka referenced the permission letter from WotC, which contained the instruction to include the copyright notices, I already revised that in my response indicating that fact. I see how you would feel that I was targeting you, but I knew nothing about who made those edits, which is why I asked about them. You're right though, I could have started on a different assumption and thereby avoided any chance to offend. And I also accept that this was a misunderstanding, with your initial response based on a hostile interpretation of my initial comment; I don't hold anything against you. This part of the conversation probably should have taken place on the same page as well, if you're concerned with how it looks to everyone else. Personally I don't consider it a big deal. You have my permission to strike that sentence if you wish. Ham Pastrami (talk) 22:54, 8 April 2008 (UTC)
Pasta code
But why wouldn't you also prod Lasagna code? -- Robocoder (t|c) 07:02, 11 April 2008 (UTC)
Who said I wouldn't? I didn't scan the entire list of pasta metaphors, I just came across the ravioli one. By all means, prod lasagna, I won't contest it. Ham Pastrami (talk) 17:41, 11 April 2008 (UTC)
Apache James
Hi. Is this article still under development or do you think it is good enough to go into the main article space now? I came across it while searching for an Apache James article in the main space. ~~ 13:41, 14 April 2008 (UTC)
Thanks for asking. I went ahead and moved the article back into the mainspace. Personally I think it could use just a tad more improvement to make sure it doesn't get deleted again, but I haven't had the time to work on it. Hopefully the community will make the effort now. Ham Pastrami (talk) 21:36, 14 April 2008 (UTC)
Well, I had a look through the article, and it seemed OK to me. I'll see if I can add anything to it. ~~ 21:53, 14 April 2008 (UTC)
MfD for early computers wikiproject userbox
Can you comment on whether the problems at Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Template:User_WikiProject_Early_computers are solved? If you think so, could you withdraw your nomination or explain why there are still problems so they can be solved? --Enric Naval (talk) 05:26, 6 May 2008 (UTC)
I have withdrawn the nomination. Ham Pastrami (talk) 05:39, 6 May 2008 (UTC)
Footnotes.
Argh; sorry to stop by your talk page to disagree again... I haven't really been up for Wikipedia lately, and let me say first that I am glad you're taking an interest in the Magic articles, despite my disagreement with some of your edits - better for them to be tended by somebody, certainly.
But you said in a recent edit to the MTGO article "no more unnecessary notes please." I'm not sure if you disagreed with my notes in particular or if footnotes in general, but at risk of pointing out the obvious, "additional commentary" is precisely what footnotes are for. See, for example, Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre and several other Featured Articles that feature simply explanatory footnotes that cover corner cases. Removing this kind of information outright strikes me as a bad idea, since the fact that it is a license is important but would distract the flow of the writing if written out and is generally irrelevant for most people. There are lots of explanatory footnotes in the main MTG article, too, which serve the fairly important purpose of making sure people don't add long-winded "corrections" to statements that are 98% correct. As an example, I seem to recall anonymous editors listing out every possible win/loss condition in that article when really only two are relevant and the others can be mentioned in a footnote. SnowFire (talk) 18:09, 6 May 2008 (UTC)
My disagreement is with using footnotes to A)present facts that could just as easily be part of the main body (and in most cases, I did move them to the main body), and B)as a way of inserting commentary (that is, OR/POV) that is not derived from a source, as you would then have to provide a reference for the footnote (i.e. a footnote for the footnote). Perhaps it would make more sense if I had tagged each line in question with {{fact}}. In your example of Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre, the notes are being used to relay passages from a referenced work -- it would do even better to use a citation with quote, and I don't think the editors there would disagree if someone made that change. For the specific edit that you linked, that footnote was left out because it is redundant with content already in the article: Technically any transfer of cards in the game is not considered a "sale" because, for legal reasons, the digital objects are not actually owned by the collector, but rather Wizards of the Coast themselves. If you believe that this fact should be more prominent, by all means, make it so by moving it to the lead or wherever else it may be appropriate. In conclusion though, for this article and these comments I don't see any compelling reason why footnotes were necessary or preferable, and they were in fact being used to insert unsourced commentary. I haven't examined the Magic: The Gathering article in depth. I may do so at a later time. Ham Pastrami (talk) 18:30, 6 May 2008 (UTC)
May 2008
This is the only warning you will receive for your disruptive edits. If you add defamatory content once again, as you did to Fairlight (group), you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia. Please ensure that you cite reliable sources when adding controversial material or criminal information about living people. See WP:BLP for more information. Toddst1 (talk) 22:03, 6 May 2008 (UTC)
Excuse me? Do you have an issue with the source that was provided? Why is this considered defamatory? It is presented as a neutral fact. Whether you consider association with any particular group defamatory is your own POV. Aside from that you seem to be having quite a strong knee-jerk reaction. Try using some civility. Ham Pastrami (talk) 23:58, 6 May 2008 (UTC)
The Raw Story is an WP:RS????? Gimme a fucking break. You linked to a fucking agenda blog that doesn't even link/cite any sources of its own, doing a hit piece / smear job / libel on someone. That's a clear violation of WP:BLP.— Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.30.205.2 (talk • contribs) 00:10, 7 May 2008
If so, that discussion should have taken place prior to appealing to higher powers. The fact is that you (or whoever it is I'm talking to behind all these IP addresses) made no attempt whatsoever to assume good faith. You instead left uncivil editing remarks in response to not one but two attempts by two different editors to add the information to the article. You did not try to open a dialog to get a mutual understanding of why the source was not sufficient for verification. Even so, there does not appear to be anything on The Raw Story that would immediately indicate that it fails WP:RS. Which is why discussion is important. As I see it, your aggressive removal and expedient involvement of administrator action exposes a non-neutral interest on your part. Ham Pastrami (talk) 00:19, 7 May 2008 (UTC)
uh. no. BLP is BLP. Toddst1 (talk) 04:10, 7 May 2008 (UTC)
BLP states that contentious material should be removed if sources do not meet standards specified in WP:V. There was neither a determination nor a notice of that issue prior to uncivil comments being left by the anon editor and a hostile warning left by you. Had either of you simply left a notice explaining why the edits were reverted, that would have been sufficient. This is regardless of how the article was handled. Your attitude and subsequent actions were excessive and make a poor example for Wikipedia admins. Period. Ham Pastrami (talk) 22:43, 7 May 2008 (UTC)
I found your recent edit of Micromanagement (gameplay) thought-provoking (see below), and I notice the appreciation you've received in some earlier postings on this page.
Re the Strider business:
I completely agree with you that Toddst1 was heavy-handed and violated WP:AGF and WP:CIVIL, and that 76.30.205.2 grossly violated WP:CIVIL. IMO they should have presented their case as I am now going to do.
Your identification of Strider as a currently active politician could get Wikipedia into deep doo-doo. The article you cited says the ultimate source is an anonymous e-mail, and such e-mails have been used for smear campaigns. It would be wiser to check the Web at intervals to see how the story plays out. Wikipedia is not in the business of investigative journalism.
Your comment "It is presented as a neutral fact" is inaccurate. I know the following will appear legalistic and I apologise in advance for that, but unfortunately we're into legal territory here. If you had written "Article X reported an anonymous email that alleges that ...", that would have been neutral fact, although personally I would not have used it at such an early stage in the affair - we're not trying to sell newspapers here so we don't need scoops. There's a policy somewhere (I can never remember all the WP: alphabetti spaghetti, I only look closely at it if someone starts a fight) that in subjects that are contentious, including BLP, editors should write "On date X, Y said that Z" rather than just "Z".
I look forward to discussing Micromanagement (gameplay) with you. Philcha (talk) 11:31, 13 May 2008 (UTC)
Micromanagement (gameplay)
Your recent edits to Micromanagement (gameplay) are interesting as they raise some aspects that the previous version did not cover. Unfortunately at the same time they also hide the distinction between combat and economic micro, which is a significant topic on games forums that I've seen. When I started think about how to incorporate both the "twitch-based" / "policy-based" distinction and the "combat" / "economic" distinction I realised there were other aspects the article should cover, and that we probably need to discuss a wider range of game models. I've set out my thoughts at Talk:Micromanagement (gameplay) - please respond there. Philcha (talk) 10:46, 13 May 2008 (UTC)
Sorry to be a pain, but you did not follow the recommended procedure Help:Merging and moving pages - you should have put a tag on the page "proposed move - please discuss" and waited for about a month. One consequence of moving without disussion is that it will set some people's vandalism sensors to brightest red with klaxons blaring, and you already know how some people can over-react. In this case I think the move you made was reasonable, although I would not have done it. But Revision history of Dinosaur for 12 May 2008 shows how an important article was moved by a vandal and quick action was necessary. Philcha (talk) 11:50, 13 May 2008 (UTC)
I don't see that note in the guideline you linked. Of course if you object to the rename you may revert and we can discuss that part of my edit as well. Ham Pastrami (talk) 21:12, 13 May 2008 (UTC)
It doesn't say exactly what I said, but it does advise putting up a proposal and allowing time for discussion. As I said, I'm not upset about Micromanagement (gameplay) but doing it unilaterally on some other article might get you some needless hassle. Philcha (talk) 21:20, 13 May 2008 (UTC)
Destroy All Humans! Big Willy Unleashed
Regarding your edit summary, "(its a bit silly to put all these requests on a STUB article -- please write the article before asking for assistance in cleaning it up)". That article was just turned into a stub a few minutes ago, after nearly half was deleted in a cleanup effort. Just thought I'd let you know. Thank you. --SWJS: The All Knowing Destroy All Humans! Nerd(Cortex Scan) 06:48, 15 June 2008 (UTC)
Yes, I just realized that in my most recent edit, and apologize for not being aware of this fact earlier. Ham Pastrami (talk) 06:49, 15 June 2008 (UTC)
It's quite alright. We all make mistakes, after all, were not robots, heh. --SWJS: The All Knowing Destroy All Humans! Nerd(Cortex Scan) 06:51, 15 June 2008 (UTC)
Your Recent Edits to Floppy Disk Article
Your recent edits to the FD article are not attributed so probably can be accused of being WP:OR. Furthermore, they are somewhat cumulative and perhaps better placed elsewhere in the article (e.g. move the Zip stuff to the Zip section)or not at all. I'm about to make a major cut to the Recent Usage section, but thought I'd give u a chance to speak before I cut. Tom94022 (talk) 17:11, 14 July 2008 (UTC)
Go ahead and make your cuts, and I'll comment afterward if I have issues with it. Ham Pastrami (talk) 23:33, 14 July 2008 (UTC)
Orphaned non-free media (Image:Darkstalkers3 boxshot.jpg)
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Orphaned non-free media (Image:Darkstalkers boxshot.jpg)
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Intergrated banner for WikiProject Computer networking
I have made a proposal for a intergrated banner for the project here . I invite you for your valuable comments in the discussion. You are receiving this note since I thought that you might be interested.. Thanks -- Tinu Cherian - 11:26, 1 August 2008 (UTC)
I have made a proposal for a integrated banner for the WikiProject Computer science here -- Tinu Cherian - 02:12, 4 August 2008 (UTC)
x86open
merged per your suggestion samj (talk) 13:57, 5 August 2008 (UTC)
NimbleX
An anon has removed your prod nomination of NimbleX. If you feel it should be deleted, then you'll need to take it to AfD. That's why I never bother with prods. Corvus cornixtalk 21:12, 8 August 2008 (UTC)
What's with all the prod templates ?
Comments from StuRat
You put that template saying that articles should be deleted as non-notable on dozens of articles with apparently very little justification. What were you thinking ? For example, the Novell Open Enterprise Server is a well known platform, and the almost 3-year old article has many refs to secondary sources to establish it's notability, and a simple Google search finds 478,000 hits. It's quite clear to me that you put almost no effort into determining if these articles were notable before slapping the "delete in 5 days" template on all of them (many of those templates were added within a minute of each other). Therefore, I'm going to remove those templates. Please do some research and actually read the articles before doing this type of thing again. StuRat (talk) 22:52, 8 August 2008 (UTC)
Slightly hypocritical, isn't it, that you're going to remove all the templates, apparently without regard to the state of the articles? If you object to any specific articles being deleted, that's exactly why the templates are removable. They're designed to be removed if someone objects to the proposed deletion. Blindly removing the templates is, at best, a lateral move. What you apparently are not aware of are all the articles that I did NOT tag. If you're uncertain of the cause for these articles to be tagged, please ask before having a knee-jerk reaction again. Ham Pastrami (talk) 23:05, 8 August 2008 (UTC)
You want credit for not tagging every article in Wikipedia for deletion ? Just what was your justification for trying to delete the Novell Open Enterprise Server article ? Your stated reasons that it contained no secondary refs to establish notability appear to be total BS. StuRat (talk) 23:11, 8 August 2008 (UTC)
Uh, there isn't a single citation in the article. Five of the seven print references given are published by Novell. Ok granted, the article lists 2 print references that are apparently third-party, but again neither of them are cited. If you think that's bs and this makes a well-referenced article, I concede the point and I don't have a fundamental objection to your removal of the prod tag. So now tell me what's your justification for keeping Mythbuntu and Archie? Ham Pastrami (talk) 23:19, 8 August 2008 (UTC)
I get 1,240,000 Google hits for "Mythbuntu" and 690,000 for "Archie Linux". They are clearly notable. Your reasoning seems to be that they should be deleted solely because there is no proof of their notability included in the article. Using that justification an article on Winston Churchill should be deleted if it lacks refs. If the article lacks refs, do a little basic research to establish whether or not it is actually a notable topic before you try to delete it for not being notable. To just assume everything is not notable and should therefore be deleted is irresponsible. StuRat (talk) 23:32, 8 August 2008 (UTC)
Popularity is not notability, and a ghit count does not establish either. If your belief is that these subjects are notable, all you have to do is add one reliable source and I will fully agree that the article should stay. I'm not able to find such a source, however. Ham Pastrami (talk) 23:43, 8 August 2008 (UTC)
Are you claiming that you actually looked ? Remember, we know you spent less than a minute between placing tags on many of those articles, so it's hard to imagine that you did any research in that time. StuRat (talk) 23:52, 8 August 2008 (UTC)
The problem is that you don't actually know anything. In fact, you're assuming everything other than the one thing you should: good faith. Not only did I look at these articles days before, I posted a request for an expert to assist at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Linux. You can confirm that with the timestamp and page history. And in case it didn't occur to you: you can postpone doing stuff to a group of articles until you know which articles you want to include, and then make edits to them all at once. Just because you act out of reflex doesn't mean other editors do. Ham Pastrami (talk) 00:18, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
So you're claiming that you carefully researched Novell Open Enterprise Server and decided that it wasn't a notable topic when anyone in the field would know that it's a very common platform ? And, in spite of the third party links included in the article that clearly showed it's notability ? And, in spite being able to find many links showing it's notability with a simple Google search ? I'm finding it very difficult to believe anything you say. Just why you want to delete all these articles is a mystery to me. You must be a type of vandal I haven't encountered before. StuRat (talk) 00:29, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
Haven't I already conceded the point with Novell? Are you fixated on this because it's the only article that you have an argument for? Calling me a vandal is a nice touch but I'm not sure what else to do with it. Ham Pastrami (talk) 00:55, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
Looking at your post at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Linux, it looks like you didn't list the articles in question, didn't say that you wanted to delete them all, and didn't get any response. Yet somehow you use that as justification to go ahead with your plans to delete them all ? StuRat (talk) 00:37, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
I didn't list the articles because A)I hadn't looked at all of them yet, and B)I was asking for that project to look at the full list and decide for themselves which articles might be nominated. As you point out, there was no response. So since they weren't willing to do the work, yes, I went ahead and did the nominations myself. That is what I'd consider a logical follow-up, though if you say it may not have been the best one, I won't dispute that either. Granted, some of the nominations might be disagreeable, which is what discussions like this are for (you seem to think that your disagreement with the nomination makes me wrong to have even nominated it). You can keep accusing me of imaginary crimes but I'm not sure what you hope to accomplish by that. Unless you're going to offer something constructive there's really no point in continuing here. Ham Pastrami (talk) 00:55, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
If they weren't willing to do the work of checking each of those articles for notability (which, of course, would have been quite impossible, since you failed to provide the list), that in no way excuses you from your responsibility to check them for notability before tagging them as articles in need of deletion due to a lack of notability. This would, at the very least, involve checking out all of the included links and doing a basic Google search. Several of those articles had such links and many, perhaps all, have support for notability that can be found with a basic Google search. I only choose that particlular article as an example since it's the most agregious case. When you put that tag on them, and now when you submit them to the AfD process, you are stating your belief that those articles are not notable. If you haven't actually checked them, and despite your claims I see absolutley no evidence that you have, this statement that you have determined that they aren't notable is simply a lie. StuRat (talk) 03:42, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
What do you mean I failed to provide the list? I referred them to the two list articles, i.e. the list of all distros on Wikipedia. That's about as complete a list as can be reasonably expected (every article I nominated came from that list). Since you're failing to grasp even the most basic concepts here I am feeling increasingly less motivated to pursue any discussion with you in the hopes that it might be productive. Yes, I believe that the distros that were templated may be non-notable, which does not mean that I think they must be deleted. Of course that's why I nominated them. Are you now reduced to stating the obvious? Many of the articles had existing {{notability}} templates on them, so I'm clearly not the only person who questions their notability, but even so you saw fit to remove those prods, without doing anything like reading the actual article to determine its actual merit or addressing the concern stated in the prod. At the very least, I looked at these articles in comparison to the full list of distros (and if you care to observe, most of the distros on the list were not prodded). You didn't even bother to do that. You just took a blanket course of action without regard to anything other than your objection to a single article. So you'll excuse me if I dismiss your comments as being self-righteous and hypocritical. Ham Pastrami (talk) 04:02, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
Is providing a list of every known Linux distribution, with links to some 160 Linux distribution articles, and asking the project members to check them all for notability in a few days, or face deletion, your idea of a joke ? How could they possibly have done that ? I'd say a detailed check should take about an hour for each article. And, again, it's not their responsibility to do that, but the responsibilioty of the person who wants to delete them for non-notability. That would be you. StuRat (talk) 04:26, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
Perhaps you forgot already: there was no response to the request. Nobody said "sure, I'll take a look". Nobody said, "give us a few days". It was just me and the crickets. Had anyone spoken up, or demonstrated action on the articles, I would gladly have waited for them to finish the job. As is, the entire thing was left to me. I completely disagree that I would be obligated to spend an hour on each article doing research to back them up. That, in fact, would be the job of the persons who created them. They failed to provide verification, a cursory examination showed no evidence of notability, and that's perfectly justifiable for a nomination to delete. Instead of wasting all this time on my talk page, you could be doing that research yourself. Ham Pastrami (talk) 04:34, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
The authors did, in many cases, provide links that proved the notability of the articles, but that didn't seem to be enough for you. In cases where they didn't provide those links, that's no reason to conclude that they aren't notable, that means you should do some research to determine if they are (before stating that you've determined that they aren't notable and should be deleted). StuRat (talk) 04:59, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
No, the links weren't enough for me, or for WP:N, which is why the articles were prodded, obviously. As stated before, I did as much research as is reasonable for a deletion nomination. And I never stated that they "aren't notable". From the beginning I have stated that they lack sources to verify notability, and that their notability is uncertain or questionable. If you disagree with that assessment, then go ahead and make a statement right now that you consider distros like Satux to be unquestionably notable. Otherwise, admit that the nominations were justified. Ham Pastrami (talk) 05:49, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
So, your position was that you don't know if they are notable, aren't willing to do the work to determine if they are, but would nonetheless have deleted dozens of articles unless others happen to stumble upon those articles and prove to your satisfaction that they are notable within 5 days ? (I say "stumble" because you failed to notify anyone of those articles you tagged). I find that approach unacceptable. Had you actually recorded why you thought they weren't notable ("the above provided sources were from their own web site, while the following provided sources are unreliable because..."), then there might have been something worthy of a response. Instead, you put the same text on every prod tag, regardless of the sources provided, which shows very little effort on your part. StuRat (talk) 12:49, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
Reindenting. You avoided answering my previous comment, which I take as silent admission that your mass delisting was unfounded. What you consider little effort on my part is apparently still more effort than anyone else has thus far cared to put into sourcing the articles. It was also more effort than you put into your blanket delisting. How's your research and sourcing effort coming along btw? I've also now noticed from your user page that you are also an unabashed inclusionist. There's clearly no amount of justification that will satisfy you since your objection isn't based on merit at all, but your own aversion to seeing things get deleted. I think your claims to the contrary, such as with the Novell article, are actually just convenient excuses for you to engage in the behavior that you wanted to and would have engaged in, regardless. As evidence, according to your edit history, the Novell article was one you ran into in the middle of your blanket edits. You had already begun mass removal of prods prior to running across that article. Thus your initial comment that you would remove the prods from all articles because of the apparent incorrectness of the Novell nomination was just smoke and mirrors. You have been dishonest and disingenuous from the start and have no leg to stand on. Have a nice day. Ham Pastrami (talk) 18:56, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
Comments from DGG
I agree with StuRat. Many of those templates were added without any knowlage about their notability. As an example the Slax article had the template added while the distro ranks higher than red hat on distrowatch in the past 6 months and It even has a category of dirivitve distrobutions. I do not think that adding a 5 day expration date for many articles that are about notable topics like: Linux Mint or Ark Linux is helpful in any sense. As StuRat stated do some research before declaring many things not notable. 24.105.229.99 (talk) 23:21, 8 August 2008 (UTC)
I also saw these tagged articles. We do not delete articles for being unsourced, just for being unsourcable. Most of these articles would probably make it if work were done on them, and if you are going to proceed further with them, it would be useful to give some indication of how a you searched, when you determined there were no sources for notability. Such mass tagging can indeed be viewed as disruptive, and in my opinion as an admin, StuRat did quite correctly. I see one of them is at AfD now, and I commented there that I hope you do not make any similar mass AfD nominations. DGG (talk) 23:26, 8 August 2008 (UTC)
DGG, you are fairly well-known as an inclusionist (I'm not sure what your admin status has to do with anything), so I'm hardly surprised at this. Respectfully, I'll ask that you rate each nomination on its merits and not on the total number of articles that are nominated. I wasn't aware that there were quotas for deletion. If there are 5 or 500 articles that are possibly delete-worthy, then they will be nominated for deletion, and I hope you can set aside your own predilections to base comments on policy rather than ideology. Ham Pastrami (talk) 23:37, 8 August 2008 (UTC)
"ideology"? I speedy about a dozen articles a day, far more than I save--that makes me a deletionist on balance in a very practical sense. Only about 10% of admins do more. I made the comment I did because I do not see how you or anyone can decide on what is delete worthy in 60 seconds, and working in such a manner is not conducive to rational deletion. The quality of the ones you did make, as commented on above my those who know the subject far better than I, tends to show that. I have said frequently, and so have others, that mass deletion nomination via any method are disruptive because they prevent proper consideration of the individual articles. Therefore, the other eds. removal of them was fully justified. I hesitated before saying 'admin" in the sentence, and only did so because it seemed that you were blaming others for improper procedure, which is not the case. DGG (talk) 04:23, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
You're not seriously suggesting that speedy-deleting articles that are bad enough to be speedied in the first place actually balances you out, do you? Your own user page proclaims that you lean towards being inclusionist; this is hardly a question of debate. If you bother to read my replies to Stu and your AfD comment, you would know that I did not make decisions in 60 seconds, I made edits in 60 seconds. I'm not aware of any blanket guideline on how many articles is a good number to nominate for deletion -- if there is one, please link it. Otherwise, I will stand by my opinion that removing prods without even looking at the individual merit of each nomination is at best lazy and at worst obstructionist. I also disagree with the negative characterization of a "mass deletion" which to me implies a blanket nomination on a category of articles, which I most certainly did not perform -- the large majority of Linux distro articles were untouched by me. This is all covered above in my discussions with Stu. Each article that was selected for nomination was chosen from a much bigger list. Each nomination has merit, whether you would ultimately agree to delete or not. But please, let's not repeat the entire exchange that I had with Stu, and let's not pretend that I haven't seen your !vote history at VG and elsewhere. Ham Pastrami (talk) 06:13, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
well, I thought being in the top 10% of admins for removing articles showed my objectivity.:) At AfD my !votes are about 30% delete. They could be 80% if I bothered adding to the pileup on the obvious ones. What you seem to object to is that i defend articles when i think they are defensible. True, I have a bias towards keeping what is reasonably possible to become a decent article, but hat exactly is what is specified by WP:Deletion policy. Anyone who prefers to delete when dubious is going against the letter and spirit of it. In any case I never use admin powers to keep an article against consensus, or take admin action with respect to overdeletors otherwise--I can't recall blocking a single one of them. DGG (talk) 18:02, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
I'm not faulting you for any performance of your duties as admin. What I'm saying is, deleting articles as part of that duty, when the articles have already been nominated, debated, and selected for deletion by consensus and/or policy, that does not represent your personal leanings. Which is actually a very good thing, that your personal leanings don't interfere with you performing your admin duties. I'm glad, and I certainly hope, that you don't punish users who have done nothing wrong other than being on the other side of a deletion issue. That's why I'm saying your being an admin should be a non-issue. Technically, it should also be a non-issue that you're an inclusionist. Neither of these things should matter, except for the fact that you've come here to argue against the course of action that I took, and to endorse the course of action that another editor (who, as I discovered, is also an inclusionist) took, based apparently on nothing more than your personal preference, and a questionable reference to your being an admin to give that personal preference more weight. I will respect the fact that you disagree with the nominations and you are welcome to !vote either way, just as every other editor, admin or otherwise, inclusionist or otherwise, is welcome to do the same. But I don't agree that the nominations were fundamentally incorrect, and I haven't seen any evidence that they were. I am satisfied to simply agree to disagree. This is quite clearly a debate over personal leanings, and I don't think that's going to be a productive discussion. Ham Pastrami (talk) 19:18, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
Comments from Jebba
Uh, i'm biased as the maintainer so I'm not writing on BLAG's "Articles for Deletion" page but doesn't the fact that the man (Stallman) who defined "Free Software" and wrote the GPL recommends my distro make it relevant enough for a few bytes on wikipedia? It's listed as one of the few distros the Free Software Foundation explicitly recommends due to it's commitment to Free Software. It seems to meet the criteria of "WikiProject Free Software". Granted the article could use some work, but I don't think deletion is the answer. :P Jebba (talk) 22:06, 17 August 2008 (UTC)
The problem to me is that the FSF made this recommendation based solely on the software's commitment to the FSF's philosophy, rather than an objective review of the software that you would expect from a reliable critic. I don't think the FSF qualifies as a reliable source in this case, and their endorsement alone doesn't make the software notable, any more so than an obscure athlete being sponsored by a famous company. However, that is what the AfD is to determine. Ham Pastrami (talk) 00:23, 18 August 2008 (UTC)
Well you may not agree with their "endorsement" but that's not relevant. They aren't trying to be critics or reviewers, that's a straw man. You think the FSF isn't a reliable source? Pfft. I'm not sure how to even respond to that. What is your criteria for notable software anyway?
Correct, they're not acting as critics or reviewers, or journalists of any sort. No, it's not a straw man, because I'm saying that is precisely the problem with attempting to use them as a source for notability. The FSF doesn't tell us anything about the software other than that it meets the FSF's own standards for "free"... and? You're arguing that this, in and of itself, makes the software notable? The definition (not my definition) of "notable software" is the same as it is for everything else, as given by WP:N: significant coverage by reliable, secondary sources. The FSF coverage is neither significant nor reliable. Ham Pastrami (talk) 03:32, 18 August 2008 (UTC)
Well, it's been deleted. It's not just FSF, but has been covered in a number of reviews since starting in 2002, all new releases at lwn.net since 2003, various interviews, etc. Distrowatch has covered our releases 26 times, including a full review of one release. Anyway, you got it deleted. As a side note, recently I've built a offline version of wikipedia for BLAG--I'm not aware of this available in any other distro (except OLPC). Jebba (talk) 23:58, 22 September 2008 (UTC)
I understand that, and was already aware of hits from google, etc. The quantity of blurbs is not the issue, the reliability and significance (depth) of those blurbs is. If there was even a single (1) article of significant coverage from a source that met reliability guidelines, that would be sufficient. Having any number of unreliable or shallow sources is not helpful, as none of them can be used to write a Wikipedia article. If BLAG is worthy of an article, one or more good sources may eventually come up. This has nothing to do with BLAG as a piece of software, what features it has, whether it is good or bad, etc. We need good sources from which to draw information, and the presence or lack of such sources tells us whether there should be an article at all. It's nothing personal. Ham Pastrami (talk) 23:09, 24 September 2008 (UTC)
You're right in that it should be covered by reliable sources. In the field of linux, what is more reliable than lwn.net? In the field of linux distros what is more authoritative than distrowatch? FYI, I'm not "lobbying" to have blag re-included or anything, I'm just seeing WTF the standard should be if those two don't count. Jebba (talk) 19:03, 25 September 2008 (UTC)
Well, part of the issue is that the only sources being provided for many of the fringe distro articles is that they are coming solely from websites that are dedicated to the topic of Linux, and these websites haven't gained any recognition outside that community. Take a front-running Linux distro such as Red Hat or Ubuntu and look at their sources. In addition to articles from community sites, they are also well-documented in the mainstream press: print magazines ranging across domains such as tech and business, national newspapers, etc. I'm satisfied even with websites like Ars Technica and PC World, which are at least general computing sites and reflect that these Linux distros have achieved recognition outside of the Linux microcosm. This kind of coverage is preferable because we have some semblance of journalistic standard in approaching and including a subject. Proof of notability is not merely proof of existence, and distros like Ubuntu clearly met the higher standard, whereas all the distros that were nominated for deletion did not. Community sites like distrowatch and lwn tend to represent a specific viewpoint and focus (that of in-the-trenches Linux users) -- arguably their very aim is to document every distro no matter how insignificant -- and that's good for them, but that's not what we do under Wikipedia's guidelines. These sites can be construed as Linux directories, which is explicitly something that WP is not. Ham Pastrami (talk) 01:06, 26 September 2008 (UTC)
Reset tabs. Which in NOTDIR applies here? The entry wasn't #1, a list of anything. Nor #2, Genealogical or phonebook entry. Nor was it #3 a directory/schedule such as a tv guide/yellowpages. #4 nor sales catelog/price guide. And lastly not #5: Non-encyclopedic cross-categorizations, such as "People from ethnic/cultural/religious group X employed by organization Y", which is basically another "don't do lists" type of prohibition. Anyway, you cited NOTDIR, which #? :P Jebba (talk) 15:51, 26 September 2008 (UTC)
Yes, it was #3, which applies to "Directories, directory entries". Ham Pastrami (talk) 02:10, 28 September 2008 (UTC)
From NOTDIR:
"3. Directories, directory entries, electronic program guide, or a resource for conducting business. For example, an article on a radio station generally should not list upcoming events, current promotions, phone numbers, current schedules, et cetera, although mention of major events, promotions or historically significant programme lists and schedules (such as the annual United States network television schedules) may be acceptable. Furthermore, the Talk pages associated with an article are for talking about the article, not for conducting the business of the topic of the article. Wikipedia is not the yellow pages."
Just because something could be put in a directory doesn't mean it's a only directory entry. #3 applies more to things like "List of $foo" or schedules. The entry wasn't anything like that. Jebba (talk) 16:07, 28 September 2008 (UTC)
But if the only source for something is a directory, then yes, it is a directory entry, as evidenced by the lack of content that the article suffered from. The bulk of the paragraph you quoted is an example for the last qualification ("resource for conducting business"). Whether it is simply a directory/directory entry is plain enough in English. In any case, this is only one additional reason why the article was not appropriate -- either way it still failed notability guidelines, as decided in the AfD. And yes, here $foo would be "Linux distributions" and BLAG would be an entry as such with no apparent coverage elsewhere. Ham Pastrami (talk) 03:26, 30 September 2008 (UTC)
Comments from gvy
"Blindly removing the templates is, at best, a lateral move." -- StuRat did right to your blindly adding the templates (which I at best can describe as a stupidity paroxysm). And just for the record: if "The FSF coverage is neither significant nor reliable" then your personal opinion is even less significant or reliable. I didn't hear of your existence (still not sure of it), and definitely don't trust your objectiveness or reliability. And quite a few people above seem to share my stance at that. Think of that in your spare time before wasting someone else's. Gvy (talk) 22:36, 25 August 2008 (UTC)
This has all been addressed in replies to Stu. You're welcome to vent but you add nothing of substance to views already expressed. You don't have to trust me, I'm not being used as a source. Come to think of it, I've never heard of you either, so how do I know you're real? You can see this goes nowhere real fast, I wish you'd base comments on something more substantial than your personal feelings on the issue. Also I'd add that fully half of the AfDs resulted in deletion. So if this about a popularity contest, you should know that the wiki community at large sees the merit in the nominations. Ham Pastrami (talk) 17:09, 6 September 2008 (UTC)
"Procedural nomination"
You seem to be using the term "procedural nomination" in a very odd context without any justification or reasoning behind it - usually it indicates the person nominating has no opinion of the article themselves but are doing is because that's the due process (e.g. via WP:DRV or incomplete nominations). You seem to be using it in a different way to indicate a prod taken to AFD, which isn't "procedural" at all. -Halo (talk) 23:44, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
Please clarify, are you saying that a prod is not procedural, or that taking a nomination from prod to AfD is not procedural? I nominated the articles because they currently don't meet standards for inclusion, but I'm not insisting that they be deleted. I'm nominating articles strictly for policy reasons, and I'm not endorsing one course of action or another, I would just like to see a decision reached on merit. That was my understanding of what "procedural" means. This could have been done with the earlier prods, except that they were all removed based on an inclusionist stance without examination of the articles, hence defeating my purpose. Ham Pastrami (talk) 03:09, 10 August 2008 (UTC)
I'm saying that going from prod to AFD isn't regarded as procedural since it isn't required by procedure. -Halo (talk) 17:28, 10 August 2008 (UTC)
Regardless, I have removed the phrase from all the AfDs, as I don't think it really affects the discussion either way, and I prefer to have people concentrate on the articles rather than the technicalities of the nomination. I assume this will satisfactorily address your concern. Ham Pastrami (talk) 22:31, 10 August 2008 (UTC)
real-time strategy
I've noticed that you've done a few edits on real-time strategy. A few of us at the VG wikiproject are trying to put together a team to push this article to GA status. (We're also considering the same thing for first-person shooter.) Either way, maybe you'd want to check in at our discussion at Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Video_games#GCOTW_.2F_video_game_genres? No pressure. Only if you have the time/enthusiasm. Randomran (talk) 03:42, 21 August 2008 (UTC)
Plot tag in The Legend of Dragoon
I noticed that you tag the plot section of The Legend of Dragoon as being too long. I was curious, is it the setting or the story that needs help? Larrythefunkyferret (talk) 06:27, 11 October 2008 (UTC)
If it was either-or I would say the setting section. Ideally I think any relevant information should be carried in the plot, otherwise it is a universe exposition/guide. If the plot itself can be pared down to be more concise, that would be fine too, but as yet not entirely necessary. Ham Pastrami (talk) 14:07, 11 October 2008 (UTC)
I'm on it. Larrythefunkyferret (talk) 03:15, 12 October 2008 (UTC)
First-person shooter
Hi,
I'm currently reviewing First-person shooter for GA status, and noticed you've contributed to the article in the past.
I wondered if you might have time to look over the article, and help improve it towards the GA goal?
Thanks,
-- Chzz ► 16:07, 4 March 2009 (UTC)
Character creation: Gamecleanup?
On 2008-07-21T06:47:05, you tagged Character creation as needing Gamecleanup (so to say). Could you please elaborate on this a bit and explain in a few sentences (on the article's talk page) what exactly should be cleaned up? (Verifyability? Gameplay instructions? Excessive detail? Anything else? All of this?) That would be a great help in modifying the article so the tag can be removed again.
— TowerDragon (talk) 00:17, 19 March 2009 (UTC)
Comments added to article talk. Ham Pastrami (talk) 02:15, 19 March 2009 (UTC)
Ah, thank you very much. Sometimes it is difficult to notice such things from an “inside” persepective. — TowerDragon (talk) 01:29, 22 March 2009 (UTC)
Image copyright problem with File:Hector ruiz.jpg
Thanks for uploading File:Hector ruiz.jpg. The image has been identified as not specifying the copyright status of the image, which is required by Wikipedia's policy on images. Even if you created the image yourself, you still need to release it so Wikipedia can use it. If you don't indicate the copyright status of the image on the image's description page, using an appropriate copyright tag, it may be deleted some time in the next seven days. If you made this image yourself, you can use copyright tags like {{PD-self}} (to release all rights), {{self|CC-by-sa-3.0|GFDL}} (to require that you be credited), or any tag here - just go to the image, click edit, and add one of those. If you have uploaded other images, please verify that you have provided copyright information for them as well.
For more information on using images, see the following pages:
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This is an automated notice by STBotI. For assistance on the image use policy, see Wikipedia:Media copyright questions. NOTE: once you correct this, please remove the tag from the image's page. STBotI (talk) 04:23, 20 March 2009 (UTC)
Fixed it for you, you just missed the tag. — neuro(talk)(review) 04:26, 20 March 2009 (UTC)
Thanks. The CC-BY-SA 2.0 license wasn't listed as an option in the Upload form (only the 3.0 version). I thought the Permission field would have been good enough, but I guess not... I'll keep this in mind next time I upload. Ham Pastrami (talk) 04:32, 20 March 2009 (UTC)
Orphaned non-free media (File:Dexplorer screenshot.jpg)
Thanks for uploading File:Dexplorer screenshot.jpg. The media description page currently specifies that it is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, it is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the media was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that media for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).
If you have uploaded other unlicensed media, please check whether they're used in any articles or not. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that all non-free media not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. BJBot (talk) 05:33, 11 April 2009 (UTC)
Console hardware in game testing
The CVG Barnstar
Ham Pastrami has been award the CVG Star for his tireless contributions to, protection of, and augmentation of the Game testing article. — Frecklefσσt | Talk
Pic on Blood Bowl
So you're saying that a picture that can't be seen on different PCs (dafferent browsers, different ISPs, different house - hell, different towns - I went to my fathers and looked at it there) isn't a problem because some people can say it, and the problem only effects others? Do you not thinkk seeing a red cross pic on a page looks "unprofessional" to a visitor?Darkson (BOOM! An interception!) 16:29, 29 May 2009 (UTC)
I'm saying that there doesn't appear to be anything that is actually wrong with the image, and that it should not be removed without determining the cause for it not showing up on certain computers. If the problem with the image is due to buggy or outdated browser software, or censoring software, for example, Wikipedia can't be held responsible for that. So far, you're the only person who reports having this problem. So, we have little basis to remove the image for technical reasons when only one person is reporting that there is a technical problem. Ham Pastrami (talk) 22:55, 30 May 2009 (UTC)
Heroes of Might and Magic II article got nerfed by you
why remove all the additional true and useful information i added on the HOMM 2 article?
even more the link to the special editions of HOMM? whats bad about it?
whats your problem... revert please
or fix it if you dont think it reads well. nuking doesnt solve anything
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroes_of_might_and_magic_ii
edit: ive also tracked more damages that you recently done in various Heroes of Might and Magic articles. please read the discussions and do the necessary changes.--LPCA (talk) 20:43, 3 June 2009 (UTC)
I stand by my edits, and frankly you have yet to provide any actual basis for your complaints. My edits are well within policy and conventions of writing. If you find it so disagreeable, you should fix the issues that were raised instead of trying to give me orders. There is nothing "necessary" about the content or style changes that you are insisting upon, and in fact they were removed precisely because they detracted from the quality of the article. Ham Pastrami (talk) 03:05, 4 June 2009 (UTC)
Re:HTIC Box-Art
Okay, I see your point. Thanks for the information, but should I find a clearer, higher resolution box art alternative? Like one that's higher-res, but is still generally low resolution. Linuxguy716 (talk) 20:22, 4 June 2009
Under fair use policy, we are limited to images more or less of the size they are displayed as in the article. VG infoboxes typically set the image width to 250px. The current box image is 288px wide. If you can find a higher-quality image that is reasonably close to 250px, go ahead and upload it. I can't guarantee anything about how it will be used, but it should at least be ok under technical guidelines. Ham Pastrami (talk) 02:38, 5 June 2009 (UTC)
Talk:ASRock
Restored. Please let me know if any problems. Lankiveil (speak to me) 02:38, 20 June 2009 (UTC).
Re: Unofficial patch for Unreal Tournament
Hello, Ham Pastrami. You have new messages at Ken g6's talk page. You can remove this notice at any time by removing the {{Talkback}} or {{Tb}} template. — Ken g6 (talk) 21:11, 26 June 2009 (UTC)
WikiProject Software IRC
For better and faster discussion between WikiProject Software Members a IRC channel has been created: irc://irc.freenode.net/##WikiProject-Software. For instant access click here: http://webchat.freenode.net/?channels=##WikiProject-Software. Please use your Wikipedia nickname. You are receiving this message because you are a member of WikiProject Software or one of its departments. - Kingpin13 (talk) 09:49, 22 July 2009 (UTC)
Orphaned non-free media (File:Homm2 GBC box.jpg)
Thanks for uploading File:Homm2 GBC box.jpg. The media description page currently specifies that it is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, it is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the media was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that media for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).
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Proposed deletion of DXGM (video codec)
The article DXGM (video codec) has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern:
Nothing links here, merged into DivX#DXGM, this exact name is not likely to be searched for.
While all contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, content or articles may be deleted for any of several reasons.
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Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Removing {{dated prod}} will stop the Proposed Deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. The Speedy Deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and Articles for Deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. PopMusicBuff talk 17:41, 28 August 2009 (UTC)
Arguments in deletion debates
For example: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Jimmy Patterson. Just some advice. It isn't worth your time. You'll never get the last word. The only thing that will come out of it is that you will feel frustrated. Just say your piece and ignore repeated badgering. Obviously this is just a bit of advice, not a warning or anything like that. Protonk (talk) 00:06, 8 September 2009 (UTC)
Oh, I'm familiar with the way A Nobody (or one of his previous titles, Grand something or other) conducts AfD discussions. I don't expect him to change his ways, nor do I assume the other editors pay that much regard to him. I'm not sure if getting frustrated is even possible, as I would have to take him seriously first. But it's good exercise. Thanks for the heads-up, though. I'll stop replying since it is hinging on derailing the discussion. Ham Pastrami (talk) 00:39, 8 September 2009 (UTC)
Ok. I don't inhabit AfD as much as I used to, so I am without a good sense of who knows whom. Have a nice day. Protonk (talk) 01:06, 8 September 2009 (UTC)
Any Ideas?
I've just reverted some vandalism by User:UnrealCoopNet on your User page, and I was just wondering if you have any idea who this might be? It was his/her first edit with this account, so I'm suspecting a sock, considering you were their first target. DreamHaze (talk) 23:19, 20 September 2009 (UTC)
Thanks for your vigilance. This is a targeted attack with similar incidents in the past. It is basically retaliation for the removal of spam and self-promotion in the Unreal article. My guess is that it is one of the interested parties or sympathizers (which User:Smirftsch previously recruited from his website forum to vandalize Wikipedia). However, I cannot say with any certainty who User:UnrealCoopNet might be. Ham Pastrami (talk) 02:44, 21 September 2009 (UTC)
Removal of PROD from FinalBurn Alpha
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Please update your status with WP:VG
Dear WikiProject Video games member,
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Hey, noticed your edit to this page. The list was made so that we can purge the category, I believe. More of an FYI. --Izno (talk) 17:56, 24 September 2009 (UTC)
Removal of PROD from NeoRAGEx
Hello Ham Pastrami, this is an automated message from SDPatrolBot to inform you the PROD template you added to NeoRAGEx has been removed. It was removed by Itchyandscrathchy with the following edit summary '(I have improved the information supplied in this article, NeoRAGEx was an important development within Windows Neo-Geo emulation and so this article should not be deleted.)'. Please consider discussing your concerns with Itchyandscrathchy before pursuing deletion further yourself. If you still think the article should be deleted after communicating with the 'dePRODer,' you may want to send the article to AfD for community discussion. Thank you, SDPatrolBot (talk) 20:48, 25 September 2009 (UTC) (Learn how to opt out of these messages)
Proposed deletion of DXGM (FourCC)
The article DXGM (FourCC) has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern:
This article fails to meet Wikipedia notability guideline requirements as lacks significant coverage in reliable secondary sources.
While all contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, content or articles may be deleted for any of several reasons.
You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the {{dated prod}} notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.
Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Removing {{dated prod}} will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. The speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Fleet Command (talk) 22:42, 31 December 2009 (UTC)
Unreal article
Hey, I saw that you took up the debate about an unofficial patch to this game, and some self-promotion taking place on the article. Well, I thought I had removed the unofficial patch info, but recently came back to the article to find it re-added. I've responded to a an entry on the talk page on this issue, mentioning your earlier clarification, and I was wondering if you would be interested in chiming in on the issue once more...? Eik Corell (talk) 00:48, 4 January 2010 (UTC)
Articles for deletion nomination of DXGM (FourCC)
I have nominated DXGM (FourCC), an article that you created, for deletion. I do not think that this article satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and have explained why at Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/DXGM (FourCC). Your opinions on the matter are welcome at that same discussion page; also, you are welcome to edit the article to address these concerns. Thank you for your time.Please contact me if you're unsure why you received this message. Fleet Command (talk) 06:26, 8 January 2010 (UTC)
More video-game article problems: MechWarrior_4:_Vengeance
Check the history page - Fans of the game are trying to get their unofficial multiplayer server list on there and are ignoring everything I say. Eik Corell (talk) 12:08, 26 February 2010 (UTC)
Red Game Genie
I made a comment on your nomination for that Game Genie article. Since an anon editor insisted it was correctly inserted, I referenced the sticker on the GG itself, which clearly states the cartridge should be inserted with the label facing away from the user. Is a rough Spanish-to-English translation acceptable when it comes to proof in Wikipedia's spectrum, if that translation is clear and nonvague? FluffyPug (talk) 08:33, 5 April 2010 (UTC)
For the sake of discussion it should be good enough since there is both the text and the visual geometry that the cart is supposed to go the other way. If someone wants to assert otherwise they have to come up with at least that much evidence to the contrary. So I wouldn't worry about it. You did well in finding and presenting evidence to back up the claims. Ham Pastrami (talk) 11:40, 5 April 2010 (UTC)
Photo request for SF IV stick
Hey i replied on the Project page but thought id come here in case you werent watching. Heres a Street Fighter IV TE stick image, hopes it is what you were after. Salavat (talk) 03:21, 16 June 2010 (UTC)
JuanJose
It appears that all you do these days is changing back to an old version of that page. JuanJose (talk) 09:06, 8 July 2010 (UTC)
Now you can have your own version of the page where you can state that the last patch is 226f. JuanJose (talk) 09:08, 8 July 2010 (UTC)
In substance all versions of the page are old, the only difference between them is whether or not they contain unverified information, self-promotion and advertising for a particular mod. I help keep the article free of the latter. If you have changes of substance that you would like to add to the article, and can attribute them to reliable sources, then please do so. Changing the page to contain biased information isn't really progress. And if you don't mind my saying so, all it seems you do anywhere on Wikipedia is revert war. So I'm not too worried about your opinion of me. Ham Pastrami (talk) 09:14, 8 July 2010 (UTC)
Notability-based restrictions for infobox credits?
I've brought up a new discussion about this here. Since you were involved in the old one, I figured I should invite you over. Prime Blue (talk) 16:16, 20 July 2010 (UTC)
Gametap Article
Unfortunately so much of that article does not its current reflection of the service and appears its turning into an Americanized version of Metaboli. Ive been doing some rewriting when I can but I am not even close to done yet. JasonHockeyGuy (talk) 07:44, 15 September 2010 (UTC)
False etymology > Folk Etymology
You participated in a discussion on the page Folk etymology as to whether it should be moved to False etymology. Despite the consensus on that discussion, the move was effected. I have requested that the move be reversed. I am notifying you as a party to that prior discussion. If you are interested, the current discussion is located here.μηδείς (talk) 04:17, 17 October 2010 (UTC)
Replaceable fair use File:Mm3 automap.png
Thanks for uploading File:Mm3 automap.png. I noticed the description page specifies that the media is being used under a claim of fair use, but its use in Wikipedia articles fails our first non-free content criterion in that it illustrates a subject for which a freely licensed media could reasonably be found or created that provides substantially the same information or which could be adequately covered with text alone. If you believe this media is not replaceable, please:
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Orphaned non-free image File:Mm3 automap.png
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Replaceability
Hi Ham Pastrami,
Just so you know for the future, the burden of showing non-replaceability falls on the uploader, as per WP:NFCC#Enforcement: "Note that it is the duty of users seeking to include or retain content to provide a valid rationale; those seeking to remove or delete it are not required to show that one cannot be created—see burden of proof." Further, the first WP:NFCC criterion allows non-free images to be used only "where no free equivalent is available, or could be created, that would serve the same encyclopedic purpose." (emphasis added).
Let me know if you have any questions about our non-free content policy. Thanks, RJaguar3 | u | t 16:26, 25 November 2010 (UTC)
Line Break
What section border did you mean?199.126.224.245 (talk) 09:20, 3 January 2011 (UTC)
That's such an old edit there's really no way to be sure if the layout has changed with the newer wiki software or templates. If there's no problem with overlapping anymore then just go ahead and remove the clear template. Ham Pastrami (talk) 10:29, 3 January 2011 (UTC)
RE: Please don't make up bogus rationale for edits
Hello, Ham Pastrami. You have new messages at FleetCommand's talk page. You can remove this notice at any time by removing the {{Talkback}} or {{Tb}} template.
You're nothing more than a jackass on a power trip. Go fuck yourself. It's immediately obvious from this collection of bullshit (read: your talk page) that you have a psychological complex that requires you to flaunt your level of being a douche endlessly. Please get this checked out. We care.
Sincerely,
- The Users
PS: We actually don't care. Just fuck off.
I have carefully considered your proposition and have elected to decline. Thank you for the offer. Ham Pastrami (talk) 02:49, 1 June 2012 (UTC)
Freeware
Hello, you removed the following two sentences from the freeware article:
Advertising-supported software and even malicious software is sometimes advertised as freeware. Terms of use for a freeware are usually defined in a unique software license and they may be very different for every single software.
Your explanation was: can be true of all software, not at all specific to freeware.
1. I don't think that you are right. Adware is usually advertised as freeware, not as a commercial software or open source software. (Please, give me an example, if you know about such advertisement.)
2. You are right that the "terms of use" for all types of software are usually defined in a software license. But in the case of "free software" the license is usually not unique for every single software and it usually uses one of universal licenses - such as GPL or BSD. By contrast, a freeware license is mostly unique. I think this information is useful and appropriate for the article.
3. You are right that every single software may have very different terms of use. But in the case of "free software" - if someone knows that a software uses GPL license, the terms of use are commonly known, clear and universal. By contrast, a freeware license is mostly unique and users must read it very carefully to understand the terms. I think this information is very useful and appropriate for the article.
Many people believe that "freeware" is only about the price and it can be used for any purpose and in any environment. This is not true, because many freeware licenses do not allow various types of usage. I think it is important to write about this in the first sentences of the freeware article.
--89.173.67.199 (talk) 15:19, 14 February 2011 (UTC)
Since you are the one who wants to add these distinctions, the burden of evidence is upon you. You need to provide a reliable source that makes the assertions listed above. If you can do that, then I would have no contention. But it sounds exactly like you are inferring your own personal view or experience, which is not sufficient evidence for an article, much less in the definitive lead paragraph. But as a show of good faith, I will provide some examples. The infamous Antivirus XP is a commercial program that installs itself as adware that advertises itself as an antivirus, and asks users to buy it. It is part of an emerging class of rogue antivirus programs, which is malware that seeks to gain profit directly from its victims. My point regarding software licensing is not that GPL, BSD have fixed forms, but that any software program can release open source on its own terms. It does not have to use GPL or BSD, and in fact there are dozens of licenses listed at OSI precisely because many programs write their own license. Simply because they are templated and made available for re-use does not mean that open source programs must use them. Freeware's definition is "cost-free", as stated and sourced in the first sentence. Beyond that, any importance you are ascribing to the distinction between cost and other types of freedom is personal opinion and undue weight. It can be discussed, but needs appropriate and reliable sources to present as fact. Ham Pastrami (talk) 12:52, 15 February 2011 (UTC)
Orphaned non-free image File:Warhammer Armies Orcs & Goblins cover2.jpeg
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homepage info of dead companies
Hello Ham Pastrami, started a discussion about this topic here maybe you want to contribute. cheers Shaddim (talk) 09:44, 30 March 2011 (UTC)
Orphaned non-free image File:Night warriors boxshot.jpg
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You are a worthless piece of fecal matter. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.92.243.205 (talk) 02:18, 29 September 2011 (UTC)
Orphaned non-free image File:ASRock logo.png
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Dilemma
need help with a dilemma...searching all over the wiki about graphics hardware matters and U seem to know some...I´ve got a i5-2400, 4GB RAM on a GIGABYTE GA-H67MA-USB3-B3...I´m looking forward for a video card so I can play latest video games and run graphic design softwares like ArchiCAD or 3DMax...my budget can only look for a mid-high end card in both brands (ATI and NVIDIA)...would you advice me or tell me some one who can.
p.s: sorry if my english isn´t that good, not my native language
p.s: since I can´t search on internet for benchmarks, I´m betting for: AMD (HD5750, HD5770, HD5850, HD6790, HD6850) NVIDIA (GTX460, GTX550Ti, GTX560) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jcap0000 (talk • contribs) 06:57, 22 June 2012 (UTC)
For buying advice I would recommend using a tech site's forum to ask questions or benchmarking charts to compare the products you are considering. For example, Tom's has both of these resources. Unfortunately I don't follow individual product releases or pricing trends so cannot give reliable spontaneous advice for purchases. Good luck with your search. Ham Pastrami (talk) 08:29, 22 June 2012 (UTC)
Windows RT Edit War (sigh)
Please contribute to the poll on Talk:Windows RT. (You are being asked because you commented on MS Surface.) Tuntable (talk) 23:27, 22 November 2012 (UTC)
Misc publishers addition to the WP:VG Reference Library
Hi Ham Pastrami, I noticed that a few years ago you'd added 2 books to the Misc publishers section of the WP:VG Reference Library, but you didn't list yourself as a contact. I was wondering if you intended to be the contact for these sources or if they were just two books you knew of that weren't yet on the list. If you intended to be listed as a contact, then I'd like to add your name. If it's just two video game related books you know about, though, I'd prefer to move them to the talk page for now since the page is intended as a list of contact points more than it is a list of books. Does that sound reasonable? I know you haven't been editing very actively recently, but please let me know when you get a chance. Thanks. -Thibbs (talk) 11:39, 11 October 2013 (UTC)
I guess I misunderstood the purpose of the list. You can do what you like with those references. Ham Pastrami (talk) 09:06, 20 October 2013 (UTC)
OK then. I've made the move here and here. Thanks for shedding some light on this. Happy editing and hope to see you around the 'pedia. -Thibbs (talk) 21:41, 24 October 2013 (UTC)
Nomination of VirusTotal for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article VirusTotal is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.
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Proposed deletion of Timeskip
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Proposed deletion of List of Unreal characters
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A chaotic article without any reliable source. Fails every Wikipedia guideline.
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Nomination of List of Unreal characters for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article List of Unreal characters is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.
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ArbCom elections are now open!
Hi,
You appear to be eligible to vote in the current Arbitration Committee election. The Arbitration Committee is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the Wikipedia arbitration process. It has the authority to enact binding solutions for disputes between editors, primarily related to serious behavioural issues that the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the ability to impose site bans, topic bans, editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The arbitration policy describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail. If you wish to participate, you are welcome to review the candidates' statements and submit your choices on the voting page. For the Election committee, MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 17:30, 23 November 2015 (UTC)
Template talk:Short pages monitor
You may be interested in the discussion at Template talk:Short pages monitor#Need to define and possibly rethink this template. —Anomalocaris (talk) 23:42, 31 January 2016 (UTC)
Nomination of List of Unreal characters for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article List of Unreal characters is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.
The article will be discussed at Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/List of Unreal characters (2nd nomination) until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.
Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. soetermans. ↑↑↓↓←→←→ B A TALK 07:52, 29 February 2016 (UTC)
Nomination of List of games with XInput support for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article List of games with XInput support is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.
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ArbCom Elections 2016: Voting now open!
Hello, Ham Pastrami. Voting in the 2016 Arbitration Committee elections is open from Monday, 00:00, 21 November through Sunday, 23:59, 4 December to all unblocked users who have registered an account before Wednesday, 00:00, 28 October 2016 and have made at least 150 mainspace edits before Sunday, 00:00, 1 November 2016.
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A page you started (Cygames) has been reviewed!
Thanks for creating Cygames, Ham Pastrami!
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Elliot321 (talk) 14:00, 15 May 2017 (UTC)
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Proposed deletion of Timeskip
The article Timeskip has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern:
Per WP:NOTDIC. Does not meet WP:GNG; no RS found in Google, Books, News Archive or Scholar searches.
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Orphaned non-free image File:Cygames logo.png
⚠ Thanks for uploading File:Cygames logo.png. The image description page currently specifies that the image is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, the image is currently not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the image was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that images for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).
Note that any non-free images not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described in section F5 of the criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. --B-bot (talk) 17:14, 11 April 2018 (UTC)
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Orphaned non-free image File:Might and Magic Trilogy box cover.jpg
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Note that any non-free images not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described in section F5 of the criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. --B-bot (talk) 03:30, 31 December 2018 (UTC)
Nomination for deletion of Template:Form factors
Template:Form factors has been nominated for deletion. You are invited to comment on the discussion at the template's entry on the Templates for discussion page. Zackmann (Talk to me/What I been doing) 17:07, 22 March 2019 (UTC)
Nomination of Timeskip for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Timeskip is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.
The article will be discussed at Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Timeskip until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.
Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. –LaundryPizza03 (dc̄) 04:29, 1 August 2019 (UTC)
"Template:Compsci" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has asked for a discussion to address the redirect Template:Compsci. Since you had some involvement with the Template:Compsci redirect, you might want to participate in the redirect discussion if you wish to do so. Magioladitis (talk) 12:03, 27 August 2019 (UTC)
Speedy deletion nomination of First-person shooter (disambiguation)
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A tag has been placed on First-person shooter (disambiguation) requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section G14 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because it is a disambiguation page which either
disambiguates only one extant Wikipedia page and whose title ends in "(disambiguation)" (i.e., there is a primary topic);
disambiguates zero extant Wikipedia pages, regardless of its title; or
is an orphaned redirect with a title ending in "(disambiguation)" that does not target a disambiguation page or page that has a disambiguation-like function.
Under the criteria for speedy deletion, such pages may be deleted at any time. Please see the disambiguation page guidelines for more information.
If you think this page should not be deleted for this reason, you may contest the nomination by visiting the page and clicking the button labelled "Contest this speedy deletion". This will give you the opportunity to explain why you believe the page should not be deleted. However, be aware that once a page is tagged for speedy deletion, it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag from the page yourself, but do not hesitate to add information in line with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. If the page is deleted, and you wish to retrieve the deleted material for future reference or improvement, then please contact the deleting administrator. Shhhnotsoloud (talk) 16:59, 24 April 2021 (UTC)
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Proposed deletion of Ultra ATX
The article Ultra ATX has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern:
This should not be a separate article. There aren't enough sources to establish the notability of Ultra ATX (can't find anything outside of the Soderstrom article currently on the page), and even if there were, that content should be collapsed into ATX instead.
While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, pages may be deleted for any of several reasons.
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Please consider improving the page to address the issues raised. Removing {{proposed deletion/dated}} will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. HyperAccelerated (talk) 18:06, 10 March 2024 (UTC)
Deletion discussion about Ultra ATX
Hello Ham Pastrami, and thank you for your contributions to Wikipedia.
While your contributions are appreciated, I wanted to let you know that I've started a discussion about whether an article that you created, Ultra ATX, should be deleted, as I am not sure that it is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia in its current form. Your comments are welcome at Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Ultra ATX.
Deletion discussions usually run for seven days and are not votes. Our guide about effectively contributing to such discussions is worth a read. The most common issue in these discussions is notability, but it's not the only aspect that may be discussed; read the nomination and any other comments carefully before you contribute to the discussion. Last but not least, you are highly encouraged to continue improving the article; just be sure not to remove the tag about the deletion nomination from the top.
If you have any questions, please leave a comment here and prepend it with {{Re|Aunva6}}. And don't forget to sign your reply with ~~~~ . Thanks!
(Message delivered via the Page Curation tool, on behalf of the reviewer.)
-- Aunva6talk - contribs 18:43, 29 March 2024 (UTC)
XMLHttpRequest
Last June you reverted XMLHttpRequest after substantial deletions and additions by Timhowardriley. He reverted in turn a few days later and his changes have largely remained. There is now an edit war at the article regarding that content and other points of dispute with him. 2601:642:4600:D3B0:9111:FF68:B849:3D9B (talk) 15:07, 9 April 2024 (UTC)
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cornix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Corvus_cornix"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Corvus_cornix"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Ham_Pastrami&action=edit§ion=27"}],"text":"Punkbuster[edit]In the Punkbuster article you made a specific claim that people were getting banned from games, due to strings embedded in images on Internet forums. Theres a lot of controversy and hearsay surrounding software like Punkbuster and this claim is unsubstantiated. Also people tend to be somewhat technically ignorant and attribute their problems to the wrong things so there needs to be a source other than hearsay. I added a fact tag and I'm just letting you know so you can do that if you wish, before it gets deleted. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.83.71.178 (talk) 13:57, 29 August 2009 (UTC)[reply]I was not the one who added that claim, though I may have edited the paragraph where it appeared. Please do a little more digging into the article history to notify the correct person. IIRC there was a source provided for that claim, and it may have been removed for some reason. Actually, the source is still attached to that sentence, so the claim is not OR as you seemed to be suggesting. If you have a problem with the source, you should bring it up on the article's talk page to see if other editors agree. Ham Pastrami (talk) 05:30, 30 August 2009 (UTC)[reply]Why you remove the links in Magic Online Article[edit]Firstly, i can understand why you would remove the CerealKillaz link, even though it is the most active site about the game not sponsored by Wizards, but why remove the puremtgo links and other link that have been there for years with no issues? Meuslix (talk) 18:50, 11 May 2009 (UTC)[reply]Except that there were issues, as evidenced by the fact that this is the second time someone has warned you about it. The fact that you continually re-add them does not mean there are no issues. As to the \"why\", I already stated the reasons in my edit summary. They do not meet Wikipedia's guidelines for external links. Ham Pastrami (talk) 01:23, 12 May 2009 (UTC)[reply]except that the first warning was only about the Cerealkillaz link, and except for the fact that some of those links are vital to the community that play magic online. i am attempting to solve this dispute without requesting a mediator. but, you should know that some of those links will be returning. If i get blocked from editing Wikipedia over adding non-spam links, then, fine, i will simply have the thousands of people that are at my disposal across the internet to put them back each time. as a matter of fact, the only two links that i EVER ADDED to the EL section were the CerealKillaz.org link and the MyMtgo.com link, so please get your facts straight. please let me know if we need to request Arbitration on this issue, as it is obvious to me from many of your edits and many parts of your talk page concerning the said article that you are not connected to the community of players that play this game, then please let me know. Meuslix (talk) 02:06, 12 May 2009 (UTC)[reply]Yes, please call a moderator. Ham Pastrami (talk) 02:10, 12 May 2009 (UTC)[reply]Why you remove the two linke in Mingw page[edit]I think these two pages are relative to Mingw, Why did you remove them? Ollydbg (talk) 11:48, 17 March 2009 (UTC)[reply]They don't seem to meet the external link guidelines WP:EL, and I don't really see the value of having those links in the article. Ham Pastrami (talk) 01:54, 18 March 2009 (UTC)[reply]Re: Virtual Economy[edit]There is no evidence that a virtual economy was part of Wizards' original design. Use of tickets are currency appears to have been a player invention. If this is incorrect, provide proof. Also, MTGO is now referred to by its owner as a Trading Card Game. Therefore, collectibility is inapplicable. If you have proof that Wizards intended the cards to be collectible (in the sense of having monetary value), please provide it. --BentFranklin BentFranklin (talk) 16:27, 1 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]I have added sources for the claim made in the article which provide first-party statements of the intention for players to collect cards. Note also that a virtual economy does not require tickets or currency. If you claim that it does, provide proof of your theory. \"Collectibility\" is an English word, not a trademark; the cards are collectible regardless of whether the product is called a CCG or TCG, as both \"collecting\" and \"trading\" are advertised features of the game. Note also that collectibles need not be intended to have monetary value. If you claim otherwise, provide proof of your theory. Ham Pastrami (talk) 23:17, 1 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]Collectible is different from collectable. The first sense includes postage stamps, coins, art, and other things that have monetary value. The second means only able-to-be-collected, like Pogs. A virtual economy includes several facets as discussed in the Wiki page to which you link. See \"5. Property Rights: The world must record which goods and services belong to which user identity, and the code must allow that user to dispose of the good or service according to whim.\" The MTGO code does not allow users to dispose of the goods at whim. Trading is not disposal - that is covered by the preceding point \"4. Trade: Users must be able to transfer goods and services to and from other users.\" Therefore, by Wikipedia's own standard, MTGO is not a virtual economy in the same sense of Second Life (with Linden Dollars) or WoW (with Station Exchange).BentFranklin (talk) 15:35, 2 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]Collectible vs collectable are merely different spellings, as noted in the article with sources from a dictionary. If you claim that the two words have distinct meanings, provide proof of this usage. For \"disposal\" of goods according to \"whim\", it means the ability to give away goods according to the desire of the user, as opposed to the desire of the manufacturer. If you claim that a person must be able to \"throw away\" virtual goods in order for the system to qualify as a virtual economy, provide proof of this theory. Point 4 says that users must be \"able\" to trade, not that trades are guaranteed to occur. Your conclusion is therefore invalid. Ham Pastrami (talk) 15:55, 2 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]\nIn addition, you are quoting an unsourced portion of the article. I have replaced it with a sourced definition, and it makes no such restrictions. Ham Pastrami (talk) 17:37, 2 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]You misunderstand \"disposal on a whim.\" It means the property owners can sell the objects whenever they wish without getting anyone else's permission. Users cannot sell their objects *for money* without violating the vendor's stated policies. Therefore, the vendor does not offer a virtual economy - any virtual economy that exists emerged from the users and against the vendor's explicit warnings. Therefore it is inappropriate to have the very first sentence of this article refer to the virtual economy as if it were designed into the program. All that was designed within their system was trading among accounts. Your source for virtual economy states that not all of their criteria need apply, but surely trading objects for money or some sort of real value is necessary if not sufficient. 69.95.133.32 (talk) 14:00, 8 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]\nYou're making a tenuous distinction between legal ownership of the object and a freely transferable right to use such objects. The definition of \"virtual property\" does not make this distinction (and again, it is stated to be interpreted with flexibility). The fact is that the objects in an account can, in fact, be traded for real money, and this is not against the vendor's terms of use. Ham Pastrami (talk) 19:31, 8 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]\nThe distinction, while tenuous, is very much ingrained into the community of player's mindset while playing the game. Each time a user logs on, they must agree that the objects are not theirs. In short, Bent makes a very good point. Meuslix (talk) 02:15, 12 May 2009 (UTC)[reply]\nNope. Ham Pastrami (talk) 02:28, 12 May 2009 (UTC)[reply]Re: MTGO - Redemption[edit]I agree that some of the things I originally said are POV. However, it is a fact that the cost of redemption is baked into the purchase price of packs. Therefore, I believe removing \"players feel that\" is entirely justified. --BentFranklinWell, no, the point is that it's not a fact (if it is, provide proof). It is a fact that some players feel that redemption is baked into the pack price. Ham Pastrami (talk) 09:19, 10 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]When you purchase packs there is a promise that you may redeem full sets at no additional cost, other than shipping and handling. Since there is no additional cost, that must must be included in the original purchcase price. No source is needed in lieu of simple logic. Nevertheless, I would refer you to the Terms of Service http://magiconlinestore.wizards.com/help/tos.htm if Wizards wasn't redirecting that page. Try this instead http://www.mtgnews.com/F/Pages/1078455887477/006.html.—Preceding unsigned comment added by BentFranklin (talk • contribs) 15:11, 10 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]Bent, please review WP:V, which is a Wikipedia policy. All claims (but especially ones that may be controversial) made in Wikipedia articles must be verifiable. There is nothing in either the TOS or the article you linked to that suggests that redemption would be free or otherwise subsidized by any other cost of the game. The TOS in fact states \"Wizards reserves the right...to limit or modify this exchange opportunity...by...charging additional fees for this service.\" How you interpret their pricing for this service is exactly that, an interpretation. You have not provided any evidence for the specific claim that you are making: that the cost of redemption is included with the purchase of cards from the store. This seems to be something that you inferred, perhaps from early sales pitches. If you can find an old copy of the TOS or official marketing material that does suggest this, then that could be used as evidence -- however, even if that is the case, you can only present the facts, not create an editorial around them. Ham Pastrami (talk) 06:27, 11 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]Very well, you have convinced me on the facts. I now agree that \"players feel that\" is best. You can stop quoting Wiki policies. I don't need to read them for it to be perfectly obvious what style is appropriate for encyclopedia content.Re: MTGO - Shortages[edit]The net effect of IPA as prizes is *identical* to selling the packs, not just similar. Packs in circulation (opened and unopened) that would have been from current standard sets are instead IPA and the amount of money spent on the game is the same, if not more (due to the lure of IPA in tournaments). \nAlso, this paragraph needs some sort of conclusion statement about the impact of this on collectibility. --BentFranklinNowhere near as many IPA packs are distributed as prizes, as the amount that would be if they were on sale at the store. So the net effect is not identical, because the volume is much lower. I'm not sure what you're trying to get at by talking about other sets; I am only talking about the effect on IPA itself. The rest, at any rate, is more conjecture on your part. Again, you need to provide proof if you want to present it as fact. The paragraph does not \"need\" a conclusion that is not supportable with evidence, and that would be in violation of several content policies. It is not Wikipedia's job to publish opinions. Ham Pastrami (talk) 09:24, 10 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]The net effect per pack *is* identical. For the same amount of revenue collected by WotC, packs in circulation that would otherwise be from standard sets are instead IPA packs. Consider two scenarios: (a) current situation where, for discussion purposes, WotC gives out 100 IPA packs are prizes and sells 100 packs of standard at the store and (b) same situation but instead, the prizes are standard packs and WotC sells 100 IPA packs at the store. The two outcomes are identical, so it's not a matter of opinion. —Preceding unsigned comment added by BentFranklin (talk • contribs) 15:14, 10 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]Per-pack effect is not net effect. That's why they're two different things. Yes, having one pack given out as a prize is the same as receiving one pack from any other source. This is obvious, and doesn't really say anything. That's also not the claim you made in the article. The claim you made was that the net effect of giving out IPA prizes was the same as if the packs were on sale at the store. This claim is saying that IPA prices now are the same as they would be if packs were on sale. If you insist that it's true, then it would also follow that actually putting them on sale would have no effect at all on the current market (since, by your argument, giving them out as prizes is the exact same thing). I don't think you will find any other person who can agree with that, much less actual evidence that such is the case. Ham Pastrami (talk) 06:32, 11 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]WotC said they would not sell IPA packs again. If they would then make even only 100 packs available at the store, that would be breaking their promise. But giving 100 packs as prizes has exactly the same outcome as selling them at the store (WotC has money and packs are in circulation). Perhaps we could agree on the following wording: \"...so the net effect was the same as if they had sold that many packs at the store.\" —Preceding unsigned comment added by BentFranklin (talk • contribs) 15:03, 11 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]But what that really says is \"opening 100 packs from a tournament produces the same amount of cards as opening 100 packs from the store\", which borders on stating the obvious because it's true of all sets, not just IPA. I don't see that it contributes anything meaningful to that section of the article. Ham Pastrami (talk) 17:39, 11 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]It's meaningful because Wizards stated they would never sell the cards again, yet they did essentially just that. Just because it was not a huge number of cards is not relevant. To the extent that they sold additional IPA cards, they took that value from the collections of their customers. The fact that they would make this kind of end run around a promise is very significant. It is a precedent. It shows that they are willing to break their promises. Breaking a promise is a very bad thing for a vendor of digital objects to do. It is a black mark on their record and it should be recorded as such. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.245.187.52 (talk) 03:49, 14 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]They said they would never sell cards out of print again. You took it to mean \"No more objects of this type will ever be created\". What they say and what you heard are not the same. WoTC is not responsible for your misunderstanding. 67.187.27.29 (talk) 17:53, 8 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]Ok, so what you actually want to say is that WotC has broken promises; that is the claim that you should be making in the article, and trying to find evidence for. It doesn't do any good to argue the point if you can't verify it with documentation. Ham Pastrami (talk) 04:20, 14 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]Okay. Do we agree that WotC made that promise or do I have to document that? Do we agree that WotC broke that promise or do I have to document that? Do we agree that keeping promises is important for digital object vendors or do I have to document that also? Keep in mind that if I feel I have to document obvious or well-known facts or logical lines of reasoning, I may apply that same standard to anything else written in this articleIdeally, you should try to document every claim. Stop thinking of it as a burden. That is entirely the wrong attitude to have for an encyclopedia. If you want to a place to vent about your personal dissatisfaction, there are many places on the internet where you may do so. Wikipedia simply isn't one of them. You absolutely must document claims that are challenged. You may challenge any other unsourced claim you wish in the article, but be sure you are not editing to make a point or otherwise disrupting the article in bad faith. In other words, don't try to game the wiki. We have guidelines for that. Ham Pastrami (talk) 19:37, 8 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]Orphaned non-free media (Image:Warhammer Armies Orcs & Goblins cover.jpg)[edit]Thanks for uploading Image:Warhammer Armies Orcs & Goblins cover.jpg. The media description page currently specifies that it is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, it is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the media was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that media for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).If you have uploaded other unlicensed media, please check whether they're used in any articles or not. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the \"my contributions\" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting \"Image\" from the dropdown box. Note that all non-free media not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. BetacommandBot 14:17, 9 September 2007 (UTC)[reply]Disputed fair use rationale for Image:Reversing secrets of reverse engineering cover.jpg[edit]Thanks for uploading Image:Reversing secrets of reverse engineering cover.jpg. However, there is a concern that the rationale you have provided for using this image under \"fair use\" may be invalid. 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However, there is a concern that the rationale you have provided for using this image under \"fair use\" may be invalid. Please read the instructions at Wikipedia:Non-free content carefully, then go to the image description page and clarify why you think the image qualifies for fair use. Using one of the templates at Wikipedia:Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.If it is determined that the image does not qualify under fair use, it will be deleted within a couple of days according to our criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 22:02, 25 October 2007 (UTC)[reply]Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Apache James[edit]RE: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Apache JamesIf you think you can write a properly-sourced article--and it appears you may have found sources--then you definitely should. I'll move the deleted content of Apache James to User:Ham Pastrami/Apache James and you can work on it there. When you've got it up to speed, drop me a line. If it looks good, I'll help you move it (if you need help). Cool? — Scientizzle 16:24, 22 February 2008 (UTC)[reply]Ok, sounds good. Thanks. Ham Pastrami (talk) 16:43, 22 February 2008 (UTC)[reply]Here are a couple other links that might be useful--I don't really know as the topic is a bit esoteric for me.[1]\n[2]Keep up the good work. — Scientizzle 19:13, 22 February 2008 (UTC)[reply]Dungeons & Dragons: Dragonshard[edit]Hello. Thanks for your improvements to this article, it's in much better shape thanks to your edits. Regarding this edit, the discussion referred to was this RFC: Talk:Baldur's Gate#Sorcerer's Place link. Regards. --Muchness (talk) 11:24, 28 February 2008 (UTC)[reply]Chaos League Starforce cracked?[edit]You've added a comment to that apge that says just that but it has no citation. Now I know wiki isn't really for this but where is this cracking link/method? I'd like to crack Chaos League: Sudden Death you see. Cheers. Stabby Joe (talk) 20:19, 30 March 2008 (UTC)[reply]Copyright notices.[edit]More a matter for talk pages, but the reason I was somewhat snippy was due to your first line:Looks like all the images in the article have conspicuous copyright notices, as if somebody is trying to tell us something.I interpreted this as \"these notices are clearly here thanks to WotC plants.\" Which would be, uh, me, apparently. Glad to see that apparently there was a misunderstanding somewhere? If you're willing to remove/strike this line, I'll certainly remove my comment as well. SnowFire (talk) 21:01, 8 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]It was my initial suspicion that WotC was behind it, but I did not accuse you personally of being a WotC plant, and after lifebaka referenced the permission letter from WotC, which contained the instruction to include the copyright notices, I already revised that in my response indicating that fact. I see how you would feel that I was targeting you, but I knew nothing about who made those edits, which is why I asked about them. You're right though, I could have started on a different assumption and thereby avoided any chance to offend. And I also accept that this was a misunderstanding, with your initial response based on a hostile interpretation of my initial comment; I don't hold anything against you. This part of the conversation probably should have taken place on the same page as well, if you're concerned with how it looks to everyone else. Personally I don't consider it a big deal. You have my permission to strike that sentence if you wish. Ham Pastrami (talk) 22:54, 8 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]Pasta code[edit]But why wouldn't you also prod Lasagna code? -- Robocoder (t|c) 07:02, 11 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]Who said I wouldn't? I didn't scan the entire list of pasta metaphors, I just came across the ravioli one. By all means, prod lasagna, I won't contest it. Ham Pastrami (talk) 17:41, 11 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]Apache James[edit]Hi. Is this article still under development or do you think it is good enough to go into the main article space now? I came across it while searching for an Apache James article in the main space. ~~ [Jam][talk] 13:41, 14 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]Thanks for asking. I went ahead and moved the article back into the mainspace. Personally I think it could use just a tad more improvement to make sure it doesn't get deleted again, but I haven't had the time to work on it. Hopefully the community will make the effort now. Ham Pastrami (talk) 21:36, 14 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]Well, I had a look through the article, and it seemed OK to me. I'll see if I can add anything to it. ~~ [Jam][talk] 21:53, 14 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]MfD for early computers wikiproject userbox[edit]Can you comment on whether the problems at Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Template:User_WikiProject_Early_computers are solved? If you think so, could you withdraw your nomination or explain why there are still problems so they can be solved? --Enric Naval (talk) 05:26, 6 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]I have withdrawn the nomination. Ham Pastrami (talk) 05:39, 6 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]Footnotes.[edit]Argh; sorry to stop by your talk page to disagree again... I haven't really been up for Wikipedia lately, and let me say first that I am glad you're taking an interest in the Magic articles, despite my disagreement with some of your edits - better for them to be tended by somebody, certainly.But you said in a recent edit to the MTGO article \"no more unnecessary notes please.\" I'm not sure if you disagreed with my notes in particular or if footnotes in general, but at risk of pointing out the obvious, \"additional commentary\" is precisely what footnotes are for. See, for example, Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre and several other Featured Articles that feature simply explanatory footnotes that cover corner cases. Removing this kind of information outright strikes me as a bad idea, since the fact that it is a license is important but would distract the flow of the writing if written out and is generally irrelevant for most people. There are lots of explanatory footnotes in the main MTG article, too, which serve the fairly important purpose of making sure people don't add long-winded \"corrections\" to statements that are 98% correct. As an example, I seem to recall anonymous editors listing out every possible win/loss condition in that article when really only two are relevant and the others can be mentioned in a footnote. SnowFire (talk) 18:09, 6 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]My disagreement is with using footnotes to A)present facts that could just as easily be part of the main body (and in most cases, I did move them to the main body), and B)as a way of inserting commentary (that is, OR/POV) that is not derived from a source, as you would then have to provide a reference for the footnote (i.e. a footnote for the footnote). Perhaps it would make more sense if I had tagged each line in question with {{fact}}. In your example of Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre, the notes are being used to relay passages from a referenced work -- it would do even better to use a citation with quote, and I don't think the editors there would disagree if someone made that change. For the specific edit that you linked, that footnote was left out because it is redundant with content already in the article: Technically any transfer of cards in the game is not considered a \"sale\" because, for legal reasons, the digital objects are not actually owned by the collector, but rather Wizards of the Coast themselves.[11] If you believe that this fact should be more prominent, by all means, make it so by moving it to the lead or wherever else it may be appropriate. In conclusion though, for this article and these comments I don't see any compelling reason why footnotes were necessary or preferable, and they were in fact being used to insert unsourced commentary. I haven't examined the Magic: The Gathering article in depth. I may do so at a later time. Ham Pastrami (talk) 18:30, 6 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]May 2008[edit]This is the only warning you will receive for your disruptive edits. If you add defamatory content once again, as you did to Fairlight (group), you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia. Please ensure that you cite reliable sources when adding controversial material or criminal information about living people. See WP:BLP for more information. Toddst1 (talk) 22:03, 6 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]Excuse me? Do you have an issue with the source that was provided? Why is this considered defamatory? It is presented as a neutral fact. Whether you consider association with any particular group defamatory is your own POV. Aside from that you seem to be having quite a strong knee-jerk reaction. Try using some civility. Ham Pastrami (talk) 23:58, 6 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]The Raw Story is an WP:RS????? Gimme a fucking break. You linked to a fucking agenda blog that doesn't even link/cite any sources of its own, doing a hit piece / smear job / libel on someone. That's a clear violation of WP:BLP.— Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.30.205.2 (talk • contribs) 00:10, 7 May 2008If so, that discussion should have taken place prior to appealing to higher powers. The fact is that you (or whoever it is I'm talking to behind all these IP addresses) made no attempt whatsoever to assume good faith. You instead left uncivil editing remarks in response to not one but two attempts by two different editors to add the information to the article. You did not try to open a dialog to get a mutual understanding of why the source was not sufficient for verification. Even so, there does not appear to be anything on The Raw Story that would immediately indicate that it fails WP:RS. Which is why discussion is important. As I see it, your aggressive removal and expedient involvement of administrator action exposes a non-neutral interest on your part. Ham Pastrami (talk) 00:19, 7 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]uh. no. BLP is BLP. Toddst1 (talk) 04:10, 7 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]\nBLP states that contentious material should be removed if sources do not meet standards specified in WP:V. There was neither a determination nor a notice of that issue prior to uncivil comments being left by the anon editor and a hostile warning left by you. Had either of you simply left a notice explaining why the edits were reverted, that would have been sufficient. This is regardless of how the article was handled. Your attitude and subsequent actions were excessive and make a poor example for Wikipedia admins. Period. Ham Pastrami (talk) 22:43, 7 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]I found your recent edit of Micromanagement (gameplay) thought-provoking (see below), and I notice the appreciation you've received in some earlier postings on this page.\nRe the Strider business:\nI completely agree with you that Toddst1 was heavy-handed and violated WP:AGF and WP:CIVIL, and that 76.30.205.2 grossly violated WP:CIVIL. IMO they should have presented their case as I am now going to do.\nYour identification of Strider as a currently active politician could get Wikipedia into deep doo-doo. The article you cited says the ultimate source is an anonymous e-mail, and such e-mails have been used for smear campaigns. It would be wiser to check the Web at intervals to see how the story plays out. Wikipedia is not in the business of investigative journalism.\nYour comment \"It is presented as a neutral fact\" is inaccurate. I know the following will appear legalistic and I apologise in advance for that, but unfortunately we're into legal territory here. If you had written \"Article X reported an anonymous email that alleges that ...\", that would have been neutral fact, although personally I would not have used it at such an early stage in the affair - we're not trying to sell newspapers here so we don't need scoops. There's a policy somewhere (I can never remember all the WP: alphabetti spaghetti, I only look closely at it if someone starts a fight) that in subjects that are contentious, including BLP, editors should write \"On date X, Y said that Z\" rather than just \"Z\".\nI look forward to discussing Micromanagement (gameplay) with you. Philcha (talk) 11:31, 13 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]Micromanagement (gameplay)[edit]Your recent edits to Micromanagement (gameplay) are interesting as they raise some aspects that the previous version did not cover. Unfortunately at the same time they also hide the distinction between combat and economic micro, which is a significant topic on games forums that I've seen. When I started think about how to incorporate both the \"twitch-based\" / \"policy-based\" distinction and the \"combat\" / \"economic\" distinction I realised there were other aspects the article should cover, and that we probably need to discuss a wider range of game models. I've set out my thoughts at Talk:Micromanagement (gameplay) - please respond there. Philcha (talk) 10:46, 13 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]Sorry to be a pain, but you did not follow the recommended procedure Help:Merging and moving pages - you should have put a tag on the page \"proposed move - please discuss\" and waited for about a month. One consequence of moving without disussion is that it will set some people's vandalism sensors to brightest red with klaxons blaring, and you already know how some people can over-react. In this case I think the move you made was reasonable, although I would not have done it. But Revision history of Dinosaur for 12 May 2008 shows how an important article was moved by a vandal and quick action was necessary. Philcha (talk) 11:50, 13 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]I don't see that note in the guideline you linked. Of course if you object to the rename you may revert and we can discuss that part of my edit as well. Ham Pastrami (talk) 21:12, 13 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]\nIt doesn't say exactly what I said, but it does advise putting up a proposal and allowing time for discussion. As I said, I'm not upset about Micromanagement (gameplay) but doing it unilaterally on some other article might get you some needless hassle. Philcha (talk) 21:20, 13 May 2008 (UTC)[reply]Destroy All Humans! Big Willy Unleashed[edit]Regarding your edit summary, \"(its a bit silly to put all these requests on a STUB article -- please write the article before asking for assistance in cleaning it up)\". That article was just turned into a stub a few minutes ago, after nearly half was deleted in a cleanup effort. Just thought I'd let you know. Thank you. --SWJS: The All Knowing Destroy All Humans! Nerd(Cortex Scan) 06:48, 15 June 2008 (UTC)[reply]Yes, I just realized that in my most recent edit, and apologize for not being aware of this fact earlier. Ham Pastrami (talk) 06:49, 15 June 2008 (UTC)[reply]\nIt's quite alright. We all make mistakes, after all, were not robots, heh. --SWJS: The All Knowing Destroy All Humans! Nerd(Cortex Scan) 06:51, 15 June 2008 (UTC)[reply]Your Recent Edits to Floppy Disk Article[edit]Your recent edits to the FD article are not attributed so probably can be accused of being WP:OR. Furthermore, they are somewhat cumulative and perhaps better placed elsewhere in the article (e.g. move the Zip stuff to the Zip section)or not at all. I'm about to make a major cut to the Recent Usage section, but thought I'd give u a chance to speak before I cut. Tom94022 (talk) 17:11, 14 July 2008 (UTC)[reply]Go ahead and make your cuts, and I'll comment afterward if I have issues with it. Ham Pastrami (talk) 23:33, 14 July 2008 (UTC)[reply]Orphaned non-free media (Image:Darkstalkers3 boxshot.jpg)[edit]Thanks for uploading Image:Darkstalkers3 boxshot.jpg. The media description page currently specifies that it is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, it is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the media was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that media for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).If you have uploaded other unlicensed media, please check whether they're used in any articles or not. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the \"my contributions\" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting \"Image\" from the dropdown box. Note that all non-free media not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. BJBot (talk) 00:40, 18 July 2008 (UTC)[reply]Orphaned non-free media (Image:Darkstalkers boxshot.jpg)[edit]Thanks for uploading Image:Darkstalkers boxshot.jpg. The media description page currently specifies that it is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, it is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the media was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that media for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).If you have uploaded other unlicensed media, please check whether they're used in any articles or not. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the \"my contributions\" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting \"Image\" from the dropdown box. Note that all non-free media not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. BJBot (talk) 00:41, 18 July 2008 (UTC)[reply]Intergrated banner for WikiProject Computer networking[edit]I have made a proposal for a intergrated banner for the project here . I invite you for your valuable comments in the discussion. You are receiving this note since I thought that you might be interested.. Thanks -- Tinu Cherian - 11:26, 1 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]I have made a proposal for a integrated banner for the WikiProject Computer science here -- Tinu Cherian - 02:12, 4 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]x86open[edit]merged per your suggestion samj (talk) 13:57, 5 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]NimbleX[edit]An anon has removed your prod nomination of NimbleX. If you feel it should be deleted, then you'll need to take it to AfD. That's why I never bother with prods. Corvus cornixtalk 21:12, 8 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]What's with all the prod templates ?[edit]","title":"User talk:Ham Pastrami"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Novell Open Enterprise Server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novell_Open_Enterprise_Server"},{"link_name":"StuRat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:StuRat"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:StuRat"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"Ham Pastrami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Ham_Pastrami"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#top"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"Novell Open Enterprise 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Pastrami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Ham_Pastrami"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#top"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"StuRat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:StuRat"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:StuRat"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"Satux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Satux&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ham Pastrami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Ham_Pastrami"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#top"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"StuRat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:StuRat"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:StuRat"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"Ham Pastrami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Ham_Pastrami"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#top"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"}],"sub_title":"Comments from StuRat","text":"You put that template saying that articles should be deleted as non-notable on dozens of articles with apparently very little justification. What were you thinking ? For example, the Novell Open Enterprise Server is a well known platform, and the almost 3-year old article has many refs to secondary sources to establish it's notability, and a simple Google search finds 478,000 hits. It's quite clear to me that you put almost no effort into determining if these articles were notable before slapping the \"delete in 5 days\" template on all of them (many of those templates were added within a minute of each other). Therefore, I'm going to remove those templates. Please do some research and actually read the articles before doing this type of thing again. StuRat (talk) 22:52, 8 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]Slightly hypocritical, isn't it, that you're going to remove all the templates, apparently without regard to the state of the articles? If you object to any specific articles being deleted, that's exactly why the templates are removable. They're designed to be removed if someone objects to the proposed deletion. Blindly removing the templates is, at best, a lateral move. What you apparently are not aware of are all the articles that I did NOT tag. If you're uncertain of the cause for these articles to be tagged, please ask before having a knee-jerk reaction again. Ham Pastrami (talk) 23:05, 8 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]You want credit for not tagging every article in Wikipedia for deletion ? Just what was your justification for trying to delete the Novell Open Enterprise Server article ? Your stated reasons that it contained no secondary refs to establish notability appear to be total BS. StuRat (talk) 23:11, 8 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]\nUh, there isn't a single citation in the article. Five of the seven print references given are published by Novell. Ok granted, the article lists 2 print references that are apparently third-party, but again neither of them are cited. If you think that's bs and this makes a well-referenced article, I concede the point and I don't have a fundamental objection to your removal of the prod tag. So now tell me what's your justification for keeping Mythbuntu and Archie? Ham Pastrami (talk) 23:19, 8 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]I get 1,240,000 Google hits for \"Mythbuntu\" and 690,000 for \"Archie Linux\". They are clearly notable. Your reasoning seems to be that they should be deleted solely because there is no proof of their notability included in the article. Using that justification an article on Winston Churchill should be deleted if it lacks refs. If the article lacks refs, do a little basic research to establish whether or not it is actually a notable topic before you try to delete it for not being notable. To just assume everything is not notable and should therefore be deleted is irresponsible. StuRat (talk) 23:32, 8 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]Popularity is not notability, and a ghit count does not establish either. If your belief is that these subjects are notable, all you have to do is add one reliable source and I will fully agree that the article should stay. I'm not able to find such a source, however. Ham Pastrami (talk) 23:43, 8 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]Are you claiming that you actually looked ? Remember, we know you spent less than a minute between placing tags on many of those articles, so it's hard to imagine that you did any research in that time. StuRat (talk) 23:52, 8 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]The problem is that you don't actually know anything. In fact, you're assuming everything other than the one thing you should: good faith. Not only did I look at these articles days before, I posted a request for an expert to assist at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Linux. You can confirm that with the timestamp and page history. And in case it didn't occur to you: you can postpone doing stuff to a group of articles until you know which articles you want to include, and then make edits to them all at once. Just because you act out of reflex doesn't mean other editors do. Ham Pastrami (talk) 00:18, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]So you're claiming that you carefully researched Novell Open Enterprise Server and decided that it wasn't a notable topic when anyone in the field would know that it's a very common platform ? And, in spite of the third party links included in the article that clearly showed it's notability ? And, in spite being able to find many links showing it's notability with a simple Google search ? I'm finding it very difficult to believe anything you say. Just why you want to delete all these articles is a mystery to me. You must be a type of vandal I haven't encountered before. StuRat (talk) 00:29, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]Haven't I already conceded the point with Novell? Are you fixated on this because it's the only article that you have an argument for? Calling me a vandal is a nice touch but I'm not sure what else to do with it. Ham Pastrami (talk) 00:55, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]Looking at your post at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Linux, it looks like you didn't list the articles in question, didn't say that you wanted to delete them all, and didn't get any response. Yet somehow you use that as justification to go ahead with your plans to delete them all ? StuRat (talk) 00:37, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]I didn't list the articles because A)I hadn't looked at all of them yet, and B)I was asking for that project to look at the full list and decide for themselves which articles might be nominated. As you point out, there was no response. So since they weren't willing to do the work, yes, I went ahead and did the nominations myself. That is what I'd consider a logical follow-up, though if you say it may not have been the best one, I won't dispute that either. Granted, some of the nominations might be disagreeable, which is what discussions like this are for (you seem to think that your disagreement with the nomination makes me wrong to have even nominated it). You can keep accusing me of imaginary crimes but I'm not sure what you hope to accomplish by that. Unless you're going to offer something constructive there's really no point in continuing here. Ham Pastrami (talk) 00:55, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]If they weren't willing to do the work of checking each of those articles for notability (which, of course, would have been quite impossible, since you failed to provide the list), that in no way excuses you from your responsibility to check them for notability before tagging them as articles in need of deletion due to a lack of notability. This would, at the very least, involve checking out all of the included links and doing a basic Google search. Several of those articles had such links and many, perhaps all, have support for notability that can be found with a basic Google search. I only choose that particlular article as an example since it's the most agregious case. When you put that tag on them, and now when you submit them to the AfD process, you are stating your belief that those articles are not notable. If you haven't actually checked them, and despite your claims I see absolutley no evidence that you have, this statement that you have determined that they aren't notable is simply a lie. StuRat (talk) 03:42, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]What do you mean I failed to provide the list? I referred them to the two list articles, i.e. the list of all distros on Wikipedia. That's about as complete a list as can be reasonably expected (every article I nominated came from that list). Since you're failing to grasp even the most basic concepts here I am feeling increasingly less motivated to pursue any discussion with you in the hopes that it might be productive. Yes, I believe that the distros that were templated may be non-notable, which does not mean that I think they must be deleted. Of course that's why I nominated them. Are you now reduced to stating the obvious? Many of the articles had existing {{notability}} templates on them, so I'm clearly not the only person who questions their notability, but even so you saw fit to remove those prods, without doing anything like reading the actual article to determine its actual merit or addressing the concern stated in the prod. At the very least, I looked at these articles in comparison to the full list of distros (and if you care to observe, most of the distros on the list were not prodded). You didn't even bother to do that. You just took a blanket course of action without regard to anything other than your objection to a single article. So you'll excuse me if I dismiss your comments as being self-righteous and hypocritical. Ham Pastrami (talk) 04:02, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]Is providing a list of every known Linux distribution, with links to some 160 Linux distribution articles, and asking the project members to check them all for notability in a few days, or face deletion, your idea of a joke ? How could they possibly have done that ? I'd say a detailed check should take about an hour for each article. And, again, it's not their responsibility to do that, but the responsibilioty of the person who wants to delete them for non-notability. That would be you. StuRat (talk) 04:26, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]Perhaps you forgot already: there was no response to the request. Nobody said \"sure, I'll take a look\". Nobody said, \"give us a few days\". It was just me and the crickets. Had anyone spoken up, or demonstrated action on the articles, I would gladly have waited for them to finish the job. As is, the entire thing was left to me. I completely disagree that I would be obligated to spend an hour on each article doing research to back them up. That, in fact, would be the job of the persons who created them. They failed to provide verification, a cursory examination showed no evidence of notability, and that's perfectly justifiable for a nomination to delete. Instead of wasting all this time on my talk page, you could be doing that research yourself. Ham Pastrami (talk) 04:34, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]The authors did, in many cases, provide links that proved the notability of the articles, but that didn't seem to be enough for you. In cases where they didn't provide those links, that's no reason to conclude that they aren't notable, that means you should do some research to determine if they are (before stating that you've determined that they aren't notable and should be deleted). StuRat (talk) 04:59, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]No, the links weren't enough for me, or for WP:N, which is why the articles were prodded, obviously. As stated before, I did as much research as is reasonable for a deletion nomination. And I never stated that they \"aren't notable\". From the beginning I have stated that they lack sources to verify notability, and that their notability is uncertain or questionable. If you disagree with that assessment, then go ahead and make a statement right now that you consider distros like Satux to be unquestionably notable. Otherwise, admit that the nominations were justified. Ham Pastrami (talk) 05:49, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]So, your position was that you don't know if they are notable, aren't willing to do the work to determine if they are, but would nonetheless have deleted dozens of articles unless others happen to stumble upon those articles and prove to your satisfaction that they are notable within 5 days ? (I say \"stumble\" because you failed to notify anyone of those articles you tagged). I find that approach unacceptable. Had you actually recorded why you thought they weren't notable (\"the above provided sources were from their own web site, while the following provided sources are unreliable because...\"), then there might have been something worthy of a response. Instead, you put the same text on every prod tag, regardless of the sources provided, which shows very little effort on your part. StuRat (talk) 12:49, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]Reindenting. You avoided answering my previous comment, which I take as silent admission that your mass delisting was unfounded. What you consider little effort on my part is apparently still more effort than anyone else has thus far cared to put into sourcing the articles. It was also more effort than you put into your blanket delisting. How's your research and sourcing effort coming along btw? I've also now noticed from your user page that you are also an unabashed inclusionist. There's clearly no amount of justification that will satisfy you since your objection isn't based on merit at all, but your own aversion to seeing things get deleted. I think your claims to the contrary, such as with the Novell article, are actually just convenient excuses for you to engage in the behavior that you wanted to and would have engaged in, regardless. As evidence, according to your edit history, the Novell article was one you ran into in the middle of your blanket edits. You had already begun mass removal of prods prior to running across that article. Thus your initial comment that you would remove the prods from all articles because of the apparent incorrectness of the Novell nomination was just smoke and mirrors. You have been dishonest and disingenuous from the start and have no leg to stand on. Have a nice day. Ham Pastrami (talk) 18:56, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]","title":"User talk:Ham Pastrami"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Slax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slax"},{"link_name":"Linux Mint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_Mint"},{"link_name":"Ark Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ark_Linux&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"24.105.229.99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/24.105.229.99"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:24.105.229.99&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"DGG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:DGG"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:DGG"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"Ham Pastrami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Ham_Pastrami"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#top"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"DGG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:DGG"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:DGG"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"Ham Pastrami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Ham_Pastrami"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#top"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"DGG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:DGG"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:DGG"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"Ham Pastrami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Ham_Pastrami"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#top"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"}],"sub_title":"Comments from DGG","text":"I agree with StuRat. Many of those templates were added without any knowlage about their notability. As an example the Slax article had the template added while the distro ranks higher than red hat on distrowatch in the past 6 months and It even has a category of dirivitve distrobutions. I do not think that adding a 5 day expration date for many articles that are about notable topics like: Linux Mint or Ark Linux is helpful in any sense. As StuRat stated do some research before declaring many things not notable. 24.105.229.99 (talk) 23:21, 8 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]I also saw these tagged articles. We do not delete articles for being unsourced, just for being unsourcable. Most of these articles would probably make it if work were done on them, and if you are going to proceed further with them, it would be useful to give some indication of how a you searched, when you determined there were no sources for notability. Such mass tagging can indeed be viewed as disruptive, and in my opinion as an admin, StuRat did quite correctly. I see one of them is at AfD now, and I commented there that I hope you do not make any similar mass AfD nominations. DGG (talk) 23:26, 8 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]DGG, you are fairly well-known as an inclusionist (I'm not sure what your admin status has to do with anything), so I'm hardly surprised at this. Respectfully, I'll ask that you rate each nomination on its merits and not on the total number of articles that are nominated. I wasn't aware that there were quotas for deletion. If there are 5 or 500 articles that are possibly delete-worthy, then they will be nominated for deletion, and I hope you can set aside your own predilections to base comments on policy rather than ideology. Ham Pastrami (talk) 23:37, 8 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]\"ideology\"? I speedy about a dozen articles a day, far more than I save--that makes me a deletionist on balance in a very practical sense. Only about 10% of admins do more. I made the comment I did because I do not see how you or anyone can decide on what is delete worthy in 60 seconds, and working in such a manner is not conducive to rational deletion. The quality of the ones you did make, as commented on above my those who know the subject far better than I, tends to show that. I have said frequently, and so have others, that mass deletion nomination via any method are disruptive because they prevent proper consideration of the individual articles. Therefore, the other eds. removal of them was fully justified. I hesitated before saying 'admin\" in the sentence, and only did so because it seemed that you were blaming others for improper procedure, which is not the case. DGG (talk) 04:23, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]\nYou're not seriously suggesting that speedy-deleting articles that are bad enough to be speedied in the first place actually balances you out, do you? Your own user page proclaims that you lean towards being inclusionist; this is hardly a question of debate. If you bother to read my replies to Stu and your AfD comment, you would know that I did not make decisions in 60 seconds, I made edits in 60 seconds. I'm not aware of any blanket guideline on how many articles is a good number to nominate for deletion -- if there is one, please link it. Otherwise, I will stand by my opinion that removing prods without even looking at the individual merit of each nomination is at best lazy and at worst obstructionist. I also disagree with the negative characterization of a \"mass deletion\" which to me implies a blanket nomination on a category of articles, which I most certainly did not perform -- the large majority of Linux distro articles were untouched by me. This is all covered above in my discussions with Stu. Each article that was selected for nomination was chosen from a much bigger list. Each nomination has merit, whether you would ultimately agree to delete or not. But please, let's not repeat the entire exchange that I had with Stu, and let's not pretend that I haven't seen your !vote history at VG and elsewhere. Ham Pastrami (talk) 06:13, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]well, I thought being in the top 10% of admins for removing articles showed my objectivity.:) At AfD my !votes are about 30% delete. They could be 80% if I bothered adding to the pileup on the obvious ones. What you seem to object to is that i defend articles when i think they are defensible. True, I have a bias towards keeping what is reasonably possible to become a decent article, but hat exactly is what is specified by WP:Deletion policy. Anyone who prefers to delete when dubious is going against the letter and spirit of it. In any case I never use admin powers to keep an article against consensus, or take admin action with respect to overdeletors otherwise--I can't recall blocking a single one of them. DGG (talk) 18:02, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]\nI'm not faulting you for any performance of your duties as admin. What I'm saying is, deleting articles as part of that duty, when the articles have already been nominated, debated, and selected for deletion by consensus and/or policy, that does not represent your personal leanings. Which is actually a very good thing, that your personal leanings don't interfere with you performing your admin duties. I'm glad, and I certainly hope, that you don't punish users who have done nothing wrong other than being on the other side of a deletion issue. That's why I'm saying your being an admin should be a non-issue. Technically, it should also be a non-issue that you're an inclusionist. Neither of these things should matter, except for the fact that you've come here to argue against the course of action that I took, and to endorse the course of action that another editor (who, as I discovered, is also an inclusionist) took, based apparently on nothing more than your personal preference, and a questionable reference to your being an admin to give that personal preference more weight. I will respect the fact that you disagree with the nominations and you are welcome to !vote either way, just as every other editor, admin or otherwise, inclusionist or otherwise, is welcome to do the same. But I don't agree that the nominations were fundamentally incorrect, and I haven't seen any evidence that they were. I am satisfied to simply agree to disagree. This is quite clearly a debate over personal leanings, and I don't think that's going to be a productive discussion. Ham Pastrami (talk) 19:18, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]","title":"User talk:Ham Pastrami"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jebba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Jebba"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Jebba"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"Ham Pastrami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Ham_Pastrami"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#top"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"WP:N","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:N"},{"link_name":"Ham Pastrami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Ham_Pastrami"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#top"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"Jebba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Jebba"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Jebba"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"reliability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:RS"},{"link_name":"Ham Pastrami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Ham_Pastrami"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#top"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"Jebba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Jebba"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Jebba"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"not","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTDIR"},{"link_name":"Ham Pastrami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Ham_Pastrami"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#top"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"NOTDIR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTDIR"},{"link_name":"NOTDIR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTDIR"},{"link_name":"Jebba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Jebba"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Jebba"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"Ham Pastrami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Ham_Pastrami"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#top"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"NOTDIR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTDIR"},{"link_name":"Jebba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Jebba"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Jebba"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"},{"link_name":"Ham Pastrami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Ham_Pastrami"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#top"},{"link_name":"reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/"}],"sub_title":"Comments from Jebba","text":"Uh, i'm biased as the maintainer so I'm not writing on BLAG's \"Articles for Deletion\" page but doesn't the fact that the man (Stallman) who defined \"Free Software\" and wrote the GPL recommends my distro make it relevant enough for a few bytes on wikipedia? It's listed as one of the few distros the Free Software Foundation explicitly recommends due to it's commitment to Free Software. It seems to meet the criteria of \"WikiProject Free Software\". Granted the article could use some work, but I don't think deletion is the answer. :P Jebba (talk) 22:06, 17 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]The problem to me is that the FSF made this recommendation based solely on the software's commitment to the FSF's philosophy, rather than an objective review of the software that you would expect from a reliable critic. I don't think the FSF qualifies as a reliable source in this case, and their endorsement alone doesn't make the software notable, any more so than an obscure athlete being sponsored by a famous company. However, that is what the AfD is to determine. Ham Pastrami (talk) 00:23, 18 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]Well you may not agree with their \"endorsement\" but that's not relevant. They aren't trying to be critics or reviewers, that's a straw man. You think the FSF isn't a reliable source? Pfft. I'm not sure how to even respond to that. What is your criteria for notable software anyway?Correct, they're not acting as critics or reviewers, or journalists of any sort. No, it's not a straw man, because I'm saying that is precisely the problem with attempting to use them as a source for notability. The FSF doesn't tell us anything about the software other than that it meets the FSF's own standards for \"free\"... and? You're arguing that this, in and of itself, makes the software notable? The definition (not my definition) of \"notable software\" is the same as it is for everything else, as given by WP:N: significant coverage by reliable, secondary sources. The FSF coverage is neither significant nor reliable. Ham Pastrami (talk) 03:32, 18 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]Well, it's been deleted. It's not just FSF, but has been covered in a number of reviews since starting in 2002, all new releases at lwn.net since 2003, various interviews, etc. Distrowatch has covered our releases 26 times, including a full review of one release. Anyway, you got it deleted. As a side note, recently I've built a offline version of wikipedia for BLAG--I'm not aware of this available in any other distro (except OLPC). Jebba (talk) 23:58, 22 September 2008 (UTC)[reply]I understand that, and was already aware of hits from google, etc. The quantity of blurbs is not the issue, the reliability and significance (depth) of those blurbs is. If there was even a single (1) article of significant coverage from a source that met reliability guidelines, that would be sufficient. Having any number of unreliable or shallow sources is not helpful, as none of them can be used to write a Wikipedia article. If BLAG is worthy of an article, one or more good sources may eventually come up. This has nothing to do with BLAG as a piece of software, what features it has, whether it is good or bad, etc. We need good sources from which to draw information, and the presence or lack of such sources tells us whether there should be an article at all. It's nothing personal. Ham Pastrami (talk) 23:09, 24 September 2008 (UTC)[reply]You're right in that it should be covered by reliable sources. In the field of linux, what is more reliable than lwn.net? In the field of linux distros what is more authoritative than distrowatch? FYI, I'm not \"lobbying\" to have blag re-included or anything, I'm just seeing WTF the standard should be if those two don't count. Jebba (talk) 19:03, 25 September 2008 (UTC)[reply]Well, part of the issue is that the only sources being provided for many of the fringe distro articles is that they are coming solely from websites that are dedicated to the topic of Linux, and these websites haven't gained any recognition outside that community. Take a front-running Linux distro such as Red Hat or Ubuntu and look at their sources. In addition to articles from community sites, they are also well-documented in the mainstream press: print magazines ranging across domains such as tech and business, national newspapers, etc. I'm satisfied even with websites like Ars Technica and PC World, which are at least general computing sites and reflect that these Linux distros have achieved recognition outside of the Linux microcosm. This kind of coverage is preferable because we have some semblance of journalistic standard in approaching and including a subject. Proof of notability is not merely proof of existence, and distros like Ubuntu clearly met the higher standard, whereas all the distros that were nominated for deletion did not. Community sites like distrowatch and lwn tend to represent a specific viewpoint and focus (that of in-the-trenches Linux users) -- arguably their very aim is to document every distro no matter how insignificant -- and that's good for them, but that's not what we do under Wikipedia's guidelines. These sites can be construed as Linux directories, which is explicitly something that WP is not. Ham Pastrami (talk) 01:06, 26 September 2008 (UTC)[reply]Reset tabs. Which in NOTDIR applies here? The entry wasn't #1, a list of anything. Nor #2, Genealogical or phonebook entry. Nor was it #3 a directory/schedule such as a tv guide/yellowpages. #4 nor sales catelog/price guide. And lastly not #5: Non-encyclopedic cross-categorizations, such as \"People from ethnic/cultural/religious group X employed by organization Y\", which is basically another \"don't do lists\" type of prohibition. Anyway, you cited NOTDIR, which #? :P Jebba (talk) 15:51, 26 September 2008 (UTC)[reply]Yes, it was #3, which applies to \"Directories, directory entries\". Ham Pastrami (talk) 02:10, 28 September 2008 (UTC)[reply]From NOTDIR:\"3. Directories, directory entries, electronic program guide, or a resource for conducting business. For example, an article on a radio station generally should not list upcoming events, current promotions, phone numbers, current schedules, et cetera, although mention of major events, promotions or historically significant programme lists and schedules (such as the annual United States network television schedules) may be acceptable. Furthermore, the Talk pages associated with an article are for talking about the article, not for conducting the business of the topic of the article. Wikipedia is not the yellow pages.\"Just because something could be put in a directory doesn't mean it's a only directory entry. #3 applies more to things like \"List of $foo\" or schedules. The entry wasn't anything like that. Jebba (talk) 16:07, 28 September 2008 (UTC)[reply]But if the only source for something is a directory, then yes, it is a directory entry, as evidenced by the lack of content that the article suffered from. The bulk of the paragraph you quoted is an example for the last qualification (\"resource for conducting business\"). Whether it is simply a directory/directory entry is plain enough in English. In any case, this is only one additional reason why the article was not appropriate -- either way it still failed notability guidelines, as decided in the AfD. And yes, here $foo would be \"Linux distributions\" and BLAG would be an entry as such with no apparent coverage elsewhere. 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is, at best, a lateral move.\" -- StuRat did right to your blindly adding the templates (which I at best can describe as a stupidity paroxysm). And just for the record: if \"The FSF coverage is neither significant nor reliable\" then your personal opinion is even less significant or reliable. I didn't hear of your existence (still not sure of it), and definitely don't trust your objectiveness or reliability. And quite a few people above seem to share my stance at that. Think of that in your spare time before wasting someone else's. Gvy (talk) 22:36, 25 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]This has all been addressed in replies to Stu. You're welcome to vent but you add nothing of substance to views already expressed. You don't have to trust me, I'm not being used as a source. Come to think of it, I've never heard of you either, so how do I know you're real? You can see this goes nowhere real fast, I wish you'd base comments on something more substantial than your personal feelings on the issue. Also I'd add that fully half of the AfDs resulted in deletion. So if this about a popularity contest, you should know that the wiki community at large sees the merit in the nominations. Ham Pastrami (talk) 17:09, 6 September 2008 (UTC)[reply]\"Procedural nomination\"[edit]You seem to be using the term \"procedural nomination\" in a very odd context without any justification or reasoning behind it - usually it indicates the person nominating has no opinion of the article themselves but are doing is because that's the due process (e.g. via WP:DRV or incomplete nominations). You seem to be using it in a different way to indicate a prod taken to AFD, which isn't \"procedural\" at all. -Halo (talk) 23:44, 9 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]Please clarify, are you saying that a prod is not procedural, or that taking a nomination from prod to AfD is not procedural? I nominated the articles because they currently don't meet standards for inclusion, but I'm not insisting that they be deleted. I'm nominating articles strictly for policy reasons, and I'm not endorsing one course of action or another, I would just like to see a decision reached on merit. That was my understanding of what \"procedural\" means. This could have been done with the earlier prods, except that they were all removed based on an inclusionist stance without examination of the articles, hence defeating my purpose. Ham Pastrami (talk) 03:09, 10 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]I'm saying that going from prod to AFD isn't regarded as procedural since it isn't required by procedure. -Halo (talk) 17:28, 10 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]Regardless, I have removed the phrase from all the AfDs, as I don't think it really affects the discussion either way, and I prefer to have people concentrate on the articles rather than the technicalities of the nomination. I assume this will satisfactorily address your concern. Ham Pastrami (talk) 22:31, 10 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]real-time strategy[edit]I've noticed that you've done a few edits on real-time strategy. A few of us at the VG wikiproject are trying to put together a team to push this article to GA status. (We're also considering the same thing for first-person shooter.) Either way, maybe you'd want to check in at our discussion at Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Video_games#GCOTW_.2F_video_game_genres? No pressure. Only if you have the time/enthusiasm. Randomran (talk) 03:42, 21 August 2008 (UTC)[reply]Plot tag in The Legend of Dragoon[edit]I noticed that you tag the plot section of The Legend of Dragoon as being too long. I was curious, is it the setting or the story that needs help? Larrythefunkyferret (talk) 06:27, 11 October 2008 (UTC)[reply]If it was either-or I would say the setting section. Ideally I think any relevant information should be carried in the plot, otherwise it is a universe exposition/guide. If the plot itself can be pared down to be more concise, that would be fine too, but as yet not entirely necessary. Ham Pastrami (talk) 14:07, 11 October 2008 (UTC)[reply]I'm on it. Larrythefunkyferret (talk) 03:15, 12 October 2008 (UTC)[reply]First-person shooter[edit]Hi,I'm currently reviewing First-person shooter for GA status, and noticed you've contributed to the article in the past.I wondered if you might have time to look over the article, and help improve it towards the GA goal?Thanks,-- Chzz ► 16:07, 4 March 2009 (UTC)[reply]Character creation: Gamecleanup?[edit]On 2008-07-21T06:47:05, you tagged Character creation as needing Gamecleanup (so to say). Could you please elaborate on this a bit and explain in a few sentences (on the article's talk page) what exactly should be cleaned up? (Verifyability? Gameplay instructions? Excessive detail? Anything else? All of this?) That would be a great help in modifying the article so the tag can be removed again.\n— TowerDragon (talk) 00:17, 19 March 2009 (UTC)[reply]Comments added to article talk. Ham Pastrami (talk) 02:15, 19 March 2009 (UTC)[reply]Ah, thank you very much. Sometimes it is difficult to notice such things from an “inside” persepective. — TowerDragon (talk) 01:29, 22 March 2009 (UTC)[reply]Image copyright problem with File:Hector ruiz.jpg[edit]Thanks for uploading File:Hector ruiz.jpg. The image has been identified as not specifying the copyright status of the image, which is required by Wikipedia's policy on images. Even if you created the image yourself, you still need to release it so Wikipedia can use it. If you don't indicate the copyright status of the image on the image's description page, using an appropriate copyright tag, it may be deleted some time in the next seven days. If you made this image yourself, you can use copyright tags like {{PD-self}} (to release all rights), {{self|CC-by-sa-3.0|GFDL}} (to require that you be credited), or any tag here - just go to the image, click edit, and add one of those. If you have uploaded other images, please verify that you have provided copyright information for them as well.For more information on using images, see the following pages:Wikipedia:Image use policy\nWikipedia:Image copyright tagsThis is an automated notice by STBotI. For assistance on the image use policy, see Wikipedia:Media copyright questions. NOTE: once you correct this, please remove the tag from the image's page. STBotI (talk) 04:23, 20 March 2009 (UTC)[reply]Fixed it for you, you just missed the tag. — neuro(talk)(review) 04:26, 20 March 2009 (UTC)[reply]\nThanks. The CC-BY-SA 2.0 license wasn't listed as an option in the Upload form (only the 3.0 version). I thought the Permission field would have been good enough, but I guess not... I'll keep this in mind next time I upload. Ham Pastrami (talk) 04:32, 20 March 2009 (UTC)[reply]Orphaned non-free media (File:Dexplorer screenshot.jpg)[edit]Thanks for uploading File:Dexplorer screenshot.jpg. The media description page currently specifies that it is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, it is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the media was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that media for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).If you have uploaded other unlicensed media, please check whether they're used in any articles or not. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the \"my contributions\" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting \"Image\" from the dropdown box. Note that all non-free media not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. BJBot (talk) 05:33, 11 April 2009 (UTC)[reply]Console hardware in game testing[edit]Pic on Blood Bowl[edit]So you're saying that a picture that can't be seen on different PCs (dafferent browsers, different ISPs, different house - hell, different towns - I went to my fathers and looked at it there) isn't a problem because some people can say it, and the problem only effects others? Do you not thinkk seeing a red cross pic on a page looks \"unprofessional\" to a visitor?Darkson (BOOM! An interception!) 16:29, 29 May 2009 (UTC)[reply]I'm saying that there doesn't appear to be anything that is actually wrong with the image, and that it should not be removed without determining the cause for it not showing up on certain computers. If the problem with the image is due to buggy or outdated browser software, or censoring software, for example, Wikipedia can't be held responsible for that. So far, you're the only person who reports having this problem. So, we have little basis to remove the image for technical reasons when only one person is reporting that there is a technical problem. Ham Pastrami (talk) 22:55, 30 May 2009 (UTC)[reply]Heroes of Might and Magic II article got nerfed by you[edit]why remove all the additional true and useful information i added on the HOMM 2 article?\neven more the link to the special editions of HOMM? whats bad about it?whats your problem... revert please\nor fix it if you dont think it reads well. nuking doesnt solve anythinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroes_of_might_and_magic_iiedit: ive also tracked more damages that you recently done in various Heroes of Might and Magic articles. please read the discussions and do the necessary changes.--LPCA (talk) 20:43, 3 June 2009 (UTC)[reply]I stand by my edits, and frankly you have yet to provide any actual basis for your complaints. My edits are well within policy and conventions of writing. If you find it so disagreeable, you should fix the issues that were raised instead of trying to give me orders. There is nothing \"necessary\" about the content or style changes that you are insisting upon, and in fact they were removed precisely because they detracted from the quality of the article. Ham Pastrami (talk) 03:05, 4 June 2009 (UTC)[reply]Re:HTIC Box-Art[edit]Okay, I see your point. Thanks for the information, but should I find a clearer, higher resolution box art alternative? Like one that's higher-res, but is still generally low resolution. Linuxguy716 (talk) 20:22, 4 June 2009Under fair use policy, we are limited to images more or less of the size they are displayed as in the article. VG infoboxes typically set the image width to 250px. The current box image is 288px wide. If you can find a higher-quality image that is reasonably close to 250px, go ahead and upload it. I can't guarantee anything about how it will be used, but it should at least be ok under technical guidelines. Ham Pastrami (talk) 02:38, 5 June 2009 (UTC)[reply]Talk:ASRock[edit]Restored. Please let me know if any problems. Lankiveil (speak to me) 02:38, 20 June 2009 (UTC).[reply]Re: Unofficial patch for Unreal Tournament[edit]Hello, Ham Pastrami. You have new messages at Ken g6's talk page. You can remove this notice at any time by removing the {{Talkback}} or {{Tb}} template.— Ken g6 (talk) 21:11, 26 June 2009 (UTC)[reply]WikiProject Software IRC[edit]For better and faster discussion between WikiProject Software Members a IRC channel has been created: irc://irc.freenode.net/##WikiProject-Software. For instant access click here: http://webchat.freenode.net/?channels=##WikiProject-Software. Please use your Wikipedia nickname. You are receiving this message because you are a member of WikiProject Software or one of its departments. - Kingpin13 (talk) 09:49, 22 July 2009 (UTC)[reply]Orphaned non-free media (File:Homm2 GBC box.jpg)[edit]Thanks for uploading File:Homm2 GBC box.jpg. The media description page currently specifies that it is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, it is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the media was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that media for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).If you have uploaded other unlicensed media, please check whether they're used in any articles or not. You can find a list of 'file' pages you have edited by clicking on the \"my contributions\" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting \"File\" from the dropdown box. Note that all non-free media not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. BJBot (talk) 08:16, 18 August 2009 (UTC)[reply]Proposed deletion of DXGM (video codec)[edit]The article DXGM (video codec) has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern:Nothing links here, merged into DivX#DXGM, this exact name is not likely to be searched for.While all contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, content or articles may be deleted for any of several reasons.You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the {{dated prod}} notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Removing {{dated prod}} will stop the Proposed Deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. The Speedy Deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and Articles for Deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. PopMusicBuff talk 17:41, 28 August 2009 (UTC)[reply]Arguments in deletion debates[edit]For example: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Jimmy Patterson. Just some advice. It isn't worth your time. You'll never get the last word. The only thing that will come out of it is that you will feel frustrated. Just say your piece and ignore repeated badgering. Obviously this is just a bit of advice, not a warning or anything like that. Protonk (talk) 00:06, 8 September 2009 (UTC)[reply]Oh, I'm familiar with the way A Nobody (or one of his previous titles, Grand something or other) conducts AfD discussions. I don't expect him to change his ways, nor do I assume the other editors pay that much regard to him. I'm not sure if getting frustrated is even possible, as I would have to take him seriously first. But it's good exercise. Thanks for the heads-up, though. I'll stop replying since it is hinging on derailing the discussion. Ham Pastrami (talk) 00:39, 8 September 2009 (UTC)[reply]Ok. I don't inhabit AfD as much as I used to, so I am without a good sense of who knows whom. Have a nice day. Protonk (talk) 01:06, 8 September 2009 (UTC)[reply]Any Ideas?[edit]I've just reverted some vandalism by User:UnrealCoopNet on your User page, and I was just wondering if you have any idea who this might be? It was his/her first edit with this account, so I'm suspecting a sock, considering you were their first target. DreamHaze (talk) 23:19, 20 September 2009 (UTC)[reply]Thanks for your vigilance. This is a targeted attack with similar incidents in the past. It is basically retaliation for the removal of spam and self-promotion in the Unreal article. My guess is that it is one of the interested parties or sympathizers (which User:Smirftsch previously recruited from his website forum to vandalize Wikipedia). However, I cannot say with any certainty who User:UnrealCoopNet might be. Ham Pastrami (talk) 02:44, 21 September 2009 (UTC)[reply]Removal of PROD from FinalBurn Alpha[edit]Hello Ham Pastrami, this is an automated message from SDPatrolBot to inform you the PROD template you added to FinalBurn Alpha has been removed. It was removed by 130.113.126.223 with the following edit summary '(no edit summary)'. Please consider discussing your concerns with 130.113.126.223 before pursuing deletion further yourself. If you still think the article should be deleted after communicating with the 'dePRODer,' you may want to send the article to AfD for community discussion. Thank you, SDPatrolBot (talk) 20:13, 21 September 2009 (UTC) (Learn how to opt out of these messages)[reply]Please update your status with WP:VG[edit]Dear WikiProject Video games member,You are receiving this message because you have either Category:WikiProject Video games members or {{User WPVG}} somewhere in your userspace and you have edited Wikipedia in the recent months.The Video games project has created a member list to provide a clearer picture of its active membership.All members have currently been placed in the \"Inactive\" section by default. Please remove your username from the \"Inactive\" listing and place it under the \"Active\" listing if you plan on regularly:Editing video game-related pages in the Article namespace\nParticipating in video game-related discussions in the Project namespace (WT:VG, WP:AfD, WP:GAN, etc.)Ideally, members are encouraged to do both, but either one meets our criteria of inclusion. Members still listed inactive at the beginning of November 2009 may be removed. You may re-add yourself to the active list at any time. Thank you for your help, and we look forward to working with you.—WikiProject Video games (delivery by xenobot 03:29, 24 September 2009 (UTC)[reply]Hey, noticed your edit to this page. The list was made so that we can purge the category, I believe. More of an FYI. --Izno (talk) 17:56, 24 September 2009 (UTC)[reply]Removal of PROD from NeoRAGEx[edit]Hello Ham Pastrami, this is an automated message from SDPatrolBot to inform you the PROD template you added to NeoRAGEx has been removed. It was removed by Itchyandscrathchy with the following edit summary '(I have improved the information supplied in this article, NeoRAGEx was an important development within Windows Neo-Geo emulation and so this article should not be deleted.)'. Please consider discussing your concerns with Itchyandscrathchy before pursuing deletion further yourself. If you still think the article should be deleted after communicating with the 'dePRODer,' you may want to send the article to AfD for community discussion. Thank you, SDPatrolBot (talk) 20:48, 25 September 2009 (UTC) (Learn how to opt out of these messages)[reply]Proposed deletion of DXGM (FourCC)[edit]The article DXGM (FourCC) has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern:This article fails to meet Wikipedia notability guideline requirements as lacks significant coverage in reliable secondary sources.While all contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, content or articles may be deleted for any of several reasons.You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the {{dated prod}} notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Removing {{dated prod}} will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. The speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Fleet Command (talk) 22:42, 31 December 2009 (UTC)[reply]Unreal article[edit]Hey, I saw that you took up the debate about an unofficial patch to this game, and some self-promotion taking place on the article. Well, I thought I had removed the unofficial patch info, but recently came back to the article to find it re-added. I've responded to a an entry on the talk page on this issue, mentioning your earlier clarification, and I was wondering if you would be interested in chiming in on the issue once more...? Eik Corell (talk) 00:48, 4 January 2010 (UTC)[reply]Articles for deletion nomination of DXGM (FourCC)[edit]I have nominated DXGM (FourCC), an article that you created, for deletion. I do not think that this article satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and have explained why at Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/DXGM (FourCC). Your opinions on the matter are welcome at that same discussion page; also, you are welcome to edit the article to address these concerns. Thank you for your time.Please contact me if you're unsure why you received this message. Fleet Command (talk) 06:26, 8 January 2010 (UTC)[reply]More video-game article problems: MechWarrior_4:_Vengeance[edit]Check the history page - Fans of the game are trying to get their unofficial multiplayer server list on there and are ignoring everything I say. Eik Corell (talk) 12:08, 26 February 2010 (UTC)[reply]Red Game Genie[edit]I made a comment on your nomination for that Game Genie article. Since an anon editor insisted it was correctly inserted, I referenced the sticker on the GG itself, which clearly states the cartridge should be inserted with the label facing away from the user. Is a rough Spanish-to-English translation acceptable when it comes to proof in Wikipedia's spectrum, if that translation is clear and nonvague? FluffyPug (talk) 08:33, 5 April 2010 (UTC)[reply]For the sake of discussion it should be good enough since there is both the text and the visual geometry that the cart is supposed to go the other way. If someone wants to assert otherwise they have to come up with at least that much evidence to the contrary. So I wouldn't worry about it. You did well in finding and presenting evidence to back up the claims. Ham Pastrami (talk) 11:40, 5 April 2010 (UTC)[reply]Photo request for SF IV stick[edit]Hey i replied on the Project page but thought id come here in case you werent watching. Heres a Street Fighter IV TE stick image, hopes it is what you were after. Salavat (talk) 03:21, 16 June 2010 (UTC)[reply]JuanJose[edit]It appears that all you do these days is changing back to an old version of that page. JuanJose (talk) 09:06, 8 July 2010 (UTC)[reply]\nNow you can have your own version of the page where you can state that the last patch is 226f. JuanJose (talk) 09:08, 8 July 2010 (UTC)[reply]\nIn substance all versions of the page are old, the only difference between them is whether or not they contain unverified information, self-promotion and advertising for a particular mod. I help keep the article free of the latter. If you have changes of substance that you would like to add to the article, and can attribute them to reliable sources, then please do so. Changing the page to contain biased information isn't really progress. And if you don't mind my saying so, all it seems you do anywhere on Wikipedia is revert war. So I'm not too worried about your opinion of me. Ham Pastrami (talk) 09:14, 8 July 2010 (UTC)[reply]Notability-based restrictions for infobox credits?[edit]I've brought up a new discussion about this here. Since you were involved in the old one, I figured I should invite you over. Prime Blue (talk) 16:16, 20 July 2010 (UTC)[reply]Gametap Article[edit]Unfortunately so much of that article does not its current reflection of the service and appears its turning into an Americanized version of Metaboli. Ive been doing some rewriting when I can but I am not even close to done yet. JasonHockeyGuy (talk) 07:44, 15 September 2010 (UTC)[reply]False etymology > Folk Etymology[edit]You participated in a discussion on the page Folk etymology as to whether it should be moved to False etymology. Despite the consensus on that discussion, the move was effected. I have requested that the move be reversed. I am notifying you as a party to that prior discussion. If you are interested, the current discussion is located here.μηδείς (talk) 04:17, 17 October 2010 (UTC)[reply]Replaceable fair use File:Mm3 automap.png[edit]Thanks for uploading File:Mm3 automap.png. I noticed the description page specifies that the media is being used under a claim of fair use, but its use in Wikipedia articles fails our first non-free content criterion in that it illustrates a subject for which a freely licensed media could reasonably be found or created that provides substantially the same information or which could be adequately covered with text alone. If you believe this media is not replaceable, please:Go to the media description page and edit it to add {{di-replaceable fair use disputed}}, without deleting the original replaceable fair use template.\nOn the image discussion page, write the reason why this image is not replaceable at all.Alternatively, you can also choose to replace this non-free media by finding freely licensed media of the same subject, requesting that the copyright holder release this (or similar) media under a free license, or by taking a picture of it yourself.If you have uploaded other non-free media, consider checking that you have specified how these images fully satisfy our non-free content criteria. You can find a list of description pages you have edited by clicking on this link. Note that even if you follow steps 1 and 2 above, non-free media which could be replaced by freely licensed alternatives will be deleted 2 days after this notification (7 days if uploaded before 13 July 2006), per our non-free content policy. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. RJaguar3 | u | t 04:40, 24 November 2010 (UTC)[reply]Orphaned non-free image File:Mm3 automap.png[edit]⚠Thanks for uploading File:Mm3 automap.png. The image description page currently specifies that the image is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, the image is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the image was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that images for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).PLEASE NOTE:I am a bot, and will therefore not be able to answer your questions.\nI will remove the request for deletion if the file is used in an article once again.\nIf you receive this notice after the image is deleted, and you want to restore the image, click here to file an un-delete request.\nTo opt out of these bot messages, add {{bots|deny=DASHBot}} to your talk page.\nIf you believe the bot has made an error, please turn it off here and leave a message on my owner's talk page.Thank you. DASHBot (talk) 05:30, 25 November 2010 (UTC)[reply]Replaceability[edit]Hi Ham Pastrami,Just so you know for the future, the burden of showing non-replaceability falls on the uploader, as per WP:NFCC#Enforcement: \"Note that it is the duty of users seeking to include or retain content to provide a valid rationale; those seeking to remove or delete it are not required to show that one cannot be created—see burden of proof.\" Further, the first WP:NFCC criterion allows non-free images to be used only \"where no free equivalent is available, or could be created, that would serve the same encyclopedic purpose.\" (emphasis added).Let me know if you have any questions about our non-free content policy. Thanks, RJaguar3 | u | t 16:26, 25 November 2010 (UTC)[reply]Line Break[edit]What section border did you mean?199.126.224.245 (talk) 09:20, 3 January 2011 (UTC)[reply]That's such an old edit there's really no way to be sure if the layout has changed with the newer wiki software or templates. If there's no problem with overlapping anymore then just go ahead and remove the clear template. Ham Pastrami (talk) 10:29, 3 January 2011 (UTC)[reply]RE: Please don't make up bogus rationale for edits[edit]Hello, Ham Pastrami. You have new messages at FleetCommand's talk page. You can remove this notice at any time by removing the {{Talkback}} or {{Tb}} template.You're nothing more than a jackass on a power trip. Go fuck yourself. It's immediately obvious from this collection of bullshit (read: your talk page) that you have a psychological complex that requires you to flaunt your level of being a douche endlessly. Please get this checked out. We care.Sincerely,- The UsersPS: We actually don't care. Just fuck off.I have carefully considered your proposition and have elected to decline. Thank you for the offer. Ham Pastrami (talk) 02:49, 1 June 2012 (UTC)[reply]Freeware[edit]Hello, you removed the following two sentences from the freeware article:Advertising-supported software and even malicious software is sometimes advertised as freeware. Terms of use for a freeware are usually defined in a unique software license and they may be very different for every single software.Your explanation was: can be true of all software, not at all specific to freeware.1. I don't think that you are right. Adware is usually advertised as freeware, not as a commercial software or open source software. (Please, give me an example, if you know about such advertisement.)2. You are right that the \"terms of use\" for all types of software are usually defined in a software license. But in the case of \"free software\" the license is usually not unique for every single software and it usually uses one of universal licenses - such as GPL or BSD. By contrast, a freeware license is mostly unique. I think this information is useful and appropriate for the article.3. You are right that every single software may have very different terms of use. But in the case of \"free software\" - if someone knows that a software uses GPL license, the terms of use are commonly known, clear and universal. By contrast, a freeware license is mostly unique and users must read it very carefully to understand the terms. I think this information is very useful and appropriate for the article.Many people believe that \"freeware\" is only about the price and it can be used for any purpose and in any environment. This is not true, because many freeware licenses do not allow various types of usage. I think it is important to write about this in the first sentences of the freeware article.\n--89.173.67.199 (talk) 15:19, 14 February 2011 (UTC)[reply]Since you are the one who wants to add these distinctions, the burden of evidence is upon you. You need to provide a reliable source that makes the assertions listed above. If you can do that, then I would have no contention. But it sounds exactly like you are inferring your own personal view or experience, which is not sufficient evidence for an article, much less in the definitive lead paragraph. But as a show of good faith, I will provide some examples. The infamous Antivirus XP is a commercial program that installs itself as adware that advertises itself as an antivirus, and asks users to buy it. It is part of an emerging class of rogue antivirus programs, which is malware that seeks to gain profit directly from its victims. My point regarding software licensing is not that GPL, BSD have fixed forms, but that any software program can release open source on its own terms. It does not have to use GPL or BSD, and in fact there are dozens of licenses listed at OSI precisely because many programs write their own license. Simply because they are templated and made available for re-use does not mean that open source programs must use them. Freeware's definition is \"cost-free\", as stated and sourced in the first sentence. Beyond that, any importance you are ascribing to the distinction between cost and other types of freedom is personal opinion and undue weight. It can be discussed, but needs appropriate and reliable sources to present as fact. Ham Pastrami (talk) 12:52, 15 February 2011 (UTC)[reply]Orphaned non-free image File:Warhammer Armies Orcs & Goblins cover2.jpeg[edit]⚠Thanks for uploading File:Warhammer Armies Orcs & Goblins cover2.jpeg. The image description page currently specifies that the image is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, the image is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the image was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that images for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).If you have uploaded other unlicensed media, please check whether they're used in any articles or not. You can find a list of \"file\" pages you have edited by clicking on the \"my contributions\" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting \"File\" from the dropdown box. Note that any non-free images not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. Skier Dude2 (talk) 06:01, 12 March 2011 (UTC)[reply]homepage info of dead companies[edit]Hello Ham Pastrami, started a discussion about this topic here maybe you want to contribute. cheers Shaddim (talk) 09:44, 30 March 2011 (UTC)[reply]Orphaned non-free image File:Night warriors boxshot.jpg[edit]⚠Thanks for uploading File:Night warriors boxshot.jpg. The image description page currently specifies that the image is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, the image is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the image was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that images for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).If you have uploaded other unlicensed media, please check whether they're used in any articles or not. You can find a list of \"file\" pages you have edited by clicking on the \"my contributions\" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting \"File\" from the dropdown box. Note that any non-free images not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described in the criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. Courcelles 05:55, 1 May 2011 (UTC)[reply]You are a worthless piece of fecal matter. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.92.243.205 (talk) 02:18, 29 September 2011 (UTC)[reply]Orphaned non-free image File:ASRock logo.png[edit]⚠Thanks for uploading File:ASRock logo.png. The image description page currently specifies that the image is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, the image is currently not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the image was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that images for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).Note that any non-free images not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described in the criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. Skier Dude (talk) 09:51, 3 October 2011 (UTC)[reply]Dilemma[edit]need help with a dilemma...searching all over the wiki about graphics hardware matters and U seem to know some...I´ve got a i5-2400, 4GB RAM on a GIGABYTE GA-H67MA-USB3-B3...I´m looking forward for a video card so I can play latest video games and run graphic design softwares like ArchiCAD or 3DMax...my budget can only look for a mid-high end card in both brands (ATI and NVIDIA)...would you advice me or tell me some one who can. \np.s: sorry if my english isn´t that good, not my native language\np.s: since I can´t search on internet for benchmarks, I´m betting for: AMD (HD5750, HD5770, HD5850, HD6790, HD6850) NVIDIA (GTX460, GTX550Ti, GTX560) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jcap0000 (talk • contribs) 06:57, 22 June 2012 (UTC)[reply]For buying advice I would recommend using a tech site's forum to ask questions or benchmarking charts to compare the products you are considering. For example, Tom's has both of these resources. Unfortunately I don't follow individual product releases or pricing trends so cannot give reliable spontaneous advice for purchases. Good luck with your search. Ham Pastrami (talk) 08:29, 22 June 2012 (UTC)[reply]Windows RT Edit War (sigh)[edit]Please contribute to the poll on Talk:Windows RT. (You are being asked because you commented on MS Surface.) Tuntable (talk) 23:27, 22 November 2012 (UTC)[reply]Misc publishers addition to the WP:VG Reference Library[edit]Hi Ham Pastrami, I noticed that a few years ago you'd added 2 books to the Misc publishers section of the WP:VG Reference Library, but you didn't list yourself as a contact. I was wondering if you intended to be the contact for these sources or if they were just two books you knew of that weren't yet on the list. If you intended to be listed as a contact, then I'd like to add your name. If it's just two video game related books you know about, though, I'd prefer to move them to the talk page for now since the page is intended as a list of contact points more than it is a list of books. Does that sound reasonable? I know you haven't been editing very actively recently, but please let me know when you get a chance. Thanks. -Thibbs (talk) 11:39, 11 October 2013 (UTC)[reply]I guess I misunderstood the purpose of the list. You can do what you like with those references. Ham Pastrami (talk) 09:06, 20 October 2013 (UTC)[reply]\nOK then. I've made the move here and here. Thanks for shedding some light on this. Happy editing and hope to see you around the 'pedia. -Thibbs (talk) 21:41, 24 October 2013 (UTC)[reply]Nomination of VirusTotal for deletion[edit]A discussion is taking place as to whether the article VirusTotal is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.The article will be discussed at Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/VirusTotal until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. The Banner talk 13:08, 8 July 2014 (UTC)[reply]Proposed deletion of Timeskip[edit]The article Timeskip has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern:We are not TV Tropes.While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, content or articles may be deleted for any of several reasons.You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the {{proposed deletion/dated}} notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Removing {{proposed deletion/dated}} will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Don Cuan (talk) 17:08, 30 October 2014 (UTC)[reply]Proposed deletion of List of Unreal characters[edit]The article List of Unreal characters has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern:A chaotic article without any reliable source. Fails every Wikipedia guideline.While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, content or articles may be deleted for any of several reasons.You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the {{proposed deletion/dated}} notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Removing {{proposed deletion/dated}} will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Λeternus (talk) 10:48, 12 January 2015 (UTC)[reply]Nomination of List of Unreal characters for deletion[edit]A discussion is taking place as to whether the article List of Unreal characters is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.The article will be discussed at Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/List of Unreal characters until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. 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For the Election committee, MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 17:30, 23 November 2015 (UTC)[reply]Template talk:Short pages monitor[edit]You may be interested in the discussion at Template talk:Short pages monitor#Need to define and possibly rethink this template. —Anomalocaris (talk) 23:42, 31 January 2016 (UTC)[reply]Nomination of List of Unreal characters for deletion[edit]A discussion is taking place as to whether the article List of Unreal characters is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.The article will be discussed at Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/List of Unreal characters (2nd nomination) until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. soetermans. ↑↑↓↓←→←→ B A TALK 07:52, 29 February 2016 (UTC)[reply]Nomination of List of games with XInput support for deletion[edit]A discussion is taking place as to whether the article List of games with XInput support is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.The article will be discussed at Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/List of games with XInput support until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. The1337gamer (talk) 11:50, 6 November 2016 (UTC)[reply]ArbCom Elections 2016: Voting now open![edit]Hello, Ham Pastrami. Voting in the 2016 Arbitration Committee elections is open from Monday, 00:00, 21 November through Sunday, 23:59, 4 December to all unblocked users who have registered an account before Wednesday, 00:00, 28 October 2016 and have made at least 150 mainspace edits before Sunday, 00:00, 1 November 2016.\nThe Arbitration Committee is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the Wikipedia arbitration process. It has the authority to impose binding solutions to disputes between editors, primarily for serious conduct disputes the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the authority to impose site bans, topic bans, editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The arbitration policy describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail.\nIf you wish to participate in the 2016 election, please review the candidates' statements and submit your choices on the voting page. MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 22:08, 21 November 2016 (UTC)[reply]A page you started (Cygames) has been reviewed![edit]Thanks for creating Cygames, Ham Pastrami!Wikipedia editor Elliot321 just reviewed your page, and wrote this note for you:Thank you for creating this useful article! You may want to split page content into more sections, instead of including all of the article text in the lead.To reply, leave a comment on Elliot321's talk page.Learn more about page curation.Elliot321 (talk) 14:00, 15 May 2017 (UTC)[reply]ArbCom 2017 election voter message[edit]Hello, Ham Pastrami. 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MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 18:42, 3 December 2017 (UTC)[reply]Proposed deletion of Timeskip[edit]The article Timeskip has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern:Per WP:NOTDIC. Does not meet WP:GNG; no RS found in Google, Books, News Archive or Scholar searches.While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, pages may be deleted for any of several reasons.You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the {{proposed deletion/dated}} notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.Please consider improving the page to address the issues raised. Removing {{proposed deletion/dated}} will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Miniapolis 18:19, 23 December 2017 (UTC)[reply]Orphaned non-free image File:Cygames logo.png[edit]⚠Thanks for uploading File:Cygames logo.png. The image description page currently specifies that the image is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, the image is currently not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the image was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that images for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).Note that any non-free images not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described in section F5 of the criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. --B-bot (talk) 17:14, 11 April 2018 (UTC)[reply]ArbCom 2018 election voter message[edit]Hello, Ham Pastrami. Voting in the 2018 Arbitration Committee elections is now open until 23.59 on Sunday, 3 December. All users who registered an account before Sunday, 28 October 2018, made at least 150 mainspace edits before Thursday, 1 November 2018 and are not currently blocked are eligible to vote. Users with alternate accounts may only vote once.\nThe Arbitration Committee is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the Wikipedia arbitration process. It has the authority to impose binding solutions to disputes between editors, primarily for serious conduct disputes the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the authority to impose site bans, topic bans, editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The arbitration policy describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail.\nIf you wish to participate in the 2018 election, please review the candidates and submit your choices on the voting page. 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Magioladitis (talk) 12:03, 27 August 2019 (UTC)[reply]Speedy deletion nomination of First-person shooter (disambiguation)[edit]If this is the first article that you have created, you may want to read the guide to writing your first article.You may want to consider using the Article Wizard to help you create articles.A tag has been placed on First-person shooter (disambiguation) requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section G14 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because it is a disambiguation page which eitherdisambiguates only one extant Wikipedia page and whose title ends in \"(disambiguation)\" (i.e., there is a primary topic);\ndisambiguates zero extant Wikipedia pages, regardless of its title; or\nis an orphaned redirect with a title ending in \"(disambiguation)\" that does not target a disambiguation page or page that has a disambiguation-like function.Under the criteria for speedy deletion, such pages may be deleted at any time. 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All eligible users are allowed to vote. Users with alternate accounts may only vote once.\nThe Arbitration Committee is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the Wikipedia arbitration process. It has the authority to impose binding solutions to disputes between editors, primarily for serious conduct disputes the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the authority to impose site bans, topic bans, editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The arbitration policy describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail.\nIf you wish to participate in the 2023 election, please review the candidates and submit your choices on the voting page. If you no longer wish to receive these messages, you may add {{NoACEMM}} to your user talk page. MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 00:27, 28 November 2023 (UTC)[reply]Proposed deletion of Ultra ATX[edit]The article Ultra ATX has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern:This should not be a separate article. There aren't enough sources to establish the notability of Ultra ATX (can't find anything outside of the Soderstrom article currently on the page), and even if there were, that content should be collapsed into ATX instead.While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, pages may be deleted for any of several reasons.You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the {{proposed deletion/dated}} notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.Please consider improving the page to address the issues raised. Removing {{proposed deletion/dated}} will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. HyperAccelerated (talk) 18:06, 10 March 2024 (UTC)[reply]Deletion discussion about Ultra ATX[edit]Hello Ham Pastrami, and thank you for your contributions to Wikipedia.While your contributions are appreciated, I wanted to let you know that I've started a discussion about whether an article that you created, Ultra ATX, should be deleted, as I am not sure that it is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia in its current form. Your comments are welcome at Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Ultra ATX.Deletion discussions usually run for seven days and are not votes. Our guide about effectively contributing to such discussions is worth a read. The most common issue in these discussions is notability, but it's not the only aspect that may be discussed; read the nomination and any other comments carefully before you contribute to the discussion. Last but not least, you are highly encouraged to continue improving the article; just be sure not to remove the tag about the deletion nomination from the top.If you have any questions, please leave a comment here and prepend it with {{Re|Aunva6}}. And don't forget to sign your reply with ~~~~ . Thanks!(Message delivered via the Page Curation tool, on behalf of the reviewer.)-- Aunva6talk - contribs 18:43, 29 March 2024 (UTC)[reply]XMLHttpRequest[edit]Last June you reverted XMLHttpRequest after substantial deletions and additions by Timhowardriley. He reverted in turn a few days later and his changes have largely remained. There is now an edit war at the article regarding that content and other points of dispute with him. 2601:642:4600:D3B0:9111:FF68:B849:3D9B (talk) 15:07, 9 April 2024 (UTC)[reply]","title":"User talk:Ham Pastrami"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_interface_design
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User interface design
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["1 Compared to UX design","2 Processes","3 Requirements","4 Research","5 See also","6 References"]
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Planned operator–machine interaction
The graphical user interface is presented (displayed) on the computer screen. It is the result of processed user input and usually the primary interface for human-machine interaction. The touch user interfaces popular on small mobile devices are an overlay of the visual output to the visual input.
User interface (UI) design or user interface engineering is the design of user interfaces for machines and software, such as computers, home appliances, mobile devices, and other electronic devices, with the focus on maximizing usability and the user experience. In computer or software design, user interface (UI) design primarily focuses on information architecture. It is the process of building interfaces that clearly communicate to the user what's important. UI design refers to graphical user interfaces and other forms of interface design. The goal of user interface design is to make the user's interaction as simple and efficient as possible, in terms of accomplishing user goals (user-centered design).
User interfaces are the points of interaction between users and designs. There are three types:
Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) – Users interact with visual representations on a computer's screen. The desktop is an example of a GUI.
Interfaces controlled through voice – Users interact with these through their voices. Most smart assistants, such as Siri on smartphones or Alexa on Amazon devices, use voice control.
Interactive interfaces utilizing gestures – Users interact with 3D design environments through their bodies, e.g., in virtual reality (VR) games.
Interface design is involved in a wide range of projects, from computer systems, to cars, to commercial planes; all of these projects involve much of the same basic human interactions yet also require some unique skills and knowledge. As a result, designers tend to specialize in certain types of projects and have skills centered on their expertise, whether it is software design, user research, web design, or industrial design.
Good user interface design facilitates finishing the task at hand without drawing unnecessary attention to itself. Graphic design and typography are utilized to support its usability, influencing how the user performs certain interactions and improving the aesthetic appeal of the design; design aesthetics may enhance or detract from the ability of users to use the functions of the interface. The design process must balance technical functionality and visual elements (e.g., mental model) to create a system that is not only operational but also usable and adaptable to changing user needs.
Compared to UX design
Compared to UX design, UI design is more about the surface and overall look of a design. User interface design is a craft in which designers perform an important function in creating the user experience. UI design should keep users informed about what is happening, giving appropriate feedback in a timely manner. The visual look and feel of UI design sets the tone for the user experience. On the other hand, the term UX design refers to the entire process of creating a user experience.
Don Norman and Jakob Nielsen said: It's important to distinguish the total user experience from the user interface (UI), even though the UI is obviously an extremely important part of the design. As an example, consider a website with movie reviews. Even if the UI for finding a film is perfect, the UX will be poor for a user who wants information about a small independent release if the underlying database only contains movies from the major studios.
Processes
Printable template for mobile and desktop app design (PDF)
User interface design requires a good understanding of user needs. It mainly focuses on the needs of the platform and its user expectations. There are several phases and processes in the user interface design, some of which are more demanded upon than others, depending on the project. (Note: for the remainder of this section, the word system is used to denote any project whether it is a website, application, or device.)
Functionality requirements gathering – assembling a list of the functionality required by the system to accomplish the goals of the project and the potential needs of the users.
User and task analysis – a form of field research, it is the analysis of the potential users of the system by studying how they perform the tasks that the design must support, and conducting interviews to elaborate their goals. Typical questions involve:
What would the user want the system to do?
How would the system fit in with the user's normal workflow or daily activities?
How technically savvy is the user and what similar systems does the user already use?
What interface look & feel styles appeal to the user?
Information architecture – development of the process and/or information flow of the system (i.e. for phone tree systems, this would be an option tree flowchart and for web sites this would be a site flow that shows the hierarchy of the pages).
Prototyping – development of wire-frames, either in the form of paper prototypes or simple interactive screens. These prototypes are stripped of all look & feel elements and most content in order to concentrate on the interface.
Usability inspection – letting an evaluator inspect a user interface. This is generally considered to be cheaper to implement than usability testing (see step below), and can be used early on in the development process since it can be used to evaluate prototypes or specifications for the system, which usually cannot be tested on users. Some common usability inspection methods include cognitive walkthrough, which focuses the simplicity to accomplish tasks with the system for new users, heuristic evaluation, in which a set of heuristics are used to identify usability problems in the UI design, and pluralistic walkthrough, in which a selected group of people step through a task scenario and discuss usability issues.
Usability testing – testing of the prototypes on an actual user—often using a technique called think aloud protocol where you ask the user to talk about their thoughts during the experience. User interface design testing allows the designer to understand the reception of the design from the viewer's standpoint, and thus facilitates creating successful applications.
Graphical user interface design – actual look and feel design of the final graphical user interface (GUI). These are design's control panels and faces; voice-controlled interfaces involve oral-auditory interaction, while gesture-based interfaces witness users engaging with 3D design spaces via bodily motions. It may be based on the findings developed during the user research, and refined to fix any usability problems found through the results of testing. Depending on the type of interface being created, this process typically involves some computer programming in order to validate forms, establish links or perform a desired action.
Software maintenance – after the deployment of a new interface, occasional maintenance may be required to fix software bugs, change features, or completely upgrade the system. Once a decision is made to upgrade the interface, the legacy system will undergo another version of the design process, and will begin to repeat the stages of the interface life cycle.
Requirements
The dynamic characteristics of a system are described in terms of the dialogue requirements contained in seven principles of part 10 of the ergonomics standard, the ISO 9241. This standard establishes a framework of ergonomic "principles" for the dialogue techniques with high-level definitions and illustrative applications and examples of the principles. The principles of the dialogue represent the dynamic aspects of the interface and can be mostly regarded as the "feel" of the interface.
The seven dialogue principles are:
Suitability for the task: the dialogue is suitable for a task when it supports the user in the effective and efficient completion of the task.
Self-descriptiveness: the dialogue is self-descriptive when each dialogue step is immediately comprehensible through feedback from the system or is explained to the user on request.
Controllability: the dialogue is controllable when the user is able to initiate and control the direction and pace of the interaction until the point at which the goal has been met.
Conformity with user expectations: the dialogue conforms with user expectations when it is consistent and corresponds to the user characteristics, such as task knowledge, education, experience, and to commonly accepted conventions.
Error tolerance: the dialogue is error-tolerant if, despite evident errors in input, the intended result may be achieved with either no or minimal action by the user.
Suitability for individualization: the dialogue is capable of individualization when the interface software can be modified to suit the task needs, individual preferences, and skills of the user.
Suitability for learning: the dialogue is suitable for learning when it supports and guides the user in learning to use the system.
The concept of usability is defined of the ISO 9241 standard by effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction of the user.
Part 11 gives the following definition of usability:
Usability is measured by the extent to which the intended goals of use of the overall system are achieved (effectiveness).
The resources that have to be expended to achieve the intended goals (efficiency).
The extent to which the user finds the overall system acceptable (satisfaction).
Effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction can be seen as quality factors of usability. To evaluate these factors, they need to be decomposed into sub-factors, and finally, into usability measures.
The information presented is described in Part 12 of the ISO 9241 standard for the organization of information (arrangement, alignment, grouping, labels, location), for the display of graphical objects, and for the coding of information (abbreviation, colour, size, shape, visual cues) by seven attributes. The "attributes of presented information" represent the static aspects of the interface and can be generally regarded as the "look" of the interface. The attributes are detailed in the recommendations given in the standard. Each of the recommendations supports one or more of the seven attributes.
The seven presentation attributes are:
Clarity: the information content is conveyed quickly and accurately.
Discriminability: the displayed information can be distinguished accurately.
Conciseness: users are not overloaded with extraneous information.
Consistency: a unique design, conformity with user's expectation.
Detectability: the user's attention is directed towards information required.
Legibility: information is easy to read.
Comprehensibility: the meaning is clearly understandable, unambiguous, interpretable, and recognizable.
The user guidance in Part 13 of the ISO 9241 standard describes that the user guidance information should be readily distinguishable from other displayed information and should be specific for the current context of use.
User guidance can be given by the following five means:
Prompts indicating explicitly (specific prompts) or implicitly (generic prompts) that the system is available for input.
Feedback informing about the user's input timely, perceptible, and non-intrusive.
Status information indicating the continuing state of the application, the system's hardware and software components, and the user's activities.
Error management including error prevention, error correction, user support for error management, and error messages.
On-line help for system-initiated and user-initiated requests with specific information for the current context of use.
Research
User interface design has been a topic of considerable research, including on its aesthetics. Standards have been developed as far back as the 1980s for defining the usability of software products.
One of the structural bases has become the IFIP user interface reference model.
The model proposes four dimensions to structure the user interface:
The input/output dimension (the look)
The dialogue dimension (the feel)
The technical or functional dimension (the access to tools and services)
The organizational dimension (the communication and co-operation support)
This model has greatly influenced the development of the international standard ISO 9241 describing the interface design requirements for usability.
The desire to understand application-specific UI issues early in software development, even as an application was being developed, led to research on GUI rapid prototyping tools that might offer convincing simulations of how an actual application might behave in production use. Some of this research has shown that a wide variety of programming tasks for GUI-based software can, in fact, be specified through means other than writing program code.
Research in recent years is strongly motivated by the increasing variety of devices that can, by virtue of Moore's law, host very complex interfaces.
See also
Wikiversity has learning resources about User interfaces
Chief experience officer (CXO)
Cognitive dimensions
Discoverability
Experience design
Gender HCI
Human interface guidelines
Human-computer interaction
Icon design
Information architecture
Interaction design
Interaction design pattern
Interaction Flow Modeling Language (IFML)
Interaction technique
Knowledge visualization
Look and feel
Mobile interaction
Natural mapping (interface design)
New Interfaces for Musical Expression
Participatory design
Principles of user interface design
Process-centered design
Progressive disclosure
T Layout
User experience design
User-centered design
References
^ Norman, D. A. (2002). "Emotion & Design: Attractive things work better". Interactions Magazine, ix (4). pp. 36–42. Archived from the original on Mar 28, 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2014 – via jnd.org.
^ Roth, Robert E. (April 17, 2017). "User Interface and User Experience (UI/UX) Design". Geographic Information Science & Technology Body of Knowledge. 2017 (Q2). doi:10.22224/gistbok/2017.2.5.
^ "The Definition of User Experience (UX)". Nielsen Norman Group. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
^ Wolf, Lauren (23 May 2012). "6 Tips for Designing an Optimal User Interface for Your Digital Event". INXPO. Archived from the original on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 22 May 2013.
^ Ann Blandford. "Semi-structured qualitative studies". The Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction, 2nd Ed. Interaction Design Foundation. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
^ Karen Holtzblatt and Hugh R. Beyer. "Contextual design". The Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction, 2nd Ed. Interaction Design Foundation. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
^ Martin Fowler. "Forms and control". GUI architecture. thoughtworks publication. Retrieved 20 February 2017.
^ "8 Stages in an HL7 Interface Lifecycle - Caristix". Caristix. 2010-10-05. Retrieved 2017-03-01.
^ "The role of context in perceptions of the aesthetics of web pages over time". International Journal of Human–Computer Studies. 2009-01-05. Retrieved 2009-04-02.
^ "The HUMANOID model of interface design". Proceedings CHI'92. 1992.
^ "Creating user interfaces using programming by example, visual programming, and constraints". ACM. 1990-04-11. Retrieved 2009-04-02.
^ "Past, present, and future of user interface software tools". ACM. 2000-03-01. Retrieved 2009-04-02.
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It is the result of processed user input and usually the primary interface for human-machine interaction. The touch user interfaces popular on small mobile devices are an overlay of the visual output to the visual input.User interface (UI) design or user interface engineering is the design of user interfaces for machines and software, such as computers, home appliances, mobile devices, and other electronic devices, with the focus on maximizing usability and the user experience. In computer or software design, user interface (UI) design primarily focuses on information architecture. It is the process of building interfaces that clearly communicate to the user what's important. UI design refers to graphical user interfaces and other forms of interface design. The goal of user interface design is to make the user's interaction as simple and efficient as possible, in terms of accomplishing user goals (user-centered design).User interfaces are the points of interaction between users and designs. There are three types:Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) – Users interact with visual representations on a computer's screen. The desktop is an example of a GUI.\nInterfaces controlled through voice – Users interact with these through their voices. Most smart assistants, such as Siri on smartphones or Alexa on Amazon devices, use voice control.\nInteractive interfaces utilizing gestures – Users interact with 3D design environments through their bodies, e.g., in virtual reality (VR) games.Interface design is involved in a wide range of projects, from computer systems, to cars, to commercial planes; all of these projects involve much of the same basic human interactions yet also require some unique skills and knowledge. As a result, designers tend to specialize in certain types of projects and have skills centered on their expertise, whether it is software design, user research, web design, or industrial design.Good user interface design facilitates finishing the task at hand without drawing unnecessary attention to itself. Graphic design and typography are utilized to support its usability, influencing how the user performs certain interactions and improving the aesthetic appeal of the design; design aesthetics may enhance or detract from the ability of users to use the functions of the interface.[1] The design process must balance technical functionality and visual elements (e.g., mental model) to create a system that is not only operational but also usable and adaptable to changing user needs.","title":"User interface design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"UX design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_experience_design"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Don Norman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Norman"},{"link_name":"Jakob Nielsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakob_Nielsen_(usability_consultant)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Compared to UX design, UI design is more about the surface and overall look of a design. User interface design is a craft in which designers perform an important function in creating the user experience. UI design should keep users informed about what is happening, giving appropriate feedback in a timely manner. The visual look and feel of UI design sets the tone for the user experience.[2] On the other hand, the term UX design refers to the entire process of creating a user experience.Don Norman and Jakob Nielsen said:It's important to distinguish the total user experience from the user interface (UI), even though the UI is obviously an extremely important part of the design. As an example, consider a website with movie reviews. Even if the UI for finding a film is perfect, the UX will be poor for a user who wants information about a small independent release if the underlying database only contains movies from the major studios. [3]","title":"Compared to UX design"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mobile_sketch_template.pdf"},{"link_name":"PDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDF"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"website","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Website"},{"link_name":"application","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_software"},{"link_name":"device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing_device"},{"link_name":"User","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_analysis"},{"link_name":"task analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_analysis"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Information architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_architecture"},{"link_name":"wire-frames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Website_wireframe"},{"link_name":"paper prototypes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_prototypes"},{"link_name":"cognitive walkthrough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_walkthrough"},{"link_name":"heuristic evaluation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_evaluation"},{"link_name":"pluralistic walkthrough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralistic_walkthrough"},{"link_name":"Usability testing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usability_testing"},{"link_name":"think aloud protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Think_aloud_protocol"},{"link_name":"look and feel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Look_and_feel"},{"link_name":"graphical user interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Software maintenance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_maintenance"},{"link_name":"software bugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_bug"},{"link_name":"legacy system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legacy_system"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Printable template for mobile and desktop app design (PDF)User interface design requires a good understanding of user needs. It mainly focuses on the needs of the platform and its user expectations. There are several phases and processes in the user interface design, some of which are more demanded upon than others, depending on the project.[4] (Note: for the remainder of this section, the word system is used to denote any project whether it is a website, application, or device.)Functionality requirements gathering – assembling a list of the functionality required by the system to accomplish the goals of the project and the potential needs of the users.\nUser and task analysis – a form of field research, it is the analysis of the potential users of the system by studying how they perform the tasks that the design must support, and conducting interviews to elaborate their goals.[5] Typical questions involve:\nWhat would the user want the system to do?\nHow would the system fit in with the user's normal workflow or daily activities?\nHow technically savvy is the user and what similar systems does the user already use?\nWhat interface look & feel styles appeal to the user?\nInformation architecture – development of the process and/or information flow of the system (i.e. for phone tree systems, this would be an option tree flowchart and for web sites this would be a site flow that shows the hierarchy of the pages).\nPrototyping – development of wire-frames, either in the form of paper prototypes or simple interactive screens. These prototypes are stripped of all look & feel elements and most content in order to concentrate on the interface.\nUsability inspection – letting an evaluator inspect a user interface. This is generally considered to be cheaper to implement than usability testing (see step below), and can be used early on in the development process since it can be used to evaluate prototypes or specifications for the system, which usually cannot be tested on users. Some common usability inspection methods include cognitive walkthrough, which focuses the simplicity to accomplish tasks with the system for new users, heuristic evaluation, in which a set of heuristics are used to identify usability problems in the UI design, and pluralistic walkthrough, in which a selected group of people step through a task scenario and discuss usability issues.\nUsability testing – testing of the prototypes on an actual user—often using a technique called think aloud protocol where you ask the user to talk about their thoughts during the experience. User interface design testing allows the designer to understand the reception of the design from the viewer's standpoint, and thus facilitates creating successful applications.\nGraphical user interface design – actual look and feel design of the final graphical user interface (GUI). These are design's control panels and faces; voice-controlled interfaces involve oral-auditory interaction, while gesture-based interfaces witness users engaging with 3D design spaces via bodily motions. It may be based on the findings developed during the user research, and refined to fix any usability problems found through the results of testing.[6] Depending on the type of interface being created, this process typically involves some computer programming in order to validate forms, establish links or perform a desired action.[7]\nSoftware maintenance – after the deployment of a new interface, occasional maintenance may be required to fix software bugs, change features, or completely upgrade the system. Once a decision is made to upgrade the interface, the legacy system will undergo another version of the design process, and will begin to repeat the stages of the interface life cycle.[8]","title":"Processes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISO 9241","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_9241"},{"link_name":"ISO 9241","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_9241"},{"link_name":"ISO 9241","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_9241"},{"link_name":"ISO 9241","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_9241"}],"text":"The dynamic characteristics of a system are described in terms of the dialogue requirements contained in seven principles of part 10 of the ergonomics standard, the ISO 9241. This standard establishes a framework of ergonomic \"principles\" for the dialogue techniques with high-level definitions and illustrative applications and examples of the principles. The principles of the dialogue represent the dynamic aspects of the interface and can be mostly regarded as the \"feel\" of the interface.The seven dialogue principles are:Suitability for the task: the dialogue is suitable for a task when it supports the user in the effective and efficient completion of the task.\nSelf-descriptiveness: the dialogue is self-descriptive when each dialogue step is immediately comprehensible through feedback from the system or is explained to the user on request.\nControllability: the dialogue is controllable when the user is able to initiate and control the direction and pace of the interaction until the point at which the goal has been met.\nConformity with user expectations: the dialogue conforms with user expectations when it is consistent and corresponds to the user characteristics, such as task knowledge, education, experience, and to commonly accepted conventions.\nError tolerance: the dialogue is error-tolerant if, despite evident errors in input, the intended result may be achieved with either no or minimal action by the user.\nSuitability for individualization: the dialogue is capable of individualization when the interface software can be modified to suit the task needs, individual preferences, and skills of the user.\nSuitability for learning: the dialogue is suitable for learning when it supports and guides the user in learning to use the system.The concept of usability is defined of the ISO 9241 standard by effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction of the user.Part 11 gives the following definition of usability:Usability is measured by the extent to which the intended goals of use of the overall system are achieved (effectiveness).\nThe resources that have to be expended to achieve the intended goals (efficiency).\nThe extent to which the user finds the overall system acceptable (satisfaction).Effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction can be seen as quality factors of usability. To evaluate these factors, they need to be decomposed into sub-factors, and finally, into usability measures.The information presented is described in Part 12 of the ISO 9241 standard for the organization of information (arrangement, alignment, grouping, labels, location), for the display of graphical objects, and for the coding of information (abbreviation, colour, size, shape, visual cues) by seven attributes. The \"attributes of presented information\" represent the static aspects of the interface and can be generally regarded as the \"look\" of the interface. The attributes are detailed in the recommendations given in the standard. Each of the recommendations supports one or more of the seven attributes.The seven presentation attributes are:Clarity: the information content is conveyed quickly and accurately.\nDiscriminability: the displayed information can be distinguished accurately.\nConciseness: users are not overloaded with extraneous information.\nConsistency: a unique design, conformity with user's expectation.\nDetectability: the user's attention is directed towards information required.\nLegibility: information is easy to read.\nComprehensibility: the meaning is clearly understandable, unambiguous, interpretable, and recognizable.The user guidance in Part 13 of the ISO 9241 standard describes that the user guidance information should be readily distinguishable from other displayed information and should be specific for the current context of use.User guidance can be given by the following five means:Prompts indicating explicitly (specific prompts) or implicitly (generic prompts) that the system is available for input.\nFeedback informing about the user's input timely, perceptible, and non-intrusive.\nStatus information indicating the continuing state of the application, the system's hardware and software components, and the user's activities.\nError management including error prevention, error correction, user support for error management, and error messages.\nOn-line help for system-initiated and user-initiated requests with specific information for the current context of use.","title":"Requirements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"aesthetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_role_of_context_in_perceptions_of_the_aesthetics_of_web_pages_over_time-9"},{"link_name":"ISO 9241","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_9241"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HUMANOID-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ACM_Transactions_on_Programming_Languages_and_Systems-11"},{"link_name":"Moore's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore%27s_law"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ACM_Transactions_on_Computer%E2%80%93Human_Interaction_(TOCHI)-12"}],"text":"User interface design has been a topic of considerable research, including on its aesthetics.[9] Standards have been developed as far back as the 1980s for defining the usability of software products.\nOne of the structural bases has become the IFIP user interface reference model.The model proposes four dimensions to structure the user interface:The input/output dimension (the look)\nThe dialogue dimension (the feel)\nThe technical or functional dimension (the access to tools and services)\nThe organizational dimension (the communication and co-operation support)This model has greatly influenced the development of the international standard ISO 9241 describing the interface design requirements for usability.\nThe desire to understand application-specific UI issues early in software development, even as an application was being developed, led to research on GUI rapid prototyping tools that might offer convincing simulations of how an actual application might behave in production use.[10] Some of this research has shown that a wide variety of programming tasks for GUI-based software can, in fact, be specified through means other than writing program code.[11]Research in recent years is strongly motivated by the increasing variety of devices that can, by virtue of Moore's law, host very complex interfaces.[12]","title":"Research"}]
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[{"image_text":"The graphical user interface is presented (displayed) on the computer screen. It is the result of processed user input and usually the primary interface for human-machine interaction. The touch user interfaces popular on small mobile devices are an overlay of the visual output to the visual input.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Linux_kernel_INPUT_OUPUT_evdev_gem_USB_framebuffer.svg/350px-Linux_kernel_INPUT_OUPUT_evdev_gem_USB_framebuffer.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Printable template for mobile and desktop app design (PDF)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Mobile_sketch_template.pdf/page1-300px-Mobile_sketch_template.pdf.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"User interfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User_interfaces"},{"title":"Chief experience officer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_experience_officer"},{"title":"Cognitive dimensions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dimensions"},{"title":"Discoverability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability"},{"title":"Experience design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience_design"},{"title":"Gender HCI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_HCI"},{"title":"Human interface guidelines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_interface_guidelines"},{"title":"Human-computer interaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-computer_interaction"},{"title":"Icon design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icon_design"},{"title":"Information architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_architecture"},{"title":"Interaction design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaction_design"},{"title":"Interaction design pattern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaction_design_pattern"},{"title":"Interaction Flow Modeling Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaction_Flow_Modeling_Language"},{"title":"IFML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFML"},{"title":"Interaction technique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaction_technique"},{"title":"Knowledge visualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_visualization"},{"title":"Look and feel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Look_and_feel"},{"title":"Mobile interaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_interaction"},{"title":"Natural mapping (interface design)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_mapping_(interface_design)"},{"title":"New Interfaces for Musical Expression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Interfaces_for_Musical_Expression"},{"title":"Participatory design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_design"},{"title":"Principles of user interface design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_user_interface_design"},{"title":"Process-centered design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process-centered_design"},{"title":"Progressive disclosure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_disclosure"},{"title":"T Layout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_Layout"},{"title":"User experience design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_experience_design"},{"title":"User-centered design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User-centered_design"}]
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[{"reference":"Norman, D. A. (2002). \"Emotion & Design: Attractive things work better\". Interactions Magazine, ix (4). pp. 36–42. Archived from the original on Mar 28, 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2014 – via jnd.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190328233305/https://jnd.org/emotion_design_attractive_things_work_better/","url_text":"\"Emotion & Design: Attractive things work better\""},{"url":"https://jnd.org/emotion_design_attractive_things_work_better","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Roth, Robert E. (April 17, 2017). \"User Interface and User Experience (UI/UX) Design\". Geographic Information Science & Technology Body of Knowledge. 2017 (Q2). doi:10.22224/gistbok/2017.2.5.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.22224%2Fgistbok%2F2017.2.5","url_text":"\"User Interface and User Experience (UI/UX) Design\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.22224%2Fgistbok%2F2017.2.5","url_text":"10.22224/gistbok/2017.2.5"}]},{"reference":"\"The Definition of User Experience (UX)\". Nielsen Norman Group. Retrieved 13 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nngroup.com/articles/definition-user-experience/","url_text":"\"The Definition of User Experience (UX)\""}]},{"reference":"Wolf, Lauren (23 May 2012). \"6 Tips for Designing an Optimal User Interface for Your Digital Event\". INXPO. Archived from the original on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 22 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20130616121623/http://web.inxpo.com/casting-calls/bid/105506/6-Tips-for-Designing-an-Optimal-User-Interface-for-Your-Digital-Event","url_text":"\"6 Tips for Designing an Optimal User Interface for Your Digital Event\""},{"url":"http://web.inxpo.com/casting-calls/bid/105506/6-Tips-for-Designing-an-Optimal-User-Interface-for-Your-Digital-Event","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Ann Blandford. \"Semi-structured qualitative studies\". The Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction, 2nd Ed. Interaction Design Foundation. Retrieved 20 April 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/semi-structured_qualitative_studies.html","url_text":"\"Semi-structured qualitative studies\""}]},{"reference":"Karen Holtzblatt and Hugh R. Beyer. \"Contextual design\". The Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction, 2nd Ed. Interaction Design Foundation. Retrieved 20 April 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/contextual_design.html","url_text":"\"Contextual design\""}]},{"reference":"Martin Fowler. \"Forms and control\". GUI architecture. thoughtworks publication. Retrieved 20 February 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://martinfowler.com/eaaDev/uiArchs.html","url_text":"\"Forms and control\""}]},{"reference":"\"8 Stages in an HL7 Interface Lifecycle - Caristix\". Caristix. 2010-10-05. Retrieved 2017-03-01.","urls":[{"url":"http://caristix.com/blog/2010/10/8-stages-in-an-hl7-interface-lifecycle/","url_text":"\"8 Stages in an HL7 Interface Lifecycle - Caristix\""}]},{"reference":"\"The role of context in perceptions of the aesthetics of web pages over time\". International Journal of Human–Computer Studies. 2009-01-05. Retrieved 2009-04-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1464532.1465384&coll=GUIDE&dl=GUIDE&CFID=27731682&CFTOKEN=18425618","url_text":"\"The role of context in perceptions of the aesthetics of web pages over time\""}]},{"reference":"\"The HUMANOID model of interface design\". Proceedings CHI'92. 1992.","urls":[{"url":"http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/old/szekely92facilitating.html","url_text":"\"The HUMANOID model of interface design\""}]},{"reference":"\"Creating user interfaces using programming by example, visual programming, and constraints\". ACM. 1990-04-11. Retrieved 2009-04-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=78942.78943&coll=GUIDE&dl=GUIDE&CFID=27731682&CFTOKEN=18425618","url_text":"\"Creating user interfaces using programming by example, visual programming, and constraints\""}]},{"reference":"\"Past, present, and future of user interface software tools\". ACM. 2000-03-01. Retrieved 2009-04-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=344949.344959&coll=GUIDE&dl=GUIDE&CFID=27731682&CFTOKEN=18425618","url_text":"\"Past, present, and future of user interface software tools\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railroad_Gazette
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Railroad Gazette
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["1 History","2 Content","3 Selected works","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]
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19th century trade journal
The cover of Railroad Gazette, June 17, 1904 to December 31, 1904.
Railroad Gazette (originally, Western Railroad Gazette) was a trade journal that focused on railroad, transportation and engineering topics from 1856 until 1908, when it purchased its main rival and became the publication today known as Railway Age.
History
In April 1856, Stanley C. Fowler, assisted by James J. Schock, began publishing the trade journal Western Railroad Gazette from offices at 128 South Clark Street in Chicago, Illinois. It focused on railroad news, transportation and engineering, and included news and commentary. The publication found an audience among master mechanics, who used it to learn about and discuss railroad management and technology.
In 1870, Fowler sold the journal to Ansel Nash "A.N." Kellogg, who renamed it Railroad Gazette and retained Schock. (Another Railroad Gazette had been established in 1843 in Rogersville, Tennessee; it focused on "internal improvement".)
Later Railroad Gazette editors included Silas Wright Dunning. In the 1870s, the publication was edited by Matthias Nace Forney, who in 1866 had patented a concept for urban elevated railways that "later became the de facto standard for elevated railway service".
From 1884 to early 1887, the publication was edited by Arthur Mellen Wellington, who used it to publish his work The Economic Theory of the Location of Railroads, first as a series of articles in 1876, then as a book in 1877.
The American landscape architect Horace Cleveland contributed articles about tree planting efforts in the western United States.
In June 1908, the publication purchased its chief rival, The Railway Age, founded in 1876 in Chicago. It changed its title to Railroad Age Gazette, then in January 1910, to Railway Age Gazette. In 1918, it became The Railway Age for good.
Content
In February–June 1872, Railroad Gazette published a series of articles written by a person using the pen name "Hindoo", and reader comments in response to the articles. Hindoo was a British colonial official who was visiting the United States, who stated that the Indian railway system very rarely had problems with head-on and rear-end collisions, which were more frequent in the United States. Hindoo proposed that this was due to the manner in which Indian train stations dispatched trains using telegraphs, in which a system was used whereby each train station acted as a "blocking point." This blocking point system was originally devised by the British railroad industry, and forbade trains from leaving a station until a telegraph was received from the next station stating that the line was clear, upon which a clearance card was issued to the train operator. Hindoo felt that the U.S. system placed too much responsibility upon a single dispatcher, who would "oversee all freight and passenger train movements on a division."
Hindoo's articles provided a comparison of safety matters between Indian and American railway systems, comparisons of management systems and styles and comparisons in train dispatching methods. A main contributor to the ongoing discussion was a reader using the pen name "X", and several other readers also responded. In a response, X stated that the U.S. system was less expensive and more efficient compared to British and Indian methods, and posited whether another system could be used that is both cost effective and safe. Additional reader responses generally concurred with X's opinion, but did not provide solid suggestions about how to remedy such problems. One respondent stated that some of the comparisons were faulty as being based upon U.S. railway lines that did not use telegraphic dispatching. This discourse in Railroad Gazette during this time also covered various aspects of problems and flaws in the American railroad system, and potential reforms to remedy these problems.
An article published on April 18, 1884, in Railroad Gazette, written by railroad engineer Horatio Allen and titled "The First Railroad in America", states that the author (Allen) was the operator of the first locomotive run in the United States on a railroad. Allen stated that on August 9, 1829, he ran a locomotive named Stourbridge Lion in Pennsylvania "three miles and back over rails of wood upon which bar iron 2 ¼ inches wide and 1 ½ inch thick was spiked down".
Railroad Gazette reported about the electrification of the Erie Railroad's Rochester Division.
Selected works
Armstrong, Henry E. (September 16, 1904). "Early Transportation in New York". Railroad Gazette, Volume 37, No. 14.
A list of accessible Railroad Gazette issues may be accessed at Railroad gazette, published by the Hathi Trust Digital Library.
See also
Trains portalLiterature portal
List of American rail transport magazines
References
^ Railroad Gazette. Railroad Gazette. 1904.
^ Railroad gazette : a journal of transportation, engineering, and railroad news. World Cat. OCLC 310961433.
^ Fisk, Catherine L. (2009). Working Knowledge. Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 135. ISBN 978-0807899069.
^ "Railroad Gazette". Railroad Gazette. September 7, 1870. p. 1. Retrieved May 16, 2015.
^ Camp, Mark J. (2006). Railroad Depots of West Central Ohio. Arcadia Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 0738540099.
^ Trachtenberg, A. (1979). Brooklyn Bridge: Fact and Symbol. A Phoenix book. University of Chicago Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-226-81115-4.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Schwantes, B.S.M. (2008). Fallible Guardian: The Social Construction of Railroad Telegraphy in 19th-century America. University of Delaware. pp. 185–190. ISBN 978-0-549-92497-5. (subscription required)
^ "Western Railroad Gazette — Browse by title — Illinois Digital Newspaper Collections". idnc.library.illinois.edu. Retrieved April 30, 2024.
^ Watson, Elmo Scott, A History of Newspaper Syndicates in the United States, 1865–1935, p. 12, Chicago, 1936.
^ Kellogg, Ansel Nash 1832 – 1886, Wisconsin Historical Society
^ Foster, Austin P. (2009). Counties of Tennessee. Genealogical Publishing. p. 21. ISBN 978-0806350615.
^ Puffert, Douglas J. (2009). Tracks Across Continents, Paths Through History. University of Chicago Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-0226685090.
^ White, J.H. (1985). The American Railroad Passenger Car. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-8018-2747-1.
^ Cudahy, B.J. (2002). How We Got to Coney Island: The Development of Mass Transportation in Brooklyn and Kings County. Fordham University Press Series. Fordham University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-8232-2209-4.
^ a b c Petroski, Henry (2010). Engineers of Dreams. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 196–197. ISBN 978-0307773135.
^ Wellington, Arthur Mellen (1887). The Economic Theory of the Location of Railways. Railroad gazette.
^ Cleveland, H.W.S.; History, Library of American Landscape (1873). Landscape Architecture, as Applied to the Wants of the West: With an Essay on Forest Planting on the Great Plains. American Society of Landscape Architects centennial reprint series. University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 978-1-55849-330-8.
^ "150 Years of Publishing". Railway Age. September 2006. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015.
^ a b Allen, Horatio (April 18, 1884). "The First Railroad in America". Daily Gazette and Bulletin (Williamsport, Pennsylvania). Retrieved May 16, 2015.
^ "The Electrification of Erie Railroad's Rochester Division". The Diamond. 20 (2). Erie Lackawanna Historical Society. 2006. Retrieved May 16, 2015.
Further reading
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Railroad Gazette
Ripley, William Z. (2000). Railroads: Finance & Organizations. Beard Books. p. 35. ISBN 1587980746.
Leab, Daniel J. (1985). The Labor History Reader. University of Illinois Press. p. 146. ISBN 0252011988.
External links
Railroad gazette. WorldCat. OCLC 1820912.
Railroad Gazette. Bestfriendofcharleston.org. – contains excerpts from the edition of April 11, 1874 of Railroad Gazette
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Fowler, assisted by James J. Schock, began publishing the trade journal Western Railroad Gazette from offices at 128 South Clark Street in Chicago, Illinois.[1] It focused on railroad news, transportation and engineering, and included news and commentary.[2] The publication found an audience among master mechanics, who used it to learn about and discuss railroad management and technology.[3][4][5][6][7]In 1870, Fowler sold the journal to Ansel Nash \"A.N.\" Kellogg, who renamed it Railroad Gazette[8] and retained Schock.[9][10] (Another Railroad Gazette had been established in 1843 in Rogersville, Tennessee; it focused on \"internal improvement\".[11])Later Railroad Gazette editors included Silas Wright Dunning. In the 1870s,[12][13] the publication was edited by Matthias Nace Forney, who in 1866 had patented a concept for urban elevated railways that \"later became the de facto standard for elevated railway service\".[14]From 1884 to early 1887,[15] the publication was edited by Arthur Mellen Wellington, who used it to publish his work The Economic Theory of the Location of Railroads, first as a series of articles in 1876,[15] then as a book in 1877.[15][16]The American landscape architect Horace Cleveland contributed articles about tree planting efforts in the western United States.[17]In June 1908, the publication purchased its chief rival, The Railway Age, founded in 1876 in Chicago. It changed its title to Railroad Age Gazette, then in January 1910, to Railway Age Gazette. In 1918, it became The Railway Age for good.[18]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schwantes_2008-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schwantes_2008-7"},{"link_name":"dispatched","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispatching"},{"link_name":"telegraphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_telegraph"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schwantes_2008-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schwantes_2008-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schwantes_2008-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schwantes_2008-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schwantes_2008-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schwantes_2008-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schwantes_2008-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schwantes_2008-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schwantes_2008-7"},{"link_name":"railroad engineer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railroad_engineer"},{"link_name":"Horatio Allen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio_Allen"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Allen-19"},{"link_name":"Stourbridge Lion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stourbridge_Lion"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Allen-19"},{"link_name":"electrification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrification"},{"link_name":"Erie Railroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erie_Railroad"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Diamond-20"}],"text":"In February–June 1872, Railroad Gazette published a series of articles written by a person using the pen name \"Hindoo\", and reader comments in response to the articles.[7] Hindoo was a British colonial official who was visiting the United States, who stated that the Indian railway system very rarely had problems with head-on and rear-end collisions, which were more frequent in the United States.[7] Hindoo proposed that this was due to the manner in which Indian train stations dispatched trains using telegraphs, in which a system was used whereby each train station acted as a \"blocking point.\"[7] This blocking point system was originally devised by the British railroad industry, and forbade trains from leaving a station until a telegraph was received from the next station stating that the line was clear, upon which a clearance card was issued to the train operator.[7] Hindoo felt that the U.S. system placed too much responsibility upon a single dispatcher, who would \"oversee all freight and passenger train movements on a division.\"[7]Hindoo's articles provided a comparison of safety matters between Indian and American railway systems, comparisons of management systems and styles and comparisons in train dispatching methods.[7] A main contributor to the ongoing discussion was a reader using the pen name \"X\", and several other readers also responded.[7] In a response, X stated that the U.S. system was less expensive and more efficient compared to British and Indian methods, and posited whether another system could be used that is both cost effective and safe.[7] Additional reader responses generally concurred with X's opinion, but did not provide solid suggestions about how to remedy such problems.[7] One respondent stated that some of the comparisons were faulty as being based upon U.S. railway lines that did not use telegraphic dispatching.[7] This discourse in Railroad Gazette during this time also covered various aspects of problems and flaws in the American railroad system, and potential reforms to remedy these problems.[7]An article published on April 18, 1884, in Railroad Gazette, written by railroad engineer Horatio Allen and titled \"The First Railroad in America\", states that the author (Allen) was the operator of the first locomotive run in the United States on a railroad.[19] Allen stated that on August 9, 1829, he ran a locomotive named Stourbridge Lion in Pennsylvania \"three miles and back over rails of wood upon which bar iron 2 ¼ inches wide and 1 ½ inch thick was spiked down\".[19]Railroad Gazette reported about the electrification of the Erie Railroad's Rochester Division.[20]","title":"Content"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Early Transportation in New York\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=PutQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA338"},{"link_name":"Railroad gazette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000677833"}],"text":"Armstrong, Henry E. (September 16, 1904). \"Early Transportation in New York\". Railroad Gazette, Volume 37, No. 14.\nA list of accessible Railroad Gazette issues may be accessed at Railroad gazette, published by the Hathi Trust Digital Library.","title":"Selected works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wikisource","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource"},{"link_name":"Railroad Gazette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Railroad_Gazette"},{"link_name":"Railroads: Finance & Organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=c8mDJHl9L40C&pg=PA35"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1587980746","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1587980746"},{"link_name":"The Labor History Reader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=XSybNRCfYn0C&pg=PA146"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0252011988","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0252011988"}],"text":"Wikisource has original text related to this article:\nRailroad GazetteRipley, William Z. (2000). Railroads: Finance & Organizations. Beard Books. p. 35. ISBN 1587980746.\nLeab, Daniel J. (1985). The Labor History Reader. University of Illinois Press. p. 146. ISBN 0252011988.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"reference":"Armstrong, Henry E. (September 16, 1904). \"Early Transportation in New York\". Railroad Gazette, Volume 37, No. 14.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PutQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA338","url_text":"\"Early Transportation in New York\""}]},{"reference":"Railroad Gazette. Railroad Gazette. 1904.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/railwayage37newy#page/n5/mode/2up","url_text":"Railroad Gazette"}]},{"reference":"Railroad gazette : a journal of transportation, engineering, and railroad news. World Cat. OCLC 310961433.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/310961433","url_text":"310961433"}]},{"reference":"Fisk, Catherine L. (2009). Working Knowledge. Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 135. ISBN 978-0807899069.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Tp3uTkhIpjcC&pg=PA135","url_text":"Working Knowledge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0807899069","url_text":"978-0807899069"}]},{"reference":"\"Railroad Gazette\". Railroad Gazette. September 7, 1870. p. 1. Retrieved May 16, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/railwayage37newy#page/n21/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Railroad Gazette\""}]},{"reference":"Camp, Mark J. (2006). Railroad Depots of West Central Ohio. Arcadia Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 0738540099.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=11o44vsxtGwC&pg=PA6","url_text":"Railroad Depots of West Central Ohio"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0738540099","url_text":"0738540099"}]},{"reference":"Trachtenberg, A. (1979). Brooklyn Bridge: Fact and Symbol. A Phoenix book. University of Chicago Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-226-81115-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/brooklynbridgefa0000trac","url_text":"Brooklyn Bridge: Fact and Symbol"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/brooklynbridgefa0000trac/page/111","url_text":"111"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-81115-4","url_text":"978-0-226-81115-4"}]},{"reference":"Schwantes, B.S.M. (2008). Fallible Guardian: The Social Construction of Railroad Telegraphy in 19th-century America. University of Delaware. pp. 185–190. ISBN 978-0-549-92497-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=II5DpIxQGQcC&pg=PA185","url_text":"Fallible Guardian: The Social Construction of Railroad Telegraphy in 19th-century America"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-549-92497-5","url_text":"978-0-549-92497-5"}]},{"reference":"\"Western Railroad Gazette — Browse by title — Illinois Digital Newspaper Collections\". idnc.library.illinois.edu. Retrieved April 30, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://idnc.library.illinois.edu/cgi-bin/illinois?a=cl&cl=CL1&sp=WRG&e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN----------","url_text":"\"Western Railroad Gazette — Browse by title — Illinois Digital Newspaper Collections\""}]},{"reference":"Foster, Austin P. (2009). Counties of Tennessee. Genealogical Publishing. p. 21. ISBN 978-0806350615.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0vQ9Ml-6C6oC&pg=PA21","url_text":"Counties of Tennessee"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0806350615","url_text":"978-0806350615"}]},{"reference":"Puffert, Douglas J. (2009). Tracks Across Continents, Paths Through History. University of Chicago Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-0226685090.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=FzAqtQ2mPJQC&pg=PA132","url_text":"Tracks Across Continents, Paths Through History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226685090","url_text":"978-0226685090"}]},{"reference":"White, J.H. (1985). The American Railroad Passenger Car. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-8018-2747-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bz0OBGxRjjcC&pg=PA379","url_text":"The American Railroad Passenger Car"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2747-1","url_text":"978-0-8018-2747-1"}]},{"reference":"Cudahy, B.J. (2002). How We Got to Coney Island: The Development of Mass Transportation in Brooklyn and Kings County. Fordham University Press Series. Fordham University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-8232-2209-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/howwegottoconeyi0000cuda","url_text":"How We Got to Coney Island: The Development of Mass Transportation in Brooklyn and Kings County"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/howwegottoconeyi0000cuda/page/114","url_text":"114"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-2209-4","url_text":"978-0-8232-2209-4"}]},{"reference":"Petroski, Henry (2010). Engineers of Dreams. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 196–197. ISBN 978-0307773135.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1J9qUcgoUvkC&pg=PA196","url_text":"Engineers of Dreams"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0307773135","url_text":"978-0307773135"}]},{"reference":"Wellington, Arthur Mellen (1887). The Economic Theory of the Location of Railways. Railroad gazette.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tPIoAAAAYAAJ","url_text":"The Economic Theory of the Location of Railways"}]},{"reference":"Cleveland, H.W.S.; History, Library of American Landscape (1873). Landscape Architecture, as Applied to the Wants of the West: With an Essay on Forest Planting on the Great Plains. American Society of Landscape Architects centennial reprint series. University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 978-1-55849-330-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=oL1rrMaab-cC&pg=PR69","url_text":"Landscape Architecture, as Applied to the Wants of the West: With an Essay on Forest Planting on the Great Plains"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55849-330-8","url_text":"978-1-55849-330-8"}]},{"reference":"\"150 Years of Publishing\". Railway Age. September 2006. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150924141146/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-152585456.html","url_text":"\"150 Years of Publishing\""},{"url":"http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-152585456.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Allen, Horatio (April 18, 1884). \"The First Railroad in America\". Daily Gazette and Bulletin (Williamsport, Pennsylvania). Retrieved May 16, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://genealogytrails.com/penn/wayne/news.html","url_text":"\"The First Railroad in America\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Electrification of Erie Railroad's Rochester Division\". The Diamond. 20 (2). Erie Lackawanna Historical Society. 2006. Retrieved May 16, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.erielackhs.org/index.php/prototype/44-structures/17-the-electrification-of-erie-railroads-rochester-division","url_text":"\"The Electrification of Erie Railroad's Rochester Division\""}]},{"reference":"Ripley, William Z. (2000). Railroads: Finance & Organizations. Beard Books. p. 35. ISBN 1587980746.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=c8mDJHl9L40C&pg=PA35","url_text":"Railroads: Finance & Organizations"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1587980746","url_text":"1587980746"}]},{"reference":"Leab, Daniel J. (1985). The Labor History Reader. University of Illinois Press. p. 146. ISBN 0252011988.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=XSybNRCfYn0C&pg=PA146","url_text":"The Labor History Reader"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0252011988","url_text":"0252011988"}]},{"reference":"Railroad gazette. WorldCat. OCLC 1820912.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1820912","url_text":"1820912"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Archibald_Dunning
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William Archibald Dunning
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["1 Early life and education","2 Career","3 School of thought","4 Criticism","5 Works","6 References","7 Further reading"]
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American historian noted for the "Dunning School"
William Archibald DunningBorn(1857-05-12)12 May 1857Plainfield, New Jersey, USDied25 August 1922(1922-08-25) (aged 65)Occupation(s)Professor, authorParent(s)John H. Dunning and Catherine D. TreleaseAcademic backgroundAlma materColumbia UniversityInfluencesHeinrich von TreitschkeAcademic workSchool or traditionDunning SchoolInstitutionsColumbia UniversityNotable studentsCharles MerriamInfluenced
Harry Elmer Barnes
James Wilford Garner
Carlton J. H. Hayes
Walter Lynwood Fleming
J. G. de Roulhac Hamilton
Charles W. Ramsdell
U. B. Phillips
William Archibald Dunning (12 May 1857 – 25 August 1922) was an American historian and political scientist at Columbia University noted for his work on the Reconstruction era of the United States. He founded the informal Dunning School of interpreting the Reconstruction era through his own writings and the Ph.D. dissertations of his numerous students.
Dunning has been criticized for advocating white supremacist interpretations, his "blatant use of the discipline of history for reactionary ends" and for offering "scholarly legitimacy to the disenfranchisement of southern blacks and to the Jim Crow system."
Early life and education
Born in Plainfield, New Jersey, Dunning was the son of a successful businessman who enjoyed the classics. Dunning earned degrees at Columbia University (B.A. 1881, M.A. 1884, and Ph.D. 1885). He spent a year in Berlin studying European history under Heinrich von Treitschke.
Soon after his return and beginning his academic career, in 1888 he married Charlotte E. Loomis. They had no children. She died in 1917.
Career
Dunning began teaching at Columbia and was steadily promoted on the academic ladder (fellow, lecturer, instructor, adjunct professor, and full professor); in 1903 he was appointed as the Francis Lieber Professor of History and Political Philosophy.
He published his PhD dissertation, The Constitution of the United States in Civil War and Reconstruction: 1860–1867 (1897), at age 40 after he had been teaching for several years.
His scholarly essays, collected in Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction and Related Topics, (1897), included work that explained the legal basis for the destruction of slavery, an institution he opposed. His survey Reconstruction, Political and Economic: 1865–1877 (1907), for the "American Nation" series, set the tone. Dunning believed that his Reconstruction book was too superficial. He felt that it had distracted him from his major work on the history of political theory.
Dunning had a dual role in history and political science. He was a long-time editor of Political Science Quarterly. He was a leading expert in the history of political thought, as expressed in his trilogy: A History of Political Theories: Ancient and Medieval (1902), From Luther to Montesquieu (1905), and From Rousseau to Spencer (1920).
Although his health was poor after 1903, Dunning wrote numerous scholarly articles and book reviews for the American Historical Review and the Political Science Quarterly, which he edited from 1894 to 1903. Dunning was a founder and long-time activist of the American Historical Association, becoming AHA president in 1913. He served as the president of the American Political Science Association in 1922.
Evaluating his contributions in 2000, Smith says Dunning was far more important as a graduate teacher than as a research scholar. Columbia was a leading producer of PhDs, and Dunning directed much graduate work in U.S. history and in European political thought. His students included men who became leading scholars and academic entrepreneurs, such as Charles Merriam, Harry Elmer Barnes, James Wilford Garner and Carlton J. H. Hayes. He also mentored C. Mildred Thompson, the history professor who became dean at Vassar College. Thompson drafted the charter for UNESCO (the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization), and worked for civil rights in Atlanta.
Dunning gave lifelong support to his students, providing continuous encouragement in their careers. They honored him with a Festschrift in 1914, Studies in Southern History and Politics Inscribed to William Archibald Dunning . . . by His Former Pupils the Authors (1914).
School of thought
Main article: Dunning School
Many Southerners (and some Northerners) took PhDs in History under Dunning and returned to the South for academic careers, where they dominated the major history departments. Those who wrote dissertations on Reconstruction included James W. Garner, Walter Lynwood Fleming, J. G. de Roulhac Hamilton, Charles W. Ramsdell, C. Mildred Thompson, William Watson Davis, and Thomas S. Staple. They comprised the so-called "Dunning School". Their interpretation of post-Civil War Reconstruction was the dominant theory taught in American universities through much of the first half of the 20th century. Bradley says, "The Dunning school condemned Reconstruction as a conspiracy by vindictive radical Republicans to subjugate southern whites at bayonet point, using federal troops to prop up corrupt state regimes led by an unholy trinity of carpetbaggers, scalawags, and freedmen." Bradley notes that the Dunning interpretation in the 1930s and 1940s also "received compelling treatment in such popular works as Claude Bowers’s The Tragic Era and Margaret Mitchell’s Gone with the Wind—both the best-selling novel and the blockbuster film."
According to Dunning, Reconstruction's players include the "carpetbaggers", particularly new white arrivals from the North, whom the Dunning School portrayed as greedy interlopers exploiting the South and dominating the Republican Party; the "scalawags", native southern whites collaborating with the Republicans; and the freedmen, whom the Dunning School portrayed as tools of the carpetbaggers with little independent voice. He was sympathetic to the white Southerners, whom they saw as being stripped of their rights after 1865 by a vengeful North. They assumed the black vote was controlled by carpetbaggers.
Dunning and his followers portrayed former planters, the elite political, social and economic class, as honorable people with the South's best interests in mind.
Dunning wrote from the point of view of the northern Democrats and portrayed the Radical Republicans as men who violated American traditions and were motivated by vengeance after the American Civil War.
Criticism
W. E. B. Du Bois led the criticism of the Dunning School, taking it to task in the introduction of Black Reconstruction in America. Historian Eric Foner wrote that the Dunning School "offered scholarly legitimacy to the disenfranchisement of southern blacks and to the Jim Crow system that was becoming entrenched as they were writing," and that "the alleged horrors of Reconstruction helped freeze the mind of the white South in bitter opposition to any change in the region’s racial system." Foner adds that "the fundamental flaw in the Dunning School was the authors’ deep racism," and that "racism shaped not only their interpretations of history but their research methods and use of historical evidence.": x–xi
Dunning referred to freedmen as "barbarous" and defended the racist black codes as "a conscientious and straightforward attempt to bring some sort of order" out of the aftermath of war and emancipation. Dunning wrote that the freedmen were not "on the same social, moral and intellectual plane with the whites" and that "restrictions in respect to bearing arms, testifying in court, and keeping labor contracts were justified by the well-established traits and habits of the negroes"
In Black Reconstruction in America (1935), Du Bois characterized Dunning's Reconstruction, Political and Economic as a "standard, anti-Negro" text. Du Bois noted, "Dunning admits that "The legislation of the reorganized governments, under cover of police regulations and vagrancy laws, had enacted severe discrimination against the freedmen in all the common civil rights."
Historian Howard K. Beale was a leader of the "revisionist" school of the 1930s that broke with the Dunning interpretation. Beale says the Dunning School broke new ground by escaping the political polemics of the day and used "meticulous and thorough research in an effort to determine the truth rather than prove a thesis.": 807 Beale states that, "The emphasis of the Dunning school was upon the harm done to the South by Radical Reconstruction and on the sordid political and economic motives behind Radicalism."
After 1950, the Dunning School was attacked by a new generation of historians. In keeping with European ideas about history "from the bottom up" and the agency of all classes of people, together with new research, they documented the place of African Americans at the center of Reconstruction. The revisionist view was expanded and revised by Eric Foner and others. They castigated Dunning for his harsh treatment of Blacks in his Reconstruction (1907). However, Muller claimed that Dunning was equally harsh on all the major players: "Dunning's antipathy in Reconstruction is generously heaped on all groups, regardless of race, color, creed, or sectional origins."
Works
Wikisource has original works by or about:William Archibald Dunning
Irish Land Legislation Since 1845. (New York: Ginn, 1892)
Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction and Related Topics (1897, 2nd ed. 1904) online edition
History of Political Theories, Ancient and Mediœval (3 vol., 1902–1920) vol 1 online; vol 2 online; vol 3 online
History of Political Theories from Luther to Montesquieu (1905)
Reconstruction, Political and Economic, 1865–1877 (1907) online edition
A Sketch of Carl Schurz's Political Career, 1869–1906 (with Frederic Bancroft; 1908)
Paying for Alaska (1912)
The British Empire and the United States; a review of their relations during the century of peace following the treaty of Ghent, by William Archibald Dunning with an introduction by the Right Honourable Viscount Bryce, O.M., and a preface by Nicholas Murray Butler (New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1914)
Studies in Southern History and Politics (1914) online edition
Books by William Archibald Dunning at Google Books
A History of Political Theories from Rousseau to Spencer (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1972)
References
^ "William A. Dunning Biography". historians.org. American Historical Association. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
^ Merriam, Charles E. (1926). "Masters of Social Science: William Archibald Dunning". Social Forces. 5 (1): 1–8. doi:10.2307/3004799. ISSN 0037-7732.
^ Gordon-Reed, Annette (26 October 2015). "What If Reconstruction Hadn't Failed?". The Atlantic. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
^ a b Smith, John David; Lowery, J. Vincent, eds. (18 October 2013). The Dunning School: Historians, Race, and the Meaning of Reconstruction. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-8131-4225-8. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
^ a b c Merriam, Charles E. (1922). "William Archibald Dunning". American Political Science Review. 16 (4): 692–694. doi:10.2307/1943651. ISSN 0003-0554. JSTOR 1943651.
^ Mark C. Smith. "Dunning, William Archibald" in American National Biography Online, 2000
^ J. G. de Roulhac Hamilton, "Dunning, William Archibald," in Dictionary of American Biography (1930), vol 3
^ Muller (1974) p 331n24
^ Merriam, Charles E. (1921). "Review of A History of Political Theories From Rousseau to Spencer". American Journal of Sociology. 27 (2): 250–250. ISSN 0002-9602.
^ Lloyd, Alfred H. (1906). "Review of A History of Political Theories from Luther to Montesquieu". The American Historical Review. 11 (2): 368–371. doi:10.2307/1834657. ISSN 0002-8762.
^ William Harris Bragg, "C. Mildred Thompson (1881–1975)," The New Georgia Encyclopedia (2005)
^ Smith (2000)
^ Muller (1974) p 334
^ Mark L. Bradley, Bluecoats and Tar Heels: Soldiers and Civilians in Reconstruction North Carolina (2009) p 268
^ Bradley, Bluecoats and Tar Heels (2009), p. 268
^ McCrary, Peyton, "The Reconstruction Myth" in Encyclopedia of Southern Culture
^ Smith and Lowery, 2013
^ Dunning, William Archibald, Reconstruction Political and Economic: 1865–1877.
^ Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction, by Dunning, p. 92, cited and quoted in Du Bois, W.E.B. Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880 (1935) pp. 179–180.
^ a b Beale, 1940
^ Thomas J. Brown, Reconstructions: New Perspectives on the Postbellum United States. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2006.
^ Muller (1974), p. 335
Further reading
Beale, Howard K. (July 1940). "On Rewriting Reconstruction History". The American Historical Review. 45 (4): 807–827. doi:10.2307/1854452. JSTOR 1854452.
Du Bois, W.E.B. Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880 (1937) pp. 179–180.
Fitzgerald, Michael W. "Political Reconstruction, 1865–1877," in A Companion to the American South, ed. John B. Boles (Blackwell, 2002), 84–302.
Foner, Eric. Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. 1988.
Franklin, John Hope. "Mirror for Americans: A Century of Reconstruction History," presidential address, American Historical Association. 1979.
Hamilton, J. G. de Roulhac. "Dunning, William Archibald," in Dictionary of American Biography (1930) vol 3
McCrary, Peyton. "The Reconstruction Myth," in Encyclopedia of Southern Culture (University of North Carolina Press: 1989)
Muller, Philip R. "Look Back Without Anger: A Reappraisal of William A. Dunning," Journal of American History (1974): 61 #2 325–38. in JSTOR
Simkins, Francis B. "New Viewpoints of Southern Reconstruction," Journal of Southern History (1939) 5#1 pp 49–61; in JSTOR
Smith, John David; Lowery, J. Vincent, eds. (18 October 2013). The Dunning School: Historians, Race, and the Meaning of Reconstruction. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-4225-8. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
Smith, Mark C. "Dunning, William Archibald" in American National Biography Online Feb. 2000, Access Date: May 19, 2013
Stephenson, Wendell Holmes. South Lives in History: Southern Historians and Their Legacy (1969)
Weisberger, Bernard A. "The Dark and Bloody Ground of Reconstruction Historiography," Journal of Southern History (1959) 25: 427–447. in JSTOR
Wharton, Vernon L. "Reconstruction," in Writing Southern History: Essays in Historiography in Honor of Fletcher M. Green, ed. Arthur S. Link and Rembert W. Patrick (Louisiana State University Press, 1965), pp 295–315
Williams, T. Harry. "An Analysis of Some Reconstruction Attitudes," Journal of Southern History (1946) 12:469–486 in JSTOR
Zeitz, Joshua. The New Republic, 18 January 1999, pp. 13–15.
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AspectsHistoriography
Bibliography of the Reconstruction era
James Shepherd Pike
The Prostrate State (1874)
James Bryce
The American Commonwealth (1888)
Claude G. Bowers
The Tragic Era (1929)
Columbia University
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Walter Lynwood Fleming
Dunning School
William Archibald Dunning
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Howard K. Beale
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Black Reconstruction in America (1935)
C. Vann Woodward
Joel Williamson
William R. Brock
The American Crisis (1963)
John Hope Franklin
From Slavery to Freedom (1947)
After Slavery (1965)
Leon Litwack
Been in the Storm So Long (1979)
Eric Foner
Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (1988)
Kenneth M. Stampp
Steven Hahn
A Nation Under Our Feet (2003)
The Second Founding: How the Civil War and Reconstruction Remade the Constitution (2019)
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A Visit from the Old Mistress (1876)
Thomas Dixon Jr.
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The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan (1905)
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The Birth of a Nation (1915)
United Daughters of the Confederacy
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Race and Reunion (2001)
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AHA-1"},{"link_name":"historian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historian"},{"link_name":"political scientist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_scientist"},{"link_name":"Columbia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University"},{"link_name":"Reconstruction era of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Dunning School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning_School"},{"link_name":"Reconstruction era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_era"},{"link_name":"Ph.D. dissertations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph.D._dissertation"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Atlantic-3"},{"link_name":"disenfranchisement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disenfranchisement"},{"link_name":"Jim Crow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SmithLoweryxi-4"}],"text":"William Archibald Dunning (12 May 1857 – 25 August 1922)[1] was an American historian and political scientist at Columbia University noted for his work on the Reconstruction era of the United States.[2] He founded the informal Dunning School of interpreting the Reconstruction era through his own writings and the Ph.D. dissertations of his numerous students.Dunning has been criticized for advocating white supremacist interpretations, his \"blatant use of the discipline of history for reactionary ends\"[3] and for offering \"scholarly legitimacy to the disenfranchisement of southern blacks and to the Jim Crow system.\"[4]","title":"William Archibald Dunning"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Plainfield, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plainfield,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"the classics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_classics"},{"link_name":"Columbia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin"},{"link_name":"Heinrich von Treitschke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_von_Treitschke"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Born in Plainfield, New Jersey, Dunning was the son of a successful businessman who enjoyed the classics. Dunning earned degrees at Columbia University (B.A. 1881, M.A. 1884, and Ph.D. 1885).[5] He spent a year in Berlin studying European history under Heinrich von Treitschke.[citation needed]Soon after his return and beginning his academic career, in 1888 he married Charlotte E. Loomis. They had no children. She died in 1917.[6][7]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"American Historical Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Historical_Review"},{"link_name":"Political Science Quarterly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_Science_Quarterly"},{"link_name":"American Historical Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Historical_Association"},{"link_name":"American Political Science Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Political_Science_Association"},{"link_name":"entrepreneurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entrepreneurs"},{"link_name":"Charles Merriam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Merriam"},{"link_name":"Harry Elmer Barnes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Elmer_Barnes"},{"link_name":"James Wilford Garner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Wilford_Garner"},{"link_name":"Carlton J. H. Hayes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlton_J._H._Hayes"},{"link_name":"C. Mildred Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Mildred_Thompson"},{"link_name":"Vassar College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassar_College"},{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"civil rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_rights"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Festschrift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festschrift"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Dunning began teaching at Columbia and was steadily promoted on the academic ladder (fellow, lecturer, instructor, adjunct professor, and full professor); in 1903 he was appointed as the Francis Lieber Professor of History and Political Philosophy.[5]He published his PhD dissertation, The Constitution of the United States in Civil War and Reconstruction: 1860–1867 (1897), at age 40 after he had been teaching for several years.His scholarly essays, collected in Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction and Related Topics, (1897), included work that explained the legal basis for the destruction of slavery, an institution he opposed. His survey Reconstruction, Political and Economic: 1865–1877 (1907), for the \"American Nation\" series, set the tone. Dunning believed that his Reconstruction book was too superficial. He felt that it had distracted him from his major work on the history of political theory.[8]Dunning had a dual role in history and political science. He was a long-time editor of Political Science Quarterly.[5] He was a leading expert in the history of political thought, as expressed in his trilogy: A History of Political Theories: Ancient and Medieval (1902), From Luther to Montesquieu (1905), and From Rousseau to Spencer (1920).[9][10]Although his health was poor after 1903, Dunning wrote numerous scholarly articles and book reviews for the American Historical Review and the Political Science Quarterly, which he edited from 1894 to 1903. Dunning was a founder and long-time activist of the American Historical Association, becoming AHA president in 1913. He served as the president of the American Political Science Association in 1922.Evaluating his contributions in 2000, Smith says Dunning was far more important as a graduate teacher than as a research scholar. Columbia was a leading producer of PhDs, and Dunning directed much graduate work in U.S. history and in European political thought. His students included men who became leading scholars and academic entrepreneurs, such as Charles Merriam, Harry Elmer Barnes, James Wilford Garner and Carlton J. H. Hayes. He also mentored C. Mildred Thompson, the history professor who became dean at Vassar College. Thompson drafted the charter for UNESCO (the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization), and worked for civil rights in Atlanta.[11]Dunning gave lifelong support to his students, providing continuous encouragement in their careers. They honored him with a Festschrift in 1914, Studies in Southern History and Politics Inscribed to William Archibald Dunning . . . by His Former Pupils the Authors (1914).[12]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"James W. Garner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_W._Garner&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Walter Lynwood Fleming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Lynwood_Fleming"},{"link_name":"J. G. de Roulhac Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._G._de_Roulhac_Hamilton"},{"link_name":"Charles W. Ramsdell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_W._Ramsdell"},{"link_name":"C. Mildred Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Mildred_Thompson"},{"link_name":"William Watson Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Watson_Davis"},{"link_name":"Thomas S. Staple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_S._Staple&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Dunning School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning_School"},{"link_name":"Reconstruction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"radical Republicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Republican"},{"link_name":"carpetbaggers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpetbagger"},{"link_name":"scalawags","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalawag"},{"link_name":"freedmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedman"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Claude Bowers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bowers"},{"link_name":"Margaret Mitchell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Mitchell"},{"link_name":"Gone with the Wind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(novel)"},{"link_name":"blockbuster film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(film)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"carpetbaggers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpetbaggers"},{"link_name":"scalawags","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalawags"},{"link_name":"freedmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedmen"},{"link_name":"carpetbaggers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpetbaggers"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Radical Republicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Republican_(USA)"},{"link_name":"American Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War"}],"text":"Many Southerners (and some Northerners) took PhDs in History under Dunning and returned to the South for academic careers, where they dominated the major history departments. Those who wrote dissertations on Reconstruction included James W. Garner, Walter Lynwood Fleming, J. G. de Roulhac Hamilton, Charles W. Ramsdell, C. Mildred Thompson, William Watson Davis, and Thomas S. Staple.[13] They comprised the so-called \"Dunning School\". Their interpretation of post-Civil War Reconstruction was the dominant theory taught in American universities through much of the first half of the 20th century. Bradley says, \"The Dunning school condemned Reconstruction as a conspiracy by vindictive radical Republicans to subjugate southern whites at bayonet point, using federal troops to prop up corrupt state regimes led by an unholy trinity of carpetbaggers, scalawags, and freedmen.\"[14] Bradley notes that the Dunning interpretation in the 1930s and 1940s also \"received compelling treatment in such popular works as Claude Bowers’s The Tragic Era and Margaret Mitchell’s Gone with the Wind—both the best-selling novel and the blockbuster film.\"[15]According to Dunning, Reconstruction's players include the \"carpetbaggers\", particularly new white arrivals from the North, whom the Dunning School portrayed as greedy interlopers exploiting the South and dominating the Republican Party; the \"scalawags\", native southern whites collaborating with the Republicans; and the freedmen, whom the Dunning School portrayed as tools of the carpetbaggers with little independent voice. He was sympathetic to the white Southerners, whom they saw as being stripped of their rights after 1865 by a vengeful North. They assumed the black vote was controlled by carpetbaggers.Dunning and his followers portrayed former planters, the elite political, social and economic class, as honorable people with the South's best interests in mind.[16]Dunning wrote from the point of view of the northern Democrats [citation needed] and portrayed the Radical Republicans as men who violated American traditions and were motivated by vengeance after the American Civil War.","title":"School of thought"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"W. E. B. Du Bois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois"},{"link_name":"Black Reconstruction in America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Reconstruction_in_America"},{"link_name":"Eric Foner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Foner"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SmithLoweryxi-4"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"black codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"vagrancy laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagrancy_law"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Howard K. Beale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_K._Beale"},{"link_name":"revisionist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_revisionism"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Beale-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Beale-20"},{"link_name":"Eric Foner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Foner"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"W. E. B. Du Bois led the criticism of the Dunning School, taking it to task in the introduction of Black Reconstruction in America. Historian Eric Foner wrote that the Dunning School \"offered scholarly legitimacy to the disenfranchisement of southern blacks and to the Jim Crow system that was becoming entrenched as they were writing,\" and that \"the alleged horrors of Reconstruction helped freeze the mind of the white South in bitter opposition to any change in the region’s racial system.\" Foner adds that \"the fundamental flaw in the Dunning School was the authors’ deep racism,\" and that \"racism shaped not only their interpretations of history but their research methods and use of historical evidence.\"[4][17]: x–xiDunning referred to freedmen as \"barbarous\" and defended the racist black codes as \"a conscientious and straightforward attempt to bring some sort of order\" out of the aftermath of war and emancipation. Dunning wrote that the freedmen were not \"on the same social, moral and intellectual plane with the whites\" and that \"restrictions in respect to bearing arms, testifying in court, and keeping labor contracts were justified by the well-established traits and habits of the negroes[.]\"[18]In Black Reconstruction in America (1935), Du Bois characterized Dunning's Reconstruction, Political and Economic as a \"standard, anti-Negro\" text. Du Bois noted, \"Dunning admits that \"The legislation of the reorganized governments, under cover of police regulations and vagrancy laws, had enacted severe discrimination against the freedmen in all the common civil rights.\"[19]Historian Howard K. Beale was a leader of the \"revisionist\" school of the 1930s that broke with the Dunning interpretation. Beale says the Dunning School broke new ground by escaping the political polemics of the day and used \"meticulous and thorough research [...] in an effort to determine the truth rather than prove a thesis.\"[20]: 807 Beale states that, \"The emphasis of the Dunning school was upon the harm done to the South by Radical Reconstruction and on the sordid political and economic motives behind Radicalism.\"[20]After 1950, the Dunning School was attacked by a new generation of historians. In keeping with European ideas about history \"from the bottom up\" and the agency of all classes of people, together with new research, they documented the place of African Americans at the center of Reconstruction. The revisionist view was expanded and revised by Eric Foner and others.[21] They castigated Dunning for his harsh treatment of Blacks in his Reconstruction (1907). However, Muller claimed that Dunning was equally harsh on all the major players: \"Dunning's antipathy in Reconstruction is generously heaped on all groups, regardless of race, color, creed, or sectional origins.\"[22]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wikisource","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource"},{"link_name":"William Archibald Dunning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:William_Archibald_Dunning"},{"link_name":"online edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/essaysoncivilwa00unkngoog"},{"link_name":"vol 1 online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=88VAAAAAIAAJ"},{"link_name":"vol 2 online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=NzoGAAAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"vol 3 online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=YtgqAAAAYAAJ"},{"link_name":"online edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=hLwqAAAAYAAJ"},{"link_name":"Frederic Bancroft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_Bancroft"},{"link_name":"online edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=9P8RAAAAYAAJ"},{"link_name":"Books by William Archibald Dunning at Google Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=inauthor:William+inauthor:Archibald+inauthor:Dunning&tbs=,bkv:f"}],"text":"Wikisource has original works by or about:William Archibald DunningIrish Land Legislation Since 1845. (New York: Ginn, 1892)\nEssays on the Civil War and Reconstruction and Related Topics (1897, 2nd ed. 1904) online edition\nHistory of Political Theories, Ancient and Mediœval (3 vol., 1902–1920) vol 1 online; vol 2 online; vol 3 online\nHistory of Political Theories from Luther to Montesquieu (1905)\nReconstruction, Political and Economic, 1865–1877 (1907) online edition\nA Sketch of Carl Schurz's Political Career, 1869–1906 (with Frederic Bancroft; 1908)\nPaying for Alaska (1912)\nThe British Empire and the United States; a review of their relations during the century of peace following the treaty of Ghent, by William Archibald Dunning with an introduction by the Right Honourable Viscount Bryce, O.M., and a preface by Nicholas Murray Butler (New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1914)\nStudies in Southern History and Politics (1914) online edition\nBooks by William Archibald Dunning at Google Books\nA History of Political Theories from Rousseau to Spencer (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1972)","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The American Historical Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Historical_Review"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/1854452","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F1854452"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1854452","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/1854452"},{"link_name":"Du Bois, W.E.B.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois"},{"link_name":"Foner, Eric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Foner"},{"link_name":"Franklin, John Hope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hope_Franklin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.historians.org/info/AHA_History/jhfranklin.htm"},{"link_name":"in JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/1903952"},{"link_name":"in JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2191608"},{"link_name":"Smith, John David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_David_Smith_(historian)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Lowery, J. Vincent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J._Vincent_Lowery&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"The Dunning School: Historians, Race, and the Meaning of Reconstruction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=2ZL5fjiAqSgC"},{"link_name":"Lexington, Kentucky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexington,_Kentucky"},{"link_name":"University Press of Kentucky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Press_of_Kentucky"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8131-4225-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-4225-8"},{"link_name":"American National Biography Online Feb. 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.anb.org/articles/14/14-00161.html"},{"link_name":"in JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2954450"},{"link_name":"in JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2197687"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Reconstruction_Era"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Reconstruction_Era"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Reconstruction_Era"},{"link_name":"Reconstruction era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_era"},{"link_name":"Abraham Lincoln","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln"},{"link_name":"Andrew Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Johnson"},{"link_name":"Ulysses S. Grant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant"},{"link_name":"Rutherford B. Hayes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes"},{"link_name":"38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/38th_United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"39","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/39th_United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/40th_United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"41","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/41st_United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"42","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/42nd_United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"43","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/43rd_United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"44","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/44th_United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"45","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/45th_United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"Radical Republicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Republicans"},{"link_name":"Moderate Republicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderate_Republicans_(Reconstruction_era)"},{"link_name":"Conservative Republicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Republicans_(Reconstruction_era)"},{"link_name":"African-American senators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators"},{"link_name":"African-American representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives#Reconstruction_and_early_post-Reconstruction_era,_1870%E2%80%931887"},{"link_name":"Reconstruction Amendments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments"},{"link_name":"United States Congressional Joint Committee on Reconstruction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congressional_Joint_Committee_on_Reconstruction"},{"link_name":"United States House Select Committee on Reconstruction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_Select_Committee_on_Reconstruction"},{"link_name":"Taney Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taney_Court"},{"link_name":"Chase Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chase_Court"},{"link_name":"Waite Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waite_Court"},{"link_name":"Edwin Stanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Stanton"},{"link_name":"Freedmen's Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau"},{"link_name":"Justice Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice"},{"link_name":"Southern United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_United_States"},{"link_name":"Confederate States of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America"},{"link_name":"African Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Americans"},{"link_name":"Free people of color","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_people_of_color"},{"link_name":"Freedman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedman"},{"link_name":"Politicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:African-American_politicians_during_the_Reconstruction_Era"},{"link_name":"Carpetbaggers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpetbagger"},{"link_name":"Ku Klux Klan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan"},{"link_name":"Scalawag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalawag"},{"link_name":"Redeemers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redeemers"},{"link_name":"White League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_League"},{"link_name":"Red Shirts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Bourbon Democrat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourbon_Democrat"},{"link_name":"Horatio Seymour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio_Seymour"},{"link_name":"Samuel J. Tilden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_J._Tilden"},{"link_name":"Republican Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Stalwarts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalwarts_(politics)"},{"link_name":"Charles Sumner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sumner"},{"link_name":"Thaddeus Stevens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens"},{"link_name":"Lyman Trumbull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyman_Trumbull"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Wade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Wade"},{"link_name":"John Bingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bingham"},{"link_name":"James Mitchell Ashley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Mitchell_Ashley"},{"link_name":"Freedman's Savings Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedman%27s_Savings_Bank"},{"link_name":"Women during the Reconstruction 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Brady","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_E._Brady"},{"link_name":"Carole Pateman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carole_Pateman"},{"link_name":"Jane Mansbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Mansbridge"},{"link_name":"John Aldrich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Aldrich_(political_scientist)"},{"link_name":"Jennifer Hochschild","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Hochschild"},{"link_name":"David A. Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_A._Lake"},{"link_name":"Kathleen Thelen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathleen_Thelen"},{"link_name":"Rogers Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogers_Smith"},{"link_name":"Paula D. McClain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paula_D._McClain"},{"link_name":"Janet M. Box-Steffensmeier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_M._Box-Steffensmeier"},{"link_name":"John Ishiyama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ishiyama"},{"link_name":"Lisa Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Martin_(political_scientist)"},{"link_name":"Mark E. Warren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_E._Warren"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8004524#identifiers"},{"link_name":"FAST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//id.worldcat.org/fast/9874/"},{"link_name":"ISNI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//isni.org/isni/0000000108963774"},{"link_name":"VIAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//viaf.org/viaf/46928911"},{"link_name":"WorldCat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJcKFWtxfPxMj8pqB7wwG3"},{"link_name":"Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90849657"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1721776"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13571650b"},{"link_name":"BnF data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13571650b"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/120410494"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007279626705171"},{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14218957"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/n50029745"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00541485"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35050338"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//data.nlg.gr/resource/authority/record159226"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p069502897"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810583613605606"},{"link_name":"Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/280144"},{"link_name":"Mathematics Genealogy Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=127845"},{"link_name":"Trove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//trove.nla.gov.au/people/812135"},{"link_name":"SNAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6445njc"},{"link_name":"IdRef","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.idref.fr/052649989"}],"text":"Beale, Howard K. (July 1940). \"On Rewriting Reconstruction History\". The American Historical Review. 45 (4): 807–827. doi:10.2307/1854452. JSTOR 1854452.\nDu Bois, W.E.B. Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880 (1937) pp. 179–180.\nFitzgerald, Michael W. \"Political Reconstruction, 1865–1877,\" in A Companion to the American South, ed. John B. Boles (Blackwell, 2002), 84–302.\nFoner, Eric. Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. 1988.\nFranklin, John Hope. \"Mirror for Americans: A Century of Reconstruction History,\" presidential address, American Historical Association. 1979.[1]\nHamilton, J. G. de Roulhac. \"Dunning, William Archibald,\" in Dictionary of American Biography (1930) vol 3\nMcCrary, Peyton. \"The Reconstruction Myth,\" in Encyclopedia of Southern Culture (University of North Carolina Press: 1989)\nMuller, Philip R. \"Look Back Without Anger: A Reappraisal of William A. Dunning,\" Journal of American History (1974): 61 #2 325–38. in JSTOR\nSimkins, Francis B. \"New Viewpoints of Southern Reconstruction,\" Journal of Southern History (1939) 5#1 pp 49–61; in JSTOR\nSmith, John David; Lowery, J. Vincent, eds. (18 October 2013). The Dunning School: Historians, Race, and the Meaning of Reconstruction. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-4225-8. Retrieved 7 September 2017.\nSmith, Mark C. \"Dunning, William Archibald\" in American National Biography Online Feb. 2000, Access Date: May 19, 2013\nStephenson, Wendell Holmes. South Lives in History: Southern Historians and Their Legacy (1969)\nWeisberger, Bernard A. \"The Dark and Bloody Ground of Reconstruction Historiography,\" Journal of Southern History (1959) 25: 427–447. in JSTOR\nWharton, Vernon L. \"Reconstruction,\" in Writing Southern History: Essays in Historiography in Honor of Fletcher M. Green, ed. Arthur S. Link and Rembert W. Patrick (Louisiana State University Press, 1965), pp 295–315\nWilliams, T. Harry. \"An Analysis of Some Reconstruction Attitudes,\" Journal of Southern History (1946) 12:469–486 in JSTOR\nZeitz, Joshua. The New Republic, 18 January 1999, pp. 13–15.vteReconstruction eraParticipantsFederal government\nPresidents\nAbraham Lincoln\nAndrew Johnson\nUlysses S. Grant\nRutherford B. Hayes\n\nCongress\n38\n39\n40\n41\n42\n43\n44\n45\nRadical Republicans\nModerate Republicans\nConservative Republicans\nAfrican-American senators\nAfrican-American representatives\nReconstruction Amendments\nUnited States Congressional Joint Committee on Reconstruction\nUnited States House Select Committee on Reconstruction\n\nFederal judiciary\nTaney Court\nChase Court\nWaite Court\n\nFederal bureaucracy\nEdwin Stanton\nFreedmen's Bureau\nJustice Department\nState governments\nSouthern United States\nConfederate States of America\nOthers\nAfrican Americans\nFree people of color\nFreedman\nPoliticians\nCarpetbaggers\nKu Klux Klan\nScalawag\nRedeemers\nWhite League\nRed Shirts\nDemocratic Party\nBourbon Democrat\nHoratio Seymour\nSamuel J. Tilden\nRepublican Party\nStalwarts\nCharles Sumner\nThaddeus Stevens\nLyman Trumbull\nBenjamin Wade\nJohn Bingham\nJames Mitchell Ashley\nFreedman's Savings Bank\nWomen during the Reconstruction era\nElectionsPresidential\n1864\nDNC\nNational Union Convention\nRadical Democracy Party\n1868\nDNC\nRNC\n1872\nDNC\nRNC\nLiberal Republican Party\nStraight-Out Democratic Party\nVictoria Woodhull\n1876\nDNC\nRNC\nGreenback Convention\nProhibition Convention\nElectoral Commission\nCompromise of 1877\nU.S. Senate\n1864–65\n1866–67\n1868–69\n1870–71\n1872–73\n1874–75\n1876–77\nU.S. House\n1864–65\n1866–67\n1868–69\n1870–71\n1872–73\n1874–75\n1876–77\nGubernatorial\n1863\nAL\nCA\nCT\nKY\nMA\nMN\nNH\nOH\nPA\nVA\nVT\nWI\nWV\n\n1864\nCT\nIL\nIN\nLA\nMD\nMA\nMI\nMO\nNH\nVT\nWV\n\n1865\nCT\nFL\nLA\nMA\nMN\nNJ\nOH\nSC\nVT\nWI\n\n1866\nCT\nDE\nMA\nME\nMI\nNC\nOR\nPA\nTX\nVT\nWV\n\n1867\nCA\nCT\nMA\nMD\nME\nMN\nOH\nVT\nWI\n\n1868\nAL\nCT\nFL\nIL\nIN\nLA\nMA\nME\nMI\nMO\nNC\nNJ\nSC\nVT\nWV\n\n1869\nCT\nIA\nMA\nME\nMN\nMS\nOH\nPA\nRI\nVA\nVT\nWI\n\n1870\nAL\nCT\nDE\nMA\nME\nMI\nMO\nOR\nRI\nSC\nVT\nWV\n\n1871\nCA\nCT\nIA\nKY\nMA\nMD\nME\nMN\nNJ\nOH\nRI\nWI\n\n1872\nAL\nCT\nFL\nIL\nIN\nLA\nMA\nME\nMI\nMO\nNC\nPA\nRI\nSC\nVT\nWV\n\n1873\nCT\nIA\nMA\nME\nMN\nMS\nOH\nTX\nVA\nWI\n\n1874\nAL\nCT\nDE\nKS\nMA\nME\nMI\nMO\nNJ\nNV\nOR\nSC\nVT\n\n1875\nCA\nCT\nIA\nKY\nMA\nMD\nME\nMN\nOH\nOH\nWI\n\n1876\nAL\nCO\nCT Apr.\nCT Nov.\nFL\nIL\nIN\nKS\nLA\nMA\nME\nMI\nMO\nNC\nRI\nSC\nVT\nWV\nU.S. elections\n1864\n1866\n1868\n1870\n1872\n1874\n1876\nKey eventsPrelude\nAmerican Indian Wars\nSlavery in the United States\nA Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)\nThe Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women (1838)\nWoman in the Nineteenth Century (1839)\nSeneca Falls Convention (1848)\nNational Women's Rights Convention (1850)\nAmerican Civil War\nConfiscation Act of 1861\nConfiscation Act of 1862\nDistrict of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act (1862)\nMilitia Act of 1862\n1863\nEmancipation Proclamation\nGeneral Order No. 143\nLincoln's presidential Reconstruction\nTen percent plan\nNational Bank Act\nWomen's Loyal National League\nNew York City draft riots\n1863 State of the Union Address\n1864\nWade–Davis Bill\n1864 elections\n1864 State of the Union Address\n1865\n13th Amendment\nSecond inauguration of Abraham Lincoln\nAddress\nBlack Codes\nSpecial Field Orders No. 15 \nFreedmen's Bureau\nFreedmen's Bureau bills\nConfederates surrender at Appomattox\nAssassination of Abraham Lincoln\nShaw University\nNew Departure\n1865 State of the Union Address\nFounding of the Ku Klux Klan\n1866\nCivil Rights Act of 1866\nMemphis massacre of 1866\nNew Orleans Massacre of 1866\nSwing Around the Circle\nSouthern Homestead Act of 1866\nFort Smith Conference and Cherokee Reconstruction Treaty of 1866\nChoctaw and Chickasaw Treaty of Washington of 1866\nTennessee readmitted to Union\nPetition for Universal Freedom\nNational Labor Union\nEx parte Garland\nEx parte Milligan\nSlave Kidnapping Act of 1866\n1866 elections\n1867\nTenure of Office Act\nCommand of Army Act\nIndian Peace Commission\nKnights of the White Camelia\nPulaski riot\nReconstruction Acts\nReconstruction military districts\nConstitutional conventions of 1867\nHabeas Corpus Act of 1867\nPeonage Act of 1867\nFirst impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson\n1867 State of the Union Address\n1868\n14th Amendment\nSecond impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson\nImpeachment of Andrew Johnson\nTimeline\nImpeachment trial of Andrew Johnson\nImpeachment managers investigation\nArticles of impeachment\nArkansas readmitted to Union\nFlorida readmitted to Union\nNorth Carolina readmitted to Union\nSouth Carolina readmitted to Union\nLouisiana readmitted to Union\nAlabama readmitted to Union\nOpelousas massacre\nFourth Reconstruction Act\nGeorgia v. Stanton\n1868 elections\n1868 State of the Union Address\n1869\nNational Woman Suffrage Association\nAmerican Woman Suffrage Association\nAlabama Claims\nAnnexation of Santo Domingo\nBoard of Indian Commissioners\nPublic Credit Act of 1869\nBlack Friday (1869)\nEx parte McCardle\nFirst transcontinental railroad\n1869 State of the Union Address\n1870\n15th Amendment\nEnforcement Act of 1870\nJustice Department\nNaturalization Act of 1870\nKirk–Holden war\nShoffner Act\n1870 elections\n1870 State of the Union Address\n1871\nKu Klux Klan hearings\nSecond Enforcement Act\nKu Klux Klan Act\nAlcorn State University\nMeridian race riot of 1871\nTreaty of Washington\nNew York custom house ring\nCivil service commission\nUnited States expedition to Korea\n1871 State of the Union Address\n1872\nGeneral Mining Act of 1872\nCrédit Mobilier scandal\nModoc War\nStar Route scandal\nSalary Grab Act\nAmnesty Act\n1872 elections\n1872 State of the Union Address\n1873\nPanic of 1873\nColfax massacre\nTimber Culture Act\nSlaughter-House Cases\nVirginius Affair\nCoinage Act of 1873\nLong Depression\nComstock laws\n1873 State of the Union Address\n1874\nBrooks–Baxter War\nBattle of Liberty Place\nCoushatta massacre\nRed River War\nTimber Culture Act\nWhite League\nElection Massacre of 1874\nVicksburg massacre\nBlack Hills Gold Rush\nSanborn incident\nAnti-Moiety Acts\n1874 elections\n1874 State of the Union Address\n1875\nUnited States v. Cruikshank\nCivil Rights Act of 1875\nRed Shirts\nMississippi Plan\nClifton Riot of 1875\nYazoo City Riot of 1875\nSpecie Payment Resumption Act\nWhiskey Ring\nWheeler Compromise\nDelano affair\nPratt & Boyd\n1875 State of the Union Address\n1876\nHamburg massacre\nSouth Carolina civil disturbances of 1876\nEllenton massacre\nGreat Sioux War of 1876\nBattle of the Little Bighorn\nUnited States v. Reese\nTrader post scandal\nCentennial Exposition\nCattellism\nSafe burglary conspiracy\n1876 elections\n1876 State of the Union Address\n1877\nElectoral Commission\nCompromise of 1877\nNez Perce War\nDesert Land Act\nGreat Railroad Strike of 1877\nAftermath\nPosse Comitatus Act (1878)\nCivil Rights Cases (1883)\nUnited States v. Harris (1883)\nPlessy v. Ferguson (1896)\nWilliams v. Mississippi (1898)\nWilmington insurrection of 1898\nGiles v. Harris (1903)\nDisenfranchisement\nAspectsHistoriography\nBibliography of the Reconstruction era\nJames Shepherd Pike\nThe Prostrate State (1874)\nJames Bryce\nThe American Commonwealth (1888)\nClaude G. Bowers\nThe Tragic Era (1929)\nColumbia University\nJohn Burgess\nWalter Lynwood Fleming\nDunning School\nWilliam Archibald Dunning\nCharles A. Beard\nHoward K. Beale\nW. E. B. Du Bois\nBlack Reconstruction in America (1935)\nC. Vann Woodward\nJoel Williamson\nWilliam R. Brock\nThe American Crisis (1963)\nJohn Hope Franklin\nFrom Slavery to Freedom (1947)\nAfter Slavery (1965)\nLeon Litwack\nBeen in the Storm So Long (1979)\nEric Foner\nReconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (1988)\nKenneth M. Stampp\nSteven Hahn\nA Nation Under Our Feet (2003)\nThe Second Founding: How the Civil War and Reconstruction Remade the Constitution (2019)\nMemory\nWinslow Homer\nA Visit from the Old Mistress (1876)\nThomas Dixon Jr.\nThe Leopard's Spots (1902)\nThe Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan (1905)\nD. W. Griffith\nThe Birth of a Nation (1915)\nUnited Daughters of the Confederacy\nGone with the Wind (1939)\nDavid W. Blight\nRace and Reunion (2001)\nLegacy\nWomen's suffrage in the United States\nLabor history of the United States\nGilded Age\nJim Crow era\nCivil rights movement\nAmerican frontier\nOther topics\nAfrican American founding fathers of the United States\nForty acres and a mule\nHabeas corpus\nHistory of the United States (1865–1917)\nParamilitary\nRace (human categorization)\nReconstruction Treaties\nSuffrage\nTechnological and industrial history of the United States\nWhite supremacy\nWhitecapping\n\nCategoryvtePresidents of the American Historical Association1884–1900\nAndrew Dickson White (1884–1885)\nGeorge Bancroft (1886)\nJustin Winsor (1887)\nWilliam Frederick Poole (1888)\nCharles Kendall Adams (1889)\nJohn Jay (1890)\nWilliam Wirt Henry (1891)\nJames Burrill Angell (1892–1893)\nHenry Adams (1893–1894)\nGeorge F. Hoar (1895)\nRichard Salter Storrs (1896)\nJames Schouler (1897)\nGeorge Park Fisher (1898)\nJames Ford Rhodes (1899)\nEdward Eggleston (1900)\n1901–1925\nCharles Francis Adams Jr. (1901)\nAlfred Thayer Mahan (1902)\nHenry Charles Lea (1903)\nGoldwin Smith (1904)\nJohn Bach McMaster (1905)\nSimeon E. Baldwin (1906)\nJ. Franklin Jameson (1907)\nGeorge Burton Adams (1908)\nAlbert Bushnell Hart (1909)\nFrederick Jackson Turner (1910)\nWilliam Milligan Sloane (1911)\nTheodore Roosevelt (1912)\nWilliam Archibald Dunning (1913)\nAndrew C. McLaughlin (1914)\nH. Morse Stephens (1915)\nGeorge Lincoln Burr (1916)\nWorthington C. Ford (1917)\nWilliam Roscoe Thayer (1918–1919)\nEdward Channing (1920)\nJean Jules Jusserand (1921)\nCharles Homer Haskins (1922)\nEdward Potts Cheyney (1923)\nWoodrow Wilson (1924)\nCharles McLean Andrews (1924–1925)\n1926–1950\nDana Carleton Munro (1926)\nHenry Osborn Taylor (1927)\nJames Henry Breasted (1928)\nJames Harvey Robinson (1929)\nEvarts Boutell Greene (1930)\nCarl L. Becker (1931)\nHerbert Eugene Bolton (1932)\nCharles A. Beard (1933)\nWilliam Dodd (1934)\nMichael Rostovtzeff (1935)\nCharles Howard McIlwain (1936)\nGuy Stanton Ford (1937)\nLaurence M. Larson (1938)\nWilliam Scott Ferguson (1939)\nMax Farrand (1940)\nJames Westfall Thompson (1941)\nArthur M. Schlesinger Sr. (1942)\nNellie Neilson (1943)\nWilliam Linn Westermann (1944)\nCarlton J. H. Hayes (1945)\nSidney Bradshaw Fay (1946)\nThomas J. Wertenbaker (1947)\nKenneth Scott Latourette (1948)\nConyers Read (1949)\nSamuel Eliot Morison (1950)\n1951–1975\nRobert Livingston Schuyler (1951)\nJames G. Randall (1952)\nLouis R. Gottschalk (1953)\nMerle Curti (1954)\nLynn Thorndike (1955)\nDexter Perkins (1956)\nWilliam L. Langer (1957)\nWalter Prescott Webb (1958)\nAllan Nevins (1959)\nBernadotte Everly Schmitt (1960)\nSamuel Flagg Bemis (1961)\nCarl Bridenbaugh (1962)\nCrane Brinton (1963)\nJulian P. Boyd (1964)\nFrederic C. Lane (1965)\nRoy Franklin Nichols (1966)\nHajo Holborn (1967)\nJohn King Fairbank (1968)\nC. Vann Woodward (1969)\nRobert Roswell Palmer (1970)\nDavid M. Potter (1971)\nJoseph Strayer (1971)\nThomas C. Cochran (1972)\nLynn Townsend White Jr. (1973)\nLewis Hanke (1974)\nGordon Wright (1975)\n1976–2000\nRichard B. Morris (1976)\nCharles Gibson (1977)\nWilliam J. Bouwsma (1978)\nJohn Hope Franklin (1979)\nDavid H. Pinkney (1980)\nBernard Bailyn (1981)\nGordon A. Craig (1982)\nPhilip D. Curtin (1983)\nArthur S. Link (1984)\nWilliam H. McNeill (1985)\nCarl N. Degler (1986)\nNatalie Zemon Davis (1987)\nAkira Iriye (1988)\nLouis R. Harlan (1989)\nDavid Herlihy (1990)\nWilliam Leuchtenburg (1991)\nFrederic Wakeman (1992)\nLouise A. Tilly (1993)\nThomas C. Holt (1994)\nJohn Henry Coatsworth (1995)\nCaroline Walker Bynum (1996)\nJoyce Appleby (1997)\nJoseph C. Miller (1998)\nRobert Darnton (1999)\nEric Foner (2000)\n2001–present\nWm. Roger Louis (2001)\nLynn Hunt (2002)\nJames M. McPherson (2003)\nJonathan D. Spence (2004)\nJames J. Sheehan (2005)\nLinda K. Kerber (2006)\nBarbara Weinstein (2007)\nGabrielle M. Spiegel (2008)\nLaurel Thatcher Ulrich (2009)\nBarbara D. Metcalf (2010)\nAnthony Grafton (2011)\nWilliam Cronon (2012)\nKenneth Pomeranz (2013)\nJan E. Goldstein (2014)\nVicki L. Ruiz (2015)\nPatrick Manning (2016)\nTyler E. Stovall (2017)\nMary Beth Norton (2018)\nJ. R. McNeill (2019)\nMary Lindemann (2020)\nJacqueline Jones (2021)\nJames H. Sweet (2022)\nEdward Muir (2023)\nThavolia Glymph (2024)vtePresidents of the American Political Science Association1903–1925\nFrank Johnson Goodnow (1903–1905)\nAlbert Shaw (1905–1906)\nFrederick N. Judson (1906–1907)\nJames Bryce (1907–1908)\nA. Lawrence Lowell (1908–1909)\nWoodrow Wilson (1909–1910)\nSimeon E. Baldwin (1910–1911)\nAlbert Bushnell Hart (1911–1912)\nWestel W. Willoughby (1912–1913)\nJohn Bassett Moore (1913–1914)\nErnst Freund (1914–1915)\nJesse Macy (1915–1916)\nMunroe Smith (1916–1918)\nHenry Jones Ford (1918–1919)\nPaul Samuel Reinsch (1919–1920)\nLeo Stanton Rowe (1920–1921)\nWilliam Archibald Dunning (1921–1922)\nHarry Augustus Garfield (1922–1923)\nJames Wilford Garner (1923–1924)\nCharles Edward Merriam (1924–1925)\n1925–1950\nCharles A. Beard (1925–1926)\nWilliam B. Munro (1926–1927)\nJesse S. Reeves (1927–1928)\nJohn A. Fairlie (1928–1929)\nBenjamin F. Shambaugh (1929–1930)\nEdward Samuel Corwin (1930–1931)\nWilliam F. Willoughby (1931–1932)\nIsidor Loeb (1932–1933)\nWalter J. Shepard (1933–1934)\nFrancis W. Coker (1934–1935)\nArthur N. Holcombe (1935–1936)\nThomas Reed Powell (1936–1937)\nClarence Addison Dykstra (1937–1938)\nCharles Grove Haines (1938–1939)\nRobert C. Brooks (1939–1940)\nFrederic A. Ogg (1940–1941)\nWilliam Anderson (1941–1942)\nRobert E. Cushman (1942–1943)\nLeonard D. White (1943–1944)\nJohn Gaus (1944–1945)\nWalter F. Dodd (1945–1946)\nArthur MacMahon (1946–1947)\nHenry R. Spencer (1947–1948)\nQuincy Wright (1948–1949)\nJames K. Pollock (1949–1950)\n1950–1975\nPeter H. Odegard (1950–1951)\nLuther Gulick (1951–1952)\nE. Pendleton Herring (1952–1953)\nRalph Bunche (1953–1954)\nCharles McKinley (1954–1955)\nHarold Lasswell (1955–1956)\nElmer Eric Schattschneider (1956–1957)\nV. O. Key Jr. (1957–1958)\nR. Taylor Cole (1958–1959)\nCarl Brent Swisher (1959–1960)\nEmmette Redford (1960–1961)\nCharles S. Hyneman (1961–1962)\nCarl Joachim Friedrich (1962–1963)\nC. Herman Pritchett (1963–1964)\nDavid Truman (1964–1965)\nGabriel Almond (1965–1966)\nRobert A. Dahl (1966–1967)\nMerle Fainsod (1967–1968)\nDavid Easton (1968–1969)\nKarl Deutsch (1969–1970)\nRobert E. Lane (1970–1971)\nHeinz Eulau (1971–1972)\nRobert E. Ward (1972–1973)\nAvery Leiserson (1973–1974)\nJ. Austin Ranney (1974–1975)\n1975–2000\nJames MacGregor Burns (1975–1976)\nSamuel Beer (1976–1977)\nJohn Wahlke (1977–1978)\nLeon Epstein (1978–1979)\nWarren Miller (1979–1980)\nCharles E. Lindblom (1980–1981)\nSeymour Martin Lipset (1981–1982)\nWilliam H. Riker (1982–1983)\nPhilip Converse (1983–1984)\nRichard Fenno (1984–1985)\nAaron Wildavsky (1985–1986)\nSamuel P. Huntington (1986–1987)\nKenneth Waltz (1987–1988)\nLucian Pye (1988–1989)\nJudith N. Shklar (1989–1990)\nTheodore J. Lowi (1990–1991)\nJames Q. Wilson (1991–1992)\nLucius Barker (1992–1993)\nCharles O. Jones (1993–1994)\nSidney Verba (1994–1995)\nArend Lijphart (1995–1996)\nElinor Ostrom (1996–1997)\nM. Kent Jennings (1997–1998)\nMatthew Holden (1998–1999)\nRobert Keohane (1999–2000)\n2000–present\nRobert Jervis (2000–2001)\nRobert D. Putnam (2001–2002)\nTheda Skocpol (2002–2003)\nSusanne Hoeber Rudolph (2003–2004)\nMargaret Levi (2004–2005)\nIra Katznelson (2005–2006)\nRobert Axelrod (2006–2007)\nDianne Pinderhughes (2007–2008)\nPeter J. Katzenstein (2008–2009)\nHenry E. Brady (2009–2010)\nCarole Pateman (2010–2011)\nG. Bingham Powell (2011–2012)\nJane Mansbridge (2012–2013)\nJohn Aldrich (2013–2014)\nRodney E. Hero (2014–2015)\nJennifer Hochschild (2015–2016)\nDavid A. Lake (2016–2017)\nKathleen Thelen (2017–2018)\nRogers Smith (2018–2019)\nPaula D. McClain (2019–2020)\nJanet M. Box-Steffensmeier (2020–2021)\nJohn Ishiyama (2021–2022)\nLisa Martin (2022–2023)\nMark E. Warren (2023–present)Authority control databases International\nFAST\nISNI\nVIAF\nWorldCat\nNational\nNorway\nSpain\nFrance\nBnF data\nGermany\nIsrael\nBelgium\nUnited States\nJapan\nAustralia\nGreece\nNetherlands\nPoland\nPortugal\nAcademics\nMathematics Genealogy Project\nPeople\nTrove\nOther\nSNAC\nIdRef","title":"Further reading"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"\"William A. Dunning Biography\". historians.org. American Historical Association. Retrieved 7 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/presidential-addresses/william-a-dunning-biography","url_text":"\"William A. Dunning Biography\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Historical_Association","url_text":"American Historical Association"}]},{"reference":"Merriam, Charles E. (1926). \"Masters of Social Science: William Archibald Dunning\". Social Forces. 5 (1): 1–8. doi:10.2307/3004799. ISSN 0037-7732.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3004799","url_text":"\"Masters of Social Science: William Archibald Dunning\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3004799","url_text":"10.2307/3004799"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0037-7732","url_text":"0037-7732"}]},{"reference":"Gordon-Reed, Annette (26 October 2015). \"What If Reconstruction Hadn't Failed?\". The Atlantic. Retrieved 3 August 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annette_Gordon-Reed","url_text":"Gordon-Reed, Annette"},{"url":"https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/10/what-if-reconstruction-hadnt-failed/412219/","url_text":"\"What If Reconstruction Hadn't Failed?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic","url_text":"The Atlantic"}]},{"reference":"Smith, John David; Lowery, J. Vincent, eds. (18 October 2013). The Dunning School: Historians, Race, and the Meaning of Reconstruction. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-8131-4225-8. Retrieved 3 August 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_David_Smith_(historian)&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Smith, John David"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J._Vincent_Lowery&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Lowery, J. Vincent"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZL5fjiAqSgC&q=Jim+Crow+system&pg=PT11","url_text":"The Dunning School: Historians, Race, and the Meaning of Reconstruction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Press_of_Kentucky","url_text":"University Press of Kentucky"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-4225-8","url_text":"978-0-8131-4225-8"}]},{"reference":"Merriam, Charles E. (1922). \"William Archibald Dunning\". American Political Science Review. 16 (4): 692–694. doi:10.2307/1943651. ISSN 0003-0554. JSTOR 1943651.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055400020128/type/journal_article","url_text":"\"William Archibald Dunning\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1943651","url_text":"10.2307/1943651"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0554","url_text":"0003-0554"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1943651","url_text":"1943651"}]},{"reference":"Merriam, Charles E. (1921). \"Review of A History of Political Theories From Rousseau to Spencer\". American Journal of Sociology. 27 (2): 250–250. ISSN 0002-9602.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2764839","url_text":"\"Review of A History of Political Theories From Rousseau to Spencer\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9602","url_text":"0002-9602"}]},{"reference":"Lloyd, Alfred H. (1906). \"Review of A History of Political Theories from Luther to Montesquieu\". The American Historical Review. 11 (2): 368–371. doi:10.2307/1834657. ISSN 0002-8762.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1834657","url_text":"\"Review of A History of Political Theories from Luther to Montesquieu\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1834657","url_text":"10.2307/1834657"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-8762","url_text":"0002-8762"}]},{"reference":"Beale, Howard K. (July 1940). \"On Rewriting Reconstruction History\". The American Historical Review. 45 (4): 807–827. doi:10.2307/1854452. JSTOR 1854452.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Historical_Review","url_text":"The American Historical Review"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1854452","url_text":"10.2307/1854452"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1854452","url_text":"1854452"}]},{"reference":"Smith, John David; Lowery, J. Vincent, eds. (18 October 2013). The Dunning School: Historians, Race, and the Meaning of Reconstruction. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-4225-8. Retrieved 7 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_David_Smith_(historian)&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Smith, John David"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J._Vincent_Lowery&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Lowery, J. Vincent"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZL5fjiAqSgC","url_text":"The Dunning School: Historians, Race, and the Meaning of Reconstruction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexington,_Kentucky","url_text":"Lexington, Kentucky"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Press_of_Kentucky","url_text":"University Press of Kentucky"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-4225-8","url_text":"978-0-8131-4225-8"}]}]
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Dunning Biography\""},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3004799","external_links_name":"\"Masters of Social Science: William Archibald Dunning\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3004799","external_links_name":"10.2307/3004799"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0037-7732","external_links_name":"0037-7732"},{"Link":"https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/10/what-if-reconstruction-hadnt-failed/412219/","external_links_name":"\"What If Reconstruction Hadn't Failed?\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZL5fjiAqSgC&q=Jim+Crow+system&pg=PT11","external_links_name":"The Dunning School: Historians, Race, and the Meaning of Reconstruction"},{"Link":"https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055400020128/type/journal_article","external_links_name":"\"William Archibald Dunning\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1943651","external_links_name":"10.2307/1943651"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0554","external_links_name":"0003-0554"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1943651","external_links_name":"1943651"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2764839","external_links_name":"\"Review of A History of Political Theories From Rousseau to Spencer\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9602","external_links_name":"0002-9602"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1834657","external_links_name":"\"Review of A History of Political Theories from Luther to Montesquieu\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1834657","external_links_name":"10.2307/1834657"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-8762","external_links_name":"0002-8762"},{"Link":"http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-3162","external_links_name":"The New Georgia Encyclopedia (2005)"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1854452","external_links_name":"10.2307/1854452"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1854452","external_links_name":"1854452"},{"Link":"http://www.historians.org/info/AHA_History/jhfranklin.htm","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1903952","external_links_name":"in JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2191608","external_links_name":"in JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZL5fjiAqSgC","external_links_name":"The Dunning School: Historians, Race, and the Meaning of Reconstruction"},{"Link":"http://www.anb.org/articles/14/14-00161.html","external_links_name":"American National Biography Online Feb. 2000"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2954450","external_links_name":"in JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2197687","external_links_name":"in JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/9874/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000108963774","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/46928911","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJcKFWtxfPxMj8pqB7wwG3","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90849657","external_links_name":"Norway"},{"Link":"http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1721776","external_links_name":"Spain"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13571650b","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13571650b","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/120410494","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007279626705171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14218957","external_links_name":"Belgium"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50029745","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00541485","external_links_name":"Japan"},{"Link":"https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35050338","external_links_name":"Australia"},{"Link":"https://data.nlg.gr/resource/authority/record159226","external_links_name":"Greece"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p069502897","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810583613605606","external_links_name":"Poland"},{"Link":"http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/280144","external_links_name":"Portugal"},{"Link":"https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=127845","external_links_name":"Mathematics Genealogy Project"},{"Link":"https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/812135","external_links_name":"Trove"},{"Link":"https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6445njc","external_links_name":"SNAC"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/052649989","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carding_(fraud)
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Carding (fraud)
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["1 Acquisition","2 Resale","3 Cash out","4 Money laundering","5 Related services","6 History","6.1 1980s–1999","6.2 2000–2006","6.3 2007–present","6.4 Contemporary situation","6.5 Carding on Telegram","7 See also","8 References","9 Further reading"]
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Crime involving the trafficking of credit card data
Carding refers not only to payment card based fraud, but also to a range of related activities and services.
Forums
Pre-2003
ShadowCrew
CarderPlanet
Carding is a term of the trafficking and unauthorized use of credit cards. The stolen credit cards or credit card numbers are then used to buy prepaid gift cards to cover up the tracks. Activities also encompass exploitation of personal data, and money laundering techniques. Modern carding sites have been described as full-service commercial entities.
Acquisition
There are a great many of methods to acquire credit card and associated financial and personal data. The earliest known carding methods have also included "trashing" for financial data, raiding mail boxes and working with insiders. Some bank card numbers can be semi-automatically generated based on known sequences via a "BIN attack". Carders might attempt a "distributed guessing attack" to discover valid numbers by submitting numbers across a high number of ecommerce sites simultaneously.
Today, various methodologies include skimmers at ATMs, hacking or web skimming an ecommerce or payment processing site or even intercepting card data within a point of sale network. Randomly calling hotel room phones asking guests to "confirm" credit card details is example of a social engineering attack vector.
Resale
A management interface from the AlphaBay darknet market
Stolen data may be bundled as a "Base" or "First-hand base" if the seller participated in the theft themselves. Resellers may buy "packs" of dumps from multiple sources. Ultimately, the data may be sold on darknet markets and other carding sites and forums specialising in these types of illegal goods. Teenagers have gotten involved in fraud such as using card details to order pizzas.
On the more sophisticated of such sites, individual "dumps" may be purchased by zip code and country so as to avoid alerting banks about their misuse. Automatic checker services perform validation en masse in order to quickly check if a card has yet to be blocked. Sellers will advertise their dump's "valid rate", based on estimates or checker data. Cards with a greater than 90% valid rate command higher prices. "Cobs" or changes of billing are highly valued, where sufficient information is captured to allow redirection of the registered card's billing and shipping addresses to one under the carder's control.
Full identity information may be sold as "Fullz" inclusive of social security number, date of birth and address to perform more lucrative identity theft.
Fraudulent vendors are referred to as "rippers", vendors who take buyer's money then never deliver. This is increasingly mitigated via forum and store based feedback systems as well as through strict site invitation and referral policies.
Estimated per card prices, in US$, for stolen payment card data 2015
Payment Card Number With ccs
United States
United Kingdom
Canada
Australia
European Union
Software-generated
$5–8
$20–$25
$20–$25
$21–$25
$25–$30
With Bank ID Number
$15
$25
$25
$25
$30
With Date of Birth
$15
$30
$30
$30
$35
With prosinfo
$30
$35
$40
$40
$45
Cash out
Funds from stolen cards themselves may be cashed out via buying pre-paid cards, gift cards or through reshipping goods through mules then e-fencing through online marketplaces like eBay. Increased law enforcement scrutiny over reshipping services has led to the rise of dedicated criminal operations for reshipping stolen goods.
Hacked computers may be configured with SOCKS proxy software to optimise acceptance from payment processors.
Money laundering
The 2004 investigation into the ShadowCrew forum also led to investigations of the online payment service E-gold that had been launched in 1996, one of the preferred money transfer systems of carders at the time. In December 2005 its owner Douglas Jackson's house and businesses were raided as a part of "Operation Goldwire". Jackson discovered that the service had become a bank and transfer system to the criminal underworld. Pressured to disclose ongoing records disclosed to law enforcement, many arrests were made through to 2007. However, in April 2007 Jackson himself was indicted for money laundering, conspiracy and operating an unlicensed money transmitting business. This led to the service freezing the assets of users in "high risk" countries and coming under more traditional financial regulation.
Since 2006, Liberty Reserve had become a popular service for cybercriminals. When it was seized in May 2013 by the US government, this caused a major disruption to the cybercrime ecosystem.
Today, some carders prefer to make payment between themselves with bitcoin, as well as traditional wire services such as Western Union, MoneyGram or the Russian WebMoney service.
Related services
Many forums also provide related computer crime services such as phishing kits, malware and spam lists. They may also act as a distribution point for the latest fraud tutorials either for free or commercially. ICQ was at one point the instant messenger of choice due to its anonymity as well as MSN clients modified to use PGP. Carding related sites may be hosted on botnet based fast flux web hosting for resilience against law enforcement action.
Other account types like PayPal, Uber, Netflix and loyalty card points may be sold alongside card details. Logins to many sites may also be sold as a backdoor access apparently for major institutions such as banks, universities and even industrial control systems.
For gift card fraud, retailers are prone to be exploited by fraudsters in their attempts to steal gift cards via bot technology or through stolen credit card information. In the context of fraud, using stolen credit card data to purchase gift cards is becoming an increasingly common money laundering tactic. Another way gift card fraud occurs is when a retailer's online systems which store gift card data undergo brute force attacks from automated bots.
Tax refund fraud is an increasingly popular method of using identify theft to acquire prepaid cards ready for immediate cash out. Popular coupons may be counterfeited and sold also.
Personal information and even medical records are sometimes available. Theft and gift card fraud may operated entirely independently of online carding operations.
Cashing out in gift cards is very common as well, as "discounted gift cards" can be found for sale anywhere, making it an easy sale for a carder, and a very lucrative operation.
The Google hacks, popularly known as Google dorks for credit card details, are also used often in obtaining credit card details.
History
1980s–1999
Since the 1980s in the days of the dial-up BBSes, the term carding has been used to describe the practices surrounding credit card fraud. Methods such as "trashing", raiding mail boxes and working with insiders at stores were cited as effective ways of acquiring card details. Use of drops at places like abandoned houses and apartments or with persuadable neighbors near such a location were suggested. Social engineering of mail order sales representatives are suggested in order to provide passable information for card not present transactions. Characters such as "The Vindicator" would write extensive guides on "Carding Across America", burglary, fax fraud, supporting phreaking, and advanced techniques for maximizing profits. During the 1980s, the majority of hacker arrests were attributable to carding-related activities due to the relative maturity of financial laws compared to emerging computer regulations.
Started in 1989, by 1990 Operation Sundevil was launched by the United States Secret Service to crack down on use of BBS groups involved in credit card fraud and other illegal computer activities, the most highly publicised action by the US federal government against hackers at the time. The severity of the crackdown was so much that the Electronic Frontier Foundation was formed in response to the violation of civil liberties.
In the mid-1990s with the rise of AOL dial-up accounts, the AOHell software became a popular tool for phishing and stealing information such as credit card details from new Internet users. Such abuse was exacerbated because prior to 1995 AOL did not validate subscription credit card numbers on account creation. Abuse was so common AOL added "no one working at AOL will ask for your password or billing information" to all instant messenger communications. Only by 1997 when warez and phishing were pushed off the service did these types of attacks begin to decline.
December 1999 featured an unusual case of extortion when Maxim, a Russian 19-year-old, stole the 25,000 users' card details from CD Universe and demanded $100,000 for its destruction. When the ransom was not paid, the information was leaked on the Internet.
One of the first books written about carding, 100% Internet Credit Card Fraud Protected, featured content produced by "Hawk" of carding group "Universal Carders". It described the spring 1999 hack and credit card theft on CyberCash, the stratification of carder proficiencies (script kiddie through to professionals) common purchases for each type and basic phishing schemes to acquire credit card data.
By 1999, United States offline and online credit card fraud annual losses were estimated at between $500,000 and $2 million.
2000–2006
From the early 2000s, sites like "The Counterfeit Library", also functioning as a diploma mill, grew to prominence, with many of its members going on to join larger cybercrime websites in later years until its closure around September 2004.
In 2001, Russian speaking hackers founded CarderPlanet in Odesa which would go on to be one of the most notorious forums of its kind.
In the summer of 2003, separate US secret service and FBI investigations led to the arrest the top administrator Albert Gonzalez of the large ShadowCrew, turned informant as a part of "Operation Firewall". By March 2004, the administrator of "CarderPlanet" disappeared with Gonzalez taking over. In October 2004 dozens of ShadowCrew members were busted across the US and Canada. Carders speculate that one of the USSS infiltrators might have been detected by a fellow site member causing the operation to be expedited. Ultimately, the closure of ShadowCrew and CarderPlanet did not reduce the degree of fraud and led to the proliferation of smaller sites.
ShadowCrew admin Brett Shannon Johnson managed to avoid being arrested at this time, but was picked up in 2005 on separate charges then turned informant. Continuing to commit tax fraud as an informant, "Operation Anglerphish" embedded him as admins on both ScandinavianCarding and CardersMarket. When his continued carding activities were exposed as a part of a separate investigation in 2006, he briefly went on the run before being caught for good in August of that year.
In June 2005, the credit card processing company CardSystems was hacked in what was at the time the largest personal information breach in history with many of the stolen information making its way to carding sites. Later in 2007, the TJX Companies breach perpetuated by Albert Gonzalez (who was still an informant at the time) would only come to the public's attention after stolen cards detected being misused to buy large amounts of gift cards. Gonzalez's 2008, intrusion into Heartland Payment Systems to steal card data was characterized as the largest ever criminal breach of card data.
Also in June 2005, UK-based carders were found to be collaborating with Russian mafia and arrested as a result of a National Hi-Tech Crime Unit investigation, looking into Eastern European crime syndicates.
Some time in 2005, J. Keith Mularski from the NCFTA headed up a sting into popular English language site DarkMarket.ws. One of the few survivors of "Operation Firewall", Mularski was able to infiltrate the site via taking over the handle "Master Splyntr", an Eastern European spammer named Pavel Kaminski. In late 2006 the site was hacked by Max Butler, who detected user "Master Splyntr" had logged in from the NCFTA's offices, but the warning was dismissed as inter-forum rivalry. In 2007 details of the operation was revealed to German national police, that the NCFTA had successfully penetrated the forum's inner "family". By October 4, 2007, Mularski announced he was shutting the site due to unwanted attention from a fellow administrator, framed as "too much attention" from law enforcement. For several years following site closure multiple arrests were made internationally.
From 2004 through to 2006, CardersMarket assimilated various rival forums through marketing, hacking databases. Arrested in 2007, in 2010 the site's owner Max Butler was sentenced to 13 years in prison.
2007–present
Since 2007 to present, Operation Open Market, an operation run by the HIS and the USSS has targeted the primarily Russian language Carder.su organisation, believed to be operating out of Las Vegas. In 2011, alleged site owner Roman Seleznev was apprehended in the Maldives by US law enforcement and in 2012, identity thief David Ray Camez was arrested and charged in an unprecedented use of RICO legislation.
Horohorin Vladislav, identified as BadB in November 2009 in a sealed indictment from the United States attorney's office was arrested in 2010 by USSS in Nice, France. Vladislav created the first fully automated credit card shop and managed websites associates with stolen credit card numbers. Horohorin Vladislav is also known for being first cyber criminal to promote his illegal activities by creating video cartoons ridiculing American card holders.
In 2011, former Bulgarian ShadowCrew member Aleksi Kolarov (also known as "APK") was finally arrested and held in Paraguay before being extradited to the United States in 2013 to face charges.
In March 2012, the United States Secret Service took down Kurupt.su, and arrested David Schrooten (also known as "Fortezza" and "Xakep") in Romania, he was extradited to the United States and sentenced to serve 12 years in federal prison. Primarily for his role in trafficking credit cards he obtained by hacking other hackers.
In June 2012, the FBI seized carding and hacking forums UGNazi.com and Carders.org in a sting as a part of a 2-year investigation dubbed Operation Card Shop after setting up a honeypot forum at carderprofit.cc.
In August 2013, hacker and carding forum HackBB was taken down as part of the raid on Freedom Hosting.
In January 2014, fakeplastic.net was closed following an investigation by the US postal service and FBI, after collating previously seized information from TorMail, ShadowCrew and Liberty Reserve. This led to multiple arrests and prosecutions as well as the site's closure.
A 2014 report from Group-IB, suggested that Russian cybercriminals could be making as much as $680 million a year based on their market research.
In December 2014, the Tor based Tor Carding Forum closed following a site hack, with its administrator "Verto" directing users to migrate to the Evolution darknet market's forums which would go on to be the largest darknet market exit scam ever seen.
"Alpha02", who was notorious for his guides through, went on to found the AlphaBay darknet market, the first to ever deal in stolen Uber accounts. The site is working on rebuilding the damage to the reputation of markets founded by carders precipitated by the Evolution scam. Meanwhile, most Russian carders selling details do not trust the darknet markets due to the high level of law enforcement attention; however, buyers are more open.
Ercan Findikoğlu, also known as "Segate" and "Predator", with others, led an international conspiracy, stole $55 million by hacking ATM card issuers and making fraudulent cards and was sentenced to eight years in prison by a federal court. Findikoğlu, a Turkish national, with a Russian wife, Alena Kovalenko, avoided capture by obscuring his cyber fingerprints and avoiding the reach of American law, but he went to Germany in December 2013, was arrested, lost a court challenge, and was extradited. Findikoğlu, as a youngster honed his skills in cyber cafes, the Turkish military, and then masterminded three complex, global financial crimes by hacking into credit card processors, eliminating the limits on prepaid cards then sending PINs and access codes to teams of cashers who, within hours withdrew cash from ATMs. In December 2012, 5,000 cashers in 20 countries withdrew $5 million, $400,000 in 700 transactions from 140 New York ATMs, in 150 minutes. Stolen cash was kicked back via wire transfers and deliveries to Turkey, Romania and Ukraine.
Vladimir Drinkman, 34, a cohort of Albert Gonzalez, pleaded guilty in Camden, New Jersey, that he got credit card numbers from Heartland Payment Systems, 7-Eleven, Hannaford Bros, Nasdaq, Carrefour, JetBlue, and other companies from 2005 to 2012. (U.S. v. Drinkman, 09-cr-00626, U.S. District Court, District of New Jersey (Camden))
In February 2018, the Infraud Organization was revealed.
Contemporary situation
In more recent years, Russian language forums have gained dominance over English language ones, with the former considerably more adept at identifying security researchers and counterintelligence activities and strict invitation systems. Russia's lack of extradition treaty with the United States has made the country somewhat of a safe haven of cyber criminals, with the Russian foreign ministry going so far as to recommend citizens not travel abroad to countries with such treaties. Investigative journalist Brian Krebs has extensively reported on Russian carders as an ongoing game of cat and mouse.
Carding on Telegram
Organised criminals have been flowing in mass to Telegram - and is used frequently for carding activities. Criminals create their own channels which release stolen bank data - in hope that other criminals will use it and the card will become 'dead'. The purpose behind this, is that numerous markets selling stolen bank card data, offer refunds for cards which are checked and are 'dead' as long as its checked within a given time-frame (usually two minutes). This results in hundreds of channels on Telegram being used to release stolen bank cards.
See also
Darknet market
Fencing
Identity theft
Internet fraud
References
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Further reading
Poulsen, Kevin (2011). Kingpin: The true story of Max Butler, the master hacker who ran a billion dollar cyber crime network. Hachette Australia. ISBN 978-0733628382. Retrieved 16 August 2015.
Glenny, Misha (2 October 2012). DarkMarket: How Hackers Became the New Mafia. National Geographic Books. ISBN 9780307476449.
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Category
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"trafficking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trafficking"},{"link_name":"credit cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_card_fraud"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-networkcomputing.com-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"exploitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_theft"},{"link_name":"personal data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_data"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ddw-3"},{"link_name":"money laundering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_laundering"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-label-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Carding is a term of the trafficking and unauthorized use of credit cards.[1] The stolen credit cards or credit card numbers are then used to buy prepaid gift cards to cover up the tracks.[2] Activities also encompass exploitation of personal data,[3] and money laundering techniques.[4] Modern carding sites have been described as full-service commercial entities.[5]","title":"Carding (fraud)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"credit card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_card"},{"link_name":"\"trashing\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_diving"},{"link_name":"mail boxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_box"},{"link_name":"working with insiders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inside_job"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trash-7"},{"link_name":"dubious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement"},{"link_name":"discuss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Carding_(fraud)#The_first_sentence_in_the_%22Structure%22_section"},{"link_name":"bank card numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_card_number"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"skimmers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATM_skimmer"},{"link_name":"ATMs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_teller_machine"},{"link_name":"hacking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker_(computer_security)"},{"link_name":"web skimming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_skimming"},{"link_name":"ecommerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecommerce"},{"link_name":"payment processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payment_processor"},{"link_name":"point of sale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_of_sale"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"social engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_engineering_(security)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"There are a great many of methods to acquire credit card and associated financial and personal data. The earliest known carding methods have also included \"trashing\" for financial data, raiding mail boxes and working with insiders.[6][7][dubious – discuss] Some bank card numbers can be semi-automatically generated based on known sequences via a \"BIN attack\".[8] Carders might attempt a \"distributed guessing attack\" to discover valid numbers by submitting numbers across a high number of ecommerce sites simultaneously.[9]Today, various methodologies include skimmers at ATMs, hacking or web skimming an ecommerce or payment processing site or even intercepting card data within a point of sale network.[10] Randomly calling hotel room phones asking guests to \"confirm\" credit card details is example of a social engineering attack vector.[11]","title":"Acquisition"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AlphaBay_stolen_credit_card_shop.png"},{"link_name":"AlphaBay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaBay"},{"link_name":"darknet market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darknet_market"},{"link_name":"darknet markets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darknet_markets"},{"link_name":"forums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_forum"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"zip code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_code"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"checker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_card_fraud#Checker"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-17"},{"link_name":"identity theft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_theft"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"feedback systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reputation_system"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcafee-21"}],"text":"A management interface from the AlphaBay darknet marketStolen data may be bundled as a \"Base\" or \"First-hand base\" if the seller participated in the theft themselves. Resellers may buy \"packs\" of dumps from multiple sources. Ultimately, the data may be sold on darknet markets and other carding sites and forums[12] specialising in these types of illegal goods.[13][14] Teenagers have gotten involved in fraud such as using card details to order pizzas.[15]On the more sophisticated of such sites, individual \"dumps\" may be purchased by zip code and country so as to avoid alerting banks about their misuse.[16] Automatic checker services perform validation en masse in order to quickly check if a card has yet to be blocked. Sellers will advertise their dump's \"valid rate\", based on estimates or checker data. Cards with a greater than 90% valid rate command higher prices. \"Cobs\" or changes of billing are highly valued, where sufficient information is captured to allow redirection of the registered card's billing and shipping addresses to one under the carder's control.[17]Full identity information may be sold as \"Fullz\" inclusive of social security number, date of birth and address to perform more lucrative identity theft.[18][19]Fraudulent vendors are referred to as \"rippers\", vendors who take buyer's money then never deliver. This is increasingly mitigated via forum and store based feedback systems as well as through strict site invitation and referral policies.[20]Estimated per card prices, in US$, for stolen payment card data 2015[21]","title":"Resale"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pre-paid cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stored-value_card"},{"link_name":"gift cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gift_card"},{"link_name":"reshipping goods through mules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parcel_mule_scam"},{"link_name":"e-fencing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-fencing"},{"link_name":"online marketplaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_marketplace"},{"link_name":"eBay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EBay"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-label-4"},{"link_name":"SOCKS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOCKS"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"Funds from stolen cards themselves may be cashed out via buying pre-paid cards, gift cards or through reshipping goods through mules then e-fencing through online marketplaces like eBay.[22][23] Increased law enforcement scrutiny over reshipping services has led to the rise of dedicated criminal operations for reshipping stolen goods.[24][4]Hacked computers may be configured with SOCKS proxy software to optimise acceptance from payment processors.[25][26][27][28]","title":"Cash out"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"E-gold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-gold"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Liberty Reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberty_Reserve"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"bitcoin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitcoin"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"Western Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Union"},{"link_name":"MoneyGram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MoneyGram"},{"link_name":"WebMoney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebMoney"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"}],"text":"The 2004 investigation into the ShadowCrew forum also led to investigations of the online payment service E-gold that had been launched in 1996, one of the preferred money transfer systems of carders at the time. In December 2005 its owner Douglas Jackson's house and businesses were raided as a part of \"Operation Goldwire\". Jackson discovered that the service had become a bank and transfer system to the criminal underworld. Pressured to disclose ongoing records disclosed to law enforcement, many arrests were made through to 2007. However, in April 2007 Jackson himself was indicted for money laundering, conspiracy and operating an unlicensed money transmitting business. This led to the service freezing the assets of users in \"high risk\" countries and coming under more traditional financial regulation.[29]Since 2006, Liberty Reserve had become a popular service for cybercriminals. When it was seized in May 2013 by the US government, this caused a major disruption to the cybercrime ecosystem.[30]Today, some carders prefer to make payment between themselves with bitcoin,[31][32][better source needed][failed verification] as well as traditional wire services such as Western Union, MoneyGram or the Russian WebMoney service.[33][34][failed verification]","title":"Money laundering"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer crime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_crime"},{"link_name":"phishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phishing"},{"link_name":"malware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware"},{"link_name":"spam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spamming"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"ICQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICQ"},{"link_name":"anonymity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anonymity"},{"link_name":"MSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSN"},{"link_name":"PGP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pretty_Good_Privacy"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-historystuff-37"},{"link_name":"botnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botnet"},{"link_name":"fast flux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_flux"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"PayPal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PayPal"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Uber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uber"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Netflix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netflix"},{"link_name":"loyalty card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyalty_card"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CS-Cart_2024-03-26-41"},{"link_name":"backdoor access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backdoor_(computing)"},{"link_name":"industrial control systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_control_system"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcafee-21"},{"link_name":"gift card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gift_card"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Tax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-label-4"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"coupons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupon"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcafee-21"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"text":"Many forums also provide related computer crime services such as phishing kits, malware and spam lists.[35] They may also act as a distribution point for the latest fraud tutorials either for free or commercially.[36] ICQ was at one point the instant messenger of choice due to its anonymity as well as MSN clients modified to use PGP.[37] Carding related sites may be hosted on botnet based fast flux web hosting for resilience against law enforcement action.[38]Other account types like PayPal,[39] Uber,[40] Netflix and loyalty card points may be sold alongside card details.[41] Logins to many sites may also be sold as a backdoor access apparently for major institutions such as banks, universities and even industrial control systems.[21]For gift card fraud, retailers are prone to be exploited by fraudsters in their attempts to steal gift cards via bot technology or through stolen credit card information.[42] In the context of [43] fraud, using stolen credit card data to purchase gift cards is becoming an increasingly common money laundering tactic. Another way gift card fraud occurs is when a retailer's online systems which store gift card data undergo brute force attacks from automated bots.Tax refund fraud is an increasingly popular method of using identify theft to acquire prepaid cards ready for immediate cash out.[4][44] Popular coupons may be counterfeited and sold also.[45]Personal information and even medical records are sometimes available.[21] Theft and gift card fraud may operated entirely independently of online carding operations.[46]Cashing out in gift cards is very common as well, as \"discounted gift cards\" can be found for sale anywhere, making it an easy sale for a carder, and a very lucrative operation.[47]The Google hacks, popularly known as Google dorks for credit card details,[48] are also used often in obtaining credit card details.","title":"Related services"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eighties-49"},{"link_name":"dial-up BBSes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_board_system"},{"link_name":"\"trashing\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_diving"},{"link_name":"mail boxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_box"},{"link_name":"working with insiders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inside_job"},{"link_name":"drops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_drop"},{"link_name":"Social engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_engineering_(security)"},{"link_name":"mail order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_order"},{"link_name":"card not present transactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Card_not_present_transaction"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trash-7"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"burglary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burglary"},{"link_name":"fax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fax"},{"link_name":"phreaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phreaking"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"hacker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker_(computer_security)"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eighties-49"},{"link_name":"Operation Sundevil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Sundevil"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sterling3-53"},{"link_name":"Electronic Frontier Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"AOL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AOL"},{"link_name":"AOHell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AOHell"},{"link_name":"phishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phishing"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aol-56"},{"link_name":"warez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warez"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aol-56"},{"link_name":"extortion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extortion"},{"link_name":"CD Universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD_Universe"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"CyberCash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CyberCash,_Inc."},{"link_name":"script kiddie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Script_kiddie"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hundredpercent-58"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hundredpercent-58"}],"sub_title":"1980s–1999","text":"Since the 1980s[49] in the days of the dial-up BBSes, the term carding has been used to describe the practices surrounding credit card fraud. Methods such as \"trashing\", raiding mail boxes and working with insiders at stores were cited as effective ways of acquiring card details. Use of drops at places like abandoned houses and apartments or with persuadable neighbors near such a location were suggested. Social engineering of mail order sales representatives are suggested in order to provide passable information for card not present transactions.[7] Characters such as \"The [50] Vindicator\" would write extensive guides on \"Carding Across America\", burglary, fax fraud, supporting phreaking,[51] and advanced techniques for maximizing profits.[52] During the 1980s, the majority of hacker arrests were attributable to carding-related activities due to the relative maturity of financial laws compared to emerging computer regulations.[49]Started in 1989, by 1990 Operation Sundevil was launched by the United States Secret Service to crack down on use of BBS groups involved in credit card fraud and other illegal computer activities, the most highly publicised action by the US federal government against hackers at the time.[53] The severity of the crackdown was so much that the Electronic Frontier Foundation was formed in response to the violation of civil liberties.[54]In the mid-1990s with the rise of AOL dial-up accounts, the AOHell software became a popular tool for phishing and stealing information such as credit card details from new Internet users.[55] Such abuse was exacerbated because prior to 1995 AOL did not validate subscription credit card numbers on account creation.[56] Abuse was so common AOL added \"no one working at AOL will ask for your password or billing information\" to all instant messenger communications. Only by 1997 when warez and phishing were pushed off the service did these types of attacks begin to decline.[56]December 1999 featured an unusual case of extortion when Maxim, a Russian 19-year-old, stole the 25,000 users' card details from CD Universe and demanded $100,000 for its destruction. When the ransom was not paid, the information was leaked on the Internet.[57]One of the first books written about carding, 100% Internet Credit Card Fraud Protected, featured content produced by \"Hawk\" of carding group \"Universal Carders\". It described the spring 1999 hack and credit card theft on CyberCash, the stratification of carder proficiencies (script kiddie through to professionals) common purchases for each type and basic phishing schemes to acquire credit card data.[58]By 1999, United States offline and online credit card fraud annual losses were estimated at between $500,000 and $2 million.[58]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The Counterfeit Library\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20040912012235/http://www.counterfeitlibrary.com/"},{"link_name":"diploma mill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diploma_mill"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-historystuff-37"},{"link_name":"Odesa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odesa"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"US secret service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_secret_service"},{"link_name":"FBI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FBI"},{"link_name":"Albert Gonzalez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Gonzalez"},{"link_name":"ShadowCrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ShadowCrew"},{"link_name":"informant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informant"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-historystuff-37"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"CardSystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CardSystems_Solutions"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-17"},{"link_name":"TJX Companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TJX_Companies"},{"link_name":"Albert Gonzalez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Gonzalez"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"Heartland Payment Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heartland_Payment_Systems#Security_breach"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Russian mafia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_mafia"},{"link_name":"National Hi-Tech Crime Unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Hi-Tech_Crime_Unit"},{"link_name":"Eastern European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_European"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-historystuff-37"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"NCFTA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Cyber-Forensics_and_Training_Alliance"},{"link_name":"DarkMarket.ws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DarkMarket"},{"link_name":"Max Butler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Butler"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Max Butler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Butler"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"sub_title":"2000–2006","text":"From the early 2000s, sites like \"The Counterfeit Library\", also functioning as a diploma mill, grew to prominence, with many of its members going on to join larger cybercrime websites in later years until its closure around September 2004.[37]In 2001, Russian speaking hackers founded CarderPlanet in Odesa which would go on to be one of the most notorious forums of its kind.[59]In the summer of 2003, separate US secret service and FBI investigations led to the arrest the top administrator Albert Gonzalez of the large ShadowCrew, turned informant as a part of \"Operation Firewall\". By March 2004, the administrator of \"CarderPlanet\" disappeared with Gonzalez taking over. In October 2004 dozens of ShadowCrew members were busted across the US and Canada. Carders speculate that one of the USSS infiltrators might have been detected by a fellow site member causing the operation to be expedited.[37] Ultimately, the closure of ShadowCrew and CarderPlanet did not reduce the degree of fraud and led to the proliferation of smaller sites.[60][61]ShadowCrew admin Brett Shannon Johnson managed to avoid being arrested at this time, but was picked up in 2005 on separate charges then turned informant. Continuing to commit tax fraud as an informant, \"Operation Anglerphish\" embedded him as admins on both ScandinavianCarding and CardersMarket. When his continued carding activities were exposed as a part of a separate investigation in 2006, he briefly went on the run before being caught for good in August of that year.[62]In June 2005, the credit card processing company CardSystems was hacked in what was at the time the largest personal information breach in history with many of the stolen information making its way to carding sites.[17] Later in 2007, the TJX Companies breach perpetuated by Albert Gonzalez (who was still an informant at the time)[63] would only come to the public's attention after stolen cards detected being misused to buy large amounts of gift cards.[64] Gonzalez's 2008, intrusion into Heartland Payment Systems to steal card data was characterized as the largest ever criminal breach of card data.[65]Also in June 2005, UK-based carders were found to be collaborating with Russian mafia and arrested as a result of a National Hi-Tech Crime Unit investigation, looking into Eastern European crime syndicates.[37][66]\nSome time in 2005, J. Keith Mularski from the NCFTA headed up a sting into popular English language site DarkMarket.ws. One of the few survivors of \"Operation Firewall\", Mularski was able to infiltrate the site via taking over the handle \"Master Splyntr\", an Eastern European spammer named Pavel Kaminski. In late 2006 the site was hacked by Max Butler, who detected user \"Master Splyntr\" had logged in from the NCFTA's offices, but the warning was dismissed as inter-forum rivalry. In 2007 details of the operation was revealed to German national police, that the NCFTA had successfully penetrated the forum's inner \"family\". By October 4, 2007, Mularski announced he was shutting the site due to unwanted attention from a fellow administrator, framed as \"too much attention\" from law enforcement.[67] For several years following site closure multiple arrests were made internationally.[68]From 2004 through to 2006, CardersMarket assimilated various rival forums through marketing, hacking databases.[69] Arrested in 2007, in 2010 the site's owner Max Butler was sentenced to 13 years in prison.[70]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"HIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeland_Security_Investigations"},{"link_name":"USSS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service"},{"link_name":"Carder.su","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carder.su"},{"link_name":"Las Vegas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Vegas"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Roman Seleznev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Seleznev"},{"link_name":"Maldives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldives"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"RICO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"Horohorin Vladislav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horohorin_Vladislav"},{"link_name":"USSS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service_Uniformed_Division"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"Horohorin Vladislav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horohorin_Vladislav"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"Bulgarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria"},{"link_name":"ShadowCrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ShadowCrew"},{"link_name":"Aleksi Kolarov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksi_Kolarov"},{"link_name":"Paraguay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraguay"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"United States Secret Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service"},{"link_name":"David Schrooten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Schrooten"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"FBI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FBI"},{"link_name":"UGNazi.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UGNazi"},{"link_name":"sting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sting_operation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-networkcomputing.com-1"},{"link_name":"honeypot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeypot_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"HackBB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HackBB"},{"link_name":"Freedom Hosting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_Hosting"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"US postal service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service"},{"link_name":"TorMail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TorMail"},{"link_name":"ShadowCrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ShadowCrew"},{"link_name":"Liberty Reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberty_Reserve"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"Group-IB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Group-IB&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"Tor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tor_(network)"},{"link_name":"Tor Carding Forum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tor_Carding_Forum"},{"link_name":"Evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_(marketplace)"},{"link_name":"darknet market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darknet_market"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"AlphaBay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaBay_Market"},{"link_name":"darknet market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darknet_market"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"Uber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uber"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_(marketplace)"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"darknet markets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darknet_market"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Drinkman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vladimir_Drinkman&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Albert Gonzalez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Gonzalez"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krebsonsecurity.com-106"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"Infraud Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraud_Organization"}],"sub_title":"2007–present","text":"Since 2007 to present, Operation Open Market, an operation run by the HIS and the USSS has targeted the primarily Russian language Carder.su organisation, believed to be operating out of Las Vegas.[71] In 2011, alleged site owner Roman Seleznev was apprehended in the Maldives by US law enforcement[72][73] and in 2012, identity thief David Ray Camez was arrested and charged in an unprecedented use of RICO legislation.[74][75]Horohorin Vladislav, identified as BadB in November 2009 in a sealed indictment from the United States attorney's office was arrested in 2010 by USSS in Nice, France. Vladislav created the first fully automated credit card shop and managed websites associates with stolen credit card numbers.[76][77][78] Horohorin Vladislav is also known for being first cyber criminal to promote his illegal activities by creating video cartoons ridiculing American card holders.[79]In 2011, former Bulgarian ShadowCrew member Aleksi Kolarov (also known as \"APK\") was finally arrested and held in Paraguay before being extradited to the United States in 2013 to face charges.[80]In March 2012, the United States Secret Service took down Kurupt.su, and arrested David Schrooten (also known as \"Fortezza\" and \"Xakep\") in Romania, he was extradited to the United States and sentenced to serve 12 years in federal prison. Primarily for his role in trafficking credit cards he obtained by hacking other hackers.[81][82][83]In June 2012, the FBI seized carding and hacking forums UGNazi.com and Carders.org in a sting as a part of a 2-year investigation dubbed Operation Card Shop[1] after setting up a honeypot forum at carderprofit.cc.[84]In August 2013, hacker and carding forum HackBB was taken down as part of the raid on Freedom Hosting.[85]In January 2014, fakeplastic.net was closed following an investigation by the US postal service and FBI, after collating previously seized information from TorMail, ShadowCrew and Liberty Reserve. This led to multiple arrests and prosecutions as well as the site's closure.[86][87][88]A 2014 report from Group-IB, suggested that Russian cybercriminals could be making as much as $680 million a year based on their market research.[89]In December 2014, the Tor based Tor Carding Forum closed following a site hack, with its administrator \"Verto\" directing users to migrate to the Evolution darknet market's[90] forums[91] which would go on to be the largest darknet market exit scam ever seen.[92][93]\n[94]\n\"Alpha02\", who was notorious for his [95] guides through,[96] went on to found the AlphaBay darknet market,[97] the first to ever deal in stolen Uber accounts.[98] The site is working on rebuilding the damage to the reputation of markets founded by carders precipitated by the Evolution scam.[99] Meanwhile, most Russian carders selling details do not trust the darknet markets due to the high level of law enforcement attention; however, buyers are more open.[100]Ercan Findikoğlu, also known as \"Segate\" and \"Predator\", with others, led an international conspiracy,[101] stole $55 million by hacking ATM card issuers and making fraudulent cards and was sentenced to eight years in prison by a federal court.[102][103] Findikoğlu, a Turkish national, with a Russian wife, Alena Kovalenko, avoided capture by obscuring his cyber fingerprints and avoiding the reach of American law, but he went to Germany in December 2013, was arrested, lost a court challenge, and was extradited. Findikoğlu, as a youngster honed his skills in cyber cafes, the Turkish military, and then masterminded three complex, global financial crimes by hacking into credit card processors, eliminating the limits on prepaid cards then sending PINs and access codes to teams of cashers who, within hours withdrew cash from ATMs. In December 2012, 5,000 cashers in 20 countries withdrew $5 million, $400,000 in 700 transactions from 140 New York ATMs, in 150 minutes. Stolen cash was kicked back via wire transfers and deliveries to Turkey, Romania and Ukraine.[104]Vladimir Drinkman, 34, a cohort of Albert Gonzalez,[105] pleaded guilty in Camden, New Jersey, that he got credit card numbers from Heartland Payment Systems, 7-Eleven, Hannaford Bros, Nasdaq, Carrefour, JetBlue,[106][107] and other companies from 2005 to 2012. (U.S. v. Drinkman, 09-cr-00626, U.S. District Court, District of New Jersey (Camden))[108][109][110][111]In February 2018, the Infraud Organization was revealed.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"counterintelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterintelligence"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ddw-3"},{"link_name":"extradition treaty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extradition_treaty"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"Investigative journalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigative_journalist"},{"link_name":"Brian Krebs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Krebs"},{"link_name":"cat and mouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat_and_mouse"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"}],"sub_title":"Contemporary situation","text":"In more recent years, Russian language forums have gained dominance over English language ones, with the former considerably more adept at identifying security researchers and counterintelligence activities[112] and strict invitation systems.[3] Russia's lack of extradition treaty with the United States has made the country somewhat of a safe haven of cyber criminals, with the Russian foreign ministry going so far as to recommend citizens not travel abroad to countries with such treaties.[113] Investigative journalist Brian Krebs has extensively reported on Russian carders as an ongoing game of cat and mouse.[114]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Telegram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegram_(software)"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"}],"sub_title":"Carding on Telegram","text":"Organised criminals have been flowing in mass to Telegram - and is used frequently for carding activities. Criminals create their own channels which release stolen bank data - in hope that other criminals will use it and the card will become 'dead'. The purpose behind this, is that numerous markets selling stolen bank card data, offer refunds for cards which are checked and are 'dead' as long as its checked within a given time-frame (usually two minutes). This results in hundreds of channels on Telegram being used to release stolen bank cards.[115]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kingpin: The true story of Max Butler, the master hacker who ran a billion dollar cyber crime network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=5yRaPJHZHtMC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0733628382","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0733628382"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780307476449","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307476449"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Scams_and_confidence_tricks"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Scams_and_confidence_tricks"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Scams_and_confidence_tricks"},{"link_name":"Scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scam"},{"link_name":"Error account","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_account"},{"link_name":"Shill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shill"},{"link_name":"Shyster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shyster"},{"link_name":"Sucker list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucker_list"},{"link_name":"1992 Indian stock market scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_Indian_stock_market_scam"},{"link_name":"2G spectrum case","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2G_spectrum_case"},{"link_name":"Advance-fee scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advance-fee_scam"},{"link_name":"Art student scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_student_scam"},{"link_name":"Badger game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badger_game"},{"link_name":"Bait-and-switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bait-and-switch"},{"link_name":"Black money scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_money_scam"},{"link_name":"Blessing scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blessing_scam"},{"link_name":"Bogus escrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogus_escrow"},{"link_name":"Boiler room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiler_room_(business)"},{"link_name":"Bride scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bride_scam"},{"link_name":"Charity fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity_fraud"},{"link_name":"Clip joint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clip_joint"},{"link_name":"Coin-matching game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coin-matching_game"},{"link_name":"Coin rolling scams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coin_rolling_scams"},{"link_name":"Drop swindle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drop_swindle"},{"link_name":"Embarrassing cheque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embarrassing_cheque"},{"link_name":"Exit scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exit_scam"},{"link_name":"Extraterrestrial real estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_real_estate"},{"link_name":"Fiddle game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiddle_game"},{"link_name":"Fine print","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_print"},{"link_name":"Foreclosure rescue scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreclosure_rescue_scheme"},{"link_name":"Foreign exchange fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_exchange_fraud"},{"link_name":"Fortune telling fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_telling_fraud"},{"link_name":"Gem scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gem_scam"},{"link_name":"Get-rich-quick scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get-rich-quick_scheme"},{"link_name":"Green goods scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_goods_scam"},{"link_name":"Hustling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hustling"},{"link_name":"Indian coal allocation scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_coal_allocation_scam"},{"link_name":"IRS impersonation scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRS_impersonation_scam"},{"link_name":"Intellectual property scams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scams_in_intellectual_property"},{"link_name":"Kansas City Shuffle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_City_Shuffle"},{"link_name":"Locksmith scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locksmith_scam"},{"link_name":"Long firm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_firm_fraud"},{"link_name":"Miracle cars scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miracle_cars_scam"},{"link_name":"Mismarking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismarking"},{"link_name":"Mock auction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mock_auction"},{"link_name":"Moving scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_scam"},{"link_name":"Overpayment scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overpayment_scam"},{"link_name":"Patent safe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_safe"},{"link_name":"Pig in a poke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig_in_a_poke"},{"link_name":"Pigeon drop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon_drop"},{"link_name":"Pork barrel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pork_barrel"},{"link_name":"Pump and dump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pump_and_dump"},{"link_name":"Redemption/A4V schemes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redemption_movement"},{"link_name":"Reloading scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reloading_scam"},{"link_name":"Return fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_fraud"},{"link_name":"Salting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salting_(confidence_trick)"},{"link_name":"Shell game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_game"},{"link_name":"Sick baby hoax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sick_baby_hoax"},{"link_name":"SIM swap scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIM_swap_scam"},{"link_name":"Slavery reparations scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_reparations_scam"},{"link_name":"Spanish Prisoner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Prisoner"},{"link_name":"SSA impersonation scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSA_impersonation_scam"},{"link_name":"SSC Scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSC_Scam"},{"link_name":"Strip search phone call scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strip_search_phone_call_scam"},{"link_name":"Swampland in Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swampland_in_Florida"},{"link_name":"Tarmac scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarmac_scam"},{"link_name":"Technical support scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_support_scam"},{"link_name":"Telemarketing fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telemarketing_fraud"},{"link_name":"Thai tailor scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_tailor_scam"},{"link_name":"Thai zig zag scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_zig_zag_scam"},{"link_name":"Three-card monte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-card_monte"},{"link_name":"Trojan horse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_horse_(business)"},{"link_name":"Wash trading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wash_trading"},{"link_name":"White van speaker scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_van_speaker_scam"},{"link_name":"Work-at-home scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work-at-home_scheme"},{"link_name":"Internet scams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_fraud"},{"link_name":"Avalanche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalanche_(phishing_group)"},{"link_name":"Pig Butchering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig_butchering_scam"},{"link_name":"Carding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Catfishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catfishing"},{"link_name":"Click fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Click_fraud"},{"link_name":"Clickjacking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clickjacking"},{"link_name":"Cramming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cramming_(fraud)"},{"link_name":"Cryptocurrency scams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Cryptocurrency_scams"},{"link_name":"Cybercrime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybercrime"},{"link_name":"CyberThrill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CyberThrill"},{"link_name":"DarkMarket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DarkMarket"},{"link_name":"Domain name scams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_name_scams"},{"link_name":"Email authentication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_authentication"},{"link_name":"Email fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_fraud"},{"link_name":"Internet vigilantism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_vigilantism"},{"link_name":"Lenny anti-scam bot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenny_(bot)"},{"link_name":"Lottery scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lottery_scam"},{"link_name":"PayPai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PayPaI"},{"link_name":"Phishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phishing"},{"link_name":"Referer spoofing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referer_spoofing"},{"link_name":"Ripoff Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripoff_Report"},{"link_name":"Rock Phish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Phish"},{"link_name":"Romance scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_scam"},{"link_name":"Russian Business Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Business_Network"},{"link_name":"SaferNet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SaferNet"},{"link_name":"Scam baiting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scam_baiting"},{"link_name":"419eater.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/419eater.com"},{"link_name":"Jim Browning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Browning_(YouTuber)"},{"link_name":"Kitboga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitboga_(streamer)"},{"link_name":"Scammer Payback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scammer_Payback"},{"link_name":"ShadowCrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ShadowCrew"},{"link_name":"Spoofed URL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoofed_URL"},{"link_name":"Spoofing attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoofing_attack"},{"link_name":"Stock Generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_Generation"},{"link_name":"Voice phishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_phishing"},{"link_name":"Website reputation ratings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reputation_management"},{"link_name":"Pyramid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_scheme"},{"link_name":"Ponzi schemes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponzi_scheme"},{"link_name":"Aman Futures Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aman_Futures_Group"},{"link_name":"Bernard Cornfeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Cornfeld"},{"link_name":"Caritas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caritas_(Ponzi_scheme)"},{"link_name":"Dona Branca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dona_Branca"},{"link_name":"Earl Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Jones_(investment_advisor)"},{"link_name":"Ezubao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezubao"},{"link_name":"Foundation for New Era Philanthropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_for_New_Era_Philanthropy"},{"link_name":"Franchise fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franchise_fraud"},{"link_name":"High-yield investment program (HYIP)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-yield_investment_program"},{"link_name":"Investors Overseas Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investors_Overseas_Service"},{"link_name":"Kapa investment scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapa_investment_scam"},{"link_name":"Kubus scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kubus_scheme"},{"link_name":"Madoff investment scandal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madoff_investment_scandal"},{"link_name":"Make Money Fast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_Money_Fast"},{"link_name":"Matrix scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_scheme"},{"link_name":"MMM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMM_(Ponzi_scheme_company)"},{"link_name":"Petters Group Worldwide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petters_Group_Worldwide"},{"link_name":"Pyramid schemes in Albania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_schemes_in_Albania"},{"link_name":"Reed Slatkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed_Slatkin"},{"link_name":"Saradha Group financial scandal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saradha_Group_financial_scandal"},{"link_name":"Secret Sister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_Sister"},{"link_name":"Scott W. Rothstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_W._Rothstein"},{"link_name":"Stanford Financial Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Financial_Group"},{"link_name":"Welsh Thrasher faith scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_Thrasher_faith_scam"},{"link_name":"Con artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_con_artists"},{"link_name":"Confidence tricks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_confidence_tricks"},{"link_name":"Criminal enterprises, gangs and syndicates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_criminal_enterprises,_gangs,_and_syndicates"},{"link_name":"Impostors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_impostors"},{"link_name":"Film and television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence_tricks_in_film_and_television"},{"link_name":"Literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence_tricks_in_literature"},{"link_name":"Ponzi schemes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ponzi_schemes"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Fraud"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Fraud"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fraud"},{"link_name":"fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraud"},{"link_name":"Billing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_billing"},{"link_name":"Cramming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cramming_(fraud)"},{"link_name":"Disability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability_fraud"},{"link_name":"Drug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_fraud"},{"link_name":"Pharmaceutical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_fraud"},{"link_name":"Email","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_fraud"},{"link_name":"Employment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment_fraud"},{"link_name":"Food","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_fraud"},{"link_name":"Fixing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_fixing"},{"link_name":"Impersonation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_theft"},{"link_name":"Intellectual property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scams_in_intellectual_property"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_fraud"},{"link_name":"Job","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_fraud"},{"link_name":"Long firm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_firm_fraud"},{"link_name":"Odometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odometer_fraud"},{"link_name":"Phone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phone_fraud"},{"link_name":"Health care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_care_fraud"},{"link_name":"fertility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertility_fraud"},{"link_name":"quackery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quackery"},{"link_name":"Racketeering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racket_(crime)"},{"link_name":"Return","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_fraud"},{"link_name":"Tech support","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_support_scam"},{"link_name":"Slamming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_slamming"},{"link_name":"Telemarketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telemarketing_fraud"},{"link_name":"Weight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight_fraud"},{"link_name":"Wine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine_fraud"},{"link_name":"Fertility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertility_fraud"},{"link_name":"Marriage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sham_marriage"},{"link_name":"Paternity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paternity_fraud"},{"link_name":"Advance-fee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advance-fee_scam"},{"link_name":"lottery scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lottery_scam"},{"link_name":"Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_fraud"},{"link_name":"Bankruptcy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bankruptcy_fraud"},{"link_name":"Chargeback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chargeback_fraud"},{"link_name":"Cheque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque_fraud"},{"link_name":"Credit card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_card_fraud"},{"link_name":"carding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Forex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_exchange_fraud"},{"link_name":"Insurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance_fraud"},{"link_name":"Lottery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lottery_fraud"},{"link_name":"Mismarking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismarking"},{"link_name":"Mortgage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortgage_fraud"},{"link_name":"Overpayment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overpayment_scam"},{"link_name":"Securities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securities_fraud"},{"link_name":"Shill bidding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shill#Auctions"},{"link_name":"Tax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax_evasion"},{"link_name":"Benefit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benefit_fraud_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Electoral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_fraud"},{"link_name":"Medicare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicare_fraud"},{"link_name":"Visa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visa_fraud"},{"link_name":"Welfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welfare_fraud"},{"link_name":"Affinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity_fraud"},{"link_name":"Charity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity_fraud"},{"link_name":"Counterfeiting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterfeit"},{"link_name":"Faked death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faked_death"},{"link_name":"Forgery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgery"},{"link_name":"Hoax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoax"},{"link_name":"Impersonation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_theft"},{"link_name":"Mail and wire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_and_wire_fraud"},{"link_name":"honest services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honest_services_fraud"},{"link_name":"Scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scam"},{"link_name":"Romance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_scam"},{"link_name":"Bride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bride_scam"},{"link_name":"Scientific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconduct"},{"link_name":"Spyware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spyware"},{"link_name":"Vomit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vomit_fraud"},{"link_name":"White-collar crime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-collar_crime"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_fraud"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Fraud"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Privacy"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Privacy"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Privacy"},{"link_name":"Privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy"},{"link_name":"Right of access to personal data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_of_access_to_personal_data"},{"link_name":"Expectation of privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectation_of_privacy"},{"link_name":"Right to privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_privacy"},{"link_name":"Right to be forgotten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_be_forgotten"},{"link_name":"Post-mortem privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-mortem_privacy"},{"link_name":"Privacy laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_law"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_in_Australian_law"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Personal_Data_Protection_Law"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_privacy_law"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_Information_Protection_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_law_in_Denmark"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_in_English_law"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Data_Protection_Regulation"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundesdatenschutzgesetz"},{"link_name":"Ghana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Protection_Act,_2012"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_privacy_in_New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_protection_(privacy)_laws_in_Russia"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_Data_Protection_Act_2012_(Singapore)"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Data_Protection_and_Information_Commissioner"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Consumer_Privacy_Act"},{"link_name":"amended in 2020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Privacy_Rights_Act"},{"link_name":"Data protection authorities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_data_protection_authority"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_Australian_Information_Commissioner"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Data_Protection_Agency"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Data_Protection_Supervisor"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_nationale_de_l%27informatique_et_des_libert%C3%A9s"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Commissioner_for_Data_Protection_and_Freedom_of_Information"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Protection_Board_of_India"},{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_Data_Protection_Authority_Institute"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Protection_Commissioner"},{"link_name":"Isle of Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_Data_Protection_Supervisor"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Data_Protection_Authority"},{"link_name":"Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Data_Protection_Authority"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Privacy_Commission"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Data_Protection_Commissioner"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_Information_Protection_Commission_(South_Korea)"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Data_Protection_Agency"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Data_Protection_Authority"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Data_Protection_and_Information_Commissioner"},{"link_name":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_Personal_Data_Protection_Committee"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_Data_Protection_Authority"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Commissioner%27s_Office"},{"link_name":"Consumer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_privacy"},{"link_name":"Digital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_privacy"},{"link_name":"Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_in_education"},{"link_name":"Medical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_privacy"},{"link_name":"Workplace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_privacy"},{"link_name":"Information privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_privacy"},{"link_name":"Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_privacy_law"},{"link_name":"Financial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_secrecy"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_privacy"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_concerns_with_Facebook"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_concerns_regarding_Google"},{"link_name":"Twitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_concerns_with_Twitter"},{"link_name":"Email","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_privacy"},{"link_name":"Personal data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_data"},{"link_name":"Personal identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_identifier"},{"link_name":"Social networking services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_concerns_with_social_networking_services"},{"link_name":"Privacy-enhancing technologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy-enhancing_technologies"},{"link_name":"Privacy engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_engineering"},{"link_name":"Privacy-invasive software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy-invasive_software"},{"link_name":"Privacy policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_policy"},{"link_name":"Secret ballot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_ballot"},{"link_name":"Virtual assistant privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_assistant_privacy"},{"link_name":"American Civil Liberties Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union"},{"link_name":"Center for Democracy and Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Democracy_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Professionals_for_Social_Responsibility"},{"link_name":"Data Privacy Lab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Privacy_Lab"},{"link_name":"Electronic Frontier Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Electronic Privacy Information Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Privacy_Information_Center"},{"link_name":"European Digital Rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Digital_Rights"},{"link_name":"Future of Privacy Forum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_Privacy_Forum"},{"link_name":"Global Network Initiative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Network_Initiative"},{"link_name":"International Association of Privacy Professionals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Association_of_Privacy_Professionals"},{"link_name":"NOYB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOYB"},{"link_name":"Privacy International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_International"},{"link_name":"Anonymity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anonymity"},{"link_name":"Cellphone surveillance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellphone_surveillance"},{"link_name":"Data security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_security"},{"link_name":"Eavesdropping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eavesdropping"},{"link_name":"Global surveillance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_surveillance"},{"link_name":"Identity theft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_theft"},{"link_name":"Mass surveillance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_surveillance"},{"link_name":"Panopticon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panopticon"},{"link_name":"PRISM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PRISM"},{"link_name":"Search warrant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_warrant"},{"link_name":"Wiretapping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiretapping"},{"link_name":"Human rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights"},{"link_name":"Personality rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_rights"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Privacy"}],"text":"Poulsen, Kevin (2011). Kingpin: The true story of Max Butler, the master hacker who ran a billion dollar cyber crime network. Hachette Australia. ISBN 978-0733628382. Retrieved 16 August 2015.\nGlenny, Misha (2 October 2012). DarkMarket: How Hackers Became the New Mafia. National Geographic Books. ISBN 9780307476449.vteScams and confidence tricksTerminology\nScam\nError account\nShill\nShyster\nSucker list\nNotable scams andconfidence tricks\n1992 Indian stock market scam\n2G spectrum case\nAdvance-fee scam\nArt student scam\nBadger game\nBait-and-switch\nBlack money scam\nBlessing scam\nBogus escrow\nBoiler room\nBride scam\nCharity fraud\nClip joint\nCoin-matching game\nCoin rolling scams\nDrop swindle\nEmbarrassing cheque\nExit scam\nExtraterrestrial real estate\nFiddle game\nFine print\nForeclosure rescue scheme\nForeign exchange fraud\nFortune telling fraud\nGem scam\nGet-rich-quick scheme\nGreen goods scam\nHustling\nIndian coal allocation scam\nIRS impersonation scam\nIntellectual property scams\nKansas City Shuffle\nLocksmith scam\nLong firm\nMiracle cars scam\nMismarking\nMock auction\nMoving scam\nOverpayment scam\nPatent safe\nPig in a poke\nPigeon drop\nPork barrel\nPump and dump\nRedemption/A4V schemes\nReloading scam\nReturn fraud\nSalting\nShell game\nSick baby hoax\nSIM swap scam\nSlavery reparations scam\nSpanish Prisoner\nSSA impersonation scam\nSSC Scam\nStrip search phone call scam\nSwampland in Florida\nTarmac scam\nTechnical support scam\nTelemarketing fraud\nThai tailor scam\nThai zig zag scam\nThree-card monte\nTrojan horse\nWash trading\nWhite van speaker scam\nWork-at-home scheme\nInternet scams andcountermeasures\nAvalanche\nPig Butchering\nCarding\nCatfishing\nClick fraud\nClickjacking\nCramming\nCryptocurrency scams\nCybercrime\nCyberThrill\nDarkMarket\nDomain name scams\nEmail authentication\nEmail fraud\nInternet vigilantism\nLenny anti-scam bot\nLottery scam\nPayPai\nPhishing\nReferer spoofing\nRipoff Report\nRock Phish\nRomance scam\nRussian Business Network\nSaferNet\nScam baiting\n419eater.com\nJim Browning\nKitboga\nScammer Payback\nShadowCrew\nSpoofed URL\nSpoofing attack\nStock Generation\nVoice phishing\nWebsite reputation ratings\nPyramid andPonzi schemes\nAman Futures Group\nBernard Cornfeld\nCaritas\nDona Branca\nEarl Jones\nEzubao\nFoundation for New Era Philanthropy\nFranchise fraud\nHigh-yield investment program (HYIP)\nInvestors Overseas Service\nKapa investment scam\nKubus scheme\nMadoff investment scandal\nMake Money Fast\nMatrix scheme\nMMM\nPetters Group Worldwide\nPyramid schemes in Albania\nReed Slatkin\nSaradha Group financial scandal\nSecret Sister\nScott W. Rothstein\nStanford Financial Group\nWelsh Thrasher faith scam\nLists\nCon artists\nConfidence tricks\nCriminal enterprises, gangs and syndicates\nImpostors\nIn the media\nFilm and television\nLiterature\nPonzi schemesvteTypes of fraudBusiness-related\nBilling\nCramming\nDisability\nDrug / Pharmaceutical\nEmail\nEmployment\nFood\nFixing\nImpersonation\nIntellectual property\nInternet\nJob\nLong firm\nOdometer\nPhone\nHealth care\nfertility\nquackery\nRacketeering\nReturn\nTech support\nSlamming\nTelemarketing\nWeight\nWine\nFamily-related\nFertility\nMarriage\nPaternity\nFinancial-related\nAdvance-fee\nlottery scam\nBank\nBankruptcy\nChargeback\nCheque\nCredit card and carding\nForex\nInsurance\nLottery\nMismarking\nMortgage\nOverpayment\nSecurities\nShill bidding\nTax\nGovernment-related\nBenefit\nElectoral\nMedicare\nVisa\nWelfare\nOther types\nAffinity\nCharity\nCounterfeiting\nFaked death\nForgery\nHoax\nImpersonation\nMail and wire\nhonest services\nScam\nRomance\nBride\nScientific\nSpyware\nVomit\nWhite-collar crime\n\nlist\n CategoryvtePrivacyPrinciples\nRight of access to personal data\nExpectation of privacy\nRight to privacy\nRight to be forgotten\nPost-mortem privacy\nPrivacy laws\nAustralia\nBrazil\nCanada\nChina\nDenmark\nEngland\nEuropean Union\nGermany\nGhana\nNew Zealand\nRussia\nSingapore\nSwitzerland\nUnited Kingdom\nUnited States\nCalifornia, amended in 2020\nData protection authorities\nAustralia\nDenmark\nEuropean Union\nFrance\nGermany\nIndia\nIndonesia\nIreland\nIsle of Man\nNetherlands\nNorway\nPhilippines\nPoland\nSouth Korea\nSpain\nSweden\nSwitzerland\nThailand\nTurkey\nUnited Kingdom\nAreas\nConsumer\nDigital\nEducation\nMedical\nWorkplace\nInformation privacy\nLaw\nFinancial\nInternet\nFacebook\nGoogle\nTwitter\nEmail\nPersonal data\nPersonal identifier\nSocial networking services\nPrivacy-enhancing technologies\nPrivacy engineering\nPrivacy-invasive software\nPrivacy policy\nSecret ballot\nVirtual assistant privacy\nAdvocacy organizations\nAmerican Civil Liberties Union\nCenter for Democracy and Technology\nComputer Professionals for Social Responsibility\nData Privacy Lab\nElectronic Frontier Foundation\nElectronic Privacy Information Center\nEuropean Digital Rights\nFuture of Privacy Forum\nGlobal Network Initiative\nInternational Association of Privacy Professionals\nNOYB\nPrivacy International\nSee also\nAnonymity\nCellphone surveillance\nData security\nEavesdropping\nGlobal surveillance\nIdentity theft\nMass surveillance\nPanopticon\nPRISM\nSearch warrant\nWiretapping\nHuman rights\nPersonality rights\n\n Category","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"A management interface from the AlphaBay darknet market","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/29/AlphaBay_stolen_credit_card_shop.png/220px-AlphaBay_stolen_credit_card_shop.png"}]
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[{"title":"Darknet market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darknet_market"},{"title":"Fencing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fence_(criminal)"},{"title":"Identity theft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_theft"},{"title":"Internet fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_fraud"}]
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[{"reference":"J. Schwartz, Mathew (27 June 2012). \"FBI Busts Massive International Carding Ring\". Archived from the original on 27 September 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150927225937/http://www.networkcomputing.com/networking/fbi-busts-massive-international-carding-ring/d/d-id/1105062","url_text":"\"FBI Busts Massive International Carding Ring\""},{"url":"http://www.networkcomputing.com/networking/fbi-busts-massive-international-carding-ring/d/d-id/1105062?","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Carding: What is it and how can you avoid it? | NortonLifeLock\". www.lifelock.com. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2021-03-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lifelock.com/learn-identity-theft-resources-what-is-carding.html","url_text":"\"Carding: What is it and how can you avoid it? | NortonLifeLock\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210416141036/https://www.lifelock.com/learn-identity-theft-resources-what-is-carding.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"DeepDotWeb (18 March 2015). \"Evolution Market Background: Carding Forums, Ponzi Schemes & LE\". Archived from the original on 27 September 2015. 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SWAT Teams to His Home\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151117063227/https://www.vice.com/en_ca/read/i-interviewed-the-fraudster-who-frames-people-for-heroin-possession","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://exposecybercrime.com/bank-card-killing-telegram-channels","external_links_name":"\"Bank Card Killing Telegram Channels\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230103213425/https://exposecybercrime.com/bank-card-killing-telegram-channels","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5yRaPJHZHtMC","external_links_name":"Kingpin: The true story of Max Butler, the master hacker who ran a billion dollar cyber crime network"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_anatomy
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History of anatomy
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["1 Ancient anatomy","1.1 Egypt","1.2 Ancient Greece","1.3 Galen","1.4 Abū Bakr al-Rāzī","1.5 Ibn al-Nafis","2 Medieval to early modern anatomy","2.1 Leonardo da Vinci","2.2 Vesalius","2.3 Anatomical theatres","2.4 17th century","3 Modern anatomy","3.1 18th century","3.2 19th century anatomy","4 Today's anatomical research","5 Notes","6 References","6.1 Works cited","7 Bibliography","8 External links"]
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Dissection of a cadaver, 15th-century painting
The history of anatomy extends from the earliest examinations of sacrificial victims to the sophisticated analyses of the body performed by modern anatomists and scientists. Written descriptions of human organs and parts can be traced back thousands of years to ancient Egyptian papyri, where attention to the body was necessitated by their highly elaborate burial practices.
Theoretical considerations of the structure and function of the human body did not develop until far later, in ancient Greece. Ancient Greek philosophers, like Alcmaeon and Empedocles, and ancient Greek doctors, like Hippocrates and his school, paid attention to the causes of life, disease, and different functions of the body. Aristotle advocated dissection of animals as part of his program for understanding the causes of biological forms. During the Hellenistic Age, dissection and vivisection of human beings took place for the first time in the work of Herophilos and Erasistratus. Anatomical knowledge in antiquity would reach its apex in the person of Galen, who made important discoveries through his medical practice and his dissections of monkeys, oxen, and other animals.
The development of the study of anatomy gradually built upon concepts that were present in Galen's work, which was a part of the traditional medical curriculum in the Middle Ages. The Renaissance (or Black Death) brought a reconsideration of classical medical texts, and anatomical dissections became once again fashionable for the first time since Galen. Important anatomical work was carried out by Mondino de Luzzi, Berengario da Carpi, and Jacques Dubois, culminating in Andreas Vesalius's seminal work De Humani Corporis Fabrica (1543). An understanding of the structures and functions of organs in the body has been an integral part of medical practice and a source for scientific investigations ever since.
Ancient anatomy
Egypt
Main article: Ancient Egyptian anatomical studies
See also: Cardiocentric hypothesis
Hieroglyph designating the brain or skull in the Edwin Smith papyrus.
The study of anatomy begins at least as early as 1600 BC, the date of the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. This treatise shows that the heart, its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus, and bladder were recognized, and that the blood vessels were known to emanate from the heart. Other vessels are described; some carrying air, some mucus, and two to the right ear are said to carry the "breath of life", while two to the left ear, the "breath of death".The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BC) features a treatise on the heart. It notes that the heart is the center of blood supply, and attached to it are vessels for every member of the body. The Egyptians seem to have known little about the function of the kidneys and the brain, and made the heart the meeting point of a number of vessels which carried all the fluids of the body—blood, tears, urine, and semen. However, they did not have a theory as to where saliva and sweat came from.
Ancient Greece
Much of the nomenclature, methods, and applications for the study of anatomy can be traced back to the works of the ancient Greeks. In the fifth-century BCE, the philosopher Alcmaeon may have been one of the first to have dissected animals for anatomical purposes, and possibly identified the optic nerves and Eustachian tubes. Ancient physicians such as Acron, Pausanias, and Philistion of Locri may had also conducted anatomical investigations. Another important philosopher at the time was Empedocles, who viewed blood as the innate heat and argued that the heart was the chief organ of the body and the source of pneuma (this could refer to either breath or soul), which was distributed by the blood vessels.
Many medical texts by various authors are collected in the Hippocratic Corpus, none of which can definitely be ascribed to Hippocrates himself. The texts show an understanding of musculoskeletal structure, and the beginnings of understanding of the function of certain organs, such as the kidneys. The Hippocratic work, On the Heart, for example, contributed a great deal of knowledge to the field of anatomy, even as many of its assumptions regarding physiology were incorrect.
The philosopher Aristotle (4th century BCE), alongside some of his contemporaries, labored to produce a system that made room for empirical research. Through his work with animal dissections and biology, Aristotle engaged in comparative anatomy. Around this time, Praxagoras may have been the first to identify the difference between arteries and veins, though some specifics of the distinction he offered—such as his hypothesis that arteries carry air while veins carry blood—were incorrect.
In the Hellenistic period, the first recorded school of anatomy was formed in Alexandria from the late fourth century to the second century BCE. Beginning with Ptolemy I Soter, medical officials were allowed to cut open and examine cadavers for the purposes of learning how human bodies operated. The first use of human bodies for anatomical research occurred in the work of Herophilos and Erasistratus, who gained permission to perform live dissections, or vivisection, on condemned criminals in Alexandria under the auspices of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Herophilos in particular developed a body of anatomical knowledge much more informed by the actual structure of the human body than previous works had been. He also reversed the longstanding notion made by Aristotle that the heart was the "seat of intelligence", arguing for the brain instead. He also wrote on the distinction between veins and arteries, and made many other accurate observations about the structure of the human body, especially the nervous system.
Galen
Galen examining a human skeleton.
The final major anatomist of ancient times was Galen, active in the second century CE. He was born in the ancient Greek city of Pergamon (now in Turkey) as the son of a successful architect, who gave him a liberal education. Galen was instructed in all major philosophical schools (Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism, and Epicureanism) until his father, moved by a dream of Asclepius, decided he should study medicine. After his father's death, Galen searched abroad for the best doctors in Smyrna, Corinth, and finally Alexandria.
Galen compiled much of the knowledge obtained by his predecessors, and furthered the inquiry into the function of organs by performing dissections and vivisections on Barbary apes, oxen, pigs, and other animals. Due to a lack of readily available human specimens, discoveries through animal dissection were broadly applied to human anatomy as well. In 158 CE, Galen served as chief physician to the gladiators in his native Pergamon. Through his position, Galen was able to study all kinds of wounds without performing any actual human dissection, and was able to view much of the abdominal cavity. His study on pigs and apes, however, gave him more detailed information about the organs, and provided the basis for his medical works. Around 100 of these works survive today —the most for any ancient Greek author—and comprise 22 volumes of modern text.
Anatomy was a prominent part of Galen's medical education and was a major source of interest throughout his life. He wrote two great anatomical works, On anatomical procedure and On the uses of the parts of the body of man. The information in these tracts became the foundation of authority for all medical writers and physicians for the next 1300 years, until they were challenged by Vesalius and Harvey in the 16th century.
It was through his experiments that Galen was able to overturn many long-held beliefs, such as the theory that the arteries contained air, which it carried from the heart and lungs to all parts of the body. This belief was based originally on the arteries of dead animals, which had appeared empty. Galen was able to demonstrate that living arteries contain blood, but his error, which became the established medical orthodoxy for centuries, was to assume that the blood goes back and forth from the heart in an ebb-and-flow motion. Galen also made the mistake of assuming that the circulatory system was entirely open-ended. Galen believed that all blood was absorbed by the body and had to be regenerated via the liver using food and water. Galen viewed the cardiovascular system as a machine in which blood acts as fuel rather than a system that constantly recirculates.
Although Galen correctly identified some of the organs involved in the vascular system, many of their functions were not properly identified. Galen believed that the liver, for example, played a vital role in the circulatory system by creating all nutritious blood in the body. The heart, according to him, kept the body warm and mixed the two types of blood via pores in the wall that separates the left and right ventricles. Galen also proposed that the heart's warmth was what allowed the lungs to expand and inhale air. In contrast, Galen viewed the lungs as a cooling region in the body that also worked to expel sooty waste products from the body as they contracted. Additionally, Galen believed that the lungs kept the heart functioning properly by reducing the amount of blood in the right atrium—for if the right atrium contained too much blood, the pores in the heart would not dilate properly.
Abū Bakr al-Rāzī
Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (full name: أبو بکر محمد بن زکریاء الرازي, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Rāzī), c. 864 or 865–925 or 935 CE, often known as (al-)Razi or by his Latin name Rhazes, also rendered Rhasis, was a Persian physician, philosopher and alchemist who lived during the Islamic Golden Age. He is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of medicine, and also wrote on logic, astronomy and grammar. In his book Doubts about Galen, al-Razi rejects several claims made by the Greek physician, as far as the alleged superiority of the Greek language and many of his cosmological and medical views.
Book for al-Mansur (Kitāb al-Manṣūrī)
Al-Razi dedicated this work to his patron Abū Ṣāliḥ al-Manṣūr, the Samanid governor of Ray. It was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona around 1180. A Latin translation of it was edited in the 16th century by the Dutch anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius.
The anatomy part in Kitab Al-Ma'nsuri has 26 sections, being divided into sections about structures, such as bones, nerves, muscles, veins, and arteries, and organs such as the eyes, nose, heart, and intestines. He followed Galen in many of his anatomical descriptions, but also opposed—and improved—Galen's descriptions in many others. For example, he was the first to describe the recurrent laryngeal nerve as a mixed sensory and motor nerve, precisely described the circle of Willis, and distinguished nerves from tendons. He opposed Galen's concept that the brain, spinal cord, and ventricles comprise a single structure. He also corrected Galen by arguing that the stomach has three (not two) layers and the coccyx includes three (not five) bones (three—or four—is the number commonly given in current textbooks), and the correct relationship between the ureters and the urinary bladder. These examples of more accurate descriptions by Al-Razi could be a result of detailed observation of surgeries or, perhaps more likely, of human dissections, taking into account their level of detail and also the fact that he publicly stressed the importance of dissections in the medical field.
Ibn al-Nafis
ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī ibn Abī Ḥazm al-Qarashī (Arabic: علاء الدين أبو الحسن عليّ بن أبي حزم القرشي ), known as Ibn al-Nafīs (Arabic: ابن النفيس), was an Arab polymath whose areas of work included medicine, surgery, physiology, anatomy, biology, Islamic studies, jurisprudence, and philosophy. He is known for being the first to describe the pulmonary circulation of the blood. The work of Ibn al-Nafis regarding the right sided (pulmonary) circulation pre-dates the later work (1628) of William Harvey's De motu cordis. Both theories attempt to explain circulation. 2nd century Greek physician Galen's theory about the physiology of the circulatory system remained unchallenged until the works of Ibn al-Nafis, for which he has been described as "the father of circulatory physiology".
As an early anatomist, Ibn al-Nafis also performed several human dissections during the course of his work, making several important discoveries in the fields of physiology and anatomy. Besides his famous discovery of the pulmonary circulation, he also gave an early insight of the coronary and capillary circulations.
Medieval to early modern anatomy
Throughout the Middle Ages, human anatomy was mainly learned through books and animal dissection. While it was claimed by 19th century polemicists that dissection became restricted after Boniface VIII passed a papal bull that forbade the dismemberment and boiling of corpses for funerary purposes and this is still repeated in some generalist works, this claim has been debunked as a myth by modern historians of science.
For many decades human dissection was thought unnecessary when all the knowledge about a human body could be read about from early authors such as Galen. In the 12th century, as universities were being established in Italy, Emperor Frederick II made it mandatory for students of medicine to take courses on human anatomy and surgery. Students who had the opportunity to watch Vesalius in dissection at times had the opportunity to interact with the animal corpse. At the risk of letting their eagerness to participate become a distraction to their professors, medical students preferred this interactive teaching style at the time. In the universities the lectern would sit elevated before the audience and instruct someone else in the dissection of the body, but in his early years Mondino de Luzzi performed the dissection himself making him one of the first and few to use a hands on approach to teaching human anatomy. Specifically in 1315, Mondino de' Liuzzi is credited with having "performed the first human dissection recorded for Western Europe."
Mondino de Luzzi "Mundinus" was born around 1276 and died in 1326; from 1314 to 1324 he presented many lectures on human anatomy at Bologna university. Mondino de'Luzzi put together a book called "Anathomia" in 1316 that consisted of detailed dissections that he had performed, this book was used as a text book in universities for 250 years. "Mundinus" carried out the first systematic human dissections since Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos 1500 years earlier. The first major development in anatomy in Christian Europe since the fall of Rome occurred at Bologna, where anatomists dissected cadavers and contributed to the accurate description of organs and the identification of their functions. Following de Liuzzi's early studies, 15th century anatomists included Alessandro Achillini and Antonio Benivieni.
Leonardo da Vinci
Anatomical study of the arm, by Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1510
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was trained in anatomy by Andrea del Verrocchio. In 1489 Leonardo began a series of anatomical drawings depicting the ideal human form. This work was carried out intermittently for over two decades. During this time he made use of his anatomical knowledge in his artwork, making many sketches of skeletal structures, muscles, and organs of humans and other vertebrates that he dissected.
Initially adopting an Aristotlean understanding of anatomy, he later studied Galen and adopted a more empirical approach, eventually abandoning Galen altogether and relying entirely on his own direct observation. His surviving 750 drawings represent groundbreaking studies in anatomy. Leonardo dissected around thirty human specimens until he was forced to stop under order of Pope Leo X.
As an artist-anatomist, Leonardo made many important discoveries, and had intended to publish a comprehensive treatise on human anatomy. For instance, he produced the first accurate depiction of the human spine, while his notes documenting his dissection of the Florentine centenarian contain the earliest known description of cirrhosis of the liver and arteriosclerosis. He was the first to develop drawing techniques in anatomy to convey information using cross-sections and multiple angles, although centuries would pass before anatomical drawings became accepted as crucial for learning anatomy.
None of Leonardo's Notebooks were published during his lifetime, many being lost after his death, with the result that his anatomical discoveries remained unknown until they were later found and published centuries after his death.
Vesalius
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A portrait of Andreas Vesalius from De Humani Corporis Fabrica (1543)
The Galenic doctrine in Europe was first seriously challenged in the 16th century. Thanks to the printing press, all over Europe a collective effort proceeded to circulate the works of Galen and later publish criticisms on their works. Andreas Vesalius, born and educated in Belgium, contributed the most to human anatomy. Vesalius's success were due in large part to him exercising the skills of mindful dissections for the sake of understanding anatomy, much to the tune of Galen's "anatomy project" instead of focusing on the work of other scholars of the time in recovering the ancient texts of Hippocrates, Galen and others (which much of the medical community was focused around at the time).
Vesalius was the first to publish a treatise, De Humani Corporis Fabrica, that challenged Galen's anatomical teachings, arguing that they are based on observations of other mammals, not human bodies. The book included a detailed series of explanations and vivid drawings of the anatomical parts of human bodies. Vesalius traveled all the way from Leuven to Padua for permission to dissect victims from the gallows without fear of persecution. His superbly executed drawings are triumphant descriptions of the differences between dogs and humans, but it took a century for Galen's influence to fade.
Vesalius' work marked a new era in the study of anatomy and its relation to medicine. Under Vesalius, anatomy became an actual discipline. "His skill in and attention to dissection featured prominently in his publications as well as his demonstrations, in his research as well as his teaching."
In 1540, Vesalius gave a public demonstration of the inaccuracies of Galen's anatomical theories, which are still the orthodoxy of the medical profession. Vesalius now has on display, for comparison purposes, the skeletons of a human being alongside that of an ape of which he was able to show, that in many cases, Galen's observations were indeed correct for the ape, but bear little relation to man. Clearly what was needed was a new account of human anatomy. While the lecturer explained human anatomy, as revealed by Galen more than 1000 years earlier, an assistant pointed to the equivalent details on a dissected corpse. At times, the assistant was unable to find the organ as described, but invariably the corpse rather than Galen was held to be in error. Vesalius then decided that he will dissect corpses himself and trust to the evidence of what he found. His approach was highly controversial, but his evident skill led to his appointment as professor of surgery and anatomy at the University of Padua.
A succession of researchers proceeded to refine the body of anatomical knowledge, giving their names to a number of anatomical structures along the way. The 16th and 17th centuries also witnessed significant advances in the understanding of the circulatory system, as the purpose of valves in veins was identified, the left-to-right ventricle flow of blood through the circulatory system was described, and the hepatic veins were identified as a separate portion of the circulatory system. The lymphatic system was also identified as a separate system at this time.
Anatomical theatres
A woodcut of an anatomical dissection, from 1493
An anatomical dissection being carried out by Andreas Vesalius, 1543
The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, by Rembrandt, 1632
The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deijman by Rembrandt, 1656
Sketch of the Preceding painting The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deijman
An Anatomical Theatre In Leiden, 1616
The reward of cruelty (Plate IV) by William Hogarth 1751
In the late 16th century, anatomists began exploring and pushing for contention that the study of anatomy could contribute to advancing the boundaries of natural philosophy. However, the majority of students were more interested in the practicality of anatomy, and less so in the advancement of knowledge of the subject. Students were interested in the technique of dissection rather than the philosophy of anatomy, and this was reflected in their criticism of Professors such as Girolamo Fabrici.
Anatomical theatres became a popular form for anatomical teaching in the early 16th century. The University of Padua was the first and most widely known theatre, founded in 1594. As a result, Italy became the centre for human dissection. People came from all over to watch as professors taught lectures on the human physiology and anatomy, as anyone was welcome to witness the spectacle. Participants "were fascinated by corporeal display, by the body undergoing dissection". Most professors did not do the dissections themselves. Instead, they sat in seats above the bodies while hired hands did the cutting. Students and observers would be placed around the table in a circular, stadium-like arena and listen as professors explained the various anatomical parts. As anatomy theatres gained popularity throughout the 16th century, protocols were adjusted to account for the disruptions of students. Students moved beyond simply being eager to participate, and began stealing and vandalizing cadavers. Students were thus instructed to sit quietly and were to be penalized for disrupting the dissection. Moreover, preparatory lectures were mandatory in order to introduce the "subsequent observation of anatomy". The demonstrations were structured into dissections and lectures. The dissections focused on the skill of autopsy/vivisection while the lectures would center on the philosophical questions of anatomy. This is exemplary of how anatomy was viewed not only as the study of structures but also the study of the "body as an extension of the soul". The 19th century eventually saw a move from anatomical theatres to classrooms, reducing "the number of people who could benefit from each cadaver".
17th century
Harvey's anatomical researches from De Motu Cordis (1628)
At the beginning of the 17th century, the use of dissecting human cadavers influenced anatomy, leading to a spike in the study of anatomy. The advent of the printing press facilitated the exchange of ideas. Because the study of anatomy concerned observation and drawings, the popularity of the anatomist was equal to the quality of his drawing talents, and one need not be an expert in Latin to take part. Many famous artists studied anatomy, attended dissections, and published drawings for money, from Michelangelo to Rembrandt. For the first time, prominent universities could teach something about anatomy through drawings, rather than relying on knowledge of Latin. Contrary to popular belief, the Church neither objected to nor obstructed anatomical research.
Only certified anatomists were allowed to perform dissections, and sometimes then only yearly. These dissections were sponsored by the city councilors and often charged an admission fee, rather like a circus act for scholars. Many European cities, such as Amsterdam, London, Copenhagen, Padua, and Paris, all had Royal anatomists (or some such office) tied to local government. Indeed, Nicolaes Tulp was Mayor of Amsterdam for three terms. Though it was a risky business to perform dissections, and unpredictable depending on the availability of fresh bodies, attending dissections was legal.
The supply of printed anatomy books from Italy and France led to an increased demand for human cadavers for dissections. Since few bodies were voluntarily donated for dissection, royal charters were established which allowed prominent universities to use the bodies of hanged criminals for dissections. However, there was still a shortage of bodies that could not accommodate for the high demand of bodies.
Modern anatomy
18th century
Until the middle of the 18th century, there was a quota of ten cadavers for each the Royal College of Physicians and the Company of Barber Surgeons, the only two groups permitted to perform dissections. During the first half of the 18th century, William Cheselden challenged the Company of Barber Surgeon's exclusive rights on dissections. He was the first to hold regular anatomy lectures and demonstrations. He also wrote The Anatomy of the Humane Body, a student handbook of anatomy. In 1752, the rapid growth of medical schools in England and the pressing demand for cadavers led to the passage of the Murder Act. This allowed medical schools in England to legally dissect bodies of executed murderers for anatomical education and research and also aimed to prevent murder. To further increase the supply of cadavers, the government increased the number of crimes in which hanging was a punishment. Although the number of cadavers increased, it was still not enough to meet the demand of anatomical and medical training.
Since few bodies were voluntarily donated for dissection, criminals that were hanged for murder were dissected. However, there was a shortage of bodies that could not accommodate the high demand of bodies. To cope with shortages of cadavers and the rise in medical students during the 17th and 18th centuries, body-snatching and even anatomy murder were practiced to obtain cadavers. 'Body snatching' was the act of sneaking into a graveyard, digging up a corpse and using it for study. Men known as 'resurrectionists' emerged as outside parties, who would steal corpses for a living and sell the bodies to anatomy schools. The leading London anatomist John Hunter paid for a regular supply of corpses for his anatomy school. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the perception of dissections had evolved into a form of capital punishment. Dissections were considered a dishonor. The corpse was mutilated and not suitable for a funeral. By the end of the 18th century, many European countries had passed legislation similar to the Murder Act in England to meet the demand of fresh cadavers and to reduce crime. Countries allowed institutions to use unclaimed bodies of paupers, prison inmates, and people in psychiatric and charitable hospitals for dissection. Unfortunately, the lack of bodies available for dissection and the controversial air that surrounded anatomy in the late 17th century and early 18th century caused a halt in progress that is evident by the lack of updates made to anatomical texts of the time between editions. Additionally, most of the investigations into anatomy were aimed at developing the knowledge of physiology and surgery. Naturally this meant that a close examination of the more detailed aspects of anatomy that could advance anatomical knowledge was not a priority.
Paris medicine was notorious for its influence on medical thought and its contributions to medical knowledge. The new hospital medicine in France during the late 18th century was brought about in part by the Law of 1794 which made physicians and surgeons equals in the world of medical care. The law came as a response to the increase demand for medical professionals capable of caring for the increase in injuries and diseases brought about by French Revolution. The law also supplemented schools with bodies for anatomical lessons. Ultimately this created the opportunity for the field of medicine to grow in the direction of "localism of pathological anatomy, the development of appropriate diagnostic techniques, and the numerical approach to disease and therapeutics."
The British Parliament passed the Anatomy Act 1832, which finally provided for an adequate and legitimate supply of corpses by allowing legal dissection of executed murderers. The view of anatomist at the time, however, became similar to that of an executioner. Having one's body dissected was seen as a punishment worse than death, "if you stole a pig, you were hung. If you killed a man, you were hung and then dissected." Demand grew so great that some anatomists resorted to dissecting their own family members as well as robbing bodies from their graves.
Many Europeans interested in the study of anatomy traveled to Italy, then the centre of anatomy. Only in Italy could certain important research methods be used, such as dissections on women. Realdo Colombo (also known as Realdus Columbus) and Gabriele Falloppio were pupils of Vesalius. Columbus, as Vesalius's immediate successor in Padua, and afterwards professor at Rome, distinguished himself by describing the shape and cavities of the heart, the structure of the pulmonary artery and aorta and their valves, and tracing the course of the blood from the right to the left side of the heart.
The rise in anatomy lead to various discoveries and findings. In 1628, English physician William Harvey observed circulating blood through dissections of his father's and sister's bodies. He published De moto cordis et sanguinis, a treatise in which he explained his theory. In Tuscany and Florence, Marcello Malpighi founded microscopic anatomy, and Nils Steensen studied the anatomy of lymph nodes and salivary glands. By the end of the 17th century, Gaetano Zumbo developed anatomical wax modeling techniques. Antonio Valsalva, a student of Malpighi and a professor of anatomy at University of Bologna, was one of the greatest anatomists of the time. He is known by many as the founder of anatomy and physiology of the ear. In the 18th century, Giovanni Batista Morgagni related pre-mortem symptoms with post-mortem pathological findings using pathological anatomy in his book De Sedibus. This led to the rise of morbid anatomy in France and Europe. The rise of morbid anatomy was one of the contributing factors to the shift in power between doctors and physicians, giving power to the physicians over patients. With the invention of the Stethoscope in 1816, R.T.H. Laennec was able to help bridge the gap between a symptomatic approach to medicine and disease, to one based on anatomy and physiology. His disease and treatments were based on "pathological anatomy" and because this approach to disease was rooted in anatomy instead of symptoms, the process of evaluation and treatment were also forced to evolve. From the late 18th century to the early 19th century, the work of professionals such as Morgagni, Scott Matthew Baillie, and Xavier Bichat served to demonstrate exactly how the detailed anatomical inspection of organs could lead to a more empirical means of understanding disease and health that would combine medical theory with medical practice. This "pathological anatomy" paved the way for "clinical pathology that applied the knowledge of opening up corpses and quantifying illnesses to treatments." Along with the popularity of anatomy and dissection came an increasing interest in the preservation of dissected specimens. In the 17th century, many of the anatomical specimens were dried and stored in cabinets. In the Netherlands, there were attempts to replicate Egyptian mummies by preserving soft tissue. This became known as Balsaming. In the 1660s the Dutch were also attempting to preserve organs by injecting wax to keep the organ's shape. Dyes and mercury were added to the wax to better differentiate and see various anatomical structures for academic and research anatomy. By the late 18th century, Thomas Pole published The Anatomic Instructor, which detailed how to dry and preserve specimens and soft tissue.
19th century anatomy
Further information: History of anatomy in the 19th century
During the 19th century, anatomical research was extended with histology and developmental biology of both humans and animals. Women, who were not allowed to attend medical school, could attend the anatomy theatres. From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons forced unregulated schools to close. Medical museums provided examples in comparative anatomy, and were often used in teaching.
Today's anatomical research
Anatomical research in the past hundred years has taken advantage of technological developments and growing understanding of sciences such as evolutionary and molecular biology to create a thorough understanding of the body's organs and structures. Disciplines such as endocrinology have explained the purpose of glands that anatomists previously could not explain; medical devices such as MRI machines and CAT scanners have enabled researchers to study organs, living or dead, in unprecedented detail. Progress today in anatomy is centered in the development, evolution, and function of anatomical features, as the macroscopic aspects of human anatomy have largely been catalogued. Non-human anatomy is particularly active as researchers use techniques ranging from finite element analysis to molecular biology.
To save time, some medical schools such as Birmingham, England have adopted prosection, where a demonstrator dissects and explains to an audience, in place of dissection by students. This enables students to observe more than one body. Improvements in colour images and photography means that an anatomy text is no longer an aid to dissection but rather a central material to learn from. Plastic anatomical models are regularly used in anatomy teaching, offering a good substitute to the real thing. Use of living models for anatomy demonstration is once again becoming popular within teaching of anatomy. Surface landmarks that can be palpated on another individual provide practice for future clinical situations. It is possible to do this on oneself; in the Integrated Biology course at the University of Berkeley, students are encouraged to "introspect" on themselves and link what they are being taught to their own body.
In Britain, the Human Tissue Act 2004 has tightened up the availability of resources to anatomy departments. The outbreaks of bovine spongiform encephalitis (BSE) in the late 1980s and early 1990s further restricted the handling of brain tissue.
The controversy of Gunther von Hagens and public displays of dissections, preserved by plastination, may divide opinions on what is ethical or legal.
Notes
^ For the spelling of his Arabic name, see for example Kraus 1939. Sometimes it is also spelled زکریا (Zakariyyā) rather than زکریاء (Zakariyyāʾ), as for example in Dānish-pazhūh 1964, p. 1 of the edition, or in Mohaghegh 1993, p. 5. In modern Persian his name is rendered as ابوبکر محمدبن زکریا رازی (see Dānish-pazhūh 1964, p. 1 of the introduction), though instead of زکریا one may also find زکریای (see Mohaghegh 1993, p. 18).
^ For his date of birth, Kraus & Pines 1913–1936 give 864 CE / 250 AH (Goodman 1960–2007 gives 854 CE / 250 AH, but this is a typo), while Richter-Bernburg 2003 and Adamson 2021a give 865 CE / 251 AH. For his date of death as 925 or 935 CE / 313 or 323 AH, see Goodman 1960–2007; some sources only give 925 CE / 313 AH (Walker 1998; Richter-Bernburg 2003; Adamson 2021a).
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Mohaghegh, Mehdi (1993). Kitâb Al – Shukûk ʻAlâ Jâlînûs. Tehran: International Institute of Islamic Though and Civilization. OCLC 257281952.
Richter-Bernburg, Lutz (2003). "Ḥāwi, al-". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume XII/1: Harem I–Hedāyat al-mota'allemin. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 64–67. ISBN 978-0-933273-74-0.
Walker, Paul E. (1998). "al-Razi, Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya' (d. 925)". In Craig, Edward (ed.). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-H043-1. ISBN 9780415250696.
Bibliography
See also: Bibliography of anatomy
Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of anatomy.
Knoeff, Rina (2012). Dutch Anatomy and Clinical Medicine in 17th-Century Europe. Leibniz Institute of European History.
Mazzio, C. (1997). The Body in Parts: Discourses and Anatomies in Early Modern Europe. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-91694-3.
Porter, R. (1997). The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-215173-3.
Sawday, J. (1996). The Body Emblazoned: Dissection and the Human Body in Renaissance Culture. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-15719-3.
External links
Historical Anatomies on the Web. National Library of Medicine. Selected images from notable anatomical atlases.
Anatomia 1522-1867: Anatomical Plates from the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library
Human Anatomy & Physiology Society A society to promote communication among teachers of human anatomy and physiology in colleges, universities, and related institutions.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dissection_of_a_Cadaver.jpg"},{"link_name":"sacrificial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrifice"},{"link_name":"Egyptian papyri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_anatomical_studies"},{"link_name":"burial practices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_practices"},{"link_name":"ancient Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"Alcmaeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcmaeon_of_Croton"},{"link_name":"Empedocles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empedocles"},{"link_name":"Hippocrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates"},{"link_name":"his school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocratic_Corpus"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"dissection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissection"},{"link_name":"causes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_causes"},{"link_name":"forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle%27s_theory_of_universals"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_period"},{"link_name":"vivisection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivisection"},{"link_name":"Herophilos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herophilos"},{"link_name":"Erasistratus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasistratus"},{"link_name":"Galen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen"},{"link_name":"monkeys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbary_ape"},{"link_name":"oxen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ox"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"Black Death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death"},{"link_name":"Mondino de Luzzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mondino_de_Luzzi"},{"link_name":"Berengario da Carpi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacopo_Berengario_da_Carpi"},{"link_name":"Jacques Dubois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Dubois"},{"link_name":"Andreas Vesalius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius"},{"link_name":"De Humani Corporis Fabrica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Humani_Corporis_Fabrica_Libri_Septem"},{"link_name":"structures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skeleton"},{"link_name":"functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology"},{"link_name":"organs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)"},{"link_name":"medical practice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine"},{"link_name":"scientific investigations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedicine"}],"text":"Dissection of a cadaver, 15th-century paintingThe history of anatomy extends from the earliest examinations of sacrificial victims to the sophisticated analyses of the body performed by modern anatomists and scientists. Written descriptions of human organs and parts can be traced back thousands of years to ancient Egyptian papyri, where attention to the body was necessitated by their highly elaborate burial practices.Theoretical considerations of the structure and function of the human body did not develop until far later, in ancient Greece. Ancient Greek philosophers, like Alcmaeon and Empedocles, and ancient Greek doctors, like Hippocrates and his school, paid attention to the causes of life, disease, and different functions of the body. Aristotle advocated dissection of animals as part of his program for understanding the causes of biological forms. During the Hellenistic Age, dissection and vivisection of human beings took place for the first time in the work of Herophilos and Erasistratus. Anatomical knowledge in antiquity would reach its apex in the person of Galen, who made important discoveries through his medical practice and his dissections of monkeys, oxen, and other animals.The development of the study of anatomy gradually built upon concepts that were present in Galen's work, which was a part of the traditional medical curriculum in the Middle Ages.[1] The Renaissance (or Black Death) brought a reconsideration of classical medical texts, and anatomical dissections became once again fashionable for the first time since Galen. Important anatomical work was carried out by Mondino de Luzzi, Berengario da Carpi, and Jacques Dubois, culminating in Andreas Vesalius's seminal work De Humani Corporis Fabrica (1543). An understanding of the structures and functions of organs in the body has been an integral part of medical practice and a source for scientific investigations ever since.","title":"History of anatomy"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Ancient anatomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cardiocentric hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiocentric_hypothesis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hieroglyphic-brain.png"},{"link_name":"Hieroglyph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieroglyph"},{"link_name":"Edwin Smith papyrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus"},{"link_name":"anatomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy"},{"link_name":"1600 BC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1600_BC"},{"link_name":"Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Smith_Surgical_Papyrus"},{"link_name":"heart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart"},{"link_name":"liver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver"},{"link_name":"spleen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spleen"},{"link_name":"kidneys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidneys"},{"link_name":"hypothalamus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus"},{"link_name":"uterus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uterus"},{"link_name":"bladder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urinary_bladder"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"blood vessels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_vessel"},{"link_name":"mucus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucus"},{"link_name":"ear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ear"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Ebers Papyrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebers_Papyrus"},{"link_name":"blood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood"},{"link_name":"tears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tears"},{"link_name":"urine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urine"},{"link_name":"semen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semen"},{"link_name":"saliva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saliva"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Porter1999-2"}],"sub_title":"Egypt","text":"See also: Cardiocentric hypothesisHieroglyph designating the brain or skull in the Edwin Smith papyrus.The study of anatomy begins at least as early as 1600 BC, the date of the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. This treatise shows that the heart, its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus, and bladder were recognized,[citation needed] and that the blood vessels were known to emanate from the heart. Other vessels are described; some carrying air, some mucus, and two to the right ear are said to carry the \"breath of life\",[clarification needed] while two to the left ear, the \"breath of death\".[citation needed]The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BC) features a treatise on the heart. It notes that the heart is the center of blood supply, and attached to it are vessels for every member of the body. The Egyptians seem to have known little about the function of the kidneys and the brain, and made the heart the meeting point of a number of vessels which carried all the fluids of the body—blood, tears, urine, and semen. However, they did not have a theory as to where saliva and sweat came from.[2]","title":"Ancient anatomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Alcmaeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcmaeon_of_Croton"},{"link_name":"Eustachian tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustachian_tube"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Acron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acron"},{"link_name":"Pausanias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_of_Sicily"},{"link_name":"Philistion of Locri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philistion_of_Locri"},{"link_name":"Empedocles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empedocles"},{"link_name":"pneuma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneuma"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Hippocratic Corpus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocratic_Corpus"},{"link_name":"Hippocrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates"},{"link_name":"musculoskeletal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musculoskeletal"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-6"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"dissections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissection"},{"link_name":"biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology"},{"link_name":"comparative anatomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_anatomy"},{"link_name":"Praxagoras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxagoras"},{"link_name":"arteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artery"},{"link_name":"veins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vein"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-6"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_period"},{"link_name":"Alexandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Siddiquey_2009-7"},{"link_name":"Ptolemy I Soter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter"},{"link_name":"cadavers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadaver"},{"link_name":"Herophilos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herophilos"},{"link_name":"Erasistratus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasistratus"},{"link_name":"vivisection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivisection"},{"link_name":"Ptolemaic dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Ancient Greece","text":"Much of the nomenclature, methods, and applications for the study of anatomy can be traced back to the works of the ancient Greeks.[3] In the fifth-century BCE, the philosopher Alcmaeon may have been one of the first to have dissected animals for anatomical purposes, and possibly identified the optic nerves and Eustachian tubes.[4] Ancient physicians such as Acron, Pausanias, and Philistion of Locri may had also conducted anatomical investigations. Another important philosopher at the time was Empedocles, who viewed blood as the innate heat and argued that the heart was the chief organ of the body and the source of pneuma (this could refer to either breath or soul), which was distributed by the blood vessels.[5]Many medical texts by various authors are collected in the Hippocratic Corpus, none of which can definitely be ascribed to Hippocrates himself. The texts show an understanding of musculoskeletal structure, and the beginnings of understanding of the function of certain organs, such as the kidneys. The Hippocratic work, On the Heart, for example, contributed a great deal of knowledge to the field of anatomy, even as many of its assumptions regarding physiology were incorrect.[6]The philosopher Aristotle (4th century BCE), alongside some of his contemporaries, labored to produce a system that made room for empirical research. Through his work with animal dissections and biology, Aristotle engaged in comparative anatomy. Around this time, Praxagoras may have been the first to identify the difference between arteries and veins, though some specifics of the distinction he offered—such as his hypothesis that arteries carry air while veins carry blood—were incorrect.[6]In the Hellenistic period, the first recorded school of anatomy was formed in Alexandria from the late fourth century to the second century BCE.[7] Beginning with Ptolemy I Soter, medical officials were allowed to cut open and examine cadavers for the purposes of learning how human bodies operated. The first use of human bodies for anatomical research occurred in the work of Herophilos and Erasistratus, who gained permission to perform live dissections, or vivisection, on condemned criminals in Alexandria under the auspices of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Herophilos in particular developed a body of anatomical knowledge much more informed by the actual structure of the human body than previous works had been. He also reversed the longstanding notion made by Aristotle that the heart was the \"seat of intelligence\", arguing for the brain instead.[8] He also wrote on the distinction between veins and arteries, and made many other accurate observations about the structure of the human body, especially the nervous system.[9]","title":"Ancient anatomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Galen_finding_skeleton._Wellcome_L0013635.jpg"},{"link_name":"human skeleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skeleton"},{"link_name":"Galen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Siddiquey_2009-7"},{"link_name":"Pergamon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamon"},{"link_name":"Asclepius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asclepius"},{"link_name":"Smyrna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smyrna"},{"link_name":"Corinth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corinth"},{"link_name":"Alexandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"dissections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissection"},{"link_name":"vivisections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivisection"},{"link_name":"Barbary apes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbary_macaque"},{"link_name":"oxen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ox"},{"link_name":"pigs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig"},{"link_name":"Pergamon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamum"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Vesalius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesalius"},{"link_name":"Harvey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Harvey"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-17"}],"sub_title":"Galen","text":"Galen examining a human skeleton.The final major anatomist of ancient times was Galen, active in the second century CE.[7] He was born in the ancient Greek city of Pergamon (now in Turkey) as the son of a successful architect, who gave him a liberal education. Galen was instructed in all major philosophical schools (Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism, and Epicureanism) until his father, moved by a dream of Asclepius, decided he should study medicine. After his father's death, Galen searched abroad for the best doctors in Smyrna, Corinth, and finally Alexandria.[10][11]Galen compiled much of the knowledge obtained by his predecessors, and furthered the inquiry into the function of organs by performing dissections and vivisections on Barbary apes, oxen, pigs, and other animals. Due to a lack of readily available human specimens, discoveries through animal dissection were broadly applied to human anatomy as well. In 158 CE, Galen served as chief physician to the gladiators in his native Pergamon. Through his position, Galen was able to study all kinds of wounds without performing any actual human dissection, and was able to view much of the abdominal cavity. His study on pigs and apes, however, gave him more detailed information about the organs, and provided the basis for his medical works. Around 100 of these works survive today —the most for any ancient Greek author—and comprise 22 volumes of modern text.Anatomy was a prominent part of Galen's medical education and was a major source of interest throughout his life. He wrote two great anatomical works, On anatomical procedure and On the uses of the parts of the body of man.[12] The information in these tracts became the foundation of authority for all medical writers and physicians for the next 1300 years, until they were challenged by Vesalius and Harvey in the 16th century.[13][14]It was through his experiments that Galen was able to overturn many long-held beliefs, such as the theory that the arteries contained air, which it carried from the heart and lungs to all parts of the body. This belief was based originally on the arteries of dead animals, which had appeared empty. Galen was able to demonstrate that living arteries contain blood, but his error, which became the established medical orthodoxy for centuries, was to assume that the blood goes back and forth from the heart in an ebb-and-flow motion.[15] Galen also made the mistake of assuming that the circulatory system was entirely open-ended.[16] Galen believed that all blood was absorbed by the body and had to be regenerated via the liver using food and water.[17] Galen viewed the cardiovascular system as a machine in which blood acts as fuel rather than a system that constantly recirculates.[18]Although Galen correctly identified some of the organs involved in the vascular system, many of their functions were not properly identified. Galen believed that the liver, for example, played a vital role in the circulatory system by creating all nutritious blood in the body. The heart, according to him, kept the body warm and mixed the two types of blood via pores in the wall that separates the left and right ventricles.[17] Galen also proposed that the heart's warmth was what allowed the lungs to expand and inhale air.[17] In contrast, Galen viewed the lungs as a cooling region in the body that also worked to expel sooty waste products from the body as they contracted. Additionally, Galen believed that the lungs kept the heart functioning properly by reducing the amount of blood in the right atrium—for if the right atrium contained too much blood, the pores in the heart would not dilate properly.[17]","title":"Ancient anatomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinization_(literature)"},{"link_name":"physician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world"},{"link_name":"philosopher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_philosophy"},{"link_name":"alchemist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_medieval_Islam"},{"link_name":"Islamic Golden Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic"},{"link_name":"astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy"},{"link_name":"grammar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Greek language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"cosmological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology"},{"link_name":"Abū Ṣāliḥ al-Manṣūr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Salih_Mansur"},{"link_name":"Samanid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samanid"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Gerard of Cremona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_of_Cremona"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Andreas Vesalius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-26"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"Abū Bakr al-Rāzī","text":"Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (full name: أبو بکر محمد بن زکریاء الرازي, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Rāzī),[a] c. 864 or 865–925 or 935 CE,[b] often known as (al-)Razi or by his Latin name Rhazes, also rendered Rhasis, was a Persian physician, philosopher and alchemist who lived during the Islamic Golden Age. He is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of medicine,[19] and also wrote on logic, astronomy and grammar.[20] In his book Doubts about Galen,[21] al-Razi rejects several claims made by the Greek physician, as far as the alleged superiority of the Greek language and many of his cosmological and medical views.Book for al-Mansur (Kitāb al-Manṣūrī)Al-Razi dedicated this work to his patron Abū Ṣāliḥ al-Manṣūr, the Samanid governor of Ray.[22] It was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona around 1180.[23] A Latin translation of it was edited in the 16th century by the Dutch anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius.[24]The anatomy part in Kitab Al-Ma'nsuri has 26 sections, being divided into sections about structures, such as bones, nerves, muscles, veins, and arteries, and organs such as the eyes, nose, heart, and intestines. He followed Galen in many of his anatomical descriptions, but also opposed—and improved—Galen's descriptions in many others. For example, he was the first to describe the recurrent laryngeal nerve as a mixed sensory and motor nerve, precisely described the circle of Willis, and distinguished nerves from tendons. He opposed Galen's concept that the brain, spinal cord, and ventricles comprise a single structure. He also corrected Galen by arguing that the stomach has three (not two) layers and the coccyx includes three (not five) bones (three—or four—is the number commonly given in current textbooks), and the correct relationship between the ureters and the urinary bladder. These examples of more accurate descriptions by Al-Razi could be a result of detailed observation of surgeries or, perhaps more likely, of human dissections, taking into account their level of detail and also the fact that he publicly stressed the importance of dissections in the medical field.[25]","title":"Ancient anatomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic"},{"link_name":"Arab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab"},{"link_name":"polymath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymath"},{"link_name":"medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine"},{"link_name":"surgery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery"},{"link_name":"physiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology"},{"link_name":"anatomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy"},{"link_name":"biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology"},{"link_name":"Islamic studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_studies"},{"link_name":"jurisprudence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence"},{"link_name":"philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"},{"link_name":"pulmonary circulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation"},{"link_name":"blood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"William Harvey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Harvey"},{"link_name":"De motu cordis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_cordis"},{"link_name":"Galen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen"},{"link_name":"circulatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulatory"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"dissections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissection"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"physiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology"},{"link_name":"anatomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy"},{"link_name":"pulmonary circulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation"},{"link_name":"coronary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronary_circulation"},{"link_name":"capillary circulations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcirculation"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Ibn al-Nafis","text":"ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī ibn Abī Ḥazm al-Qarashī (Arabic: علاء الدين أبو الحسن عليّ بن أبي حزم القرشي ), known as Ibn al-Nafīs (Arabic: ابن النفيس), was an Arab polymath whose areas of work included medicine, surgery, physiology, anatomy, biology, Islamic studies, jurisprudence, and philosophy. He is known for being the first to describe the pulmonary circulation of the blood.[26] The work of Ibn al-Nafis regarding the right sided (pulmonary) circulation pre-dates the later work (1628) of William Harvey's De motu cordis. Both theories attempt to explain circulation. 2nd century Greek physician Galen's theory about the physiology of the circulatory system remained unchallenged until the works of Ibn al-Nafis, for which he has been described as \"the father of circulatory physiology\".[27][28][29]As an early anatomist, Ibn al-Nafis also performed several human dissections during the course of his work,[30] making several important discoveries in the fields of physiology and anatomy. Besides his famous discovery of the pulmonary circulation, he also gave an early insight of the coronary and capillary circulations.[31][32]","title":"Ancient anatomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Boniface VIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Boniface_VIII"},{"link_name":"papal bull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_bull"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-39"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Mondino de Luzzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mondino_de_Luzzi"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Herophilus of Chalcedon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herophilus_of_Chalcedon"},{"link_name":"Erasistratus of Ceos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasistratus_of_Ceos"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZimmermanVeith1993-44"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crombie1959-45"},{"link_name":"Bologna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bologna"},{"link_name":"Alessandro Achillini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Achillini"},{"link_name":"Antonio Benivieni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Benivieni"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZimmermanVeith1993-44"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BenivieniPolybus1529-46"}],"text":"Throughout the Middle Ages, human anatomy was mainly learned through books and animal dissection.[33] While it was claimed by 19th century polemicists that dissection became restricted after Boniface VIII passed a papal bull that forbade the dismemberment and boiling of corpses for funerary purposes and this is still repeated in some generalist works, this claim has been debunked as a myth by modern historians of science.[34]For many decades human dissection was thought unnecessary when all the knowledge about a human body could be read about from early authors such as Galen.[35] In the 12th century, as universities were being established in Italy, Emperor Frederick II made it mandatory for students of medicine to take courses on human anatomy and surgery.[36] Students who had the opportunity to watch Vesalius in dissection at times had the opportunity to interact with the animal corpse. At the risk of letting their eagerness to participate become a distraction to their professors, medical students preferred this interactive teaching style at the time.[37] In the universities the lectern would sit elevated before the audience and instruct someone else in the dissection of the body, but in his early years Mondino de Luzzi performed the dissection himself making him one of the first and few to use a hands on approach to teaching human anatomy.[38] Specifically in 1315, Mondino de' Liuzzi is credited with having \"performed the first human dissection recorded for Western Europe.\"[39]Mondino de Luzzi \"Mundinus\" was born around 1276 and died in 1326; from 1314 to 1324 he presented many lectures on human anatomy at Bologna university.[40] Mondino de'Luzzi put together a book called \"Anathomia\" in 1316 that consisted of detailed dissections that he had performed, this book was used as a text book in universities for 250 years.[41] \"Mundinus\" carried out the first systematic human dissections since Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos 1500 years earlier.[42][43] The first major development in anatomy in Christian Europe since the fall of Rome occurred at Bologna, where anatomists dissected cadavers and contributed to the accurate description of organs and the identification of their functions. Following de Liuzzi's early studies, 15th century anatomists included Alessandro Achillini and Antonio Benivieni.[42][44]","title":"Medieval to early modern anatomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_RCIN_919000,_Verso_The_bones_and_muscles_of_the_arm_c.1510-11.jpg"},{"link_name":"Leonardo da Vinci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci"},{"link_name":"Leonardo da Vinci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci"},{"link_name":"Andrea del Verrocchio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_del_Verrocchio"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boas-47"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Aristotlean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dover-49"},{"link_name":"Pope Leo X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Leo_X"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dover-49"},{"link_name":"centenarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centenarian"},{"link_name":"cirrhosis of the liver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirrhosis_of_the_liver"},{"link_name":"arteriosclerosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arteriosclerosis"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dover-49"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"sub_title":"Leonardo da Vinci","text":"Anatomical study of the arm, by Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1510Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was trained in anatomy by Andrea del Verrocchio. In 1489 Leonardo began a series of anatomical drawings depicting the ideal human form. This work was carried out intermittently for over two decades. During this time he made use of his anatomical knowledge in his artwork, making many sketches of skeletal structures, muscles, and organs of humans and other vertebrates that he dissected.[45][46]Initially adopting an Aristotlean understanding of anatomy, he later studied Galen and adopted a more empirical approach, eventually abandoning Galen altogether and relying entirely on his own direct observation.[47] His surviving 750 drawings represent groundbreaking studies in anatomy. Leonardo dissected around thirty human specimens until he was forced to stop under order of Pope Leo X.[citation needed]As an artist-anatomist, Leonardo made many important discoveries, and had intended to publish a comprehensive treatise on human anatomy.[47] For instance, he produced the first accurate depiction of the human spine, while his notes documenting his dissection of the Florentine centenarian contain the earliest known description of cirrhosis of the liver and arteriosclerosis.[47][48] He was the first to develop drawing techniques in anatomy to convey information using cross-sections and multiple angles, although centuries would pass before anatomical drawings became accepted as crucial for learning anatomy.[49]None of Leonardo's Notebooks were published during his lifetime, many being lost after his death, with the result that his anatomical discoveries remained unknown until they were later found and published centuries after his death.[50]","title":"Medieval to early modern anatomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Andreas_Vesalius,_half-length_in_profile_standing_in_front_of_a_table_dissecting_the_arm_of_a_body;_frontispiece_to_Andreas_Vesalius_%27De_humani_corporis_fabrica_libri_septem%27_MET_DP853465.jpg"},{"link_name":"Andreas Vesalius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius"},{"link_name":"printing press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_press"},{"link_name":"Andreas Vesalius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"De Humani Corporis Fabrica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Humani_Corporis_Fabrica_Libri_Septem"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Leuven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leuven"},{"link_name":"Padua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padua"},{"link_name":"gallows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallows"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"circulatory system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulatory_system"},{"link_name":"valves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valve"},{"link_name":"hepatic veins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatic_vein"},{"link_name":"lymphatic system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphatic_system"}],"sub_title":"Vesalius","text":"A portrait of Andreas Vesalius from De Humani Corporis Fabrica (1543)The Galenic doctrine in Europe was first seriously challenged in the 16th century. Thanks to the printing press, all over Europe a collective effort proceeded to circulate the works of Galen and later publish criticisms on their works. Andreas Vesalius, born and educated in Belgium, contributed the most to human anatomy. Vesalius's success were due in large part to him exercising the skills of mindful dissections for the sake of understanding anatomy, much to the tune of Galen's \"anatomy project\" instead of focusing on the work of other scholars of the time in recovering the ancient texts of Hippocrates, Galen and others (which much of the medical community was focused around at the time).[51]Vesalius was the first to publish a treatise, De Humani Corporis Fabrica, that challenged Galen's anatomical teachings, arguing that they are based on observations of other mammals, not human bodies.[52] The book included a detailed series of explanations and vivid drawings of the anatomical parts of human bodies. Vesalius traveled all the way from Leuven to Padua for permission to dissect victims from the gallows without fear of persecution. His superbly executed drawings are triumphant descriptions of the differences between dogs and humans, but it took a century for Galen's influence to fade.Vesalius' work marked a new era in the study of anatomy and its relation to medicine. Under Vesalius, anatomy became an actual discipline. \"His skill in and attention to dissection featured prominently in his publications as well as his demonstrations, in his research as well as his teaching.\"[53]\nIn 1540, Vesalius gave a public demonstration of the inaccuracies of Galen's anatomical theories, which are still the orthodoxy of the medical profession. Vesalius now has on display, for comparison purposes, the skeletons of a human being alongside that of an ape of which he was able to show, that in many cases, Galen's observations were indeed correct for the ape, but bear little relation to man. Clearly what was needed was a new account of human anatomy. While the lecturer explained human anatomy, as revealed by Galen more than 1000 years earlier, an assistant pointed to the equivalent details on a dissected corpse. At times, the assistant was unable to find the organ as described, but invariably the corpse rather than Galen was held to be in error. Vesalius then decided that he will dissect corpses himself and trust to the evidence of what he found. His approach was highly controversial, but his evident skill led to his appointment as professor of surgery and anatomy at the University of Padua.A succession of researchers proceeded to refine the body of anatomical knowledge, giving their names to a number of anatomical structures along the way. The 16th and 17th centuries also witnessed significant advances in the understanding of the circulatory system, as the purpose of valves in veins was identified, the left-to-right ventricle flow of blood through the circulatory system was described, and the hepatic veins were identified as a separate portion of the circulatory system. The lymphatic system was also identified as a separate system at this time.","title":"Medieval to early modern anatomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Woodcut_of_anatomical_dissection._Wellcome_M0011499.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:An_anatomical_dissection_being_carried_out_by_Andreas_Vesali_Wellcome_V0010413.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_The_Anatomy_Lesson_of_Dr_Nicolaes_Tulp.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Anatomy_Lesson_of_Dr._Nicolaes_Tulp"},{"link_name":"Rembrandt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rembrandt"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dr_Deijman%E2%80%99s_Anatomy_Lesson_(fragment),_by_Rembrandt.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deijman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Anatomy_Lesson_of_Dr._Deijman"},{"link_name":"Rembrandt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rembrandt"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rembrandt_van_Rijn_193.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_depiction_of_an_anatomical_theatre.jpeg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cruelty4.JPG"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-39"},{"link_name":"Anatomical theatres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_theatre"},{"link_name":"University of Padua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Padua"},{"link_name":"human physiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_physiology"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Klestinec-56"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Siddiquey_2009-7"}],"sub_title":"Anatomical theatres","text":"A woodcut of an anatomical dissection, from 1493\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAn anatomical dissection being carried out by Andreas Vesalius, 1543\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, by Rembrandt, 1632\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deijman by Rembrandt, 1656\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSketch of the Preceding painting The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deijman\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAn Anatomical Theatre In Leiden, 1616\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe reward of cruelty (Plate IV) by William Hogarth 1751In the late 16th century, anatomists began exploring and pushing for contention that the study of anatomy could contribute to advancing the boundaries of natural philosophy. However, the majority of students were more interested in the practicality of anatomy, and less so in the advancement of knowledge of the subject. Students were interested in the technique of dissection rather than the philosophy of anatomy, and this was reflected in their criticism of Professors such as Girolamo Fabrici.[37]Anatomical theatres became a popular form for anatomical teaching in the early 16th century. The University of Padua was the first and most widely known theatre, founded in 1594. As a result, Italy became the centre for human dissection. People came from all over to watch as professors taught lectures on the human physiology and anatomy, as anyone was welcome to witness the spectacle. Participants \"were fascinated by corporeal display, by the body undergoing dissection\".[54] Most professors did not do the dissections themselves. Instead, they sat in seats above the bodies while hired hands did the cutting. Students and observers would be placed around the table in a circular, stadium-like arena and listen as professors explained the various anatomical parts. As anatomy theatres gained popularity throughout the 16th century, protocols were adjusted to account for the disruptions of students. Students moved beyond simply being eager to participate, and began stealing and vandalizing cadavers. Students were thus instructed to sit quietly and were to be penalized for disrupting the dissection. Moreover, preparatory lectures were mandatory in order to introduce the \"subsequent observation of anatomy\". The demonstrations were structured into dissections and lectures. The dissections focused on the skill of autopsy/vivisection while the lectures would center on the philosophical questions of anatomy. This is exemplary of how anatomy was viewed not only as the study of structures but also the study of the \"body as an extension of the soul\".[55] The 19th century eventually saw a move from anatomical theatres to classrooms, reducing \"the number of people who could benefit from each cadaver\".[7]","title":"Medieval to early modern anatomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Harvey_(1578-1657)_Venenbild.jpg"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Michelangelo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelo"},{"link_name":"Rembrandt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rembrandt"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Nicolaes Tulp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaes_Tulp"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"17th century","text":"Harvey's anatomical researches from De Motu Cordis (1628)At the beginning of the 17th century, the use of dissecting human cadavers influenced anatomy, leading to a spike in the study of anatomy. The advent of the printing press facilitated the exchange of ideas. Because the study of anatomy concerned observation and drawings, the popularity of the anatomist was equal to the quality of his drawing talents, and one need not be an expert in Latin to take part.[56] Many famous artists studied anatomy, attended dissections, and published drawings for money, from Michelangelo to Rembrandt. For the first time, prominent universities could teach something about anatomy through drawings, rather than relying on knowledge of Latin. Contrary to popular belief, the Church neither objected to nor obstructed anatomical research.[57]Only certified anatomists were allowed to perform dissections, and sometimes then only yearly. These dissections were sponsored by the city councilors and often charged an admission fee, rather like a circus act for scholars. Many European cities, such as Amsterdam, London, Copenhagen, Padua, and Paris, all had Royal anatomists (or some such office) tied to local government. Indeed, Nicolaes Tulp was Mayor of Amsterdam for three terms. Though it was a risky business to perform dissections, and unpredictable depending on the availability of fresh bodies, attending dissections was legal.[citation needed]The supply of printed anatomy books from Italy and France led to an increased demand for human cadavers for dissections. Since few bodies were voluntarily donated for dissection, royal charters were established which allowed prominent universities to use the bodies of hanged criminals for dissections. However, there was still a shortage of bodies that could not accommodate for the high demand of bodies.","title":"Medieval to early modern anatomy"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Modern anatomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-61"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"body-snatching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body-snatching"},{"link_name":"anatomy murder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy_murder"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rosner,_Lisa._2010-63"},{"link_name":"John Hunter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hunter_(surgeon)"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-61"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"Anatomy Act 1832","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy_Act_1832"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Realdo Colombo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realdo_Colombo"},{"link_name":"Gabriele Falloppio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriele_Falloppio"},{"link_name":"Vesalius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-61"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Giovanni Batista Morgagni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Batista_Morgagni"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"Xavier Bichat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xavier_Bichat"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"}],"sub_title":"18th century","text":"Until the middle of the 18th century, there was a quota of ten cadavers for each the Royal College of Physicians and the Company of Barber Surgeons, the only two groups permitted to perform dissections. During the first half of the 18th century, William Cheselden challenged the Company of Barber Surgeon's exclusive rights on dissections. He was the first to hold regular anatomy lectures and demonstrations. He also wrote The Anatomy of the Humane Body, a student handbook of anatomy.[58] In 1752, the rapid growth of medical schools in England and the pressing demand for cadavers led to the passage of the Murder Act. This allowed medical schools in England to legally dissect bodies of executed murderers for anatomical education and research and also aimed to prevent murder. To further increase the supply of cadavers, the government increased the number of crimes in which hanging was a punishment. Although the number of cadavers increased, it was still not enough to meet the demand of anatomical and medical training.[59]Since few bodies were voluntarily donated for dissection, criminals that were hanged for murder were dissected. However, there was a shortage of bodies that could not accommodate the high demand of bodies.[60] To cope with shortages of cadavers and the rise in medical students during the 17th and 18th centuries, body-snatching and even anatomy murder were practiced to obtain cadavers.[61] 'Body snatching' was the act of sneaking into a graveyard, digging up a corpse and using it for study. Men known as 'resurrectionists' emerged as outside parties, who would steal corpses for a living and sell the bodies to anatomy schools. The leading London anatomist John Hunter paid for a regular supply of corpses for his anatomy school.[62] During the 17th and 18th centuries, the perception of dissections had evolved into a form of capital punishment. Dissections were considered a dishonor. The corpse was mutilated and not suitable for a funeral. By the end of the 18th century, many European countries had passed legislation similar to the Murder Act in England to meet the demand of fresh cadavers and to reduce crime. Countries allowed institutions to use unclaimed bodies of paupers, prison inmates, and people in psychiatric and charitable hospitals for dissection.[59] Unfortunately, the lack of bodies available for dissection and the controversial air that surrounded anatomy in the late 17th century and early 18th century caused a halt in progress that is evident by the lack of updates made to anatomical texts of the time between editions. Additionally, most of the investigations into anatomy were aimed at developing the knowledge of physiology and surgery. Naturally this meant that a close examination of the more detailed aspects of anatomy that could advance anatomical knowledge was not a priority.[63]Paris medicine was notorious for its influence on medical thought and its contributions to medical knowledge. The new hospital medicine in France during the late 18th century was brought about in part by the Law of 1794 which made physicians and surgeons equals in the world of medical care. The law came as a response to the increase demand for medical professionals capable of caring for the increase in injuries and diseases brought about by French Revolution. The law also supplemented schools with bodies for anatomical lessons. Ultimately this created the opportunity for the field of medicine to grow in the direction of \"localism of pathological anatomy, the development of appropriate diagnostic techniques, and the numerical approach to disease and therapeutics.\"[64]The British Parliament passed the Anatomy Act 1832, which finally provided for an adequate and legitimate supply of corpses by allowing legal dissection of executed murderers. The view of anatomist at the time, however, became similar to that of an executioner. Having one's body dissected was seen as a punishment worse than death, \"if you stole a pig, you were hung. If you killed a man, you were hung and then dissected.\" Demand grew so great that some anatomists resorted to dissecting their own family members as well as robbing bodies from their graves.[65]Many Europeans interested in the study of anatomy traveled to Italy, then the centre of anatomy. Only in Italy could certain important research methods be used, such as dissections on women. Realdo Colombo (also known as Realdus Columbus) and Gabriele Falloppio were pupils of Vesalius. Columbus, as Vesalius's immediate successor in Padua, and afterwards professor at Rome, distinguished himself by describing the shape and cavities of the heart, the structure of the pulmonary artery and aorta and their valves, and tracing the course of the blood from the right to the left side of the heart.[66]The rise in anatomy lead to various discoveries and findings. In 1628, English physician William Harvey observed circulating blood through dissections of his father's and sister's bodies. He published De moto cordis et sanguinis, a treatise in which he explained his theory.[59] In Tuscany and Florence, Marcello Malpighi founded microscopic anatomy, and Nils Steensen studied the anatomy of lymph nodes and salivary glands. By the end of the 17th century, Gaetano Zumbo developed anatomical wax modeling techniques.[67] Antonio Valsalva, a student of Malpighi and a professor of anatomy at University of Bologna, was one of the greatest anatomists of the time. He is known by many as the founder of anatomy and physiology of the ear.[68] In the 18th century, Giovanni Batista Morgagni related pre-mortem symptoms with post-mortem pathological findings using pathological anatomy in his book De Sedibus.[69] This led to the rise of morbid anatomy in France and Europe. The rise of morbid anatomy was one of the contributing factors to the shift in power between doctors and physicians, giving power to the physicians over patients.[70] With the invention of the Stethoscope in 1816, R.T.H. Laennec was able to help bridge the gap between a symptomatic approach to medicine and disease, to one based on anatomy and physiology. His disease and treatments were based on \"pathological anatomy\" and because this approach to disease was rooted in anatomy instead of symptoms, the process of evaluation and treatment were also forced to evolve.[71] From the late 18th century to the early 19th century, the work of professionals such as Morgagni, Scott Matthew Baillie, and Xavier Bichat served to demonstrate exactly how the detailed anatomical inspection of organs could lead to a more empirical means of understanding disease and health that would combine medical theory with medical practice. This \"pathological anatomy\" paved the way for \"clinical pathology that applied the knowledge of opening up corpses and quantifying illnesses to treatments.\"[72] Along with the popularity of anatomy and dissection came an increasing interest in the preservation of dissected specimens. In the 17th century, many of the anatomical specimens were dried and stored in cabinets. In the Netherlands, there were attempts to replicate Egyptian mummies by preserving soft tissue. This became known as Balsaming. In the 1660s the Dutch were also attempting to preserve organs by injecting wax to keep the organ's shape. Dyes and mercury were added to the wax to better differentiate and see various anatomical structures for academic and research anatomy. By the late 18th century, Thomas Pole published The Anatomic Instructor, which detailed how to dry and preserve specimens and soft tissue.[73]","title":"Modern anatomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of anatomy in the 19th century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_anatomy_in_the_19th_century"},{"link_name":"histology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histology"},{"link_name":"developmental biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_biology"},{"link_name":"animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McLachlan,_J._2006._p.243-53-76"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"}],"sub_title":"19th century anatomy","text":"Further information: History of anatomy in the 19th centuryDuring the 19th century, anatomical research was extended with histology and developmental biology of both humans and animals. Women, who were not allowed to attend medical school, could attend the anatomy theatres. From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons forced unregulated schools to close.[74] Medical museums provided examples in comparative anatomy, and were often used in teaching.[75]","title":"Modern anatomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"evolutionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology"},{"link_name":"molecular biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology"},{"link_name":"endocrinology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrinology"},{"link_name":"MRI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRI"},{"link_name":"CAT scanners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAT_scan"},{"link_name":"finite element analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_element_analysis"},{"link_name":"prosection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosection"},{"link_name":"anatomical models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_model"},{"link_name":"palpated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palpated"},{"link_name":"University of Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McLachlan,_J._2006._p.243-53-76"},{"link_name":"Human Tissue Act 2004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Tissue_Act_2004"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"bovine spongiform encephalitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bovine_spongiform_encephalitis"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McLachlan,_J._2006._p.243-53-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"Gunther von Hagens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunther_von_Hagens"},{"link_name":"plastination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastination"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"}],"text":"Anatomical research in the past hundred years has taken advantage of technological developments and growing understanding of sciences such as evolutionary and molecular biology to create a thorough understanding of the body's organs and structures. Disciplines such as endocrinology have explained the purpose of glands that anatomists previously could not explain; medical devices such as MRI machines and CAT scanners have enabled researchers to study organs, living or dead, in unprecedented detail. Progress today in anatomy is centered in the development, evolution, and function of anatomical features, as the macroscopic aspects of human anatomy have largely been catalogued. Non-human anatomy is particularly active as researchers use techniques ranging from finite element analysis to molecular biology.To save time, some medical schools such as Birmingham, England have adopted prosection, where a demonstrator dissects and explains to an audience, in place of dissection by students. This enables students to observe more than one body. Improvements in colour images and photography means that an anatomy text is no longer an aid to dissection but rather a central material to learn from. Plastic anatomical models are regularly used in anatomy teaching, offering a good substitute to the real thing. Use of living models for anatomy demonstration is once again becoming popular within teaching of anatomy. Surface landmarks that can be palpated on another individual provide practice for future clinical situations. It is possible to do this on oneself; in the Integrated Biology course at the University of Berkeley, students are encouraged to \"introspect\"[76] on themselves and link what they are being taught to their own body.[74]In Britain, the Human Tissue Act 2004 has tightened up the availability of resources to anatomy departments.[citation needed] The outbreaks of bovine spongiform encephalitis (BSE) in the late 1980s and early 1990s further restricted the handling of brain tissue.[74][77]The controversy of Gunther von Hagens and public displays of dissections, preserved by plastination, may divide opinions on what is ethical or legal.[78]","title":"Today's anatomical research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic"},{"link_name":"Kraus 1939","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFKraus1939"},{"link_name":"Dānish-pazhūh 1964","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFD%C4%81nish-pazh%C5%ABh1964"},{"link_name":"Mohaghegh 1993","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFMohaghegh1993"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"Dānish-pazhūh 1964","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFD%C4%81nish-pazh%C5%ABh1964"},{"link_name":"Mohaghegh 1993","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFMohaghegh1993"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"Kraus & Pines 1913–1936","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFKrausPines1913%E2%80%931936"},{"link_name":"Goodman 1960–2007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGoodman1960%E2%80%932007"},{"link_name":"Richter-Bernburg 2003","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRichter-Bernburg2003"},{"link_name":"Adamson 2021a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFAdamson2021a"},{"link_name":"Walker 1998","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFWalker1998"},{"link_name":"Adamson 2021a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFAdamson2021a"}],"text":"^ For the spelling of his Arabic name, see for example Kraus 1939. Sometimes it is also spelled زکریا (Zakariyyā) rather than زکریاء (Zakariyyāʾ), as for example in Dānish-pazhūh 1964, p. 1 of the edition, or in Mohaghegh 1993, p. 5. In modern Persian his name is rendered as ابوبکر محمدبن زکریا رازی (see Dānish-pazhūh 1964, p. 1 of the introduction), though instead of زکریا one may also find زکریای (see Mohaghegh 1993, p. 18).\n\n^ For his date of birth, Kraus & Pines 1913–1936 give 864 CE / 250 AH (Goodman 1960–2007 gives 854 CE / 250 AH, but this is a typo), while Richter-Bernburg 2003 and Adamson 2021a give 865 CE / 251 AH. For his date of death as 925 or 935 CE / 313 or 323 AH, see Goodman 1960–2007; some sources only give 925 CE / 313 AH (Walker 1998; Richter-Bernburg 2003; Adamson 2021a).","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bibliography of anatomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology#Anatomy"},{"link_name":"History of anatomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_anatomy"},{"link_name":"Dutch Anatomy and Clinical Medicine in 17th-Century Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2012060623"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-415-91694-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-91694-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-00-215173-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-215173-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-415-15719-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15719-3"}],"text":"See also: Bibliography of anatomyWikimedia Commons has media related to History of anatomy.Knoeff, Rina (2012). Dutch Anatomy and Clinical Medicine in 17th-Century Europe. Leibniz Institute of European History.\nMazzio, C. (1997). The Body in Parts: Discourses and Anatomies in Early Modern Europe. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-91694-3.\nPorter, R. (1997). The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-215173-3.\nSawday, J. (1996). The Body Emblazoned: Dissection and the Human Body in Renaissance Culture. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-15719-3.","title":"Bibliography"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Dissection of a cadaver, 15th-century painting","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Dissection_of_a_Cadaver.jpg/300px-Dissection_of_a_Cadaver.jpg"},{"image_text":"Hieroglyph designating the brain or skull in the Edwin Smith papyrus.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Hieroglyphic-brain.png/220px-Hieroglyphic-brain.png"},{"image_text":"Galen examining a human skeleton.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Galen_finding_skeleton._Wellcome_L0013635.jpg/200px-Galen_finding_skeleton._Wellcome_L0013635.jpg"},{"image_text":"Anatomical study of the arm, by Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1510","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_RCIN_919000%2C_Verso_The_bones_and_muscles_of_the_arm_c.1510-11.jpg/200px-Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_RCIN_919000%2C_Verso_The_bones_and_muscles_of_the_arm_c.1510-11.jpg"},{"image_text":"A portrait of Andreas Vesalius from De Humani Corporis Fabrica (1543)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Portrait_of_Andreas_Vesalius%2C_half-length_in_profile_standing_in_front_of_a_table_dissecting_the_arm_of_a_body%3B_frontispiece_to_Andreas_Vesalius_%27De_humani_corporis_fabrica_libri_septem%27_MET_DP853465.jpg/200px-thumbnail.jpg"},{"image_text":"Harvey's anatomical researches from De Motu Cordis (1628)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/William_Harvey_%281578-1657%29_Venenbild.jpg/200px-William_Harvey_%281578-1657%29_Venenbild.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Lindemann, Mary (2010). Medicine and Society in Early Modern Europe (2nd ed.). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 91.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"}]},{"reference":"Porter, Roy (1999-10-17). The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity (The Norton History of Science). W. W. Norton. pp. 49–50. ISBN 9780393319804. Retrieved 17 November 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=igGdz9g7tmAC","url_text":"The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity (The Norton History of Science)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393319804","url_text":"9780393319804"}]},{"reference":"Singer, Charles (1957). A Short History of Anatomy & Physiology from Greeks to Harvey. NEw York: Dover Publications Inc. p. 5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover_Publications","url_text":"Dover Publications Inc."}]},{"reference":"Singer, Charles (1957). A Short History of Anatomy & Physiology from Greeks to Harvey. NEw York: Dover Publications Inc. p. 7.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Singer, Charles (1957). A Short History of Anatomy & Physiology from Greeks to Harvey. NEw York: Dover Publications Inc. p. 10.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Roberts, Wallisa; Salandy, Sonja; Mandal, Gaurav; Holda, M. K.; Tomaszewksi, K. A.; Gielecki, Jerzy; Tubbs, R. Shane; Loukas, Marios (2019-11-01). \"Across the centuries: Piecing together the anatomy of the heart\". Translational Research in Anatomy. 17: 100051. doi:10.1016/j.tria.2019.100051. ISSN 2214-854X.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tria.2019.100051","url_text":"\"Across the centuries: Piecing together the anatomy of the heart\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tria.2019.100051","url_text":"10.1016/j.tria.2019.100051"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2214-854X","url_text":"2214-854X"}]},{"reference":"Siddiquey, Ak Shamsuddin Husain (2009). \"History of Anatomy\". Bangladesh Journal of Anatomy. 7 (1): 1–3. doi:10.3329/bja.v7i1.3008.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3329%2Fbja.v7i1.3008","url_text":"\"History of Anatomy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3329%2Fbja.v7i1.3008","url_text":"10.3329/bja.v7i1.3008"}]},{"reference":"Singer, Charles (1957). A Short History of Anatomy & Physiology from Greeks to Harvey. NEw York: Dover Publications Inc. p. 29.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bay, Noel Si-Yang; Bay, Boon-Huat (December 2010). \"Greek anatomist herophilus: the father of anatomy\". Anatomy & Cell Biology. 43 (4): 280–283. doi:10.5115/acb.2010.43.4.280. ISSN 2093-3665. PMC 3026179. PMID 21267401.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3026179","url_text":"\"Greek anatomist herophilus: the father of anatomy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5115%2Facb.2010.43.4.280","url_text":"10.5115/acb.2010.43.4.280"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2093-3665","url_text":"2093-3665"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3026179","url_text":"3026179"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21267401","url_text":"21267401"}]},{"reference":"Nutton, V. (2002). \"Logic, Learning, and Experimental Medicine\". Science. 295 (5556): 800–801. doi:10.1126/science.1066244. PMID 11823624.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1066244","url_text":"\"Logic, Learning, and Experimental Medicine\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1066244","url_text":"10.1126/science.1066244"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11823624","url_text":"11823624"}]},{"reference":"Hankinson, R. J. (2014). \"Partitioning the Soul: Galen on the Anatomy of the Psychic Functions and Mental Illness\". Partitioning the Soul. De Gruyter. pp. 85–106. doi:10.1515/9783110311884.85. ISBN 9783110311884. Archived from the original on 2021-09-05. Retrieved 2021-09-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110311884.85/html","url_text":"\"Partitioning the Soul: Galen on the Anatomy of the Psychic Functions and Mental Illness\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110311884.85","url_text":"10.1515/9783110311884.85"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110311884","url_text":"9783110311884"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210905205621/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110311884.85/html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Singer, Charles (1957). A Short History of Anatomy & Physiology from Greeks to Harvey. NEw York: Dover Publications Inc. p. 47.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Boas, Marie (1970). The Scientific Renaissance 1450-1630. Fontana. pp. 120, 248. Vesalius, finding Galen's teachings full of errors, was quite certain that he had been able to disprove them.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Boas, Marie (1970). The Scientific Renaissance 1450-1630. Fontana. p. 262. Like any sixteenth-century anatomist, [Harvey] too began working off of Galen's teachings, and managed to interpret Galen's words in such a way to win support for his new doctrine.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Pasipoularides, Ares (March 1, 2014). \"Galen, father of systematic medicine. An essay on the evolution of modern medicine and cardiology\". International Journal of Cardiology. 172 (1): 47–58. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2013.12.166. PMID 24461486.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijcard.2013.12.166","url_text":"10.1016/j.ijcard.2013.12.166"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24461486","url_text":"24461486"}]},{"reference":"Aird, W. C. (2011). \"Discovery of the cardiovascular system: from Galen to William Harvey\". Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 9 (s1): 118–129. doi:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04312.x. ISSN 1538-7836. PMID 21781247. S2CID 12092592.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1538-7836.2011.04312.x","url_text":"\"Discovery of the cardiovascular system: from Galen to William Harvey\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1538-7836.2011.04312.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04312.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1538-7836","url_text":"1538-7836"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21781247","url_text":"21781247"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12092592","url_text":"12092592"}]},{"reference":"Neder, J. Alberto (2020-06-01). \"Cardiovascular and pulmonary interactions: why Galen's misconceptions proved clinically useful for 1,300 years\". Advances in Physiology Education. 44 (2): 225–231. doi:10.1152/advan.00058.2020. ISSN 1043-4046. PMID 32412380. S2CID 218648041.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fadvan.00058.2020","url_text":"\"Cardiovascular and pulmonary interactions: why Galen's misconceptions proved clinically useful for 1,300 years\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fadvan.00058.2020","url_text":"10.1152/advan.00058.2020"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1043-4046","url_text":"1043-4046"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32412380","url_text":"32412380"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218648041","url_text":"218648041"}]},{"reference":"Fleming, Donald (1955). \"Galen on the Motions of the Blood in the Heart and Lungs\". Isis. 46 (1): 14–21. doi:10.1086/348379. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 226820. PMID 14353581. S2CID 29583656. Archived from the original on 2021-12-02. Retrieved 2021-12-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/226820","url_text":"\"Galen on the Motions of the Blood in the Heart and Lungs\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F348379","url_text":"10.1086/348379"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-1753","url_text":"0021-1753"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/226820","url_text":"226820"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14353581","url_text":"14353581"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29583656","url_text":"29583656"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211202175711/https://www.jstor.org/stable/226820","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Rāzī, Liber Almansoris (Cambridge, University Library, MS Add. 9213)\". Cambridge Digital Library. Retrieved 22 November 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-09213/1","url_text":"\"Rāzī, Liber Almansoris (Cambridge, University Library, MS Add. 9213)\""}]},{"reference":"Majeed, Azeem (2005). \"How Islam changed medicine\". BMJ. 331 (7531): 1486–1487. doi:10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1486. PMC 1322233. PMID 16373721.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1322233","url_text":"\"How Islam changed medicine\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.331.7531.1486","url_text":"10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1486"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1322233","url_text":"1322233"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16373721","url_text":"16373721"}]},{"reference":"Feucht, Cynthia; Greydanus, Donald E.; Merrick, Joav; Patel, Dilip R.; Omar, Hatim A. (2012). Pharmacotherapeutics in Medical Disorders. Walter de Gruyter. 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Retrieved 2015-11-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=1823109","url_text":"A History of Human Anatomy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-398-08105-8","url_text":"978-0-398-08105-8"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170908213435/https://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=1823109","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Zimmerman, Leo M.; Veith, Ilza (1993-08-01). Great Ideas in the History of Surgery. Norman Publishing. ISBN 9780930405533. Retrieved 7 December 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ABbCI7z4UwMC","url_text":"Great Ideas in the History of Surgery"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780930405533","url_text":"9780930405533"}]},{"reference":"Crombie, Alistair Cameron (1959). The History of Science From Augustine to Galileo. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 9780486288505. Retrieved 19 December 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bGDScHy1clsC&pg=PA4","url_text":"The History of Science From Augustine to Galileo"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486288505","url_text":"9780486288505"}]},{"reference":"Benivieni, Antonio; Polybus; Guinterius, Joannes (1529). De abditis nonnullis ac mirandis morborum & sanationum causis. apud Andream Cratandrum. Retrieved 7 December 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ieNEAAAAcAAJ","url_text":"De abditis nonnullis ac mirandis morborum & sanationum causis"}]},{"reference":"Boas, Marie (1970). The Scientific Renaissance 1450–1630. Fontana. pp. 120–143.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Mason, Stephen F. (1962). A History of the Sciences. 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Retrieved 2018-03-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nlm.nih.gov/dreamanatomy/da_info.html","url_text":"\"Dream Anatomy: Exhibition Information\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170907204745/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/dreamanatomy/da_info.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Howse, Christopher (10 June 2009). \"The myth of the anatomy lesson\". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 12 February 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/columnists/christopherhowse/5496340/False-myth-of-the-anatomy-lesson.html","url_text":"\"The myth of the anatomy lesson\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180212192917/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/columnists/christopherhowse/5496340/False-myth-of-the-anatomy-lesson.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sanders, M. A. (1999-11-01). \"William Cheselden: anatomist, surgeon, and medical illustrator\". Spine. 24 (21): 2282–2289. doi:10.1097/00007632-199911010-00019. 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PMID 26417475.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4582158","url_text":"\"Human cadaveric dissection: a historical account from ancient Greece to the modern era\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5115%2Facb.2015.48.3.153","url_text":"10.5115/acb.2015.48.3.153"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4582158","url_text":"4582158"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26417475","url_text":"26417475"}]},{"reference":"Mitchell, Piers D; Boston, Ceridwen; Chamberlain, Andrew T; Chaplin, Simon; Chauhan, Vin; Evans, Jonathan; Fowler, Louise; Powers, Natasha; Walker, Don (2017-02-17). \"The study of anatomy in England from 1700 to the early 20th century\". Journal of Anatomy. 219 (2): 91–99. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2011.01381.x. ISSN 0021-8782. PMC 3162231. PMID 21496014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3162231","url_text":"\"The study of anatomy in England from 1700 to the early 20th century\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-7580.2011.01381.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1469-7580.2011.01381.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8782","url_text":"0021-8782"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3162231","url_text":"3162231"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21496014","url_text":"21496014"}]},{"reference":"Moore, Wendy (2006). The Knife Man: Blood, Body-Snatching and the Birth of Modern Surgery. Bantam. pp. 87–95 and passim. 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ISBN 9780393050936.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/stiffcuriouslive00roac_145","url_text":"Stiff: The curious Lives of Human Cadavers"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/stiffcuriouslive00roac_145/page/n39","url_text":"37"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393050936","url_text":"9780393050936"}]},{"reference":"Boas, Marie (1970). The Scientific Renaissance 1450-1630. Fontana. pp. 254–256.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Orlandini, Giovanni E.; Paternostro, Ferdinando (2010). \"Anatomy and anatomists in Tuscany in the 17th century\". Italian Journal of Anatomy and Embryology = Archivio Italiano di Anatomia ed Embriologia. 115 (3): 167–174. PMID 21287970.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21287970","url_text":"21287970"}]},{"reference":"Wells, Walter A. (1948-02-01). \"Antonio valsalva — pioneer in applied anatomy — 1666–1723\". The Laryngoscope. 58 (2): 105–117. doi:10.1002/lary.5540580202. PMID 18904602. S2CID 70524656.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Flary.5540580202","url_text":"10.1002/lary.5540580202"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18904602","url_text":"18904602"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:70524656","url_text":"70524656"}]},{"reference":"van den Tweel, Jan G.; Taylor, Clive R. (2017-03-02). \"A brief history of pathology\". Virchows Archiv. 457 (1): 3–10. doi:10.1007/s00428-010-0934-4. PMC 2895866. 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)
|
List of countries by GDP (nominal)
|
["1 Table","2 See also","3 Notes","4 References"]
|
For countries by GDP based on purchasing power parity, see List of countries by GDP (PPP).
For countries by GDP per capita, see List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita.
Largest economies in the world by GDP (nominal) in 2024according to International Monetary Fund estimates
Countries by estimated nominal GDP in 2024. > $20 trillion $10–20 trillion $5–10 trillion $1–5 trillion $750 billion – $1 trillion $500–750 billion $250–500 billion $100–250 billion $50–100 billion $25–50 billion $5–25 billion < $5 billion
Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of all final goods and services from a nation in a given year. Countries are sorted by nominal GDP estimates from financial and statistical institutions, which are calculated at market or government official exchange rates. Nominal GDP does not take into account differences in the cost of living in different countries, and the results can vary greatly from one year to another based on fluctuations in the exchange rates of the country's currency. Such fluctuations may change a country's ranking from one year to the next, even though they often make little or no difference in the standard of living of its population.
Comparisons of national wealth are also frequently made based on purchasing power parity (PPP), to adjust for differences in the cost of living in different countries. Other metrics, nominal GDP per capita and a corresponding GDP (PPP) per capita are used for comparing national standard of living. On the whole, PPP per capita figures are less spread than nominal GDP per capita figures.
The rankings of national economies over time have changed considerably; the United States surpassed the British Empire's output around 1916, which in turn had surpassed the Qing dynasty in aggregate output decades earlier. Since China's transition to a socialist market economy through controlled privatisation and deregulation, the country has seen its ranking increase from ninth in 1978, to second in 2010; China's economic growth accelerated during this period and its share of global nominal GDP surged from 2% in 1980 to 18% in 2021. Among others, India has also experienced an economic boom since the implementation of economic liberalisation in the early 1990s.
The first list includes estimates compiled by the International Monetary Fund's World Economic Outlook, the second list shows the World Bank's data, and the third list includes data compiled by the United Nations Statistics Division. The IMF's definitive data for the past year and estimates for the current year are published twice a year in April and October. Non-sovereign entities (the world, continents, and some dependent territories) and states with limited international recognition (such as Kosovo and Taiwan) are included in the list where they appear in the sources.
Table
The table initially ranks each IMF member including sovereign states not part of the IMF, non-sovereign states and territories, and countries with limited recognition
The links in the "Country/Territory" row of the following table link to the article on the GDP or the economy of the respective country or territory.
GDP (million US$) by country
Country/Territory
UN region
IMF
World Bank
United Nations
Forecast
Year
Estimate
Year
Estimate
Year
World
—
109,529,216
2024
100,879,560
2022
100,834,796
2022
United States
Americas
28,781,083
2024
25,439,700
2022
25,744,100
2022
China
Asia
18,532,633
2024
17,963,171
2022
17,963,170
2022
Germany
Europe
4,591,100
2024
4,082,469
2022
4,076,923
2022
Japan
Asia
4,110,452
2024
4,256,410
2022
4,232,173
2022
India
Asia
4,038,000
2024
3,416,645
2022
3,465,541
2022
United Kingdom
Europe
3,495,261
2024
3,089,072
2022
3,089,072
2022
France
Europe
3,130,014
2024
2,779,092
2022
2,775,316
2022
Brazil
Americas
2,331,391
2024
1,920,095
2022
1,920,095
2022
Italy
Europe
2,328,028
2024
2,049,737
2022
2,046,952
2022
Canada
Americas
2,242,182
2024
2,161,483
2022
2,137,939
2022
Russia
Europe
2,056,844
2024
2,240,422
2022
2,240,422
2022
Mexico
Americas
2,017,025
2024
1,465,854
2022
1,463,323
2022
Australia
Oceania
1,790,348
2024
1,692,956
2022
1,776,577
2022
South Korea
Asia
1,760,947
2024
1,673,916
2022
1,673,916
2022
Spain
Europe
1,647,114
2024
1,417,800
2022
1,415,874
2022
Indonesia
Asia
1,475,690
2024
1,319,100
2022
1,319,100
2022
Netherlands
Europe
1,142,513
2024
1,009,398
2022
1,008,027
2022
Turkey
Asia
1,113,561
2024
907,118
2022
907,118
2022
Saudi Arabia
Asia
1,106,015
2024
1,108,571
2022
1,108,148
2022
Switzerland
Europe
938,458
2024
818,426
2022
818,426
2022
Poland
Europe
844,623
2024
688,125
2022
688,125
2022
Taiwan
Asia
802,958
2024
—
—
Belgium
Europe
655,192
2024
583,435
2022
582,643
2022
Sweden
Europe
623,048
2024
591,718
2022
591,188
2022
Argentina
Americas
604,260
2024
631,133
2022
631,133
2022
Ireland
Europe
564,020
2024
533,140
2022
532,415
2022
Thailand
Asia
548,890
2024
495,423
2022
495,340
2022
Austria
Europe
540,887
2024
470,941
2022
470,302
2022
Israel
Asia
530,664
2024
525,002
2022
525,002
2022
United Arab Emirates
Asia
527,796
2024
507,063
2022
507,063
2022
Norway
Europe
526,951
2024
593,348
2022
579,422
2022
Singapore
Asia
525,228
2024
466,788
2022
466,788
2022
Philippines
Asia
471,516
2024
404,284
2022
404,284
2022
Vietnam
Asia
465,814
2024
408,802
2022
408,802
2022
Iran
Asia
464,181
2024
413,493
2022
398,047
2022
Bangladesh
Asia
455,162
2024
460,201
2022
432,677
2022
Malaysia
Asia
445,519
2024
407,027
2022
406,305
2022
Denmark
Europe
409,989
2024
400,167
2022
400,167
2022
Hong Kong
Asia
406,775
2024
359,838
2022
359,838
2022
Colombia
Americas
386,076
2024
343,622
2022
343,939
2022
South Africa
Africa
373,233
2024
405,270
2022
405,270
2022
Romania
Europe
369,971
2024
300,691
2022
300,690
2022
Egypt
Africa
347,594
2024
476,747
2022
409,306
2022
Pakistan
Asia
338,237
2023
374,697
2022
326,796
2022
Chile
Americas
333,760
2024
301,024
2022
300,686
2022
Czech Republic
Europe
325,880
2024
290,565
2022
290,527
2022
Finland
Europe
308,055
2024
282,649
2022
282,511
2022
Portugal
Europe
298,949
2024
255,196
2022
254,849
2022
Kazakhstan
Asia
296,740
2024
225,496
2022
225,496
2022
Peru
Americas
282,458
2024
242,631
2022
242,631
2022
Algeria
Africa
266,780
2024
194,998
2022
191,912
2022
Iraq
Asia
265,894
2024
264,182
2022
264,182
2022
New Zealand
Oceania
257,625
2024
248,101
2022
245,845
2022
Nigeria
Africa
252,738
2024
472,624
2022
475,058
2022
Greece
Europe
250,276
2024
217,581
2022
217,285
2022
Qatar
Asia
244,686
2024
236,258
2022
237,101
2022
Hungary
Europe
223,413
2024
177,337
2022
177,337
2022
Ethiopia
Africa
205,130
2024
126,783
2022
118,971
2022
Ukraine
Europe
188,943
2024
160,502
2022
160,502
2022
Kuwait
Asia
160,397
2024
175,363
2022
175,363
2022
Morocco
Africa
152,377
2024
130,912
2022
130,912
2022
Cuba
Americas
—
—
147,193
2022
Slovakia
Europe
140,808
2024
115,461
2022
115,304
2022
Dominican Republic
Americas
127,356
2024
113,537
2022
113,537
2022
Ecuador
Americas
121,592
2024
115,049
2022
115,049
2022
Puerto Rico
Americas
117,763
2024
113,434
2022
113,434
2022
Guatemala
Americas
110,035
2024
95,003
2022
95,003
2022
Oman
Asia
108,927
2024
114,667
2022
114,666
2022
Bulgaria
Europe
107,933
2024
90,346
2022
90,213
2022
Kenya
Africa
104,001
2024
113,420
2022
113,419
2022
Venezuela
Americas
102,328
2024
—
129,313
2022
Uzbekistan
Asia
97,956
2024
80,391
2022
80,391
2022
Costa Rica
Americas
96,058
2024
69,243
2022
68,380
2022
Angola
Africa
92,123
2024
106,782
2022
113,304
2022
Luxembourg
Europe
88,556
2024
81,641
2022
81,530
2022
Croatia
Europe
88,076
2024
71,600
2022
71,552
2022
Panama
Americas
87,347
2024
76,522
2022
76,522
2022
Ivory Coast
Africa
86,911
2024
70,018
2022
70,018
2022
Uruguay
Americas
82,605
2024
71,177
2022
71,171
2022
Turkmenistan
Asia
81,896
2024
56,542
2022
67,009
2022
Serbia
Europe
81,873
2024
63,563
2022
63,563
2022
Lithuania
Europe
81,170
2024
70,974
2022
70,878
2022
Tanzania
Africa
79,605
2024
75,732
2022
73,535
2022
Azerbaijan
Asia
78,749
2024
78,721
2022
78,721
2022
Ghana
Africa
75,244
2024
73,766
2022
73,766
2022
Sri Lanka
Asia
74,846
2022
74,403
2022
76,187
2022
DR Congo
Africa
73,761
2024
64,718
2022
62,551
2022
Slovenia
Europe
72,101
2024
60,063
2022
59,981
2022
Belarus
Europe
69,048
2024
72,793
2022
72,873
2022
Myanmar
Asia
68,006
2024
62,263
2022
65,211
2022
Uganda
Africa
56,310
2024
45,567
2022
48,243
2022
Tunisia
Africa
54,708
2024
46,303
2022
46,181
2022
Macau
Asia
54,677
2024
24,042
2022
24,042
2022
Jordan
Asia
53,570
2024
48,653
2022
47,452
2022
Cameroon
Africa
53,205
2024
43,644
2022
44,341
2022
Bolivia
Americas
49,334
2024
44,008
2022
44,008
2022
Libya
Africa
48,221
2024
45,752
2022
40,537
2022
Bahrain
Asia
46,790
2024
44,383
2022
44,382
2022
Paraguay
Americas
45,817
2024
41,722
2022
41,722
2022
Latvia
Europe
45,466
2024
40,932
2022
40,876
2022
Cambodia
Asia
45,150
2024
29,504
2022
29,504
2022
Nepal
Asia
44,179
2024
40,828
2022
39,406
2022
Estonia
Europe
43,486
2024
38,100
2022
38,049
2022
Honduras
Americas
37,355
2024
31,717
2022
31,717
2022
Senegal
Africa
35,450
2024
27,684
2022
27,775
2022
El Salvador
Americas
35,333
2024
32,488
2022
32,488
2022
Zimbabwe
Africa
34,405
2024
27,366
2022
26,418
2022
Cyprus
Asia
34,221
2024
29,250
2022
29,210
2022
Iceland
Europe
33,338
2024
28,064
2022
28,064
2022
Georgia
Asia
32,865
2024
24,780
2022
24,605
2022
Papua New Guinea
Oceania
31,716
2024
31,603
2022
31,609
2022
Zambia
Africa
29,872
2024
29,163
2022
29,136
2022
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Europe
29,078
2024
24,473
2022
24,473
2022
Trinidad and Tobago
Americas
28,365
2024
30,053
2022
30,053
2022
Sudan
Africa
26,865
2024
51,662
2022
36,729
2022
Guinea
Africa
25,447
2024
20,999
2022
20,846
2022
Albania
Europe
25,431
2024
18,916
2022
18,916
2022
Armenia
Asia
25,408
2024
19,513
2022
19,513
2022
Haiti
Americas
24,046
2024
20,253
2022
18,751
2022
Mozambique
Africa
22,975
2024
18,406
2022
18,406
2022
Malta
Europe
22,737
2024
18,125
2022
18,100
2022
Mongolia
Asia
21,943
2024
17,146
2022
17,146
2022
Burkina Faso
Africa
21,902
2024
18,820
2022
19,176
2022
Lebanon
Asia
21,780
2022
23,131
2021
39,303
2022
Mali
Africa
21,662
2024
18,827
2022
18,827
2022
Botswana
Africa
21,418
2024
20,355
2022
20,352
2022
Benin
Africa
21,371
2024
17,396
2022
17,396
2022
Guyana
Americas
21,178
2024
14,718
2022
14,718
2022
Gabon
Africa
21,013
2024
21,071
2022
20,132
2022
Jamaica
Americas
20,098
2024
17,097
2022
17,097
2022
Nicaragua
Americas
18,829
2024
15,671
2022
15,671
2022
Niger
Africa
18,816
2024
15,342
2022
15,414
2022
Chad
Africa
18,697
2024
12,704
2022
16,799
2022
Palestine
Asia
18,602
2023
19,111
2022
19,111
2022
Moldova
Europe
18,356
2024
14,508
2022
14,510
2022
Yemen
Asia
16,940
2024
—
11,007
2022
Madagascar
Africa
16,465
2024
15,297
2022
14,954
2022
Mauritius
Africa
16,359
2024
12,948
2022
12,898
2022
North Macedonia
Europe
15,873
2024
13,563
2022
13,711
2022
Brunei
Asia
15,510
2024
16,681
2022
16,681
2022
Congo
Africa
15,501
2024
15,816
2022
15,344
2022
Laos
Asia
15,190
2024
15,468
2022
15,362
2022
North Korea
Asia
—
—
15,176
2022
Afghanistan
Asia
14,467
2022
14,266
2021
14,174
2022
Bahamas
Americas
14,390
2024
12,897
2022
12,897
2022
Rwanda
Africa
13,701
2024
13,311
2022
13,312
2022
Kyrgyzstan
Asia
13,599
2024
11,543
2022
10,930
2022
Tajikistan
Asia
12,953
2024
10,492
2022
10,492
2022
Somalia
Africa
12,804
2024
10,419
2022
10,420
2022
Namibia
Africa
12,765
2024
12,914
2022
12,607
2022
Kosovo
Europe
11,318
2024
9,409
2022
9,397
2022
Malawi
Africa
11,241
2024
13,164
2022
12,558
2022
Equatorial Guinea
Africa
10,708
2024
12,029
2022
11,767
2022
Mauritania
Africa
10,628
2024
9,780
2022
10,997
2022
Togo
Africa
9,832
2024
8,341
2022
8,087
2022
New Caledonia
Oceania
—
9,623
2022
9,623
2022
Syria
Asia
—
8,969
2021
18,595
2022
Monaco
Europe
—
8,784
2022
8,772
2022
Montenegro
Europe
8,010
2024
6,229
2022
6,229
2022
Liechtenstein
Europe
—
7,710
2021
7,757
2022
Bermuda
Americas
—
7,546
2022
7,546
2022
Maldives
Asia
7,199
2024
6,170
2022
6,170
2022
Barbados
Americas
6,863
2024
5,699
2022
5,699
2022
Cayman Islands
Americas
—
6,844
2022
6,281
2022
South Sudan
Africa
6,517
2024
—
4,616
2022
French Polynesia
Oceania
—
5,814
2022
5,814
2022
Fiji
Oceania
5,801
2024
4,979
2022
4,979
2022
Eswatini
Africa
5,085
2024
4,790
2022
4,326
2022
Liberia
Africa
4,754
2024
4,001
2022
3,265
2022
Sierra Leone
Africa
4,558
2024
4,094
2022
3,481
2022
Djibouti
Africa
4,364
2024
3,515
2022
4,003
2022
Suriname
Americas
4,337
2024
3,620
2022
3,620
2022
Aruba
Americas
4,069
2024
3,544
2022
3,544
2022
Andorra
Europe
3,897
2024
3,352
2022
3,376
2022
Belize
Americas
3,296
2024
2,830
2022
2,830
2022
Greenland
Americas
—
3,235
2021
2,926
2022
Bhutan
Asia
3,110
2024
2,768
2021
2,898
2022
Curaçao
Americas
—
3,075
2022
3,075
2022
Burundi
Africa
3,075
2024
3,338
2022
4,032
2022
Central African Republic
Africa
2,810
2024
2,382
2022
2,395
2022
Cape Verde
Africa
2,718
2024
2,226
2022
2,314
2022
Gambia
Africa
2,694
2024
2,187
2022
2,231
2022
Saint Lucia
Americas
2,582
2024
2,343
2022
2,165
2022
Lesotho
Africa
2,395
2024
2,236
2022
2,287
2022
Eritrea
Africa
—
—
2,383
2022
Zanzibar
Africa
—
—
2,361
2022
Seychelles
Africa
2,203
2024
1,588
2022
1,994
2022
Guinea-Bissau
Africa
2,151
2024
1,633
2022
1,574
2022
Antigua and Barbuda
Americas
2,127
2024
1,867
2022
1,770
2022
San Marino
Europe
2,033
2024
1,855
2021
1,780
2022
East Timor
Asia
1,992
2024
3,204
2022
3,204
2022
Solomon Islands
Oceania
1,707
2024
1,597
2022
1,597
2022
Sint Maarten
Americas
—
1,537
2022
1,572
2022
British Virgin Islands
Americas
—
—
1,471
2022
Comoros
Africa
1,422
2024
1,242
2022
1,246
2022
Grenada
Americas
1,406
2024
1,215
2022
1,192
2022
Vanuatu
Oceania
1,289
2024
1,055
2022
985
2022
Turks and Caicos Islands
Americas
—
1,138
2022
1,138
2022
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Americas
1,134
2024
965
2022
979
2022
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Americas
1,128
2024
948
2022
946
2022
Samoa
Oceania
1,024
2024
832
2022
857
2022
São Tomé and Príncipe
Africa
751
2024
542
2022
546
2022
Dominica
Americas
708
2024
607
2022
612
2022
Tonga
Oceania
581
2024
469
2021
488
2022
Micronesia
Oceania
484
2024
424
2022
427
2022
Anguilla
Americas
—
—
452
2022
Kiribati
Oceania
311
2024
223
2022
223
2022
Palau
Oceania
308
2024
232
2021
225
2022
Marshall Islands
Oceania
305
2024
258
2022
279
2022
Cook Islands
Oceania
—
—
289
2022
Nauru
Oceania
161
2024
151
2022
147
2022
Montserrat
Americas
—
—
72
2022
Tuvalu
Oceania
66
2024
59
2022
59
2022
See also
Business and economics portalContents/Lists portal
Countries:
List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita
List of countries by GDP (PPP)
List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita
List of countries by past and projected GDP (nominal)
List of countries by past and projected GDP (PPP)
Other entities:
List of cities by GDP
List of continents by GDP
Largest country subdivisions by GDP
List of regions by past GDP (PPP)
Trade bloc § Statistics
Notes
^ a b c Figures for China exclude Taiwan, and the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau.
^ Based on the best available GDP figure for each country on the time of creation (16 June 2024). Best available GDP figure was defined as the latest figure from the International Monetary Fund (including forecasts for the current year) if available, otherwise the latest figure from the World Bank if available, otherwise the latest figure from the United Nations Statistics Division; however, countries that didn't have any figure for a year more recent than 2019 were not included at all. For almost all countries, the latest IMF forecast figure for 2024 was used.
^ Figures exclude the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau.
^ The name used in the IMF report is "Taiwan Province of China".
^ The name used in the IMF report is "Hong Kong SAR".
^ a b c Figures exclude the Autonomous Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol.
^ Includes Western Sahara
^ The UN figure excludes the autonomous region of Zanzibar.
^ The name used in the IMF report is "Macao SAR".
^ a b c Data are for the area controlled by the Government of the Republic of Cyprus.
^ a b c Excludes Abkhazia and South Ossetia
^ a b The name used in the IMF and World Bank reports is "West Bank and Gaza".
^ The name used by the UN is "State of Palestine".
^ a b c Excludes data for Transnistria
References
^ a b c "World Economic Outlook Database, April 2024". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 16 April 2024. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
^ "What is GDP and why is it so important?". Investopedia. IAC/InterActiveCorp. 26 February 2009. Archived from the original on 23 May 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016.
^ Moffatt, Mike. "A Beginner's Guide to Purchasing Power Parity Theory". About.com. IAC/InterActiveCorp. Archived from the original on 1 March 2017. Retrieved 31 May 2014.
^ Ito, Takatoshi; Isard, Peter; Symansky, Steven (January 1999). "Economic Growth and Real Exchange Rate: An Overview of the Balassa-Samuelson Hypothesis in Asia" (PDF). Changes in Exchange Rates in Rapidly Development Countries: Theory, Practice, and Policy Issues. National Bureau of Economic Research. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 March 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016.
^ Callen, Tim (28 March 2012). "Gross Domestic Product: An Economy's All". Finance & Development. International Monetary Fund. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 31 May 2014.
^ Frum, David (24 December 2014). "The Real Story of How America Became an Economic Superpower". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 16 February 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
^ Matthews, Chris (5 October 2014). "5 Most Powerful Economic Empires of All Time". Fortune. Time, Inc. Archived from the original on 16 August 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016.
^ a b Kroeber, Arthur R. (2016). China's Economy: What Everyone Needs to Know. New York, United States: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190239053. Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2016.
^ Kau, Michael Ying-mao (30 September 1993). China in the Era of Deng Xiaoping: A Decade of Reform. Studies on Contemporary China. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781563242786. Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 23 May 2016.
^ Hu, Zuliu; Khan, Mohsin S. (April 1997). "Why Is China Growing So Fast?" (PDF). Economic Issues. International Monetary Fund. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 April 2016. Retrieved 26 May 2016.
^ "China GDP growth slows as population crisis, Covid-19 cloud economic outlook". South China Morning Post. 18 January 2022. Archived from the original on 5 December 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
^ Rodrik, Dani; et al. (March 2004). "From "Hindu Growth" to Productivity Surge: The Mystery of the Indian Growth Transition" (PDF). National Bureau of Economic Research. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 March 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2016.
^ "WEO Database, April 2024. Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: World, European Union". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 16 April 2024. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
^ "GDP (current US$)". data.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 13 June 2024. Retrieved 13 June 2024.
^ "United Nations Statistics Division - National Accounts". unstats.un.org. Archived from the original on 13 June 2024. Retrieved 13 June 2024.
^ "Economy of India", Wikipedia, 18 June 2024, retrieved 18 June 2024
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Nominal GDP does not take into account differences in the cost of living in different countries, and the results can vary greatly from one year to another based on fluctuations in the exchange rates of the country's currency.[3] Such fluctuations may change a country's ranking from one year to the next, even though they often make little or no difference in the standard of living of its population.[4]Comparisons of national wealth are also frequently made based on purchasing power parity (PPP), to adjust for differences in the cost of living in different countries. Other metrics, nominal GDP per capita and a corresponding GDP (PPP) per capita are used for comparing national standard of living. On the whole, PPP per capita figures are less spread than nominal GDP per capita figures.[5]The rankings of national economies over time have changed considerably; the United States surpassed the British Empire's output around 1916,[6] which in turn had surpassed the Qing dynasty in aggregate output decades earlier.[7][8] Since China's transition to a socialist market economy through controlled privatisation and deregulation,[9][10] the country has seen its ranking increase from ninth in 1978, to second in 2010; China's economic growth accelerated during this period and its share of global nominal GDP surged from 2% in 1980 to 18% in 2021.[8][1][11] Among others, India has also experienced an economic boom since the implementation of economic liberalisation in the early 1990s.[12]The first list includes estimates compiled by the International Monetary Fund's World Economic Outlook, the second list shows the World Bank's data, and the third list includes data compiled by the United Nations Statistics Division. The IMF's definitive data for the past year and estimates for the current year are published twice a year in April and October. Non-sovereign entities (the world, continents, and some dependent territories) and states with limited international recognition (such as Kosovo and Taiwan) are included in the list where they appear in the sources.","title":"List of countries by GDP (nominal)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"non-sovereign states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states"}],"text":"The table initially ranks each IMF member including sovereign states not part of the IMF, non-sovereign states and territories, and countries with limited recognitionThe links in the \"Country/Territory\" row of the following table link to the article on the GDP or the economy of the respective country or territory.","title":"Table"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-China-THM_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-China-THM_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-China-THM_1-2"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"special administrative regions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_administrative_regions_of_China"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"Macau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macau"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"International Monetary Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund"},{"link_name":"World Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Bank"},{"link_name":"United Nations Statistics Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Statistics_Division"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-China-HM_18-0"},{"link_name":"special administrative regions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_administrative_regions_of_China"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"Macau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macau"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Taiwan_China_20-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-HongKong_China_21-0"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Ukraine_22-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Ukraine_22-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Ukraine_22-2"},{"link_name":"Autonomous Republic of Crimea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_Republic_of_Crimea"},{"link_name":"Sevastopol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sevastopol"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Morocco_23-0"},{"link_name":"Western Sahara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Sahara"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Tanzania_24-0"},{"link_name":"Zanzibar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanzibar"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Macau_China_25-0"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cyprus_26-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cyprus_26-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cyprus_26-2"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Georgia_27-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Georgia_27-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Georgia_27-2"},{"link_name":"Abkhazia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abkhazia"},{"link_name":"South Ossetia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Ossetia"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-WBG_28-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-WBG_28-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Palestine_29-0"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Moldova_30-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Moldova_30-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Moldova_30-2"},{"link_name":"Transnistria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transnistria"}],"text":"^ a b c Figures for China exclude Taiwan, and the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau.\n\n^ Based on the best available GDP figure for each country on the time of creation (16 June 2024). Best available GDP figure was defined as the latest figure from the International Monetary Fund (including forecasts for the current year) if available, otherwise the latest figure from the World Bank if available, otherwise the latest figure from the United Nations Statistics Division; however, countries that didn't have any figure for a year more recent than 2019 were not included at all. For almost all countries, the latest IMF forecast figure for 2024 was used.\n\n^ Figures exclude the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau.\n\n^ The name used in the IMF report is \"Taiwan Province of China\".\n\n^ The name used in the IMF report is \"Hong Kong SAR\".\n\n^ a b c Figures exclude the Autonomous Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol.\n\n^ Includes Western Sahara\n\n^ The UN figure excludes the autonomous region of Zanzibar.\n\n^ The name used in the IMF report is \"Macao SAR\".\n\n^ a b c Data are for the area controlled by the Government of the Republic of Cyprus.\n\n^ a b c Excludes Abkhazia and South Ossetia\n\n^ a b The name used in the IMF and World Bank reports is \"West Bank and Gaza\".\n\n^ The name used by the UN is \"State of Palestine\".\n\n^ a b c Excludes data for Transnistria","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Countries by estimated nominal GDP in 2024.[n 2] > $20 trillion $10–20 trillion $5–10 trillion $1–5 trillion $750 billion – $1 trillion $500–750 billion $250–500 billion $100–250 billion $50–100 billion $25–50 billion $5–25 billion < $5 billion ","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Countries_by_GDP_%28nominal%29.svg/440px-Countries_by_GDP_%28nominal%29.svg.png"}]
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[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg"},{"title":"Business and economics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Business_and_economics"},{"title":"Contents/Lists portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Contents/Lists"},{"title":"List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)_per_capita"},{"title":"List of countries by GDP (PPP)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)"},{"title":"List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_capita"},{"title":"List of countries by past and projected GDP (nominal)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_past_and_projected_GDP_(nominal)"},{"title":"List of countries by past and projected GDP (PPP)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_past_and_projected_GDP_(PPP)"},{"title":"List of cities by GDP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_GDP"},{"title":"List of continents by GDP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_continents_by_GDP"},{"title":"Largest country subdivisions by GDP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Largest_country_subdivisions_by_GDP"},{"title":"List of regions by past GDP (PPP)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_regions_by_past_GDP_(PPP)"},{"title":"Trade bloc § Statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_bloc#Statistics"}]
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Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: World, European Union\""},{"Link":"https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true&year_high_desc=true","external_links_name":"\"GDP (current US$)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240613220015/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true&year_high_desc=true","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://unstats.un.org/unsd/amaapi/api/file/2","external_links_name":"\"United Nations Statistics Division - National Accounts\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240613012106/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/amaapi/api/file/2","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_India&oldid=1229724968","external_links_name":"\"Economy of India\""}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_Signal
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AlliedSignal
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["1 History","2 Product range","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
|
Defunct American aerospace, automotive and engineering company
AlliedSignal, Inc.Company typePublicTraded asNYSE: ALDPredecessorAllied Corp.Founded1985; 39 years ago (1985)DefunctDecember 1, 1999 (1999-12-01)FateAcquisition of and merger with Honeywell Inc.SuccessorHoneywellHeadquartersMorristown, New JerseyRevenueUS$ 15.1 billion (1999)Net incomeUS$ 1.3 billion (1999)Number of employees70,400 (1999)
AlliedSignal, Inc. was an American aerospace, automotive and engineering company, created through the 1985 merger of Allied Corp. and The Signal Companies. It purchased Honeywell for $14.8 billion in 1999, and adopted the Honeywell name and identity.
AlliedSignal was a member of the Dow Jones Industrial Average from 1985 until February 19, 2008.
History
The Allied Chemical & Dye Corporation originated with the 1920 merger of five chemical companies: Barrett Paving Materials (est. 1852), General Chemical Company (est. 1899), National Aniline & Chemical Company (est. 1917), Semet-Solvay Company (est. 1895), and the Solvay Process Company (est. 1881). The consolidation occurred with the backing of chemist William Nichols, who became concerned about dependence on the German chemical industry during World War I, and financier Eugene Meyer. It acquired the Eltra Corporation in 1979.
The company renamed itself the Allied Chemical Corporation in 1958, then simply the Allied Corp. in 1981. Allied merged with the Bendix Corporation in 1983, beginning the company's involvement in aerospace.
The Signal Companies traced their history to the Signal Gasoline Company, founded by Samuel B. Mosher in 1922. It renamed itself to Signal Gas & Oil in 1928 to reflect its expanding businesses. By the 1950s, Signal was the largest independent oil company on the West Coast of the United States and Mosher held large stakes in American President Lines and the Flying Tiger Line. In 1964, Signal merged with the Garrett Corporation, an aerospace company. In 1967, they purchased Mack Truck for $85m US. The combined company adopted "The Signal Companies" as its corporate name in 1968, and in 1974, sold its original Oil operations to Burmah Oil for $480m.
The merger of Allied and Signal made aerospace the new company's largest business sector. The combined company adopted the name Allied-Signal on September 19, 1985. It dropped the hyphen to become AlliedSignal in 1993 to reinforce a one-company image and signify the full integration of all of its businesses. On June 7, 1999, AlliedSignal acquired Honeywell for $14.8 billion and took its more recognizable name.
Product range
Before the merger, Honeywell was an international controls company that developed and supplied advanced technology products, systems and services to aviation and space companies and industry. The product lines of the two companies were complementary, the only principal overlap being avionics.
Aerospace
Aircraft lighting
Aircraft wheels & braking systems
Auxiliary power units (APUs)
Avionics
Engines for regional/business aircraft
Environmental control systems (ECS)
Flight recorders (Black boxes)
Jet engine fuel control systems
Automotive products
Autolite - Spark plugs
Fram - Air filters, fuel filters, oil filters
Prestone - Antifreeze
Garrett - Turbochargers (formerly AiResearch)
Engineered materials
Electronic products
Polymers
Specialised chemicals
Federal Manufacturing and Technology
Operates facilities for the United States Department of Energy
As of 2006, Allied-Signal's automotive products included Fram Filters, Autolite Spark Plugs and Prestone Anti-Freeze. The Bendix Corporation purchased both the Fram and Autolite brands from other companies in 1973. The Prestone brand was acquired in the late 1990s.
See also
Garrett AiResearch
References
^ Cook, David T. (April 14, 1982). "Allied Corporation vs. the recession". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved February 24, 2016.
^ a b c Johnson, Greg (16 May 1985). "Shumway Built Signal Into High-Tech Giant". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
^ "History.htm History of Honeywell". Archived from the original on May 23, 2009.
^ a b "Home | Honeywell". www.honeywell.com. Archived from the original on June 21, 2008.
^ "Dow Jones Industrial Average History". Archived from the original on April 21, 2006.
^ AlliedSignal to purchase Honeywell; $14.8 billion merger to form bigger player in aerospace, defense; 'An exciting natural fit'; Honeywell to leave Minn. headquarters; 4,500 jobs to be cut; Electronics, Baltimore Sun, June 8, 1999, retrieved, December 18, 2020
External links
Globalfinancialdata.com: exact dates for name changes, as listed on the Dow Jones Industrial Average
vteAlliedSignalSubsidiaries
Allied Corp.
Garrett AiResearch
Solvay Process Company
Allied Corp.
Bendix Corporation
Bunker Ramo Corporation
Eugene Meyer
William Ripley Nichols
Garrett AiResearch
Central Air Data Computer
Frederick Dallenbach
Cliff Garrett
Garrett STAMP
Homer J. Wood
Normalair
Related
Honeywell
vteHoneywellPeople
Albert Butz
Darius Adamczyk
David M. Cote
Mark C. Honeywell
W. R. Sweatt
Board of directors
Darius Adamczyk
George Paz
Judd Gregg
Kevin Burke
Scott Davis
Acquisitions
AdvanSix
AlliedSignal
Bendix Aviation
Bunker Ramo Corporation
Fire-Lite Alarms
First Alert
Garrett AiResearch
Honeywell Gent
Hand Held Products
Honeywell Analytics
Honeywell Turbo Technologies
Honeywell UOP
Intelligrated
Intermec
King Radio
Leeds & Northrup
Measurex
MK Electric
Notifier
Novar Controls
Novar plc
Pittway
Sperry Corporation
System Sensor
Xtralis
EMS Technologies
Hymatic
Normalair
ProductsAerospace Technologies
Airplane Information Management System
Auxiliary power units (APU)
Garrett ATF3
Garrett F109
Garrett TPE331
Honeywell HTF7000
Honeywell HTS900
Honeywell Primus
Honeywell RQ-16 T-Hawk
Honeywell/ITEC F124
Lycoming ALF 502
Lycoming LTS101
Mark 46 torpedo
RH-32
RUR-5 ASROC
Wagtail missile
Honeywell FX5
Garrett TFE731
Honeywell building technologies
Honeywell T87
Performance materials and technologies
Solstice
Spectra Shield
Safety and productivity solutions
Fenzy
Gold Flex
HORTA (mining)
Positive pressure personnel suit
RHPPC
SPECTRA helmet
Legacy products
DATAmatic 1000
Honeywell 200
Honeywell 316
Honeywell 6000 series
Honeywell 800
Honeywell ARGUS
Honeywell CP-6
Honeywell Level 6
Multics
Garrett ATF3
BUNCH
General Instrument CP1600
VIP terminal
Facilities
Honeywell Uranium Hexafluoride Processing Facility
Kansas City Plant
Sandia National Laboratories
Joint ventures
ConverDyn
Related
Honeywell, Inc. v. Sperry Rand Corp.
Advanced Turbine Engine Company
Honeywell Project
International Turbine Engine Company
List of Honeywell products and services
Terminal High Altitude Area Defense
|
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It purchased Honeywell for $14.8 billion in 1999, and adopted the Honeywell name and identity.AlliedSignal was a member of the Dow Jones Industrial Average from 1985 until February 19, 2008.","title":"AlliedSignal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Aniline & Chemical Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_F._Schoellkopf_Jr."},{"link_name":"Solvay Process Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvay_Process_Company"},{"link_name":"William Nichols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_H._Nichols"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Eugene Meyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Meyer_(financier)"},{"link_name":"Eltra Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eltra_Corporation&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Bendix Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bendix_Corporation"},{"link_name":"West Coast of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"American President Lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_President_Lines"},{"link_name":"Flying Tiger Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_Tiger_Line"},{"link_name":"Garrett Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_AiResearch"},{"link_name":"Mack Truck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mack_Trucks"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LAT-Shum-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LAT-Shum-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Burmah Oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmah_Oil"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LAT-Shum-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-4"},{"link_name":"Honeywell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeywell"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The Allied Chemical & Dye Corporation originated with the 1920 merger of five chemical companies: Barrett Paving Materials (est. 1852), General Chemical Company (est. 1899), National Aniline & Chemical Company (est. 1917), Semet-Solvay Company (est. 1895), and the Solvay Process Company (est. 1881). The consolidation occurred with the backing of chemist William Nichols, who became concerned about dependence on the German chemical industry during World War I, and financier Eugene Meyer. It acquired the Eltra Corporation in 1979.[1]The company renamed itself the Allied Chemical Corporation in 1958, then simply the Allied Corp. in 1981. Allied merged with the Bendix Corporation in 1983, beginning the company's involvement in aerospace.The Signal Companies traced their history to the Signal Gasoline Company, founded by Samuel B. Mosher in 1922. It renamed itself to Signal Gas & Oil in 1928 to reflect its expanding businesses. By the 1950s, Signal was the largest independent oil company on the West Coast of the United States and Mosher held large stakes in American President Lines and the Flying Tiger Line. In 1964, Signal merged with the Garrett Corporation, an aerospace company. In 1967, they purchased Mack Truck for $85m US.[2] The combined company adopted \"The Signal Companies\" as its corporate name in 1968,[2][3] and in 1974, sold its original Oil operations to Burmah Oil for $480m.[2]The merger of Allied and Signal made aerospace the new company's largest business sector.[4] The combined company adopted the name Allied-Signal on September 19, 1985.[5] It dropped the hyphen to become AlliedSignal in 1993 to reinforce a one-company image and signify the full integration of all of its businesses.[4] On June 7, 1999, AlliedSignal acquired Honeywell for $14.8 billion and took its more recognizable name.[6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"avionics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avionics"},{"link_name":"Flight recorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_recorder"},{"link_name":"Autolite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autolite"},{"link_name":"Fram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fram_(oil_filter)"},{"link_name":"oil filters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_filter"},{"link_name":"Turbochargers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbocharger"},{"link_name":"AiResearch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AiResearch"},{"link_name":"Fram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fram_(oil_filter)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Before the merger, Honeywell was an international controls company that developed and supplied advanced technology products, systems and services to aviation and space companies and industry. The product lines of the two companies were complementary, the only principal overlap being avionics.Aerospace\nAircraft lighting\nAircraft wheels & braking systems\nAuxiliary power units (APUs)\nAvionics\nEngines for regional/business aircraft\nEnvironmental control systems (ECS)\nFlight recorders (Black boxes)\nJet engine fuel control systems\nAutomotive products\nAutolite - Spark plugs\nFram - Air filters, fuel filters, oil filters\nPrestone - Antifreeze\nGarrett - Turbochargers (formerly AiResearch)\nEngineered materials\nElectronic products\nPolymers\nSpecialised chemicals\nFederal Manufacturing and Technology\nOperates facilities for the United States Department of EnergyAs of 2006, Allied-Signal's automotive products included Fram Filters, Autolite Spark Plugs and Prestone Anti-Freeze. The Bendix Corporation purchased both the Fram and Autolite brands from other companies in 1973. The Prestone brand was acquired in the late 1990s.[citation needed]","title":"Product range"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"Garrett AiResearch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_AiResearch"}]
|
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|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_rankings
|
ATP rankings
|
["1 History","2 Overview","3 ATP race","4 Ranking method","4.1 Points distribution (2024–present)","4.2 Points distribution (2009–2023)","5 Current rankings","5.1 Singles","5.2 Doubles","6 ATP No. 1 ranked singles players","7 Players with highest career rank 2–5","8 Players with highest career rank 6–10","9 Year-end Top 10","10 ATP rankings achievements","10.1 Total weeks","10.2 Year-end rankings","11 ATP No. 1 in singles and doubles","12 ATP No. 1 ranked doubles players","13 See also","14 Notes","15 References","16 External links"]
|
Association of Tennis Professionals rankings
This article is about the men's rankings. For the women's rankings, see WTA rankings.
The PIF ATP Rankings (Previously known as the Pepperstone ATP Rankings) are the merit-based method used by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) for determining the qualification for entry as well as the seeding of players in all singles and doubles tournaments. The first rankings for singles were published on 23 August 1973 while the doubles players were ranked for the first time on 1 March 1976. Ranking points are awarded according to the stage of tournament reached, and the prestige of the tournament, with the four Grand Slam tournaments awarding the most points. The rankings are updated every Monday, and points are dropped 52 weeks after being awarded (with the exception of the ATP Finals, from which points are dropped on the Monday following the last ATP Tour event of the following year). Jannik Sinner is the current men's singles world No. 1.
Jannik Sinner, men's singles No. 1.
Carlos Alcaraz, men's singles No. 2.
Novak Djokovic, men's singles No. 3.
Alexander Zverev, men's singles No. 4.
Daniil Medvedev, men's singles No. 5.
History
The ATP began as the men's trade union in 1972, through the combined efforts of Jack Kramer, Cliff Drysdale, and Donald Dell, and rose to prominence when 81 of its members boycotted the 1973 Wimbledon Championships. Just two months later, in August, the ATP introduced its ranking system intended to objectify tournament entry criteria, which up to that point were controlled by national federations and tournament directors.
The ATP's new ranking system was quickly adopted by men's tennis. While virtually all ATP members were in favor of objectifying event participation, the system's first No. 1, Ilie Năstase, lamented that "everyone had a number hanging over them", fostering a more competitive and less collegial atmosphere among the players.
The original ATP ranking criteria, which were then regularly published weekly only from mid-1979 and persisted through the 1980s, were based on averaging each player's results, though the details were revised a number of times. Starting in 1990, in conjunction with the expansion of ATP purview as the new men's tour operator, the ranking criteria were replaced with a 'best of' system modeled after competitive downhill skiing. This 'best of' system originally used 14 events but expanded to 18 in 2000. The computer that calculates the rankings is nicknamed "Blinky".
Overview
A player's ATP ranking is based on the total points they accrued in the following 20 tournaments (19 if they did not qualify for the ATP Finals):
The four Grand Slam tournaments
The eight mandatory ATP Masters 1000 tournaments,
The previous ATP Finals count until the Monday following the final regular-season ATP event of the following year.
The best seven results from the non-mandatory ATP Masters 1000, all ATP 500 series, ATP 250 series, ATP Challenger Tour, Futures Series and ATP Cup tournaments played in the calendar year
Ranking points gained in a tournament are dropped 52 weeks later, with the exception of the ATP Finals, from which points are dropped on the Monday following the last ATP Tour event of the following year.
The Monte-Carlo Masters 1000 became optional in 2009, but if a player chooses to participate in it, its result is counted and his fourth-best result in an ATP 500 event is ignored (his three best ATP 500 results remain). From 2009 until 2015, if a player did not play enough ATP 500 events and did not have an ATP 250 or Challenger appearance with a better result, the Davis Cup was counted in the 500's table. The World Team Cup was also included before its cancellation in 2012.
For the Davis Cup, from 2009 until 2015, points were distributed for the World Group countries. Instead of having an exact drop date they were gradually updated at each phase of the competition, comparing the player's results with his results from the previous year. (e.g. if a player played two matches in a semifinal but plays one the next year only that one missing match would be extracted from his points).
A player who is out of competition for 30 or more days, due to a verified injury, will not receive any penalty. The ATP Finals will count as an additional 20th tournament in the ranking of its eight qualifiers at season's end.
For every Grand Slam tournament or mandatory ATP Masters 1000 tournament for which a player is not in the main draw, and was not (and, in the case of a Grand Slam tournament, would not have been, had he and all other players entered) a main draw direct acceptance on the original acceptance list, and never became a main draw direct acceptance, the number of his results from all other eligible tournaments in the ranking period that count for his ranking is increased by one.
Once a player is accepted in the main draw of a Grand Slam tournament or ATP Masters 1000 tournament, his result in this tournament counts for his ranking, regardless of whether he participates. A player's withdrawal from an ATP 500 event, regardless of whether the withdrawal was on time, results in a zero point included as one of his best of four results. Further non-consecutive withdrawals results in a zero point allocation replacing the next best positive result for each additional withdrawal.
Players with multiple consecutive withdrawals who are out of competition for 30 days or longer because of injury are not subject to a ranking penalty as long as verified and approved medical forms are provided; or, a player will not have the ranking penalty imposed if he completes the Promotional Activities requirement as specified under "Repeal of Withdrawal Fines and/or Penalties" or if the on-site withdrawal procedures apply. Players may also appeal withdrawal penalties to a Tribunal who will determine whether the penalties are affirmed or set aside.
Between 2000 and 2012, ranking points were awarded based on results in the Summer Olympics. This was changed before the 2016 Olympics where no ranking points were awarded.
With these rules, a player playing and winning the mandatory 4 Grand Slams and 8 ATP Masters 1000 events, a further 6 ATP 500 events and the Monte-Carlo Masters 1000 can amass a total of 20,000 points before the ATP Finals and end the calendar year with a maximum of 21,500 points. As of 2022, the maximum points achieved by any player since 2009 is 16,950 by Novak Djokovic, on June 6, 2016.
For the 2024 season, the points breakdown was adjusted to award more points in ATP Tour events.
ATP race
For the 2023 ATP Race, see 2023 ATP Finals § Points breakdown.
The ATP Race is an annual performance-based points race to determine the qualifiers for the year-end championship, in addition to the year-end No. 1 singles player and doubles team. The race, initially called the "ATP Champions Race", was introduced by the ATP for the 2000 season as part of their "21st Century Tennis" strategy announced in 1999. All players and teams start the year with zero points, and accumulate points from tournament to tournament based on their performances. The player and team who end the season with the most points are crowned as the year-end No. 1 in their disciplines, and the top-eight players and teams participate in the season-ending championship, the ATP Finals.
Ranking method
Since the introduction of the ATP rankings the method used to calculate a player's ranking points has changed several times. The last major overhaul to the points system was in 2009.
Points distribution (2024–present)
Ranking points are awarded as follows:
Tournament category
W
F
SF
QF
R16
R32
R64
R128
Q
Q3
Q2
Q1
ATP Tour
Grand Slam
2000
1300
800
400
200
100
50
10
30
16
8
ATP Finals
+900(1500 max)
+400(1000 max)
200 for each round robin match win(600 max)
ATP Masters 1000 (96D)
1000
650
400
200
100
50
30
10
20
10
ATP Masters 1000 (56D)
1000
650
400
200
100
50
10
30
16
ATP 500 series (48D)
500
330
200
100
50
25
16
8
ATP 500 series (32D)
500
330
200
100
50
25
13
ATP 250 series (48D)
250
165
100
50
25
13
8
4
ATP 250 series (32D)
250
165
100
50
25
13
7
ATP Challenger Tour
Challenger 175
175
90
50
25
13
6
3
Challenger 125
125
64
35
16
8
5
3
Challenger 100
100
50
25
14
7
4
2
Challenger 75
75
44
22
12
6
4
2
Challenger 50
50
25
14
8
4
3
1
ITF Men's World Tennis Tour
Futures M25
25
16
8
3
1
Futures M15
15
8
4
2
1
(ATP Masters 1000 series) Qualifying points changes to 12 points only if the main draw is larger than 56.
(ATP 500 series) Qualifying points changes to 10 points only if the main draw is larger than 32.
(ATP 250 series) Qualifying points changes to 5 points only if the main draw is larger than 32.
Players who draw a bye in the first round in the ATP 1000 series and lose their first match in the second round are considered to have lost their first round and receive the points equivalent to first round loss. Similarly, loss in the second round of the ATP 500 series and the ATP 250 series after drawing bye in first round will result in 0 points being awarded.
In addition qualifiers and main draw entry players will then also receive the points in brackets for the rounds they reached.
Starting in 2016, points were no longer awarded for Davis Cup ties, nor for the tennis tournament at the Summer Olympics.
Points distribution (2009–2023)
Category
W
F
SF
QF
R16
R32
R64
R128
Q
Q3
Q2
Q1
Grand Slam (128S)
2000
1200
720
360
180
90
45
10
25
16
8
0
Grand Slam (64D)
2000
1200
720
360
180
90
0
–
25
–
0
0
ATP Finals (8S/8D)
1500 (max) 1100 (min)
1000 (max) 600 (min)
600 (max) 200 (min)
200 for each round robin match win, +400 for a semifinal win, +500 for the final win.
ATP Tour Masters 1000 (96S)
1000
600
360
180
90
45
25
10
16
–
8
0
ATP Tour Masters 1000 (56S/48S)
1000
600
360
180
90
45
10
–
25
–
16
0
ATP Tour Masters 1000 (32D)
1000
600
360
180
90
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
ATP Tour 500 (48S)
500
300
180
90
45
20
0
–
10
–
4
0
ATP Tour 500 (32S)
500
300
180
90
45
0
–
–
20
–
10
0
ATP Tour 500 (16D)
500
300
180
90
0
–
–
–
45
–
25
0
ATP Tour 250 (48S)
250
150
90
45
20
10
0
–
5
–
3
0
ATP Tour 250 (32S/28S)
250
150
90
45
20
0
–
–
12
–
6
0
ATP Tour 250 (16D)
250
150
90
45
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Current rankings
Main article: Current tennis rankings
Singles
Singles race rankings as of 17 June 2024
No.
Player
Points
Tourn
1
Jannik Sinner (ITA)
5,300
7
2
Alexander Zverev (GER)
4,385
11
3
Carlos Alcaraz (ESP)
3,900
7
4
Casper Ruud (NOR)
3,435
13
5
Daniil Medvedev
3,150
8
6
Alex de Minaur (AUS)
2,505
13
7
Stefanos Tsitsipas (GRE)
2,465
11
8
Andrey Rublev
2,220
12
9
Grigor Dimitrov (BUL)
2,075
10
10
Novak Djokovic (SRB)
1,860
7
11
Taylor Fritz (USA)
1,780
12
12
Hubert Hurkacz (POL)
1,760
12
13
Tommy Paul (USA)
1,575
11
14
Ugo Humbert (FRA)
1,385
14
15
Holger Rune (DEN)
1,375
12
16
Alejandro Tabilo (CHI)
1,373
15
17
Félix Auger-Aliassime (CAN)
1,355
12
18
Sebastián Báez (ARG)
1,320
15
19
Nicolás Jarry (CHI)
1,195
13
20
Karen Khachanov
1,160
11
ATP rankings (singles) as of 17 June 2024
No.
Player
Points
Move
1
Jannik Sinner (ITA)
9,480
2
Carlos Alcaraz (ESP)
8,850
3
Novak Djokovic (SRB)
8,360
4
Alexander Zverev (GER)
6,885
5
Daniil Medvedev
6,485
6
Andrey Rublev
4,710
7
Alex de Minaur (AUS)
4,085
2
8
Casper Ruud (NOR)
4,025
1
9
Hubert Hurkacz (POL)
3,950
1
10
Grigor Dimitrov (BUL)
3,755
11
Stefanos Tsitsipas (GRE)
3,740
12
Taylor Fritz (USA)
3,090
13
Tommy Paul (USA)
2,750
14
Ben Shelton (USA)
2,590
15
Holger Rune (DEN)
2,540
16
Ugo Humbert (FRA)
2,300
17
Alexander Bublik (KAZ)
2,180
18
Felix Auger-Aliassime (CAN)
2,075
19
Sebastián Báez (ARG)
2,030
20
Nicolás Jarry (CHI)
1,905
Doubles
Doubles race rankings as of 17 June 2024
No.
Team
Points
Tourn
1
Rohan Bopanna (IND) Matthew Ebden (AUS)
4,050
9
2
Marcelo Arévalo (ESA) Mate Pavić (CRO)
4,000
13
3
Marcel Granollers (ESP) Horacio Zeballos (ARG)
3,970
11
4
Simone Bolelli (ITA) Andrea Vavassori (ITA)
3,910
10
5
Wesley Koolhof (NED) Nikola Mektić (CRO)
2,665
12
6
Sander Gillé (BEL) Joran Vliegen (BEL)
2,095
15
7
Hugo Nys (MON) Jan Zieliński (POL)
1,970
13
8
Kevin Krawietz (GER) Tim Pütz (GER)
1,860
10
9
Máximo González (ARG) Andrés Molteni (ARG)
1,605
11
10
Sadio Doumbia (FRA) Fabien Reboul (FRA)
1,605
14
ATP rankings (doubles) as of 17 June 2024
No.
Player
Points
Move
1
Matthew Ebden (AUS)
8,065
2
Marcel Granollers (ESP)
8,025
Horacio Zeballos (ARG)
8,025
4
Rohan Bopanna (IND)
7,840
5
Joe Salisbury (GBR)
6,560
6
Rajeev Ram (USA)
6,515
7
Marcelo Arévalo (ESA)
5,990
8
Wesley Koolhof (NED)
5,750
9
Mate Pavic (CRO)
5,480
10
Andrea Vavassori (ITA)
4,875
11
Simone Bolelli (ITA)
4,675
12
Ivan Dodig (CRO)
4,320
1
13
Édouard Roger-Vasselin (FRA)
4,310
1
14
Austin Krajicek (USA)
4,320
1
15
Santiago González (MEX)
4,220
1
16
Neal Skupski (GBR)
4,190
4
17
Andrés Molteni (ARG)
3,915
2
18
Kevin Krawietz (GER)
3,800
1
Tim Pütz (GER)
3,800
1
20
Máximo González (ARG)
3,780
ATP No. 1 ranked singles players
Main article: List of ATP number 1 ranked singles tennis players
Novak Djokovic has been ranked world No. 1 in a record of 13 different years. He holds the records for the most weeks spent as No. 1 (428), the most year-end No. 1 finishes (8), and the most ranking points ever accumulated by any player (16,950).
Current world No. 1 as of 17 June 2024.
Active former No. 1 player.
Weeks
World No. 1 player
First reached
428
Novak Djokovic (SRB)
Jul 4, 2011
310
Roger Federer (SUI)
Feb 2, 2004
286
Pete Sampras (USA)
Apr 12, 1993
270
Ivan Lendl (TCH)
Feb 28, 1983
268
Jimmy Connors (USA)
Jul 29, 1974
209
Rafael Nadal (ESP)
Aug 18, 2008
170
John McEnroe (USA)
Mar 3, 1980
109
Björn Borg (SWE)
Aug 23, 1977
101
Andre Agassi (USA)
Apr 10, 1995
80
Lleyton Hewitt (AUS)
Nov 19, 2001
72
Stefan Edberg (SWE)
Aug 13, 1990
58
Jim Courier (USA)
Feb 10, 1992
43
Gustavo Kuerten (BRA)
Dec 4, 2000
41
Andy Murray (GBR)
Nov 7, 2016
40
Ilie Năstase (ROU)
Aug 23, 1973
36
Carlos Alcaraz (ESP)
Sep 12, 2022
20
Mats Wilander (SWE)
Sep 12, 1988
16
Daniil Medvedev (RUS)
Feb 28, 2022
13
Andy Roddick (USA)
Nov 3, 2003
12
Boris Becker (GER)
Jan 28, 1991
9
Marat Safin (RUS)
Nov 20, 2000
8
John Newcombe (AUS)
Jun 3, 1974
Juan Carlos Ferrero (ESP)
Sep 8, 2003
6
Thomas Muster (AUT)
Feb 12, 1996
Marcelo Ríos (CHI)
Mar 30, 1998
Yevgeny Kafelnikov (RUS)
May 3, 1999
2
Carlos Moyá (ESP)
Mar 15, 1999
Jannik Sinner (ITA)
Jun 10, 2024
1
Patrick Rafter (AUS)
Jul 26, 1999
29 players
Year-end No. 1
8
Novak Djokovic (SRB)
6
Pete Sampras (USA)
5
Jimmy Connors (USA)
Roger Federer (SUI)
Rafael Nadal (ESP)
4
John McEnroe (USA)
Ivan Lendl (TCH)
2
Björn Borg (SWE)
Stefan Edberg (SWE)
Lleyton Hewitt (AUS)
1
Ilie Năstase (ROU)
Mats Wilander (SWE)
Jim Courier (USA)
Andre Agassi (USA)
Gustavo Kuerten (BRA)
Andy Roddick (USA)
Andy Murray (GBR)
Carlos Alcaraz (ESP)
18 players
Players with highest career rank 2–5
The following is a list of players who were ranked world No. 5 or higher but not No. 1 since the 1973 introduction of the ATP rankings (active players in bold).
World No. 2
Player
Date reached
Manuel Orantes
Aug 23, 1973
Ken Rosewall
Apr 30, 1975
Guillermo Vilas
Arthur Ashe
May 10, 1976
Michael Stich
Nov 22, 1993
Goran Ivanišević
Jul 4, 1994
Michael Chang
Sep 9, 1996
Petr Korda
Feb 2, 1998
Àlex Corretja
Feb 1, 1999
Magnus Norman
Jun 12, 2000
Tommy Haas
May 13, 2002
Alexander Zverev
Jun 13, 2022
Casper Ruud
Sep 12, 2022
World No. 3
Player
Date reached
Stan Smith
Aug 23, 1973
Tom Okker
Mar 2, 1974
Rod Laver
Aug 9, 1974
Brian Gottfried
Jun 19, 1977
Vitas Gerulaitis
Feb 27, 1978
Yannick Noah
Jul 7, 1986
Sergi Bruguera
Aug 1, 1994
Guillermo Coria
May 3, 2004
David Nalbandian
Mar 20, 2006
Ivan Ljubičić
May 1, 2006
Nikolay Davydenko
Nov 6, 2006
David Ferrer
Jul 8, 2013
Stan Wawrinka
Jan 27, 2014
Milos Raonic
Nov 21, 2016
Grigor Dimitrov
Nov 20, 2017
Marin Čilić
Jan 29, 2018
Juan Martín del Potro
Aug 13, 2018
Dominic Thiem
Mar 2, 2020
Stefanos Tsitsipas
Aug 9, 2021
World No. 4
Player
Date reached
Adriano Panatta
Aug 24, 1976
Raúl Ramírez
Nov 7, 1976
Roscoe Tanner
Jul 30, 1979
Gene Mayer
Oct 6, 1980
José Luis Clerc
Aug 3, 1981
Miloslav Mečíř
Feb 22, 1988
Pat Cash
May 9, 1988
Brad Gilbert
Jan 1, 1990
Andrés Gómez
Jun 11, 1990
Guy Forget
Mar 25, 1991
Andrei Medvedev
May 16, 1994
Greg Rusedski
Oct 6, 1997
Jonas Björkman
Nov 3, 1997
Richard Krajicek
Mar 29, 1999
Todd Martin
Sep 13, 1999
Thomas Enqvist
Nov 15, 1999
Nicolas Kiefer
Jan 10, 2000
Tim Henman
Jul 8, 2002
Sébastien Grosjean
Oct 28, 2002
James Blake
Nov 20, 2006
Robin Söderling
Nov 15, 2010
Kei Nishikori
Mar 2, 2015
Tomáš Berdych
May 18, 2015
Holger Rune
Aug 21, 2023
World No. 5
Player
Date reached
Jan Kodeš
Sep 13, 1973
Eddie Dibbs
Jul 24, 1978
Harold Solomon
Sep 8, 1980
Jimmy Arias
Apr 9, 1984
Anders Järryd
Jul 22, 1985
Kevin Curren
Henri Leconte
Sep 22, 1986
Cédric Pioline
May 8, 2000
Jiří Novák
Oct 21, 2002
Rainer Schüttler
Apr 26, 2004
Gastón Gaudio
Apr 25, 2005
Tommy Robredo
Aug 28, 2006
Fernando González
Jan 29, 2007
Jo-Wilfried Tsonga
Feb 27, 2012
Kevin Anderson
Jul 16, 2018
Andrey Rublev
Sep 13, 2021
Taylor Fritz
Feb 27, 2023
Players with highest career rank 6–10
The following is a list of players who were ranked world No. 6 to No. 10 since the 1973 introduction of the ATP rankings (active players in bold).
World No. 6
Player
Date reached
Eliot Teltscher
Jun 7, 1982
José Higueras
Jun 13, 1983
Henrik Sundström
Oct 8, 1984
Kent Carlsson
Sep 19, 1988
Aaron Krickstein
Feb 26, 1990
Wayne Ferreira
May 8, 1995
Karol Kučera
Sep 14, 1998
Nicolás Lapentti
Apr 17, 2000
Albert Costa
Jul 22, 2002
Gilles Simon
Jan 5, 2009
Gaël Monfils
Nov 7, 2016
Matteo Berrettini
Jan 31, 2022
Félix Auger-Aliassime
Nov 7, 2022
World No. 7
Player
Date reached
Corrado Barazzutti
Aug 21, 1978
Brian Teacher
Oct 5, 1981
Sandy Mayer
Apr 26, 1982
Peter McNamara
Mar 14, 1983
Johan Kriek
Sep 10, 1984
Juan Aguilera
Sep 17, 1984
Joakim Nyström
Mar 31, 1986
Tim Mayotte
Oct 31, 1988
Jakob Hlasek
Apr 17, 1989
Jay Berger
Apr 16, 1990
Emilio Sánchez
Apr 30, 1990
Alberto Berasategui
Nov 14, 1994
Thomas Johansson
Jun 10, 2002
Mario Ančić
Jul 10, 2006
Richard Gasquet
Jul 9, 2007
Fernando Verdasco
Apr 20, 2009
Mardy Fish
Aug 15, 2011
David Goffin
Nov 20, 2017
Alex de Minaur
Jun 17, 2024
World No. 8
Player
Date reached
Tony Roche
Nov 16, 1975
John Alexander
Dec 15, 1975
Dick Stockton
Oct 31, 1977
Peter Fleming
Jul 7, 1980
Alberto Mancini
Oct 9, 1989
Karel Nováček
Nov 18, 1991
Mark Philippoussis
Apr 19, 1999
Guillermo Cañas
Jun 6, 2005
Radek Štěpánek
Jul 10, 2006
Marcos Baghdatis
Aug 21, 2006
Mikhail Youzhny
Jan 28, 2008
Jürgen Melzer
Apr 18, 2011
Janko Tipsarević
Apr 2, 2012
Jack Sock
Nov 20, 2017
John Isner
Jul 16, 2018
Karen Khachanov
Jul 15, 2019
Diego Schwartzman
Oct 12, 2020
Cameron Norrie
Sep 12, 2022
Hubert Hurkacz
Jan 29, 2024
World No. 9
Player
Date reached
Alex Metreveli
Jun 3, 1974
Víctor Pecci
Mar 24, 1980
Bill Scanlon
Jan 9, 1984
Andrei Chesnokov
Apr 8, 1991
Marc Rosset
Sep 11, 1995
Paradorn Srichaphan
May 12, 2003
Nicolás Massú
Sep 13, 2004
Joachim Johansson
Feb 14, 2005
Mariano Puerta
Aug 15, 2005
Nicolás Almagro
May 2, 2011
Fabio Fognini
Jul 15, 2019
Roberto Bautista Agut
Nov 4, 2019
World No. 10
Player
Date reached
Tom Gorman
May 1, 1974
Wojciech Fibak
Jul 25, 1977
Thierry Tulasne
Aug 4, 1986
Mikael Pernfors
Sep 22, 1986
Martín Jaite
Jul 9, 1990
Jonas Svensson
Mar 25, 1991
Magnus Gustafsson
Jul 29, 1991
Carlos Costa
May 18, 1992
Magnus Larsson
Apr 17, 1995
Félix Mantilla
Jun 8, 1998
Arnaud Clément
Apr 2, 2001
Juan Mónaco
Jul 23, 2012
Ernests Gulbis
Jun 9, 2014
Pablo Carreño Busta
Sep 11, 2017
Lucas Pouille
Mar 19, 2018
Denis Shapovalov
Sep 21, 2020
Frances Tiafoe
Jun 19, 2023
Year-end Top 10
★ indicates player's highest year-end ranking
Year
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
No. 5
No. 6
No. 7
No. 8
No. 9
No. 10
1973
I. Năstase★
J. Newcombe★
J. Connors
T. Okker★
S. Smith★
K. Rosewall★
M. Orantes
R. Laver
J. Kodeš★
A. Ashe
1974
J. Connors★
J. Newcombe
B. Borg
R. Laver★
G. Vilas
T. Okker
A. Ashe
K. Rosewall
S. Smith
I. Năstase
1975
J. Connors
G. Vilas★
B. Borg
A. Ashe★
M. Orantes
K. Rosewall
I. Năstase
J. Alexander★
R. Tanner
R. Laver
1976
J. Connors
B. Borg
I. Năstase
M. Orantes★
R. Ramírez★
G. Vilas
A. Panatta★
H. Solomon
E. Dibbs
B. Gottfried
1977
J. Connors
G. Vilas
B. Borg
V. Gerulaitis★
B. Gottfried★
E. Dibbs★
M. Orantes
R. Ramírez
I. Năstase
D. Stockton★
1978
J. Connors
B. Borg
G. Vilas
J. McEnroe
V. Gerulaitis
E. Dibbs
B. Gottfried
R. Ramírez
H. Solomon
C. Barazzutti★
1979
B. Borg★
J. Connors
J. McEnroe
V. Gerulaitis
R. Tanner★
G. Vilas
A. Ashe
H. Solomon
J. Higueras
E. Dibbs
1980
B. Borg
J. McEnroe
J. Connors
G. Mayer★
G. Vilas
I. Lendl
H. Solomon★
JL. Clerc
V. Gerulaitis
E. Teltscher
1981
J. McEnroe★
I. Lendl
J. Connors
B. Borg
JL. Clerc★
G. Vilas
G. Mayer
E. Teltscher★
V. Gerulaitis
P. McNamara★
1982
J. McEnroe
J. Connors
I. Lendl
G. Vilas
V. Gerulaitis
JL. Clerc
M. Wilander
G. Mayer
Y. Noah
P. McNamara
1983
J. McEnroe
I. Lendl
J. Connors
M. Wilander
Y. Noah
J. Arias★
J. Higueras★
JL. Clerc
K. Curren★
G. Mayer★
1984
J. McEnroe
J. Connors
I. Lendl
M. Wilander
A. Gómez★
A. Järryd★
H. Sundström★
P. Cash
E. Teltscher
Y. Noah
1985
I. Lendl★
J. McEnroe
M. Wilander
J. Connors
S. Edberg
B. Becker
Y. Noah
A. Järryd
M. Mečíř
K. Curren
1986
I. Lendl
B. Becker★
M. Wilander
Y. Noah★
S. Edberg
H. Leconte★
J. Nyström★
J. Connors
M. Mečíř
A. Gómez
1987
I. Lendl
S. Edberg
M. Wilander
J. Connors
B. Becker
M. Mečíř★
P. Cash★
Y. Noah
T. Mayotte★
J. McEnroe
1988
M. Wilander★
I. Lendl
A. Agassi
B. Becker
S. Edberg
K. Carlsson★
J. Connors
J. Hlasek★
H. Leconte
T. Mayotte
1989
I. Lendl
B. Becker
S. Edberg
J. McEnroe
M. Chang
B. Gilbert★
A. Agassi
A. Krickstein★
A. Mancini★
J. Berger★
1990
S. Edberg★
B. Becker
I. Lendl
A. Agassi
P. Sampras
A. Gómez
T. Muster
E. Sánchez★
G. Ivanišević
B. Gilbert
1991
S. Edberg
J. Courier
B. Becker
M. Stich
I. Lendl
P. Sampras
G. Forget★
K. Nováček★
P. Korda
A. Agassi
1992
J. Courier★
S. Edberg
P. Sampras
G. Ivanišević★
B. Becker
M. Chang
P. Korda★
I. Lendl
A. Agassi
R. Krajicek
1993
P. Sampras★
M. Stich★
J. Courier
S. Bruguera★
S. Edberg
A. Medvedev★
G. Ivanišević
M. Chang
T. Muster
C. Pioline★
1994
P. Sampras
A. Agassi
B. Becker
S. Bruguera
G. Ivanišević
M. Chang
S. Edberg
A. Berasategui★
M. Stich
T. Martin
1995
P. Sampras
A. Agassi
T. Muster★
B. Becker
M. Chang
Y. Kafelnikov
T. Enqvist
J. Courier
W. Ferreira★
G. Ivanišević
1996
P. Sampras
M. Chang★
Y. Kafelnikov
G. Ivanišević
T. Muster
B. Becker
R. Krajicek★
A. Agassi
T. Enqvist
W. Ferreira
1997
P. Sampras
P. Rafter★
M. Chang
J. Björkman★
Y. Kafelnikov
G. Rusedski★
C. Moya
S. Bruguera
T. Muster
M. Ríos
1998
P. Sampras
M. Ríos★
À. Corretja★
P. Rafter
C. Moyá★
A. Agassi
T. Henman
K. Kučera★
G. Rusedski
R. Krajicek
1999
A. Agassi★
Y. Kafelnikov★
P. Sampras
T. Enqvist★
G. Kuerten
N. Kiefer★
T. Martin★
N. Lapentti★
M. Ríos
R. Krajicek
2000
G. Kuerten★
M. Safin★
P. Sampras
M. Norman★
Y. Kafelnikov
A. Agassi
L. Hewitt
A. Corretja
T. Enqvist
T. Henman
2001
L. Hewitt★
G. Kuerten
A. Agassi
Y. Kafelnikov
JC. Ferrero
S. Grosjean★
P. Rafter
T. Haas★
T. Henman
P. Sampras
2002
L. Hewitt
A. Agassi
M. Safin
JC. Ferrero
C. Moya
R. Federer
J. Novák★
T. Henman
A. Costa★
A. Roddick
2003
A. Roddick★
R. Federer
JC. Ferrero★
A. Agassi
G. Coria★
R. Schüttler★
C. Moyá
D. Nalbandian
M. Philippoussis★
S. Grosjean
2004
R. Federer★
A. Roddick
L. Hewitt
M. Safin
C. Moyá
T. Henman★
G. Coria
A. Agassi
D. Nalbandian
G. Gaudio★
2005
R. Federer
R. Nadal
A. Roddick
L. Hewitt
N. Davydenko
D. Nalbandian★
A. Agassi
G. Coria
I. Ljubičić
G. Gaudio
2006
R. Federer
R. Nadal
N. Davydenko★
J. Blake★
I. Ljubičić★
A. Roddick
T. Robredo★
D. Nalbandian
M. Ančić★
F. González
2007
R. Federer
R. Nadal
N. Djokovic
N. Davydenko
D. Ferrer
A. Roddick
F. González★
R. Gasquet★
D. Nalbandian
T. Robredo
2008
R. Nadal★
R. Federer
N. Djokovic
A. Murray
N. Davydenko
JW. Tsonga★
G. Simon★
A. Roddick
JM. del Potro
J. Blake
2009
R. Federer
R. Nadal
N. Djokovic
A. Murray
JM. del Potro★
N. Davydenko
A. Roddick
R. Söderling
F. Verdasco★
JW. Tsonga
2010
R. Nadal
R. Federer
N. Djokovic
A. Murray
R. Söderling★
T. Berdych★
D. Ferrer
A. Roddick
F. Verdasco
M. Youzhny★
2011
N. Djokovic★
R. Nadal
R. Federer
A. Murray
D. Ferrer
JW. Tsonga
T. Berdych
M. Fish★
J. Tipsarević★
N. Almagro★
2012
N. Djokovic
R. Federer
A. Murray
R. Nadal
D. Ferrer
T. Berdych
JM. del Potro
JW. Tsonga
J. Tipsarević
R. Gasquet
2013
R. Nadal
N. Djokovic
D. Ferrer★
A. Murray
JM. del Potro
R. Federer
T. Berdych
S. Wawrinka
R. Gasquet
JW. Tsonga
2014
N. Djokovic
R. Federer
R. Nadal
S. Wawrinka★
K. Nishikori★
A. Murray
T. Berdych
M. Raonic
M. Čilić
D. Ferrer
2015
N. Djokovic
A. Murray
R. Federer
S. Wawrinka
R. Nadal
T. Berdych
D. Ferrer
K. Nishikori
R. Gasquet
JW. Tsonga
2016
A. Murray★
N. Djokovic
M. Raonic★
S. Wawrinka
K. Nishikori
M. Čilić★
G. Monfils★
D. Thiem
R. Nadal
T. Berdych
2017
R. Nadal
R. Federer
G. Dimitrov★
A. Zverev
D. Thiem
M. Čilić
D. Goffin★
J. Sock★
S. Wawrinka
P. Carreño Busta★
2018
N. Djokovic
R. Nadal
R. Federer
A. Zverev
JM. del Potro
K. Anderson★
M. Čilić
D. Thiem
K. Nishikori
J. Isner★
2019
R. Nadal
N. Djokovic
R. Federer
D. Thiem
D. Medvedev
S. Tsitsipas
A. Zverev
M. Berrettini
R. Bautista Agut★
G. Monfils
2020
N. Djokovic
R. Nadal
D. Thiem★
D. Medvedev
R. Federer
S. Tsitsipas
A. Zverev
A. Rublev
D. Schwartzman★
M. Berrettini
2021
N. Djokovic
D. Medvedev★
A. Zverev★
S. Tsitsipas★
A. Rublev★
R. Nadal
M. Berrettini★
C. Ruud
H. Hurkacz★
J. Sinner
2022
C. Alcaraz★
R. Nadal
C. Ruud★
S. Tsitsipas
N. Djokovic
F. Auger-Aliassime★
D. Medvedev
A. Rublev
T. Fritz★
H. Hurkacz
2023
N. Djokovic
C. Alcaraz
D. Medvedev
J. Sinner★
A. Rublev
S. Tsitsipas
A. Zverev
H. Rune★
H. Hurkacz
T. Fritz
Note: Not all year-end rankings listed were taken from 31 December. Due to the Australian Open's date in the 1970s through to the mid-1980s, the year-end ranking in 1974, 1978–1984 were recorded from varying dates.
ATP rankings achievements
Total weeks
As of 10 June 2024, with currently-ranked players in boldface
#
No. 1
428
Novak Djokovic
310
Roger Federer
286
Pete Sampras
270
Ivan Lendl
268
Jimmy Connors
#
Top 2
596
Rafael Nadal
588
Novak Djokovic
528
Roger Federer
387
Jimmy Connors
376
Ivan Lendl
#
Top 3
750
Roger Federer
744
Novak Djokovic
686
Rafael Nadal
592
Jimmy Connors
499
Ivan Lendl
#
Top 4
804
Roger Federer
776
Novak Djokovic
756
Rafael Nadal
669
Jimmy Connors
540
Ivan Lendl
#
Top 5
859
Roger Federer
837
Rafael Nadal
797
Novak Djokovic
705
Jimmy Connors
563
Ivan Lendl
#
Top 10
968
Roger Federer
912
Rafael Nadal
842
Novak Djokovic
817
Jimmy Connors
747
Andre Agassi
Year-end rankings
As of the end of 2023, with active players in boldface
#
No. 1
8
Novak Djokovic
6
Pete Sampras
5
Jimmy Connors
Roger Federer
Rafael Nadal
4
John McEnroe
Ivan Lendl
#
Top 2
13
Rafael Nadal
11
Roger Federer
Novak Djokovic
8
Jimmy Connors
6
John McEnroe
Ivan Lendl
Pete Sampras
#
Top 3
15
Roger Federer
Novak Djokovic
14
Rafael Nadal
12
Jimmy Connors
10
Ivan Lendl
#
Top 4
15
Roger Federer
Rafael Nadal
Novak Djokovic
14
Jimmy Connors
10
Ivan Lendl
#
Top 5
16
Roger Federer
Rafael Nadal
Novak Djokovic
14
Jimmy Connors
11
Ivan Lendl
#
Top 10
18
Roger Federer
Rafael Nadal
16
Jimmy Connors
Andre Agassi
Novak Djokovic
ATP No. 1 in singles and doubles
Players who were ranked No. 1 in both singles and doubles at any time in their careers.
Player
Singles
Doubles
First held
Last held
Weeks
First held
Last held
Weeks
John McEnroe
Mar 03, 1980
Sep 08, 1985
170
Apr 23, 1979
Sep 24, 1989
269
Stefan Edberg
Aug 13, 1990
Oct 04, 1992
72
Jun 09, 1986
Feb 22, 1987
15
McEnroe was ranked No. 1 in singles and doubles simultaneously for 121 weeks.
McEnroe finished as the year-end No. 1 in both singles and doubles for 3 years: 1981, 1982, and 1983.
ATP No. 1 ranked doubles players
Main article: List of ATP number 1 ranked doubles tennis players
Mike and Bob Bryan, the most successful doubles No. 1 players.
Current world No. 1 as of 10 June 2024.
Active former No. 1 players.
Weeks
No. 1 player
506
Mike Bryan
439
Bob Bryan
269
John McEnroe
204
Todd Woodbridge
108
Daniel Nestor
107
Anders Järryd
85
Frew McMillan
83
Mark Woodforde
74
Jonas Björkman
71
Paul Haarhuis
68
Robert Farah
67
Raúl Ramírez
65
Mark Knowles
63
Jacco Eltingh
62
Robert Seguso
57
Max Mirnyi
Mate Pavić
56
Marcelo Melo
50
Nenad Zimonjić
40
John Fitzgerald
39
Leander Paes
Nicolas Mahut
35
Neal Skupski
34
Tomáš Šmíd
Wesley Koolhof
29
Juan Sebastián Cabal
27
Danie Visser
26
Jim Pugh
Henri Kontinen
Joe Salisbury
Austin Krajicek
25
David Pate
20
Donald Johnson
19
Pieter Aldrich
Yannick Noah
Łukasz Kubot
17
Jared Palmer
Grant Connell
15
Stefan Edberg
13
Richey Reneberg
Jim Grabb
Andrés Gómez
11
Peter Fleming
Tom Okker
9
Rick Leach
Jamie Murray
Rajeev Ram
Rohan Bopanna
8
Byron Black
Stan Smith
7
Slobodan Živojinović
6
Jonathan Stark
Emilio Sánchez
Bob Hewitt
5
Alex O'Brien
Ken Flach
Marcel Granollers
Horacio Zeballos
Matthew Ebden
4
Mahesh Bhupathi
Patrick Galbraith
3
Paul McNamee
Nikola Mektić
1
Kelly Jones
63 doubles players
Year-end No. 1
10
Mike Bryan
8
Bob Bryan
5
John McEnroe
3
Mark Woodforde
Todd Woodbridge
2
Frew McMillan
Robert Seguso
Anders Järryd
Mark Knowles
Marcelo Melo
Robert Farah
1
Raúl Ramírez
Tomáš Šmíd
Andrés Gómez
Pieter Aldrich
Danie Visser
John Fitzgerald
Grant Connell
Paul Haarhuis
Jacco Eltingh
Leander Paes
Jonas Björkman
Max Mirnyi
Daniel Nestor
Nenad Zimonjić
Nicolas Mahut
Juan Sebastián Cabal
Mate Pavić
Wesley Koolhof
Neal Skupski
Austin Krajicek
31 players
See also
List of ATP number 1 ranked singles tennis players
List of ATP number 1 ranked doubles tennis players
World number 1 ranked male tennis players
Top ten ranked male tennis players
Top ten ranked male tennis players (1912–1972)
ITF World Champions
List of highest ranked tennis players per country
WTA rankings
Current tennis rankings
Notes
^ In weeks where there are not four Grand Slam tournaments and eight Masters 1000 tournaments in the ranking period, the number of a player's best results from all eligible tournaments in the ranking period will be adjusted accordingly.
^ At least one of these tournaments must follow the US Open.
^ "Accepted" means a direct acceptance, a qualifier, a special exempt, or a lucky loser, or having accepted a wild card.
^ Kevin Curren became a naturalized American citizen in 1985 after representing South Africa.
^ Ivan Lendl became a naturalized American citizen in 1992 after representing Czechoslovakia.
References
^ "ATP & PIF announce multi-year strategic partnership to accelerate the growth of global tennis". ATP Tour. 28 February 2024. Retrieved 6 March 2024.
^ a b c d e "ATP World Tour – Rulebook, Chapter IX, ATP Rankings" (PDF). Retrieved 2017-05-10.
^ Tignor, Steve (19 March 2015). "1973: The men boycott Wimbledon and shift power to the players". tennis.com. Retrieved 26 June 2016.
^ a b Buddell, James (23 August 2013). "The Rankings That Changed Tennis (Part I)". Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP).
^ a b c d Buddell, James (23 August 2013). "The Rankings That Changed Tennis (Part II)". Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP).
^ Tignor, Steve (26 March 2015). "1973: The ATP institutes computer rankings". tennis.com. Retrieved 26 June 2016.
^ Collins, Bud (2010). The Bud Collins History of Tennis (2nd ed.). New York: New Chapter Press. p. 715. ISBN 978-0-942257-70-0.
^ "Rankings FAQ". Atpworldtour.com. Retrieved 2012-07-25.
^ a b "Frequently Asked Questions". atpworldtour.com. Retrieved 2011-03-13.
^ "Rankings-FAQ". ATP World Tour.
^ Rothenberg, Ben (2016-05-29). "Points and Prize Money Mean More to Olympic Tennis Holdouts". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-08-15.
^ Ultimate Tennis Statistics – Most ATP Points
^ "ATP Releases Pepperstone ATP Rankings Breakdown Updates | ATP Tour | Tennis". ATP Tour. 26 December 2023. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
^ "New Strategy For 21st Century Tennis, $1.2 Billion Investment, Global Brand, Simple Structure, Premier Tennis Series". Sportcal. 1999-12-02. Archived from the original on 2021-11-27.
^ "ATP Tour unveils new ATP Champions Race". Sportscal. 1999-11-26. Archived from the original on 2021-11-27.
^ Douglas Robson (22 August 2013). "Happy 40th birthday, ATP computer rankings". USA Today.
^ Simon Cambers (15 February 2013). "40 years on, how have the ATP World Rankings developed?". www.wimbledon.com. AELTC. Archived from the original on 2014-12-31.
^ "ATP Rankings FAQ". ATP.
^ "ATP World Tour 2017 Rulebook" (PDF). ATP World Tour.
^ "Tennis – ATP World Tour – Rankings FAQ". ATP World Tour. Retrieved 2012-07-25.
^ "Rankings | FAQ | ATP Tour | Tennis". ATP World Tour. Retrieved 2016-11-28.
^ "ITF confirms no ATP points will be assigned at Olympic Games in Rio 2016". Tennis World. Retrieved 2016-11-28.
^ "Current ATP Singles Race". ATP Tour.
^ "Live ATP Single Race". live-tennis.eu.
^ "Current ATP Singles Ranking". Association of Tennis Professionals.
^ "Official ATP Ranking". live-tennis.eu.
^ "Current ATP Doubles Race". ATP Tour.
^ "Live ATP Doubles Race". live-tennis.eu.
^ "Current ATP Doubles Ranking". Association of Tennis Professionals.
^ "Official ATP Doubles". live-tennis.eu.
^ a b "Top10" (PDF). atptour.com. Retrieved 2021-01-18.
^ "ATP Rankings: Year-End Top 10 History" (PDF). ATP. p. 6. Retrieved 2021-05-24.
^ "ATP Singles Rankings".
External links
ATP rankings
ATP race
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"WTA rankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WTA_rankings"},{"link_name":"PIF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Investment_Fund"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Pepperstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepperstone"},{"link_name":"Association of Tennis Professionals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Tennis_Professionals"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ATP_rulebook-2"},{"link_name":"Grand Slam tournaments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis)"},{"link_name":"ATP Finals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_Finals"},{"link_name":"ATP Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_Tour"},{"link_name":"Jannik Sinner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jannik_Sinner"},{"link_name":"world No. 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ATP_number_1_ranked_singles_tennis_players"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sinner_MCM23_(8)_(52883593853).jpg"},{"link_name":"Jannik Sinner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jannik_Sinner"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alcaraz_MCM22_(27)_(52036462443)_(edited).jpg"},{"link_name":"Carlos Alcaraz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Alcaraz"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Novak_Djokovic_(35448898242).jpg"},{"link_name":"Novak Djokovic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novak_Djokovic"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sascha_Zverev_(46953798631).jpg"},{"link_name":"Alexander Zverev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Zverev"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DaniilMedvedevSS19shooting.jpg"},{"link_name":"Daniil Medvedev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniil_Medvedev"}],"text":"This article is about the men's rankings. For the women's rankings, see WTA rankings.The PIF ATP Rankings[1] (Previously known as the Pepperstone ATP Rankings) are the merit-based method used by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) for determining the qualification for entry as well as the seeding of players in all singles and doubles tournaments.[2] The first rankings for singles were published on 23 August 1973 while the doubles players were ranked for the first time on 1 March 1976. Ranking points are awarded according to the stage of tournament reached, and the prestige of the tournament, with the four Grand Slam tournaments awarding the most points. The rankings are updated every Monday, and points are dropped 52 weeks after being awarded (with the exception of the ATP Finals, from which points are dropped on the Monday following the last ATP Tour event of the following year). Jannik Sinner is the current men's singles world No. 1.Jannik Sinner, men's singles No. 1.Carlos Alcaraz, men's singles No. 2.Novak Djokovic, men's singles No. 3.Alexander Zverev, men's singles No. 4.Daniil Medvedev, men's singles No. 5.","title":"ATP rankings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"trade union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_union"},{"link_name":"Jack Kramer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Kramer"},{"link_name":"Cliff Drysdale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cliff_Drysdale"},{"link_name":"Donald Dell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Dell"},{"link_name":"1973 Wimbledon Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_Wimbledon_Championships"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ATP_hist_pt1-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ATP_hist_pt2-5"},{"link_name":"Ilie Năstase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilie_N%C4%83stase"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ATP_hist_pt1-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ATP_hist_pt2-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ATP_hist_pt2-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ATP_hist_pt2-5"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"The ATP began as the men's trade union in 1972, through the combined efforts of Jack Kramer, Cliff Drysdale, and Donald Dell, and rose to prominence when 81 of its members boycotted the 1973 Wimbledon Championships.[3] Just two months later, in August, the ATP introduced its ranking system intended to objectify tournament entry criteria, which up to that point were controlled by national federations and tournament directors.[4]The ATP's new ranking system was quickly adopted by men's tennis.[5] While virtually all ATP members were in favor of objectifying event participation, the system's first No. 1, Ilie Năstase, lamented that \"everyone had a number hanging over them\", fostering a more competitive and less collegial atmosphere among the players.[6]The original ATP ranking criteria, which were then regularly published weekly only from mid-1979 and persisted through the 1980s, were based on averaging each player's results, though the details were revised a number of times.[4][5] Starting in 1990, in conjunction with the expansion of ATP purview as the new men's tour operator, the ranking criteria were replaced with a 'best of' system modeled after competitive downhill skiing.[5] This 'best of' system originally used 14 events but expanded to 18 in 2000.[5] The computer that calculates the rankings is nicknamed \"Blinky\".[7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Grand Slam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis)"},{"link_name":"ATP Masters 1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_Tour_Masters_1000"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"ATP 500 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_Tour_500"},{"link_name":"ATP 250 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_Tour_250"},{"link_name":"ATP Challenger Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_Challenger_Tour"},{"link_name":"Futures Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futures_tournament"},{"link_name":"ATP Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_Cup"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"ATP Finals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_Finals"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ATP_rulebook-2"},{"link_name":"Monte-Carlo Masters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte-Carlo_Masters"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DC-11"},{"link_name":"World Team Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Team_Cup"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DC-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ATP_rulebook-2"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ATP_rulebook-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ATP_rulebook-2"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Monte-Carlo Masters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte-Carlo_Masters"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ATP_rankings&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Novak Djokovic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novak_Djokovic"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"A player's ATP ranking is based on the total points they accrued in the following 20 tournaments (19 if they did not qualify for the ATP Finals):The four Grand Slam tournaments\nThe eight mandatory ATP Masters 1000 tournaments,[a]\nThe previous ATP Finals count until the Monday following the final regular-season ATP event of the following year.[8]\nThe best seven results from the non-mandatory ATP Masters 1000, all ATP 500 series, ATP 250 series, ATP Challenger Tour, Futures Series and ATP Cup tournaments played in the calendar year[b]Ranking points gained in a tournament are dropped 52 weeks later, with the exception of the ATP Finals, from which points are dropped on the Monday following the last ATP Tour event of the following year.[2]The Monte-Carlo Masters 1000 became optional in 2009, but if a player chooses to participate in it, its result is counted and his fourth-best result in an ATP 500 event is ignored (his three best ATP 500 results remain). From 2009 until 2015, if a player did not play enough ATP 500 events and did not have an ATP 250 or Challenger appearance with a better result, the Davis Cup was counted in the 500's table.[9] The World Team Cup was also included before its cancellation in 2012.For the Davis Cup, from 2009 until 2015, points were distributed for the World Group countries. Instead of having an exact drop date they were gradually updated at each phase of the competition, comparing the player's results with his results from the previous year. (e.g. if a player played two matches in a semifinal but plays one the next year only that one missing match would be extracted from his points).[9]A player who is out of competition for 30 or more days, due to a verified injury, will not receive any penalty. The ATP Finals will count as an additional 20th tournament in the ranking of its eight qualifiers at season's end.[10]For every Grand Slam tournament or mandatory ATP Masters 1000 tournament for which a player is not in the main draw, and was not (and, in the case of a Grand Slam tournament, would not have been, had he and all other players entered) a main draw direct acceptance on the original acceptance list, and never became a main draw direct acceptance, the number of his results from all other eligible tournaments in the ranking period that count for his ranking is increased by one.[2]Once a player is accepted in the main draw of a Grand Slam tournament or ATP Masters 1000 tournament,[c] his result in this tournament counts for his ranking, regardless of whether he participates. A player's withdrawal from an ATP 500 event, regardless of whether the withdrawal was on time, results in a zero point included as one of his best of four results. Further non-consecutive withdrawals results in a zero point allocation replacing the next best positive result for each additional withdrawal.[2]Players with multiple consecutive withdrawals who are out of competition for 30 days or longer because of injury are not subject to a ranking penalty as long as verified and approved medical forms are provided; or, a player will not have the ranking penalty imposed if he completes the Promotional Activities requirement as specified under \"Repeal of Withdrawal Fines and/or Penalties\" or if the on-site withdrawal procedures apply. Players may also appeal withdrawal penalties to a Tribunal who will determine whether the penalties are affirmed or set aside.[2]Between 2000 and 2012, ranking points were awarded based on results in the Summer Olympics. This was changed before the 2016 Olympics where no ranking points were awarded.[11]With these rules, a player playing and winning the mandatory 4 Grand Slams and 8 ATP Masters 1000 events, a further 6 ATP 500 events and the Monte-Carlo Masters 1000 can amass a total of 20,000 points before the ATP Finals and end the calendar year with a maximum of 21,500 points. As of 2022,[update] the maximum points achieved by any player since 2009 is 16,950 by Novak Djokovic, on June 6, 2016.[12]For the 2024 season, the points breakdown was adjusted to award more points in ATP Tour events.[13]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2023 ATP Finals § Points breakdown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_ATP_Finals#Points_breakdown"},{"link_name":"year-end championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_Finals"},{"link_name":"year-end No. 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ATP_number_1_ranked_singles_tennis_players"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"For the 2023 ATP Race, see 2023 ATP Finals § Points breakdown.The ATP Race is an annual performance-based points race to determine the qualifiers for the year-end championship, in addition to the year-end No. 1 singles player and doubles team. The race, initially called the \"ATP Champions Race\", was introduced by the ATP for the 2000 season as part of their \"21st Century Tennis\" strategy announced in 1999.[14] All players and teams start the year with zero points, and accumulate points from tournament to tournament based on their performances.[15] The player and team who end the season with the most points are crowned as the year-end No. 1 in their disciplines, and the top-eight players and teams participate in the season-ending championship, the ATP Finals.","title":"ATP race"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"Since the introduction of the ATP rankings the method used to calculate a player's ranking points has changed several times.[16][17] The last major overhaul to the points system was in 2009.","title":"Ranking method"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Davis Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davis_Cup"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Points distribution (2024–present)","text":"Ranking points are awarded as follows:[18](ATP Masters 1000 series) Qualifying points changes to 12 points only if the main draw is larger than 56.\n(ATP 500 series) Qualifying points changes to 10 points only if the main draw is larger than 32.\n(ATP 250 series) Qualifying points changes to 5 points only if the main draw is larger than 32.\nPlayers who draw a bye in the first round in the ATP 1000 series and lose their first match in the second round are considered to have lost their first round and receive the points equivalent to first round loss. Similarly, loss in the second round of the ATP 500 series and the ATP 250 series after drawing bye in first round will result in 0 points being awarded.[19]In addition qualifiers and main draw entry players will then also receive the points in brackets for the rounds they reached.[20]Starting in 2016, points were no longer awarded for Davis Cup ties,[21] nor for the tennis tournament at the Summer Olympics.[22]","title":"Ranking method"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Points distribution (2009–2023)","title":"Ranking method"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Current rankings"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Singles","title":"Current rankings"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Doubles","title":"Current rankings"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Djokovic_EBN17_(26)_(35046150944).jpg"},{"link_name":"Novak Djokovic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novak_Djokovic"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ATP_rankings&action=edit"}],"text":"Novak Djokovic has been ranked world No. 1 in a record of 13 different years. He holds the records for the most weeks spent as No. 1 (428), the most year-end No. 1 finishes (8), and the most ranking points ever accumulated by any player (16,950).Current world No. 1 as of 17 June 2024[update].Active former No. 1 player.","title":"ATP No. 1 ranked singles players"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ATP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_Tour"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-top10-34"}],"text":"The following is a list of players who were ranked world No. 5 or higher but not No. 1 since the 1973 introduction of the ATP rankings (active players in bold).[31]","title":"Players with highest career rank 2–5"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-top10-34"}],"text":"The following is a list of players who were ranked world No. 6 to No. 10 since the 1973 introduction of the ATP rankings (active players in bold).[31]","title":"Players with highest career rank 6–10"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-year-endrankings-37"}],"text":"★ indicates player's highest year-end rankingNote: Not all year-end rankings listed were taken from 31 December. Due to the Australian Open's date in the 1970s through to the mid-1980s, the year-end ranking in 1974, 1978–1984 were recorded from varying dates.[32]","title":"Year-end Top 10"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"ATP rankings achievements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ATP_rankings&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"sub_title":"Total weeks","text":"As of 10 June 2024[update], with currently-ranked players in boldface[33]","title":"ATP rankings achievements"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Year-end rankings","text":"As of the end of 2023, with active players in boldface","title":"ATP rankings achievements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1981","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1981_Grand_Prix_(tennis)"},{"link_name":"1982","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_Grand_Prix_(tennis)"},{"link_name":"1983","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983_Grand_Prix_(tennis)"}],"text":"Players who were ranked No. 1 in both singles and doubles at any time in their careers.McEnroe was ranked No. 1 in singles and doubles simultaneously for 121 weeks.\nMcEnroe finished as the year-end No. 1 in both singles and doubles for 3 years: 1981, 1982, and 1983.","title":"ATP No. 1 in singles and doubles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Bryan_brothers.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mike and Bob Bryan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryan_brothers"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ATP_rankings&action=edit"}],"text":"Mike and Bob Bryan, the most successful doubles No. 1 players.Current world No. 1 as of 10 June 2024[update].Active former No. 1 players.","title":"ATP No. 1 ranked doubles players"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"US Open","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Open_(tennis)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CurrenUSA_35-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-LendlUSA_36-0"}],"text":"^ In weeks where there are not four Grand Slam tournaments and eight Masters 1000 tournaments in the ranking period, the number of a player's best results from all eligible tournaments in the ranking period will be adjusted accordingly.\n\n^ At least one of these tournaments must follow the US Open.\n\n^ \"Accepted\" means a direct acceptance, a qualifier, a special exempt, or a lucky loser, or having accepted a wild card.\n\n^ Kevin Curren became a naturalized American citizen in 1985 after representing South Africa.\n\n^ Ivan Lendl became a naturalized American citizen in 1992 after representing Czechoslovakia.","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Jannik Sinner, men's singles No. 1.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Sinner_MCM23_%288%29_%2852883593853%29.jpg/170px-Sinner_MCM23_%288%29_%2852883593853%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Carlos Alcaraz, men's singles No. 2.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Alcaraz_MCM22_%2827%29_%2852036462443%29_%28edited%29.jpg/170px-Alcaraz_MCM22_%2827%29_%2852036462443%29_%28edited%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Novak Djokovic, men's singles No. 3.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Novak_Djokovic_%2835448898242%29.jpg/170px-Novak_Djokovic_%2835448898242%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Alexander Zverev, men's singles No. 4.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Sascha_Zverev_%2846953798631%29.jpg/170px-Sascha_Zverev_%2846953798631%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Daniil Medvedev, men's singles No. 5.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/DaniilMedvedevSS19shooting.jpg/170px-DaniilMedvedevSS19shooting.jpg"},{"image_text":"Novak Djokovic has been ranked world No. 1 in a record of 13 different years. He holds the records for the most weeks spent as No. 1 (428), the most year-end No. 1 finishes (8), and the most ranking points ever accumulated by any player (16,950).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Djokovic_EBN17_%2826%29_%2835046150944%29.jpg/220px-Djokovic_EBN17_%2826%29_%2835046150944%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mike and Bob Bryan, the most successful doubles No. 1 players.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/The_Bryan_brothers.jpg/270px-The_Bryan_brothers.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"List of ATP number 1 ranked singles tennis players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ATP_number_1_ranked_singles_tennis_players"},{"title":"List of ATP number 1 ranked doubles tennis players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ATP_number_1_ranked_doubles_tennis_players"},{"title":"World number 1 ranked male tennis players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_number_1_ranked_male_tennis_players"},{"title":"Top ten ranked male tennis players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_ten_ranked_male_tennis_players"},{"title":"Top ten ranked male tennis players (1912–1972)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_ten_ranked_male_tennis_players_(1912%E2%80%931972)"},{"title":"ITF World Champions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITF_World_Champions"},{"title":"List of highest ranked tennis players per country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest_ranked_tennis_players_per_country"},{"title":"WTA rankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WTA_rankings"},{"title":"Current tennis rankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_tennis_rankings"}]
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[{"reference":"\"ATP & PIF announce multi-year strategic partnership to accelerate the growth of global tennis\". ATP Tour. 28 February 2024. Retrieved 6 March 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.atptour.com/en/news/atp-pif-strategic-partnership-february-2024","url_text":"\"ATP & PIF announce multi-year strategic partnership to accelerate the growth of global tennis\""}]},{"reference":"\"ATP World Tour – Rulebook, Chapter IX, ATP Rankings\" (PDF). Retrieved 2017-05-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.atpworldtour.com/-/media/files/rulebook/2017/2017-atp-rulebook_chapter-ix_31jan17.pdf","url_text":"\"ATP World Tour – Rulebook, Chapter IX, ATP Rankings\""}]},{"reference":"Tignor, Steve (19 March 2015). \"1973: The men boycott Wimbledon and shift power to the players\". tennis.com. Retrieved 26 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tennis.com/pro-game/2015/03/1973-men-boycott-wimbledon-and-shift-power-players/54385/","url_text":"\"1973: The men boycott Wimbledon and shift power to the players\""}]},{"reference":"Buddell, James (23 August 2013). \"The Rankings That Changed Tennis (Part I)\". Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.atptour.com/en/news/heritage-1973-atp-rankings-celebration-part-i","url_text":"\"The Rankings That Changed Tennis (Part I)\""}]},{"reference":"Buddell, James (23 August 2013). \"The Rankings That Changed Tennis (Part II)\". Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.atpworldtour.com/en/news/heritage-1973-atp-rankings-celebration-part-ii","url_text":"\"The Rankings That Changed Tennis (Part II)\""}]},{"reference":"Tignor, Steve (26 March 2015). \"1973: The ATP institutes computer rankings\". tennis.com. Retrieved 26 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tennis.com/pro-game/2015/03/1973-atp-institutes-computer-rankings/54439/","url_text":"\"1973: The ATP institutes computer rankings\""}]},{"reference":"Collins, Bud (2010). The Bud Collins History of Tennis (2nd ed.). New York: New Chapter Press. p. 715. ISBN 978-0-942257-70-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bud_Collins","url_text":"Collins, Bud"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/budcollinshistor0000coll/","url_text":"The Bud Collins History of Tennis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-942257-70-0","url_text":"978-0-942257-70-0"}]},{"reference":"\"Rankings FAQ\". Atpworldtour.com. Retrieved 2012-07-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.atpworldtour.com/Rankings/Rankings-FAQ.aspx#yeartodate","url_text":"\"Rankings FAQ\""}]},{"reference":"\"Frequently Asked Questions\". atpworldtour.com. Retrieved 2011-03-13.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.atpworldtour.com/Rankings/Rankings-FAQ.aspx#daviscup","url_text":"\"Frequently Asked Questions\""}]},{"reference":"\"Rankings-FAQ\". ATP World Tour.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.atpworldtour.com/Rankings/Rankings-FAQ.aspx","url_text":"\"Rankings-FAQ\""}]},{"reference":"Rothenberg, Ben (2016-05-29). \"Points and Prize Money Mean More to Olympic Tennis Holdouts\". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-08-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/30/sports/tennis/points-and-prize-money-mean-more-to-olympic-tennis-holdouts.html","url_text":"\"Points and Prize Money Mean More to Olympic Tennis Holdouts\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","url_text":"0362-4331"}]},{"reference":"\"ATP Releases Pepperstone ATP Rankings Breakdown Updates | ATP Tour | Tennis\". ATP Tour. 26 December 2023. Retrieved 23 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.atptour.com/en/news/2024-rankings-points-update","url_text":"\"ATP Releases Pepperstone ATP Rankings Breakdown Updates | ATP Tour | Tennis\""}]},{"reference":"\"New Strategy For 21st Century Tennis, $1.2 Billion Investment, Global Brand, Simple Structure, Premier Tennis Series\". Sportcal. 1999-12-02. Archived from the original on 2021-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211127235538/https://www.sportcal.com/News/PressReleases/61859","url_text":"\"New Strategy For 21st Century Tennis, $1.2 Billion Investment, Global Brand, Simple Structure, Premier Tennis Series\""},{"url":"https://www.sportcal.com/News/PressReleases/61859","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"ATP Tour unveils new ATP Champions Race\". Sportscal. 1999-11-26. Archived from the original on 2021-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211127235315/https://www.sportcal.com/News/PressReleases/5705","url_text":"\"ATP Tour unveils new ATP Champions Race\""},{"url":"https://www.sportcal.com/News/PressReleases/5705","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Douglas Robson (22 August 2013). \"Happy 40th birthday, ATP computer rankings\". USA Today.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/tennis/2013/08/19/atp-computer-rankings-turn-40/2674637/","url_text":"\"Happy 40th birthday, ATP computer rankings\""}]},{"reference":"Simon Cambers (15 February 2013). \"40 years on, how have the ATP World Rankings developed?\". www.wimbledon.com. AELTC. Archived from the original on 2014-12-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141231175147/http://www.wimbledon.com/en_GB/news/articles/2013-02-15/201302151360936685683.html","url_text":"\"40 years on, how have the ATP World Rankings developed?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_England_Lawn_Tennis_and_Croquet_Club","url_text":"AELTC"},{"url":"https://www.wimbledon.com/en_GB/news/articles/2013-02-15/201302151360936685683.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"ATP Rankings FAQ\". ATP.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.atptour.com/rankings/rankings-faq.aspx","url_text":"\"ATP Rankings FAQ\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Tennis_Professionals","url_text":"ATP"}]},{"reference":"\"ATP World Tour 2017 Rulebook\" (PDF). ATP World Tour.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.atpworldtour.com/-/media/files/rulebook/2017/2017-atp-rulebook_chapter-ix.pdf","url_text":"\"ATP World Tour 2017 Rulebook\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tennis – ATP World Tour – Rankings FAQ\". ATP World Tour. Retrieved 2012-07-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.atpworldtour.com/Rankings/Rankings-FAQ.aspx?#points","url_text":"\"Tennis – ATP World Tour – Rankings FAQ\""}]},{"reference":"\"Rankings | FAQ | ATP Tour | Tennis\". ATP World Tour. Retrieved 2016-11-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.atpworldtour.com/en/rankings/rankings-faq","url_text":"\"Rankings | FAQ | ATP Tour | Tennis\""}]},{"reference":"\"ITF confirms no ATP points will be assigned at Olympic Games in Rio 2016\". Tennis World. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphosphate
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Polyphosphate
|
["1 Structure","2 Formation and synthesis","3 Acid-base and complexation properties","4 The \"high energy\" phosphate bond","5 High-polymeric inorganic polyphosphates","5.1 In nature","6 Use as food additives","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]
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Compounds formed from phosphate monomeric units
A polyphosphate is a salt or ester of polymeric oxyanions formed from tetrahedral PO4 (phosphate) structural units linked together by sharing oxygen atoms. Polyphosphates can adopt linear or a cyclic (also called, ring) structures. In biology, the polyphosphate esters ADP and ATP are involved in energy storage. A variety of polyphosphates find application in mineral sequestration in municipal waters, generally being present at 1 to 5 ppm. GTP, CTP, and UTP are also nucleotides important in the protein synthesis, lipid synthesis, and carbohydrate metabolism, respectively.
Polyphosphates are also used as food additives, marked E452.
Structure
Structure of triphosphoric acid
Polyphosphoric acid
Cyclic trimetaphosphate
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
The structure of tripolyphosphoric acid illustrates the principles which define the structures of polyphosphates. It consists of three tetrahedral PO4 units linked together by sharing oxygen centres. For the linear chains, the end phosphorus groups share one oxide and the others phosphorus centres share two oxide centres. The corresponding phosphates are related to the acids by loss of the acidic protons. In the case of the cyclic trimer each tetrahedron shares two vertices with adjacent tetrahedra.
Sharing of three corners is possible. This motif represents crosslinking of the linear polymer. Crosslinked polyphosphates adopt the sheet-structure Phyllosilicates, but such structures occur only under extreme conditions.
Formation and synthesis
Polyphosphates arise by polymerization of phosphoric acid derivatives. The process begins with two phosphate units coming together in a condensation reaction.
2 H(PO4)2− ⇌ (P2O7)4− + H2O
The condensation is shown as an equilibrium because the reverse reaction, hydrolysis, is also possible. The process may continue in steps; at each step another (PO3)− unit is added to the chain, as indicated by the part in brackets in the illustration of polyphosphoric acid. P4O10 can be seen as the end product of condensation reactions, where each tetrahedron shares three corners with the others. Conversely, a complex mix of polymers is produced when a small amount of water is added to phosphorus pentoxide.
Acid-base and complexation properties
Polyphosphates are weak bases. A lone pair of electrons on an oxygen atom can be donated to a hydrogen ion (proton) or a metal ion in a typical Lewis acid-Lewis base interaction. This has profound significance in biology. For instance, adenosine triphosphate is about 25% protonated in aqueous solution at pH 7.
ATP4− + H+ ⇌ ATPH3−, pKa
≈
{\displaystyle \approx }
6.6
Further protonation occurs at lower pH values.
The "high energy" phosphate bond
ATP forms chelate complexes with metal ions. The stability constant for the equilibrium
ATP4− + Mg2+ ⇌ MgATP2−, log β
≈
{\displaystyle \approx }
4
is particularly large. The formation of the magnesium complex is a critical element in the process of ATP hydrolysis, as it weakens the link between the terminal phosphate group and the rest of the molecule.
The energy released in ATP hydrolysis,
ATP4− + H2O → ADP3− + Pi−
at ΔG
≈
{\displaystyle \approx }
-36.8 kJ mol−1 is large by biological standards. Pi stands for inorganic phosphate, which is protonated at biological pH. However, it is not large by inorganic standards. The term "high energy" refers to the fact that it is high relative to the amount of energy released in the organic chemical reactions that can occur in living systems.
High-polymeric inorganic polyphosphates
High molecular weight polyphosphates are well known. One derivative is the glassy (i.e., amorphous) Graham's salt. Crystalline high molecular weight polyphosphates include Kurrol’s salt and Maddrell’s salt (white powder practically insoluble in water). These species have the formula n2 where n can be as great as 2000. In terms of their structures, these polymers consist of PO3− "monomers", with the chains are terminated by protonated phosphates.
In nature
High-polymeric inorganic polyphosphates were found in living organisms by L. Liberman in 1890. These compounds are linear polymers containing a few to several hundred residues of orthophosphate linked by energy-rich phosphoanhydride bonds.
Previously, it was considered either as “molecular fossil” or as only a phosphorus and energy source providing the survival of microorganisms under extreme conditions. These compounds are now known to also have regulatory roles, and to occur in representatives of all kingdoms of living organisms, participating in metabolic correction and control on both genetic and enzymatic levels. Polyphosphate is directly involved in the switching-over of the genetic program characteristic of the exponential growth stage of bacteria to the program of cell survival under stationary conditions, "a life in the slow lane". They participate in many regulatory mechanisms occurring in bacteria:
They participate in the induction of rpoS, an RNA-polymerase subunit which is responsible for the expression of a large group of genes involved in adjustments to the stationary growth phase and many stressful agents.
They are important for cell motility, biofilms formation and virulence.
Polyphosphates and exopolyphosphatases participate in the regulation of the levels of the stringent response factor, guanosine 5'-diphosphate 3'-diphosphate (ppGpp), a second messenger in bacterial cells.
Polyphosphates participate in the formation of channels across the living cell membranes. The above channels formed by polyphosphate and poly-b-hydroxybutyrate with Ca2+ are involved in the transport processes in a variety of organisms.
An important function of polyphosphate in microorganisms—prokaryotes and the lower eukaryotes—is to handle changing environmental conditions by providing phosphate and energy reserves. Polyphosphates are present in animal cells, and there are many data on its participation in the regulatory processes during development and cellular proliferation and differentiation—especially in bone tissues and brain.
In humans polyphosphates are shown to play a key role in blood coagulation. Produced and released by platelets they activate blood coagulation factor XII which is essential for blood clot formation. Factor XII, also called Hageman factor, initiates fibrin formation and the generation of a proinflammatory mediator, bradykinin, that contributes to leakage from the blood vessels and thrombosis.
Bacterial-derived polyphosphates impair the host immune response during infection and targeting polyphosphates with recombinant exopolyphosphatase improves sepsis survival in mice.
Inorganic polyphosphates play a crucial role in tolerance of yeast cells to toxic heavy metal cations.
Use as food additives
Sodium polyphosphate (E452(i)), potassium polyphosphate (E452(ii)), sodium calcium polyphosphate (E452(iii)) and calcium polyphosphate (E452(iv)) are used as food additives (emulsifiers, humectants, sequestrants, stabilisers, and thickeners). They are not known to pose any potential health risk other than those generally attributed to other phosphate sources (including those naturally occurring in food). While concerns have been raised regarding detrimental effects on the bones and cardiovascular diseases, as well as hyperphosphatemia, these seem to be relevant only for exaggerated consumption of phosphate sources. In all, reasonable consumption (up to 40 mg phosphate per kg of body weight per day) seem to pose no health risk.
See also
Phosphoric acids
Sodium trimetaphosphate
Sodium hexametaphosphate
References
^ Jessen, Henning J.; Dürr-Mayer, Tobias; Haa, Thomas M.; Ripp, Alexander; Cummins, Christopher C. (2021). "Lost in Condensation: Poly-, Cyclo-, and Ultraphosphates". Accounts of Chemical Research. 54 (21): 4036–4050. doi:10.1021/acs.accounts.1c00370. PMID 34648267. S2CID 238989161.
^ a b Storer A, Cornish-Bowden A (1976). "Concentration of MgATP2- and other ions in solution. Calculation of the true concentrations of species present in mixtures of associating ions". Biochem J. 159 (1): 1–5. doi:10.1042/bj1590001. PMC 1164030. PMID 11772.
^ Wilson J, Chin A (1991). "Chelation of divalent cations by ATP, studied by titration calorimetry". Anal Biochem. 193 (1): 16–9. doi:10.1016/0003-2697(91)90036-S. PMID 1645933.
^ Garfinkel L, Altschuld R, Garfinkel D (1986). "Magnesium in cardiac energy metabolism". J Mol Cell Cardiol. 18 (10): 1003–13. doi:10.1016/S0022-2828(86)80289-9. PMID 3537318.
^ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
^ Klaus Schrödter, Gerhard Bettermann, Thomas Staffel, Friedrich Wahl, Thomas Klein, Thomas Hofmann "Phosphoric Acid and Phosphates" in Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2008, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a19_465.pub3
^ Ruiz FA, Lea CR, Oldfield E, Docampo R (Oct 2004). "Human platelet dense granules contain polyphosphate and are similar to acidocalcisomes of bacteria and unicellular eukaryotes". J Biol Chem. 279 (43): 44250–7. doi:10.1074/jbc.M406261200. PMID 15308650.
^ Müller F, Mutch NJ, Schenk WA, Smith SA, Esterl L, Spronk HM, Schmidbauer S, Gahl WA, Morrissey JH, Renné T (Dec 2009). "Platelet polyphosphates are proinflammatory and procoagulant mediators in vivo". Cell. 139 (6): 1143–56. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.11.001. PMC 2796262. PMID 20005807.
^ "Newly discovered mechanism by which blood clots form". physorg.com. December 10, 2009. Retrieved 13 December 2009.
^ Roewe J, Stavrides G, Strueve M, Sharma A, Marini F, Mann A, Smith SA, Kaya Z, Strobl B, Mueller M, Reinhardt C, Morrissey JH, Bosmann M (August 2020). "Bacterial polyphosphates interfere with the innate host defense to infection". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 4035. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.4035R. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17639-x. PMC 7423913. PMID 32788578.
^ Andreeva N, Ryazanova L, Dmitriev V, Kulakovskaya T, Kulaev I (Aug 2013). "Adaptation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to toxic manganese concentration triggers changes in inorganic polyphosphates". FEMS Yeast Res. 13 (5): 463–470. doi:10.1111/1567-1364.12049. PMID 23663411.
^ "E452 Polyphosphates". openfoodfacts.org. Retrieved 2022-03-18.
^ EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings (FAF), Younes, M., Aquilina, G., Castle, L., Engel, K. H., Fowler, P., ... & Mennes, W. (2019). Re‐evaluation of phosphoric acid–phosphates–di‐, tri‐and polyphosphates (E 338–341, E 343, E 450–452) as food additives and the safety of proposed extension of use. EFSA Journal, 17(6), e05674.
^ Ritz, E., Hahn, K., Ketteler, M., Kuhlmann, M. K., & Mann, J. (2012). Phosphate additives in food—a health risk. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International, 109(4), 49.
External links
Pavlov E, Grimbly C, Diao CT, French RJ (September 2005). "A high-conductance mode of a poly-3-hydroxybutyrate/calcium/polyphosphate channel isolated from competent Escherichia coli cells". FEBS Lett. 579 (23): 5187–92. doi:10.1016/j.febslet.2005.08.032. PMID 16150446. S2CID 35616647.
Kulaev I, Vagabov V, Kulakovskaya T (1999). "New aspects of inorganic polyphosphate metabolism and function". J. Biosci. Bioeng. 88 (2): 111–29. doi:10.1016/S1389-1723(99)80189-3. PMID 16232585.
Kulaev I, Kulakovskaya T (2000). "Polyphosphate and phosphate pump". Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 54: 709–34. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.54.1.709. PMID 11018142.
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Polyphosphates can adopt linear or a cyclic (also called, ring) structures. In biology, the polyphosphate esters ADP and ATP are involved in energy storage. A variety of polyphosphates find application in mineral sequestration in municipal waters, generally being present at 1 to 5 ppm.[1] GTP, CTP, and UTP are also nucleotides important in the protein synthesis, lipid synthesis, and carbohydrate metabolism, respectively.\nPolyphosphates are also used as food additives, marked E452.","title":"Polyphosphate"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triphosphors%C3%A4ure.svg"},{"link_name":"triphosphoric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triphosphoric_acid"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polyphosphoric_acid.svg"},{"link_name":"Polyphosphoric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphosphoric_acid"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trimetaphosphat.svg"},{"link_name":"metaphosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphosphate"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adenosindiphosphat_protoniert.svg"},{"link_name":"Adenosine diphosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_diphosphate"},{"link_name":"acidic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidic"},{"link_name":"crosslinking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-link"},{"link_name":"Phyllosilicates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_minerals"}],"text":"Structure of triphosphoric acid\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPolyphosphoric acid\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCyclic trimetaphosphate\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAdenosine diphosphate (ADP)The structure of tripolyphosphoric acid illustrates the principles which define the structures of polyphosphates. It consists of three tetrahedral PO4 units linked together by sharing oxygen centres. For the linear chains, the end phosphorus groups share one oxide and the others phosphorus centres share two oxide centres. The corresponding phosphates are related to the acids by loss of the acidic protons. In the case of the cyclic trimer each tetrahedron shares two vertices with adjacent tetrahedra.Sharing of three corners is possible. This motif represents crosslinking of the linear polymer. Crosslinked polyphosphates adopt the sheet-structure Phyllosilicates, but such structures occur only under extreme conditions.","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"hydrolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrolysis"}],"text":"Polyphosphates arise by polymerization of phosphoric acid derivatives. The process begins with two phosphate units coming together in a condensation reaction.2 H(PO4)2− ⇌ (P2O7)4− + H2OThe condensation is shown as an equilibrium because the reverse reaction, hydrolysis, is also possible. The process may continue in steps; at each step another (PO3)− unit is added to the chain, as indicated by the part in brackets in the illustration of polyphosphoric acid. P4O10 can be seen as the end product of condensation reactions, where each tetrahedron shares three corners with the others. Conversely, a complex mix of polymers is produced when a small amount of water is added to phosphorus pentoxide.","title":"Formation and synthesis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"weak bases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"hydrogen ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_ion"},{"link_name":"Lewis acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_acid"},{"link_name":"Lewis base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_base"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Storer-2"}],"text":"Polyphosphates are weak bases. A lone pair of electrons on an oxygen atom can be donated to a hydrogen ion (proton) or a metal ion in a typical Lewis acid-Lewis base interaction. This has profound significance in biology. For instance, adenosine triphosphate is about 25% protonated in aqueous solution at pH 7.[2]ATP4− + H+ ⇌ ATPH3−, pKa \n \n \n \n ≈\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\approx }\n \n 6.6Further protonation occurs at lower pH values.","title":"Acid-base and complexation properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"chelate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelation"},{"link_name":"stability constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stability_constants_of_complexes"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Storer-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"organic chemical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_chemistry"}],"text":"ATP forms chelate complexes with metal ions. The stability constant for the equilibriumATP4− + Mg2+ ⇌ MgATP2−, log β \n \n \n \n ≈\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\approx }\n \n 4is particularly large.[3] The formation of the magnesium complex is a critical element in the process of ATP hydrolysis, as it weakens the link between the terminal phosphate group and the rest of the molecule.[2][4]The energy released in ATP hydrolysis,ATP4− + H2O → ADP3− + Pi−at ΔG \n \n \n \n ≈\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\approx }\n \n -36.8 kJ mol−1 is large by biological standards. Pi stands for inorganic phosphate, which is protonated at biological pH. However, it is not large by inorganic standards. The term \"high energy\" refers to the fact that it is high relative to the amount of energy released in the organic chemical reactions that can occur in living systems.","title":"The \"high energy\" phosphate bond"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"glassy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass"},{"link_name":"Graham's salt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham%27s_salt"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ullmann-6"}],"text":"High molecular weight polyphosphates are well known.[5] One derivative is the glassy (i.e., amorphous) Graham's salt. Crystalline high molecular weight polyphosphates include Kurrol’s salt and Maddrell’s salt (white powder practically insoluble in water). These species have the formula [NaPO3]n[NaPO3(OH)]2 where n can be as great as 2000. In terms of their structures, these polymers consist of PO3− \"monomers\", with the chains are terminated by protonated phosphates.[6]","title":"High-polymeric inorganic polyphosphates"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"orthophosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphoric_acids_and_Phosphates#Orthophosphate"},{"link_name":"phosphoanhydride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphoanhydride"},{"link_name":"molecular fossil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_fossil"},{"link_name":"rpoS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RpoS"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"exopolyphosphatases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exopolyphosphatase"},{"link_name":"coagulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coagulation"},{"link_name":"platelets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platelet"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid15308650-7"},{"link_name":"factor XII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factor_XII"},{"link_name":"bradykinin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradykinin"},{"link_name":"leakage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation#Vascular_component"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid20005807-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid32788578-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid23663411-11"}],"sub_title":"In nature","text":"High-polymeric inorganic polyphosphates were found in living organisms by L. Liberman in 1890. These compounds are linear polymers containing a few to several hundred residues of orthophosphate linked by energy-rich phosphoanhydride bonds.Previously, it was considered either as “molecular fossil” or as only a phosphorus and energy source providing the survival of microorganisms under extreme conditions. These compounds are now known to also have regulatory roles, and to occur in representatives of all kingdoms of living organisms, participating in metabolic correction and control on both genetic and enzymatic levels. Polyphosphate is directly involved in the switching-over of the genetic program characteristic of the exponential growth stage of bacteria to the program of cell survival under stationary conditions, \"a life in the slow lane\". They participate in many regulatory mechanisms occurring in bacteria:They participate in the induction of rpoS, an RNA-polymerase subunit which is responsible for the expression of a large group of genes involved in adjustments to the stationary growth phase and many stressful agents.\nThey are important for cell motility, biofilms formation and virulence.[clarification needed]\nPolyphosphates and exopolyphosphatases participate in the regulation of the levels of the stringent response factor, guanosine 5'-diphosphate 3'-diphosphate (ppGpp), a second messenger in bacterial cells.\nPolyphosphates participate in the formation of channels across the living cell membranes. The above channels formed by polyphosphate and poly-b-hydroxybutyrate with Ca2+ are involved in the transport processes in a variety of organisms.\nAn important function of polyphosphate in microorganisms—prokaryotes and the lower eukaryotes—is to handle changing environmental conditions by providing phosphate and energy reserves. Polyphosphates are present in animal cells, and there are many data on its participation in the regulatory processes during development and cellular proliferation and differentiation—especially in bone tissues and brain.In humans polyphosphates are shown to play a key role in blood coagulation. Produced and released by platelets[7] they activate blood coagulation factor XII which is essential for blood clot formation. Factor XII, also called Hageman factor, initiates fibrin formation and the generation of a proinflammatory mediator, bradykinin, that contributes to leakage from the blood vessels and thrombosis.[8][9]\nBacterial-derived polyphosphates impair the host immune response during infection and targeting polyphosphates with recombinant exopolyphosphatase improves sepsis survival in mice.[10]\nInorganic polyphosphates play a crucial role in tolerance of yeast cells to toxic heavy metal cations.[11]","title":"High-polymeric inorganic polyphosphates"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"phosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphate"},{"link_name":"hyperphosphatemia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperphosphatemia"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Sodium polyphosphate (E452(i)), potassium polyphosphate (E452(ii)), sodium calcium polyphosphate (E452(iii)) and calcium polyphosphate (E452(iv)) are used as food additives (emulsifiers, humectants, sequestrants, stabilisers, and thickeners).[12] They are not known to pose any potential health risk other than those generally attributed to other phosphate sources (including those naturally occurring in food). While concerns have been raised regarding detrimental effects on the bones and cardiovascular diseases, as well as hyperphosphatemia, these seem to be relevant only for exaggerated consumption of phosphate sources. In all, reasonable consumption (up to 40 mg phosphate per kg of body weight per day) seem to pose no health risk.[13][14]","title":"Use as food additives"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Phosphoric acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphoric_acids"},{"title":"Sodium trimetaphosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_trimetaphosphate"},{"title":"Sodium hexametaphosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hexametaphosphate"}]
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[{"reference":"Jessen, Henning J.; Dürr-Mayer, Tobias; Haa, Thomas M.; Ripp, Alexander; Cummins, Christopher C. (2021). \"Lost in Condensation: Poly-, Cyclo-, and Ultraphosphates\". Accounts of Chemical Research. 54 (21): 4036–4050. doi:10.1021/acs.accounts.1c00370. PMID 34648267. S2CID 238989161.","urls":[{"url":"https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.accounts.1c00370","url_text":"\"Lost in Condensation: Poly-, Cyclo-, and Ultraphosphates\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.accounts.1c00370","url_text":"10.1021/acs.accounts.1c00370"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34648267","url_text":"34648267"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:238989161","url_text":"238989161"}]},{"reference":"Storer A, Cornish-Bowden A (1976). \"Concentration of MgATP2- and other ions in solution. Calculation of the true concentrations of species present in mixtures of associating ions\". Biochem J. 159 (1): 1–5. doi:10.1042/bj1590001. PMC 1164030. PMID 11772.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athel_Cornish-Bowden","url_text":"Cornish-Bowden A"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1164030","url_text":"\"Concentration of MgATP2- and other ions in solution. Calculation of the true concentrations of species present in mixtures of associating ions\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj1590001","url_text":"10.1042/bj1590001"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1164030","url_text":"1164030"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11772","url_text":"11772"}]},{"reference":"Wilson J, Chin A (1991). \"Chelation of divalent cations by ATP, studied by titration calorimetry\". Anal Biochem. 193 (1): 16–9. doi:10.1016/0003-2697(91)90036-S. PMID 1645933.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0003-2697%2891%2990036-S","url_text":"10.1016/0003-2697(91)90036-S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1645933","url_text":"1645933"}]},{"reference":"Garfinkel L, Altschuld R, Garfinkel D (1986). \"Magnesium in cardiac energy metabolism\". J Mol Cell Cardiol. 18 (10): 1003–13. doi:10.1016/S0022-2828(86)80289-9. PMID 3537318.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0022-2828%2886%2980289-9","url_text":"10.1016/S0022-2828(86)80289-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3537318","url_text":"3537318"}]},{"reference":"Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Greenwood","url_text":"Greenwood, Norman N."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterworth-Heinemann","url_text":"Butterworth-Heinemann"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-037941-8","url_text":"978-0-08-037941-8"}]},{"reference":"Ruiz FA, Lea CR, Oldfield E, Docampo R (Oct 2004). \"Human platelet dense granules contain polyphosphate and are similar to acidocalcisomes of bacteria and unicellular eukaryotes\". J Biol Chem. 279 (43): 44250–7. doi:10.1074/jbc.M406261200. PMID 15308650.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.M406261200","url_text":"\"Human platelet dense granules contain polyphosphate and are similar to acidocalcisomes of bacteria and unicellular eukaryotes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.M406261200","url_text":"10.1074/jbc.M406261200"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15308650","url_text":"15308650"}]},{"reference":"Müller F, Mutch NJ, Schenk WA, Smith SA, Esterl L, Spronk HM, Schmidbauer S, Gahl WA, Morrissey JH, Renné T (Dec 2009). \"Platelet polyphosphates are proinflammatory and procoagulant mediators in vivo\". Cell. 139 (6): 1143–56. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.11.001. PMC 2796262. PMID 20005807.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2796262","url_text":"\"Platelet polyphosphates are proinflammatory and procoagulant mediators in vivo\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2009.11.001","url_text":"10.1016/j.cell.2009.11.001"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2796262","url_text":"2796262"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20005807","url_text":"20005807"}]},{"reference":"\"Newly discovered mechanism by which blood clots form\". physorg.com. December 10, 2009. Retrieved 13 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.physorg.com/news179673245.html","url_text":"\"Newly discovered mechanism by which blood clots form\""}]},{"reference":"Roewe J, Stavrides G, Strueve M, Sharma A, Marini F, Mann A, Smith SA, Kaya Z, Strobl B, Mueller M, Reinhardt C, Morrissey JH, Bosmann M (August 2020). \"Bacterial polyphosphates interfere with the innate host defense to infection\". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 4035. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.4035R. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17639-x. PMC 7423913. PMID 32788578.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7423913","url_text":"\"Bacterial polyphosphates interfere with the innate host defense to infection\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatCo..11.4035R","url_text":"2020NatCo..11.4035R"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-020-17639-x","url_text":"10.1038/s41467-020-17639-x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7423913","url_text":"7423913"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32788578","url_text":"32788578"}]},{"reference":"Andreeva N, Ryazanova L, Dmitriev V, Kulakovskaya T, Kulaev I (Aug 2013). \"Adaptation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to toxic manganese concentration triggers changes in inorganic polyphosphates\". FEMS Yeast Res. 13 (5): 463–470. doi:10.1111/1567-1364.12049. PMID 23663411.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1567-1364.12049","url_text":"\"Adaptation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to toxic manganese concentration triggers changes in inorganic polyphosphates\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1567-1364.12049","url_text":"10.1111/1567-1364.12049"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23663411","url_text":"23663411"}]},{"reference":"\"E452 Polyphosphates\". openfoodfacts.org. Retrieved 2022-03-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://world.openfoodfacts.org/additive/e452-polyphosphates","url_text":"\"E452 Polyphosphates\""}]},{"reference":"Pavlov E, Grimbly C, Diao CT, French RJ (September 2005). \"A high-conductance mode of a poly-3-hydroxybutyrate/calcium/polyphosphate channel isolated from competent Escherichia coli cells\". FEBS Lett. 579 (23): 5187–92. doi:10.1016/j.febslet.2005.08.032. PMID 16150446. S2CID 35616647.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.febslet.2005.08.032","url_text":"\"A high-conductance mode of a poly-3-hydroxybutyrate/calcium/polyphosphate channel isolated from competent Escherichia coli cells\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.febslet.2005.08.032","url_text":"10.1016/j.febslet.2005.08.032"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16150446","url_text":"16150446"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:35616647","url_text":"35616647"}]},{"reference":"Kulaev I, Vagabov V, Kulakovskaya T (1999). \"New aspects of inorganic polyphosphate metabolism and function\". J. Biosci. Bioeng. 88 (2): 111–29. doi:10.1016/S1389-1723(99)80189-3. PMID 16232585.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1389-1723%2899%2980189-3","url_text":"10.1016/S1389-1723(99)80189-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16232585","url_text":"16232585"}]},{"reference":"Kulaev I, Kulakovskaya T (2000). \"Polyphosphate and phosphate pump\". Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 54: 709–34. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.54.1.709. PMID 11018142.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.micro.54.1.709","url_text":"10.1146/annurev.micro.54.1.709"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11018142","url_text":"11018142"}]}]
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Calculation of the true concentrations of species present in mixtures of associating ions\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj1590001","external_links_name":"10.1042/bj1590001"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1164030","external_links_name":"1164030"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11772","external_links_name":"11772"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0003-2697%2891%2990036-S","external_links_name":"10.1016/0003-2697(91)90036-S"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1645933","external_links_name":"1645933"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0022-2828%2886%2980289-9","external_links_name":"10.1016/S0022-2828(86)80289-9"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3537318","external_links_name":"3537318"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a19_465.pub3","external_links_name":"10.1002/14356007.a19_465.pub3"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.M406261200","external_links_name":"\"Human platelet dense granules contain polyphosphate and are similar to acidocalcisomes of bacteria and unicellular eukaryotes\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.M406261200","external_links_name":"10.1074/jbc.M406261200"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15308650","external_links_name":"15308650"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2796262","external_links_name":"\"Platelet polyphosphates are proinflammatory and procoagulant mediators in vivo\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2009.11.001","external_links_name":"10.1016/j.cell.2009.11.001"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2796262","external_links_name":"2796262"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20005807","external_links_name":"20005807"},{"Link":"http://www.physorg.com/news179673245.html","external_links_name":"\"Newly discovered mechanism by which blood clots form\""},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7423913","external_links_name":"\"Bacterial polyphosphates interfere with the innate host defense to infection\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatCo..11.4035R","external_links_name":"2020NatCo..11.4035R"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-020-17639-x","external_links_name":"10.1038/s41467-020-17639-x"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7423913","external_links_name":"7423913"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32788578","external_links_name":"32788578"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1567-1364.12049","external_links_name":"\"Adaptation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to toxic manganese concentration triggers changes in inorganic polyphosphates\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1567-1364.12049","external_links_name":"10.1111/1567-1364.12049"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23663411","external_links_name":"23663411"},{"Link":"https://world.openfoodfacts.org/additive/e452-polyphosphates","external_links_name":"\"E452 Polyphosphates\""},{"Link":"https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/j.efsa.2019.5674","external_links_name":"EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings (FAF), Younes, M., Aquilina, G., Castle, L., Engel, K. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritas_Software
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Veritas Technologies
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["1 History","1.1 Early history","1.2 Growth and acquisitions","1.3 2004–2014: Merger with Symantec","1.4 2014–2016: Demerger","1.5 2016: The new beginning","2 Products and services","3 Lawsuits","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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American data management company
For other uses, see Veritas (disambiguation).
VRTS redirects here, for the ticketing system used by Wikipedia's Volunteer Response Team see Wikipedia:VRTS
Veritas Technologies LLCCompany typePrivateIndustryInformation ManagementFounded1983; 41 years ago (1983) (as Tolerant Systems)January 29, 2016; 8 years ago (2016-01-29) (as Veritas Technologies)FoundersEli AlonDale ShipleyHeadquartersSanta Clara, California, USKey peopleGreg Hughes (CEO)OwnerThe Carlyle GroupNumber of employees7,000 (2020)Websiteveritas.com
Veritas Technologies LLC is an American international data management company headquartered in Santa Clara, California. The company has its origins in Tolerant Systems, founded in 1983 and later renamed Veritas Software. It specializes in storage management software including the first commercial journaling file system, VxFS, VxVM, VCS, the personal/small office backup software Backup Exec and the enterprise backup software, NetBackup. Veritas Record Now was an early CD recording software.
Before merging with Symantec (now known as Gen Digital) in 2004, Veritas was listed on the S&P 500 and the NASDAQ-100 under the VRTS ticker symbol.
In 2014, Symantec announced that it would demerge its information management business as Veritas Technologies LLC, to focus on security. It was purchased as part of the demerger by the private equity firm The Carlyle Group for $8 billion in cash.
History
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Early history
The company was founded by Eli Alon and Dale Shipley (both from Intel) as Tolerant Systems in 1983 to build fault-tolerant computer systems based on the idea of "shoe box" building blocks. The shoe box consisted of an OS processor, running a version of Unix called TX, and on which applications ran, and an I/O processor, running a Real Time Executive, developed by Tolerant, called RTE: both processors were 320xx processors. The system was marketed as the "Eternity Series."
The TX software gained a level of fault-tolerance through check-pointing technology. Applications needed to be fortified with this check-pointing to allow roll-back of the application on another processor if a hardware failure occurred. Tolerant also developed a forerunner of today's RAID systems by incorporating a journaling file system and multiple copies of the disk drive content.
Logo as Veritas Software
Dale Ship Tolerant Software in January 1988. Tolerant Software produced a journaling file system and a virtual disk management system for the AT&T UNIX platform, which was built by a new team led by John Carmichael.
The firm started out with a relationship with AT&T to provide the file (Veritas File System – VxFS) and disk management (Veritas Volume Manager – VxVM) software for its UNIX operating system, and to jointly market and support the products to the System OEMS (Sun, HP, etc.). The OEM model provided royalties to Veritas when the OEM shipped its products to end users.
On December 9, 1993, the company had its initial public offering (IPO), selling 16 million shares to the public, and valuing the company at $64 million.
Growth and acquisitions
At the end of 1996, Veritas had revenues of $36 million.
Tidalwave Technologies Acquisition: In 1995 the company acquired Tidalwave Technologies, a small San Francisco–based company for $4.2 million in stock. Tidalwave specialized in cross-platform High Availability (HA) Software and thus entered the HA business.
OpenVision Acquisition: In 1997 the company acquired OpenVision Technologies, another public company of the same size, and thus entered the backup business. Although the company only retained $20 million of OpenVision's 1996 base, it completed the 1997 year at $120 million. It was during this high growth period that the Veritas Board decided to consolidate the various business locations into a 550,000 SF facility in Mountain View, CA. Ernst & Young Consultants led by David Bentley as the project manager were brought in to lead this effort and soon hired HOK as the architect and Rudolf and Sletten as the general contractor. The new facility was completed in 2000.
Seagate NSMG Acquisition: The company achieved $200 million in 1998, and in 1999 acquired the backup business from Seagate Software, which was also approximately $200 million in 1998. In 1999 the combined company achieved revenues of $700 million, and became the undisputed leader in the Storage Management Software industry. In 2000 the company achieved revenues of $1.2 billion, was added to the S&P 500, became a Fortune 1000 company, and became the tenth largest software company in the world by revenues, and third largest by market capitalization.
Internet Bubble: In 2001 the industry went through a major downturn as the internet bubble burst. Nonetheless the company was able to achieve revenue growth of 25% to $1.5 billion, and operating margins of 25%.
Growth of 42X: Through this accelerated growth, Veritas went from a $36 million company to a $1.5 billion company, a growth multiple of 42X in five years.
April 1997 – Acquired OpenVision Technologies. This included NetBackup.
May 1999 – Acquired the Network and Storage Management Group of Seagate Software. This included Backup Exec.
August 2003 – Acquired Israel's Precise Software Solutions, one of the Application Performance Management (APM) leaders, for about $400 million in cash and 7.4 million shares of its stock for a total of about $609 million.
2004–2014: Merger with Symantec
In 1998, Veritas decided to consolidate most of its offices to one corporate headquarters in Mountain View and hired Ernst and Young to plan the new 550,000 sf facility. David Bentley of EY led the team to hire HOK as the architect and Rudolf and Sletten as the general contractor. The new facility was completed in 2001 along the new light rail facility. On December 16, 2004, Veritas and Symantec announced their plans for a merger in a deal valued at $13.5 billion. The deal created the fourth-largest software firm in the world to date. Veritas and Symantec's shareholders approved the merger on June 24, 2005, and it was completed on July 2.
2014–2016: Demerger
On October 10, 2014, Symantec announced it planned to split the company into two parts. The security business would remain with Symantec, and the information management business would be known as Veritas Technologies Corporation. The separation of the companies was completed on January 29, 2016.
On August 11, 2015, Symantec announced the sale of its Veritas information management business to The Carlyle Group. Veritas and Symantec achieved operational separation on October 1, 2015. The sale completed on January 30, 2016, when Veritas became a privately held company. The sale to go private was for $8 billion, and represented a mark-down on Symantec stock.
2016: The new beginning
After the demerger from Symantec in 2016, Veritas rebranded itself as Veritas Technologies LLC. with a new logo. As CEO, Bill Coleman was able to transform the company to have "a startup, win-in-the-marketplace, customer-first culture" during the two-year turnaround. On January 28, 2018, Veritas Technologies LLC. named Greg Hughes as its CEO. With a new brand and a new CEO, Veritas Technologies planned to move its employees to its new headquarters in Santa Clara by the end of summer 2018. In September 2020, Veritas Technologies LLC acquired Los Angeles–based software company Globanet.
Products and services
Veritas Alta
Access
VxFS and VxVM
NetBackup
NetBackup Appliances
Backup Exec
Cluster Server (VCS)
Enterprise Vault
Volume Replicator (VVR)
SANPoint
eDiscovery Platform
APTARE IT Analytics™
CloudPoint
SaaS Backup
Desktop and Laptop Option
Flex Appliance
Information Studio
Data Insight
Veritas Infoscale, data management such as HyperScale for OpenStack
Resiliency Platform
Hubstor
Lawsuits
In 1999, VERITAS Software Corp. (VERITAS US) and VERITAS Ireland entered into a cost-sharing agreement (CSA) which was the subject of litigation with the U.S. Internal Revenue Service.
See also
Veritas Storage Foundation
Veritas Cluster File System
Veritas File System
Enterprise Vault
Veritas Services and Operations Readiness Tools (SORT)
References
^ Beeler, Jeffry (13 January 1986). "Eternity now fault tolerant". Computerworld. p. 37. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
^ "Veritas Buys Pair of Software Firms". eWeek. 2002-12-19.
^ Boulton, Clint (June 30, 2003), "Veritas Closes Precise Software Purchase", InternetNews.com, retrieved 2009-11-03
^ "Symantec Buys Veritas in $13.5 Billion Deal". 16 December 2004.
^ Robertson, Jordon (Oct 10, 2014), "Symantec to Split Into Storage, Security Companies", Bloomberg, retrieved 2014-10-10
^ corporate press release, Symantec and The Carlyle Group Plan to Close Acquisition of Veritas January 29, 2016, retrieved 2016-01-03
^ a b corporate press release, Symantec to Separate Into Two Focused, Industry-Leading Technology Companies, archived from the original on September 24, 2015, retrieved 2015-08-12
^ corporate press release, Symantec and Veritas separation (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-11-30, retrieved 2016-02-15
^ Preimesberger, Chris (Aug 11, 2015), Veritas Goes Private for $8 Billion Following Split from Symantec, retrieved 2017-03-23
^ "Veritas taps new CEO, saying two-year turnaround is complete – SiliconANGLE". SiliconANGLE. 2018-01-08. Retrieved 2018-05-04.
^ Technologies, Veritas. "Veritas Names Greg Hughes as Chief Executive Officer". www.prnewswire.com. Retrieved 2018-05-04.
^ "Veritas moving headquarters, hundreds of workers, to Santa Clara". The Mercury News. 2017-11-20. Retrieved 2018-05-04.
^ "Veritas Acquires Globanet, Extending Its Leading Digital Compliance Portfolio". finance.yahoo.com. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
^ "Veritas Extends Cloud Capabilities Across Its Platform". www.veritas.com. Retrieved 2021-04-26.
^ "Google Scholar".
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The company has its origins in Tolerant Systems, founded in 1983 and later renamed Veritas Software. It specializes in storage management software including the first commercial journaling file system, VxFS, VxVM, VCS, the personal/small office backup software Backup Exec and the enterprise backup software, NetBackup. Veritas Record Now was an early CD recording software.Before merging with Symantec (now known as Gen Digital) in 2004, Veritas was listed on the S&P 500 and the NASDAQ-100 under the VRTS ticker symbol.In 2014, Symantec announced that it would demerge its information management business as Veritas Technologies LLC, to focus on security. It was purchased as part of the demerger by the private equity firm The Carlyle Group for $8 billion in cash.","title":"Veritas Technologies"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"fault-tolerant computer systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault-tolerant_computer_systems"},{"link_name":"Unix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix"},{"link_name":"I/O processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I/O_processor"},{"link_name":"320xx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NS320xx"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-computerworld19860113_eternity-1"},{"link_name":"RAID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redundant_array_of_independent_disks"},{"link_name":"journaling file system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journaling_file_system"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Veritas_Logo_neu.svg"},{"link_name":"AT&T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T"}],"sub_title":"Early history","text":"The company was founded by Eli Alon and Dale Shipley (both from Intel) as Tolerant Systems in 1983 to build fault-tolerant computer systems based on the idea of \"shoe box\" building blocks. The shoe box consisted of an OS processor, running a version of Unix called TX, and on which applications ran, and an I/O processor, running a Real Time Executive, developed by Tolerant, called RTE: both processors were 320xx processors. The system was marketed as the \"Eternity Series.\"[1]The TX software gained a level of fault-tolerance through check-pointing technology. Applications needed to be fortified with this check-pointing to allow roll-back of the application on another processor if a hardware failure occurred. Tolerant also developed a forerunner of today's RAID systems by incorporating a journaling file system and multiple copies of the disk drive content.Logo as Veritas SoftwareDale Ship Tolerant Software in January 1988. Tolerant Software produced a journaling file system and a virtual disk management system for the AT&T UNIX platform, which was built by a new team led by John Carmichael.The firm started out with a relationship with AT&T to provide the file (Veritas File System – VxFS) and disk management (Veritas Volume Manager – VxVM) software for its UNIX operating system, and to jointly market and support the products to the System OEMS (Sun, HP, etc.). The OEM model provided royalties to Veritas when the OEM shipped its products to end users.On December 9, 1993, the company had its initial public offering (IPO), selling 16 million shares to the public, and valuing the company at $64 million.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NetBackup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NetBackup&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Seagate Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagate_Software"},{"link_name":"Backup Exec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backup_Exec"},{"link_name":"Application Performance Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_Performance_Management"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boulton-3"}],"sub_title":"Growth and acquisitions","text":"At the end of 1996, Veritas had revenues of $36 million.Tidalwave Technologies Acquisition: In 1995 the company acquired Tidalwave Technologies, a small San Francisco–based company for $4.2 million in stock. Tidalwave specialized in cross-platform High Availability (HA) Software and thus entered the HA business.\nOpenVision Acquisition: In 1997 the company acquired OpenVision Technologies, another public company of the same size, and thus entered the backup business. Although the company only retained $20 million of OpenVision's 1996 base, it completed the 1997 year at $120 million. It was during this high growth period that the Veritas Board decided to consolidate the various business locations into a 550,000 SF facility in Mountain View, CA. Ernst & Young Consultants led by David Bentley as the project manager were brought in to lead this effort and soon hired HOK as the architect and Rudolf and Sletten as the general contractor. The new facility was completed in 2000.\nSeagate NSMG Acquisition: The company achieved $200 million in 1998, and in 1999 acquired the backup business from Seagate Software, which was also approximately $200 million in 1998. In 1999 the combined company achieved revenues of $700 million, and became the undisputed leader in the Storage Management Software industry. In 2000 the company achieved revenues of $1.2 billion, was added to the S&P 500, became a Fortune 1000 company, and became the tenth largest software company in the world by revenues, and third largest by market capitalization.\nInternet Bubble: In 2001 the industry went through a major downturn as the internet bubble burst. Nonetheless the company was able to achieve revenue growth of 25% to $1.5 billion, and operating margins of 25%.\nGrowth of 42X: Through this accelerated growth, Veritas went from a $36 million company to a $1.5 billion company, a growth multiple of 42X in five years.\nApril 1997 – Acquired OpenVision Technologies. This included NetBackup.\nMay 1999 – Acquired the Network and Storage Management Group of Seagate Software. This included Backup Exec.\nAugust 2003 – Acquired Israel's Precise Software Solutions, one of the Application Performance Management (APM) leaders,[2] for about $400 million in cash and 7.4 million shares of its stock for a total of about $609 million.[3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Symantec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen_Digital"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"2004–2014: Merger with Symantec","text":"In 1998, Veritas decided to consolidate most of its offices to one corporate headquarters in Mountain View and hired Ernst and Young to plan the new 550,000 sf facility. David Bentley of EY led the team to hire HOK as the architect and Rudolf and Sletten as the general contractor. The new facility was completed in 2001 along the new light rail facility. On December 16, 2004, Veritas and Symantec announced their plans for a merger in a deal valued at $13.5 billion. The deal created the fourth-largest software firm in the world to date.[4] Veritas and Symantec's shareholders approved the merger on June 24, 2005, and it was completed on July 2.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bloomberg2014-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"The Carlyle Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Carlyle_Group"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eweek-9"}],"sub_title":"2014–2016: Demerger","text":"On October 10, 2014, Symantec announced it planned to split the company into two parts.[5] The security business would remain with Symantec, and the information management business would be known as Veritas Technologies Corporation. The separation of the companies was completed on January 29, 2016.[6]On August 11, 2015, Symantec announced the sale of its Veritas information management business to The Carlyle Group.[7] Veritas and Symantec achieved operational separation on October 1, 2015. The sale completed on January 30, 2016, when Veritas became a privately held company.[7][8] The sale to go private was for $8 billion, and represented a mark-down on Symantec stock.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"2016: The new beginning","text":"After the demerger from Symantec in 2016, Veritas rebranded itself as Veritas Technologies LLC. with a new logo. As CEO, Bill Coleman was able to transform the company to have \"a startup, win-in-the-marketplace, customer-first culture\" during the two-year turnaround.[10] On January 28, 2018, Veritas Technologies LLC. named Greg Hughes as its CEO.[11] With a new brand and a new CEO, Veritas Technologies planned to move its employees to its new headquarters in Santa Clara by the end of summer 2018.[12] In September 2020, Veritas Technologies LLC acquired Los Angeles–based software company Globanet.[13]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"VxFS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VxFS"},{"link_name":"VxVM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VxVM"},{"link_name":"NetBackup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NetBackup&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Backup Exec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backup_Exec"},{"link_name":"Cluster Server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritas_Cluster_Server"},{"link_name":"Enterprise Vault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_Vault"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Veritas Alta\nAccess\nVxFS and VxVM\nNetBackup\nNetBackup Appliances\nBackup Exec\nCluster Server (VCS)\nEnterprise Vault\nVolume Replicator (VVR)\nSANPoint\neDiscovery Platform\nAPTARE IT Analytics™\nCloudPoint\nSaaS Backup\nDesktop and Laptop Option\nFlex Appliance\nInformation Studio\nData Insight\nVeritas Infoscale, data management such as HyperScale for OpenStack\nResiliency Platform\nHubstor[14]","title":"Products and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cost-sharing agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost-sharing_agreement"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"In 1999, VERITAS Software Corp. (VERITAS US) and VERITAS Ireland entered into a cost-sharing agreement (CSA) which was the subject of litigation with the U.S. Internal Revenue Service.[15]","title":"Lawsuits"}]
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[{"title":"Veritas Storage Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritas_Storage_Foundation"},{"title":"Veritas Cluster File System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritas_Cluster_File_System"},{"title":"Veritas File System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritas_File_System"},{"title":"Enterprise Vault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_Vault"},{"title":"Veritas Services and Operations Readiness Tools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sort.veritas.com/land"}]
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[{"reference":"Beeler, Jeffry (13 January 1986). \"Eternity now fault tolerant\". Computerworld. p. 37. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathaniel_Bowditch
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Nathaniel Bowditch
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["1 Life and work","2 Bowditch's American Practical Navigator","3 Legacy","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]
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American astronomer and mathematician (1773–1838)
Nathaniel BowditchBowditch is often credited as the founder of modern maritime navigation.Born(1773-03-26)March 26, 1773Salem, Province of Massachusetts BayDiedMarch 16, 1838(1838-03-16) (aged 64)Boston, Massachusetts, USOccupation(s)Mathematician, ship's captain, and actuarySpouse(s)Elizabeth Boardman Bowditch, Mary Polly Ingersoll BowditchSignature
Nathaniel Bowditch (March 26, 1773 – March 16, 1838) was an early American mathematician remembered for his work on ocean navigation. He is often credited as the founder of modern maritime navigation; his book The New American Practical Navigator, first published in 1802, is still carried on board every commissioned U.S. Naval vessel.
Nathaniel Bowditch (1773-1838), last and unfinished painting by Gilbert Stuart.
Dedication page by Nathaniel Bowditch in "Mécanique céleste"
Portrait of Mary Bowditch in Volume 1 of Pierre-Simon Laplace's "Mécanique céleste" (1829), translated by Nathaniel Bowditch
Life and work
Nathaniel Bowditch, the fourth of seven children, was born in Salem, Province of Massachusetts Bay, to Habakkuk Bowditch, a cooper who at one point was a sailor as well but stopped after his ship went aground in 1775, and Mary Ingersoll Bowditch. At the age of ten, he was made to leave school to work in his father's cooperage, before becoming indentured at twelve for nine years as a bookkeeping apprentice to a ship chandler. Here is where he first learned bookkeeping, an important step in his life.
In 1786, age fourteen, Bowditch began to study algebra and two years later he taught himself calculus. He also taught himself Latin in 1790 and French in 1792 so he was able to read mathematical works such as Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. He found thousands of errors in John Hamilton Moore's The New Practical Navigator; at eighteen, he copied all the mathematical papers of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Among his many significant scientific contributions would be a translation of Pierre-Simon de Laplace's Mécanique céleste, a lengthy work on mathematics and theoretical astronomy. This translation was critical to the development of astronomy in the United States.
Serendipity aided Bowditch's self-directed study, in as much as he found himself able to use the eminent Irish chemist Richard Kirwan's library: Hugh Hill, a privateer from Salem who captained the Pilgrim, had intercepted the ship carrying the library between Ireland and England and brought the library back to Salem in 1781.
In 1795, Bowditch went to sea on the first of four voyages as a ship's clerk and captain's writer. His fifth voyage was as master and part owner of a ship. Following this voyage, he returned to Salem in 1803 to resume his mathematical studies and enter the insurance business. One of his family homes in Salem, the Nathaniel Bowditch House, still exists and was restored in 2000. This house has been designated a National Historic Landmark.
In 1798 Bowditch married Elizabeth Boardman, who died seven months later. In 1800 Bowditch married his second wife and cousin, Mary "Polly" Ingersoll Bowditch (1781–1834). They had 2 daughters and 6 sons, including Henry Ingersoll Bowditch and William Ingersoll Bowditch. Among his grandchildren were Henry Pickering Bowditch and Charles Pickering Bowditch.
In 1802, his book The American Practical Navigator was first published. That same year, Harvard University awarded Bowditch an honorary degree.
In 1804, Bowditch became America's first insurance actuary as president of the Essex Fire and Marine Insurance Company in Salem. Under his direction, the company prospered despite difficult political conditions and the War of 1812.
Bowditch's mathematical and astronomical work during this time earned him a significant standing, including election to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1799 and the American Philosophical Society in 1809. He was offered the chair of mathematics and physics at Harvard in 1806, but turned it down. In 1804, an article on his observations of the Moon was published and in 1806 he published naval charts of several harbors, including Salem. More scientific publications followed, including a study of a meteor explosion (1807), three papers on the orbits of comets (1815, 1818, 1820) and a study of the Lissajous figures created by the motion of a pendulum suspended from two points (1815).
In 1816, Harvard awarded Nathaniel Bowditch an honorary Doctor of Laws.
As well as Harvard, the United States Military Academy and the University of Virginia offered Bowditch chairs in mathematics. Bowditch again refused these offers, perhaps (in the case of the University of Virginia) because the $2,000 salary offered was two-thirds of the salary he received as president of the insurance company.
Bowditch's translation of the first four volumes of Laplace's Traité de mécanique céleste was completed by 1818. Publication of the work, however, was delayed for many years, most likely due to cost. Nonetheless, he continued to work on it with the assistance of Benjamin Peirce, adding commentaries that doubled its length.
By 1819, Bowditch's international reputation had grown to the extent that he was elected as a member of the Royal Societies of Edinburgh and London, and the Royal Irish Academy.
In 1823, Bowditch left the Essex Fire and Marine Insurance Company to become an actuary for the Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Company in Boston. There he served as a "money manager" (an investment manager) for wealthy individuals who made their fortunes at sea, directing their wealth toward manufacturing. Towns such as Lowell prospered as a result.
Bowditch's move from Salem to Boston involved the transfer of over 2,500 books, 100 maps and charts, and 29 volumes of his own manuscripts.
Bowditch's American Practical Navigator
Further information: Bowditch's American Practical Navigator
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The American Practical Navigator
During his time at sea, Bowditch became intensely interested in the mathematics involved in celestial navigation. He worked initially with John Hamilton Moore's London-published Navigator, which was known to have errors. To have exact tables to work from, Bowditch recomputed all of Moore's tables, and rearranged and expanded the work. He contacted the US publisher of the work, Edmund March Blunt, who asked him to correct and revise the third edition on his fifth voyage. The task was so extensive that Bowditch decided to write his own book, and to "put down in the book nothing I can't teach the crew". On that trip, it is said that every man of the crew of 12, including the ship's cook, became competent to take and calculate lunar observations and to plot the correct position of the ship.
Frontispiece of the 1802 first edition of The American Practical Navigator.In 1802 Blunt published the first edition of Bowditch's American Practical Navigator, which became the western hemisphere shipping industry standard for the next century and a half. The text included several solutions to the spherical triangle problem that were new, as well as extensive formulae and tables for navigation. In 1866, the United States Hydrographic Office purchased the copyright and since that time the book has been in continuous publication, with regular revisions to keep it current. Bowditch's influence on the American Practical Navigator was so profound that to this day mariners refer to it simply as Bowditch. Student Naval officers prior to the establishment of the Naval Academy referred to the work as "the immaculate Bowditch".
Nathaniel Bowditch's memorial statue by Robert Ball Hughes, in Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Bowditch died in Boston in 1838 from stomach cancer. He is buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, where a monument to him was erected through public collections.
The statue was the first life-size bronze to be cast in America. It was the creation of renowned sculptor Robert Ball Hughes.
The following eulogy was written by the Salem Marine Society:
In his death a public, a national, a human benefactor has departed. Not this community nor our country only, but the whole world has reason to do honor to his memory. When the voice of eulogy shall cease to flow, no monument will be needed to keep alive his memory among men; but as long as ships shall sail, the needle point to the north, and the stars go through their wonted courses in the heavens, the name of Dr. Bowditch will be revered as of one who has helped his fellowmen in time of need, who was and is a guide to them over the pathless oceans, and one who forwarded the great interests of mankind.
Listing for the "Bowditch Library", Boston Directory, 1848
In the 1840s and 1850s, Bowditch's son, H. I. Bowditch, ran the "Bowditch Library" on Otis Place in Boston's Financial District. It was "free to those who reside in Boston, or in the vicinity. ... This is the library of the late Nathaniel Bowditch, and is almost exclusively of a scientific character." In 1858 the family gave the collection, "which consists mostly of mathematical and astronomical works", to the Boston Public Library.
The Salem Ferry High Speed Catamaran named in honor of Nathaniel Bowditch is pictured as it is approaching its dock off Blaney Street in Salem, Massachusetts, where Nathaniel Bowditch was born
Legacy
The Oceanographic Survey Ship USNS Bowditch and the Nathaniel Bowditch, a high-speed catamaran passenger ferry serving downtown Boston and Salem, were named for him, as was a lunar crater. Additionally, a William Hand–designed Schooner built in 1922, which is currently part of the Maine Windjammer fleet and sails out of Rockland, Maine, is also named after Nathaniel Bowditch.
In 1955, a book for younger readers, Carry On, Mr. Bowditch, was published by Jean Lee Latham, portraying Bowditch's life dramatized and fictionalized. A serious modern biography is Robert E. Berry's Yankee Stargazer, published in 1941.
A grammar school, two middle schools and a dorm in America were also named for him, in Boston, Foster City, California (Bowditch Middle School), Salem, Massachusetts and Salem State College, respectively. The Department of Marine Transportation building on the grounds of the United States Merchant Marine Academy is named in his honor and houses classrooms, laboratories, and the 900-seat Ackerman Auditorium. He also gives his name to a street in Berkeley, California. Actor David Morse was named after him − David Bowditch Morse.
Bowditch Point Park, in Fort Myers Beach, Florida, is named for Bowditch.
Bowditch was inducted into the National Sailing Hall of Fame in 2014.
See also
Bowditch curve
List of actuaries
List of amateur mathematicians
USS Bowditch
References
^ Bowditch, Nathaniel Ingersoll (January 1, 1839). Memoir of Nathaniel Bowditch. From the Press of Isaac R. Butts, Charles C. Little and James Brown, publishers.
^ Hockey, Thomas (2009). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. Retrieved August 22, 2012.
^ "The Nathaniel Bowditch House". Retrieved June 11, 2019.
^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved September 8, 2016.
^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
^ Thornton, Tamara Pkakins, "Nathaniel Bowditch: Brief life of a mathematician and businessman: 1773-1839", Harvard Magazine, July-August 2016.
^ The history of the Boston medical library. Priv. print. by the Plimpton Press, 1918
^ Boston Directory. 1856
^ Hand-book for readers in the Boston public library. 1890
^ "Our Vessel". Salem Ferry. Retrieved July 21, 2009.
^ "Overview — Sail Bowditch!". Archived from the original on November 13, 2013. Retrieved November 13, 2013.
^ "Patricia Sheridan's Breakfast With ... David Morse". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. June 23, 2008. Retrieved November 13, 2013.
^ "Bowditch Point Preserve: Land Management Plan 2018" (PDF). Lee County. March 6, 2018. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
^ "Nathaniel Bowditch 2014 Inductee". Nshof.org. Retrieved April 11, 2020.
Further reading
Nathaniel Ingersoll Bowditch. Memoir of Nathaniel Bowditch. Boston: C.C. Little and J. Brown, 1840. Internet Archive
"Carry on, Mr. Bowditch" by Jean Lee Latham, 1955. Newbery Medal Award Winner Carry On, Mr. Bowditch
Nathaniel Bowditch and the Power of Numbers: How a Nineteenth-Century Man of Business, Science, and the Sea Changed American Life by Tamara Plakins Thornton, University of North Carolina Press, 2016
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nathaniel Bowditch.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Nathaniel Bowditch.
Wikisource has original works by or about:Nathaniel Bowditch
Nathaniel Bowditch at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Phillips Library at the Peabody Essex Museum. Bowditch Family Papers, 1726/7-1975
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Nathaniel Bowditch", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
Boston Public Library. Bowditch, Nathaniel (1773-1838) Collection
Nathaniel Bowditch at Find a Grave
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céleste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_de_m%C3%A9canique_c%C3%A9leste"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Peirce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Peirce"},{"link_name":"of Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_of_London"},{"link_name":"Royal Irish Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Irish_Academy"},{"link_name":"Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston"},{"link_name":"investment manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment_management"},{"link_name":"Lowell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowell,_Massachusetts"}],"text":"Nathaniel Bowditch, the fourth of seven children, was born in Salem, Province of Massachusetts Bay, to Habakkuk Bowditch, a cooper who at one point was a sailor as well but stopped after his ship went aground in 1775,[1] and Mary Ingersoll Bowditch. At the age of ten, he was made to leave school to work in his father's cooperage, before becoming indentured at twelve for nine years as a bookkeeping apprentice to a ship chandler. Here is where he first learned bookkeeping, an important step in his life.In 1786, age fourteen, Bowditch began to study algebra and two years later he taught himself calculus. He also taught himself Latin in 1790 and French in 1792 so he was able to read mathematical works such as Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. He found thousands of errors in John Hamilton Moore's The New Practical Navigator; at eighteen, he copied all the mathematical papers of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Among his many significant scientific contributions would be a translation of Pierre-Simon de Laplace's Mécanique céleste, a lengthy work on mathematics and theoretical astronomy. This translation was critical to the development of astronomy in the United States.[2]Serendipity aided Bowditch's self-directed study, in as much as he found himself able to use the eminent Irish chemist Richard Kirwan's library: Hugh Hill, a privateer from Salem who captained the Pilgrim, had intercepted the ship carrying the library between Ireland and England and brought the library back to Salem in 1781.In 1795, Bowditch went to sea on the first of four voyages as a ship's clerk and captain's writer. His fifth voyage was as master and part owner of a ship. Following this voyage, he returned to Salem in 1803 to resume his mathematical studies and enter the insurance business. One of his family homes in Salem, the Nathaniel Bowditch House, still exists and was restored in 2000.[3] This house has been designated a National Historic Landmark.In 1798 Bowditch married Elizabeth Boardman, who died seven months later. In 1800 Bowditch married his second wife and cousin, Mary \"Polly\" Ingersoll Bowditch (1781–1834). They had 2 daughters and 6 sons, including Henry Ingersoll Bowditch and William Ingersoll Bowditch. Among his grandchildren were Henry Pickering Bowditch and Charles Pickering Bowditch.In 1802, his book The American Practical Navigator was first published. That same year, Harvard University awarded Bowditch an honorary degree.In 1804, Bowditch became America's first insurance actuary as president of the Essex Fire and Marine Insurance Company in Salem. Under his direction, the company prospered despite difficult political conditions and the War of 1812.Bowditch's mathematical and astronomical work during this time earned him a significant standing, including election to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1799[4] and the American Philosophical Society in 1809.[5] He was offered the chair of mathematics and physics at Harvard in 1806, but turned it down. In 1804, an article on his observations of the Moon was published and in 1806 he published naval charts of several harbors, including Salem. More scientific publications followed, including a study of a meteor explosion (1807), three papers on the orbits of comets (1815, 1818, 1820) and a study of the Lissajous figures created by the motion of a pendulum suspended from two points (1815).In 1816, Harvard awarded Nathaniel Bowditch an honorary Doctor of Laws.[6]As well as Harvard, the United States Military Academy and the University of Virginia offered Bowditch chairs in mathematics. Bowditch again refused these offers, perhaps (in the case of the University of Virginia) because the $2,000 salary offered was two-thirds of the salary he received as president of the insurance company.Bowditch's translation of the first four volumes of Laplace's Traité de mécanique céleste was completed by 1818. Publication of the work, however, was delayed for many years, most likely due to cost. Nonetheless, he continued to work on it with the assistance of Benjamin Peirce, adding commentaries that doubled its length.By 1819, Bowditch's international reputation had grown to the extent that he was elected as a member of the Royal Societies of Edinburgh and London, and the Royal Irish Academy.In 1823, Bowditch left the Essex Fire and Marine Insurance Company to become an actuary for the Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Company in Boston. There he served as a \"money manager\" (an investment manager) for wealthy individuals who made their fortunes at sea, directing their wealth toward manufacturing. Towns such as Lowell prospered as a result.Bowditch's move from Salem to Boston involved the transfer of over 2,500 books, 100 maps and charts, and 29 volumes of his own manuscripts.","title":"Life and work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bowditch's American Practical Navigator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowditch%27s_American_Practical_Navigator"},{"link_name":"Wikisource","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource"},{"link_name":"The American Practical Navigator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_American_Practical_Navigator"},{"link_name":"Edmund March Blunt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_March_Blunt"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bowditch-1st-edition.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bowditch's American Practical Navigator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowditch%27s_American_Practical_Navigator"},{"link_name":"spherical triangle problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_trigonometry"},{"link_name":"United States Hydrographic Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Hydrographic_Office"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nathaniel_Bowditch_in_Mount_Auburn_Cemetery.JPG"},{"link_name":"Robert Ball Hughes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Ball_Hughes"},{"link_name":"Mount Auburn Cemetery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Auburn_Cemetery"},{"link_name":"Cambridge, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston"},{"link_name":"Mount Auburn Cemetery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Auburn_Cemetery"},{"link_name":"Robert Ball Hughes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Ball_Hughes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1848_BowditchLibrary_BostonDirectory.png"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Salem_Ferry.JPG"},{"link_name":"Salem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salem,_Massachusetts"}],"text":"Further information: Bowditch's American Practical NavigatorWikisource has original text related to this article:\nThe American Practical NavigatorDuring his time at sea, Bowditch became intensely interested in the mathematics involved in celestial navigation. He worked initially with John Hamilton Moore's London-published Navigator, which was known to have errors. To have exact tables to work from, Bowditch recomputed all of Moore's tables, and rearranged and expanded the work. He contacted the US publisher of the work, Edmund March Blunt, who asked him to correct and revise the third edition on his fifth voyage. The task was so extensive that Bowditch decided to write his own book, and to \"put down in the book nothing I can't teach the crew\". On that trip, it is said that every man of the crew of 12, including the ship's cook, became competent to take and calculate lunar observations and to plot the correct position of the ship.Frontispiece of the 1802 first edition of The American Practical Navigator.In 1802 Blunt published the first edition of Bowditch's American Practical Navigator, which became the western hemisphere shipping industry standard for the next century and a half. The text included several solutions to the spherical triangle problem that were new, as well as extensive formulae and tables for navigation. In 1866, the United States Hydrographic Office purchased the copyright and since that time the book has been in continuous publication, with regular revisions to keep it current. Bowditch's influence on the American Practical Navigator was so profound that to this day mariners refer to it simply as Bowditch. Student Naval officers prior to the establishment of the Naval Academy referred to the work as \"the immaculate Bowditch\".Nathaniel Bowditch's memorial statue by Robert Ball Hughes, in Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Bowditch died in Boston in 1838 from stomach cancer. He is buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, where a monument to him was erected through public collections.The statue was the first life-size bronze to be cast in America. It was the creation of renowned sculptor Robert Ball Hughes.The following eulogy was written by the Salem Marine Society:In his death a public, a national, a human benefactor has departed. Not this community nor our country only, but the whole world has reason to do honor to his memory. When the voice of eulogy shall cease to flow, no monument will be needed to keep alive his memory among men; but as long as ships shall sail, the needle point to the north, and the stars go through their wonted courses in the heavens, the name of Dr. Bowditch will be revered as of one who has helped his fellowmen in time of need, who was and is a guide to them over the pathless oceans, and one who forwarded the great interests of mankind.Listing for the \"Bowditch Library\", Boston Directory, 1848In the 1840s and 1850s, Bowditch's son, H. I. Bowditch, ran the \"Bowditch Library\" on Otis Place in Boston's Financial District.[7] It was \"free to those who reside in Boston, or in the vicinity. ... This is the library of the late Nathaniel Bowditch, and is almost exclusively of a scientific character.\"[8] In 1858 the family gave the collection, \"which consists mostly of mathematical and astronomical works\", to the Boston Public Library.[9]The Salem Ferry High Speed Catamaran named in honor of Nathaniel Bowditch is pictured as it is approaching its dock off Blaney Street in Salem, Massachusetts, where Nathaniel Bowditch was born","title":"Bowditch's American Practical Navigator"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"USNS Bowditch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USNS_Bowditch_(T-AGS-62)"},{"link_name":"catamaran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catamaran"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-salem-ferry-10"},{"link_name":"lunar crater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowditch_(crater)"},{"link_name":"William Hand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hand_(yacht_designer)"},{"link_name":"Schooner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schooner"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Carry On, Mr. Bowditch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carry_On,_Mr._Bowditch"},{"link_name":"Jean Lee Latham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Lee_Latham"},{"link_name":"dorm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorm"},{"link_name":"Foster City, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foster_City,_California"},{"link_name":"Bowditch Middle School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowditch_Middle_School"},{"link_name":"Salem, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salem,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Salem State College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salem_State_College"},{"link_name":"United States Merchant Marine Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Merchant_Marine_Academy"},{"link_name":"Berkeley, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley,_California"},{"link_name":"David Morse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Morse_(actor)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-plan2018-13"},{"link_name":"National Sailing Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Sailing_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"The Oceanographic Survey Ship USNS Bowditch and the Nathaniel Bowditch, a high-speed catamaran passenger ferry serving downtown Boston and Salem,[10] were named for him, as was a lunar crater. Additionally, a William Hand–designed Schooner built in 1922, which is currently part of the Maine Windjammer fleet and sails out of Rockland, Maine, is also named after Nathaniel Bowditch.[11]In 1955, a book for younger readers, Carry On, Mr. Bowditch, was published by Jean Lee Latham, portraying Bowditch's life dramatized and fictionalized. A serious modern biography is Robert E. Berry's Yankee Stargazer, published in 1941.A grammar school, two middle schools and a dorm in America were also named for him, in Boston, Foster City, California (Bowditch Middle School), Salem, Massachusetts and Salem State College, respectively. The Department of Marine Transportation building on the grounds of the United States Merchant Marine Academy is named in his honor and houses classrooms, laboratories, and the 900-seat Ackerman Auditorium. He also gives his name to a street in Berkeley, California. Actor David Morse was named after him − David Bowditch Morse.[12]Bowditch Point Park, in Fort Myers Beach, Florida, is named for Bowditch.[13]Bowditch was inducted into the National Sailing Hall of Fame in 2014.[14]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Internet Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/memoirofnathanie1840bowd"},{"link_name":"Carry On, Mr. Bowditch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.amazon.com/dp/0618250743"}],"text":"Nathaniel Ingersoll Bowditch. Memoir of Nathaniel Bowditch. Boston: C.C. Little and J. Brown, 1840. Internet Archive\n\"Carry on, Mr. Bowditch\" by Jean Lee Latham, 1955. Newbery Medal Award Winner Carry On, Mr. Bowditch\nNathaniel Bowditch and the Power of Numbers: How a Nineteenth-Century Man of Business, Science, and the Sea Changed American Life by Tamara Plakins Thornton, University of North Carolina Press, 2016","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Nathaniel Bowditch (1773-1838), last and unfinished painting by Gilbert Stuart.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Nathaniel_Bowditch_%281773-1838%2C_last_and_unfinished_painting_by_Gilbert_Stuart%2C_1828%29.jpg/220px-Nathaniel_Bowditch_%281773-1838%2C_last_and_unfinished_painting_by_Gilbert_Stuart%2C_1828%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dedication page by Nathaniel Bowditch in \"Mécanique céleste\"","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Laplace-10.jpg/220px-Laplace-10.jpg"},{"image_text":"Portrait of Mary Bowditch in Volume 1 of Pierre-Simon Laplace's \"Mécanique céleste\" (1829), translated by Nathaniel Bowditch","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Laplace-9.jpg/220px-Laplace-9.jpg"},{"image_text":"Frontispiece of the 1802 first edition of The American Practical Navigator.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Bowditch-1st-edition.jpg/175px-Bowditch-1st-edition.jpg"},{"image_text":"Nathaniel Bowditch's memorial statue by Robert Ball Hughes, in Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Nathaniel_Bowditch_in_Mount_Auburn_Cemetery.JPG/250px-Nathaniel_Bowditch_in_Mount_Auburn_Cemetery.JPG"},{"image_text":"Listing for the \"Bowditch Library\", Boston Directory, 1848","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/1848_BowditchLibrary_BostonDirectory.png/220px-1848_BowditchLibrary_BostonDirectory.png"},{"image_text":"The Salem Ferry High Speed Catamaran named in honor of Nathaniel Bowditch is pictured as it is approaching its dock off Blaney Street in Salem, Massachusetts, where Nathaniel Bowditch was born","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Salem_Ferry.JPG/220px-Salem_Ferry.JPG"}]
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[{"title":"Bowditch curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lissajous_curve"},{"title":"List of actuaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_actuaries"},{"title":"List of amateur mathematicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_amateur_mathematicians"},{"title":"USS Bowditch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Bowditch"}]
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[{"reference":"Bowditch, Nathaniel Ingersoll (January 1, 1839). Memoir of Nathaniel Bowditch. From the Press of Isaac R. Butts, Charles C. Little and James Brown, publishers.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/memoirnathaniel00firgoog","url_text":"Memoir of Nathaniel Bowditch"}]},{"reference":"Hockey, Thomas (2009). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. Retrieved August 22, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.springerreference.com/docs/html/chapterdbid/58194.html","url_text":"The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Publishing","url_text":"Springer Publishing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-31022-0","url_text":"978-0-387-31022-0"}]},{"reference":"\"The Nathaniel Bowditch House\". Retrieved June 11, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.historicsalem.org/the-bowditch-house.html","url_text":"\"The Nathaniel Bowditch House\""}]},{"reference":"\"Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B\" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved September 8, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterB.pdf","url_text":"\"Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences","url_text":"American Academy of Arts and Sciences"}]},{"reference":"\"APS Member History\". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved April 2, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=bowditch&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced","url_text":"\"APS Member History\""}]},{"reference":"\"Our Vessel\". Salem Ferry. Retrieved July 21, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.salemferry.com/vessel.shtml","url_text":"\"Our Vessel\""}]},{"reference":"\"Overview — Sail Bowditch!\". Archived from the original on November 13, 2013. Retrieved November 13, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131113195222/http://windjammervacation.com/overview/","url_text":"\"Overview — Sail Bowditch!\""},{"url":"http://windjammervacation.com/overview/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Patricia Sheridan's Breakfast With ... David Morse\". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. June 23, 2008. Retrieved November 13, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pittsburgpost.com/pg/08175/891886-129.stm","url_text":"\"Patricia Sheridan's Breakfast With ... David Morse\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Post-Gazette","url_text":"Pittsburgh Post-Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"Bowditch Point Preserve: Land Management Plan 2018\" (PDF). Lee County. March 6, 2018. Retrieved September 27, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.leegov.com/parks/Documents/Bowditch%20Final%20One%20to%20pdf.pdf","url_text":"\"Bowditch Point Preserve: Land Management Plan 2018\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nathaniel Bowditch 2014 Inductee\". Nshof.org. Retrieved April 11, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://nshof.org/inductees/bowditch-nathaniel/","url_text":"\"Nathaniel Bowditch 2014 Inductee\""}]},{"reference":"O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., \"Nathaniel Bowditch\", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson","url_text":"Robertson, Edmund F."},{"url":"https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Bowditch.html","url_text":"\"Nathaniel Bowditch\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive","url_text":"MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews","url_text":"University of St Andrews"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/memoirnathaniel00firgoog","external_links_name":"Memoir of Nathaniel Bowditch"},{"Link":"http://www.springerreference.com/docs/html/chapterdbid/58194.html","external_links_name":"The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers"},{"Link":"https://www.historicsalem.org/the-bowditch-house.html","external_links_name":"\"The Nathaniel Bowditch House\""},{"Link":"http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterB.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B\""},{"Link":"https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=bowditch&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced","external_links_name":"\"APS Member History\""},{"Link":"https://www.harvardmagazine.com/2016/07/nathaniel-bowditch","external_links_name":"\"Nathaniel Bowditch: Brief life of a mathematician and businessman: 1773-1839\""},{"Link":"http://www.salemferry.com/vessel.shtml","external_links_name":"\"Our Vessel\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131113195222/http://windjammervacation.com/overview/","external_links_name":"\"Overview — Sail Bowditch!\""},{"Link":"http://windjammervacation.com/overview/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.pittsburgpost.com/pg/08175/891886-129.stm","external_links_name":"\"Patricia Sheridan's Breakfast With ... David Morse\""},{"Link":"https://www.leegov.com/parks/Documents/Bowditch%20Final%20One%20to%20pdf.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Bowditch Point Preserve: Land Management Plan 2018\""},{"Link":"https://nshof.org/inductees/bowditch-nathaniel/","external_links_name":"\"Nathaniel Bowditch 2014 Inductee\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/memoirofnathanie1840bowd","external_links_name":"Internet Archive"},{"Link":"https://www.amazon.com/dp/0618250743","external_links_name":"Carry On, Mr. Bowditch"},{"Link":"https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=147797","external_links_name":"Nathaniel Bowditch"},{"Link":"http://www.pem.org/library/finding_aids/MSS3_BowditchFamilyPapers.pdf","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Bowditch.html","external_links_name":"\"Nathaniel Bowditch\""},{"Link":"http://www.bpl.org/research/special/collections.htm","external_links_name":"Bowditch, Nathaniel (1773-1838) Collection"},{"Link":"https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/1766","external_links_name":"Nathaniel Bowditch"},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/32420/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000106535872","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/29701293","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJyMfCYtVPWgG46yhQbjmd","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90185729","external_links_name":"Norway"},{"Link":"http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX864277","external_links_name":"Spain"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb135925396","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb135925396","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058509043606706","external_links_name":"Catalonia"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/12955796X","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007276394905171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79026975","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000189514&P_CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Latvia"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p129705438","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/319187","external_links_name":"MathSciNet"},{"Link":"https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=147797","external_links_name":"Mathematics Genealogy Project"},{"Link":"https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:bowditch.nathaniel","external_links_name":"zbMATH"},{"Link":"https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd12955796X.html?language=en","external_links_name":"Deutsche Biographie"},{"Link":"https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/795020","external_links_name":"Trove"},{"Link":"https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6th8mhn","external_links_name":"SNAC"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/085864625","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikon_E3
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Nikon E series
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["1 Technology","1.1 Optical system","1.2 Storage and replay","2 Variants","2.1 History","2.2 Nikon E2/E2S","2.3 Nikon E2N/E2NS","2.4 Nikon E3/E3S","3 See also","4 References"]
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Series of digital SLR camera models
Nikon E series: E3/E3SOverviewTypeDigital single lens reflex cameraLensLensInterchangeable, Nikon F mountSensor/mediumSensor2/3 inch CCD VT (vacant Transfer) type with reduction optical systemMaximum resolution1.3 million pixels (1,280 X 1,000 array)Film speedISO equivalency 800, 1600 and 3200Storage mediaPCMCIA Image Memory Card EC-15FocusingFocus modesSingle-Servo Autofocus mode, Continuous-Servo Autofocus mode, ManualFocus areasTTL phase detection system using Nikon Advanced AM200 autofocus moduleFocus bracketingn/aExposure/meteringExposure modesProgram (P), Shutter-Priority AE (S), Aperture-Priority AE (A) and Manual (M)Exposure meteringMatrix Metering: EV 1 to 16-1/3, Center-Weighted Metering (70% centre): EV 1 to 20, Spot Metering: EV 2 to 20FlashFlashSpeedlights supported, Standard TTL Flash possibleFlash bracketingn/aShutterShutter speed range1/2 sec. to 1/2000Continuous shootingE3: 1 frame/s
E3s: 3 frame/s up to 12 imagesViewfinderViewfinderOptical type fixed eye level pentaprism Approx. 98% frame coverage, Approx. 0.7x magnificationImage processingWhite balanceAuto, Incandescent light (3,000k), Fluorescent light (6,700/5,000/4,200K), Fine weather (5,300K), Cloudy weadher (6,500K), Shade (8,000K), and Flash mode (5,700K).WB bracketingShoot 2 to 3 frames, each at a different exposure. Compensation value range of steps from ±1/4 to ±3/4. Select among 9 combinations.GeneralLCD screenNoneBatteryNi-MH Battery Pack EN-3Weightapprox. 1,850gMade in Japan
The Nikon E series, co-developed with Fujifilm, are autofocus 1.3 megapixel professional grade quasi-full frame (35mm) Nikon F-mount digital single lens reflex cameras (DSLR) manufactured by Nikon since 1995.
The E series included the Nikon E2/E2S, Nikon E2N/E2NS and the Nikon E3/E3S. The S-variants are identical except they had triple the frame rate and a larger buffer.
Its unique optical system bundles the light of the full-frame lenses to the small 2/3 inch CCD sensor. That gives approximately 4 stops more light at the small sensor, therefore delivering an exceptional (for that time) minimum sensitivity of 800 and maximum 3200 ISO, which remains usable for press and news use.
Technology
Space Shuttle STS-70 Launch. Taken with a Nikon E2: 1/2048 sec., f:1/16. Unknown ISO/ASA, but very high shutter speed even at a slow lens aperture.
The Nikon E2/E2S and E2N/E2NS use a Nikon F4 subsystem, the E3/E3S uses a Nikon F100 subsystem.
Optical system
The E series uses a unique additional optical system that enables the small sensor to capture the field of view of a 35mm film, with a crop factor of 1. This comes not at the expense of the F-stop of the lenses, because the light is bundled to the 2⁄3 inch CCD sensor with approximately 16 times smaller area. The result is approximately 4 stops (24 = 16) more light at the small sensor compared to a full-frame sensor. Therefore, the camera has a minimum full-frame sensitivity of ISO 800 which is equivalent to ISO 50 at 2⁄3 inch. As a result, the noise of the camera at ISO 800 full-frame is equivalent to ISO 50 of the 2⁄3 inch CCD sensor. Nikon could not reduce sensitivity below 800 ISO full-frame, because the little sensor will be overexposed below 50 ISO.
The exceptional high sensitivity up to 3200 ISO (equivalent 200 ISO, 2⁄3 inch) can be seen as an advantage for indoor or available light photography and is important for professional press and sports use, the customer target area.
Although the camera is small for a 90s DSLR, the additional optical system makes the camera deeper compared to today's DSLRs.
Standard Nikon F-mount lenses can be used.
Storage and replay
A PCMCIA compatible memory card is used. Images are digitally stored as uncompressed TIFF or compressed JPEG. It can be accessed via a SCSI connector. TV replay (NTSC or PAL) is possible.
Variants
History
Nikon gained knowledge on digital cameras (still video cameras, with analog storage) by constructing the Nikon Still Video Camera (SVC) Model 1, a prototype which was first presented at photokina 1986. The follower Nikon QV-1000C Still Video Camera was produced since 1988 mainly for professional press use. Both cameras used QV mount lenses, a variant of F-mount lenses. Via an adapter (QM-100) other Nikkor lenses can be fitted.
The Nikon NASA F4 was one of the first cameras with digital storage. Eastman Kodak used Nikon SLR's to design the Kodak DCS 100 and followers.
Nikon E2/E2S
This first variant was manufactured since 1995 and were also available as Fujifilm Fujix DS-505 and DS-515.
Nikon E2N/E2NS
Announced 1996. Also available as Fujifilm Fujix DS-505A and DS-515A.
Nikon E3/E3S
The Nikon E3 and Nikon E3S, co-developed with Fujifilm and marketed also as the Fujix DS-560 and Fujix DS-565, are autofocus 1.3 megapixel professional grade quasi-full frame (35mm) digital single lens reflex cameras (DSLR) announced by the Nikon Corporation on 15 June 1998 and released in December 1999. The E3S is identical to the E3 except triple frame rate and larger buffer. They are followers of the Nikon E2N/E2NS.
See also
Nikon NASA F4
Minolta RD-175
Telecompressor
References
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nikon E2N and Nikon E3.
^ Nikon E3/E3s Digital Still SLR Camera - Specifications MIR
^ a b c Fujix DS-565 (aka Nikon E3S)
^ McBroom's Camera Bluebook By Michael McBroom
^ Nikon E3/E3s Digital Still SLR Camera MIR
^ Additional information on Nikon Video Still Camera Model 1 & Nikon QV-1000C Still Video Camera MIR
^ Nikon Still Video Camera (prototype) Nikonweb
^ Nikon QV-1000C? Never heard of it. Nikonweb
^ Professional digital cameras Nikon E3 / E3s Digital Camera Refinement Redefined Nikon
vteNikon DSLR timeline (comparison)
Sensor
Class
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
FX(Full-frame)
Flagship
D3X −P
D3 −P
D3S −P
D4
D4S
D5 T
D6 T
Professional
D800 / D800E
D810 / D810A
D850 AT
Df
High-end
D700 −P
D750 A
D780 AT
D600
D610
DX(APS-C)
Flagship
D1X −E
D2X −E
D2Xs −E
D1H −E
D2H −E
D2Hs −E
Professional
D100−E
D200 −E
D300 −P
D300S −P
D500 AT
Enthusiast
D70−E
D70s−E
D80−E
D90−E
D7000 −P
D7100
D7200
D7500 AT
Upper-entry *
D50−E
D40X−E*
D60−E*
D5000 A−P*
D5100 A−P*
D5200 A-P*
D5300 A*
D5500 AT*
D5600 AT*
Entry-level *
D40−E*
D3000−E*
D3100−P*
D3200−P*
D3300*
D3400*
D3500*
Early models
Nikon SVC (prototype; 1986)
Nikon QV-1000C (1988)
Nikon NASA F4 (1991)
Nikon E2/E2S (1995)
Nikon E2N/E2NS (1996)
Nikon E3/E3S (1998)
D1 (1999)
Sensor
Class
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
PROCESSOR:
Pre-EXPEED |
EXPEED |
EXPEED 2 |
EXPEED 3 |
EXPEED 4 |
EXPEED 5 |
EXPEED 6
VIDEO: HD video / Video AF / Uncompressed / 4k video
⋅
SCREEN: Articulating A , Touchscreen T
⋅
BODY FEATURE: Weather Sealed
Without full AF-P lens support−P ⋅
Without AF-P and without E-type lens support−E ⋅
Without an AF motor (needs lenses with integrated motor, except D50) *
vteFujifilm F-mount DSLR timeline
Family
Level
Sensor
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Fujix
Professional
2/3 inch
DS-565
DS-560
FinePix
Industrial
APS-C
S3 Pro UVIR
IS Pro
Advanced
APS-C
S1 Pro
S2 Pro
S3 Pro
S5 Pro
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The result is approximately 4 stops (24 = 16) more light at the small sensor compared to a full-frame sensor. Therefore, the camera has a minimum full-frame sensitivity of ISO 800 which is equivalent to ISO 50 at 2⁄3 inch. As a result, the noise of the camera at ISO 800 full-frame is equivalent to ISO 50 of the 2⁄3 inch CCD sensor. 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TV replay (NTSC or PAL) is possible.[4]","title":"Technology"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"still video cameras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Still_video_camera"},{"link_name":"Nikon Still Video Camera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nikon_Still_Video_Camera&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"photokina 1986","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photokina_1986"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Nikon QV-1000C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nikon_QV-1000C&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"F-mount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikon_F-mount"},{"link_name":"Nikon NASA F4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikon_NASA_F4"},{"link_name":"Eastman Kodak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastman_Kodak"},{"link_name":"Kodak DCS 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodak_DCS_100"}],"sub_title":"History","text":"Nikon gained knowledge on digital cameras (still video cameras, with analog storage) by constructing the Nikon Still Video Camera (SVC) Model 1, a prototype which was first presented at photokina 1986.[5][6] The follower Nikon QV-1000C Still Video Camera was produced since 1988 mainly for professional press use.[7] Both cameras used QV mount lenses, a variant of F-mount lenses. Via an adapter (QM-100) other Nikkor lenses can be fitted.The Nikon NASA F4 was one of the first cameras with digital storage. Eastman Kodak used Nikon SLR's to design the Kodak DCS 100 and followers.","title":"Variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fujifilm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujifilm"}],"sub_title":"Nikon E2/E2S","text":"This first variant was manufactured since 1995 and were also available as Fujifilm Fujix DS-505 and DS-515.","title":"Variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fujifilm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujifilm"}],"sub_title":"Nikon E2N/E2NS","text":"Announced 1996. 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|
[{"image_text":"Space Shuttle STS-70 Launch. Taken with a Nikon E2: 1/2048 sec., f:1/16. Unknown ISO/ASA, but very high shutter speed even at a slow lens aperture.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Space_Shuttle_STS-70_Launch_DSC00001.jpg/220px-Space_Shuttle_STS-70_Launch_DSC00001.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"Nikon NASA F4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikon_NASA_F4"},{"title":"Minolta RD-175","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minolta_RD-175"},{"title":"Telecompressor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecompressor"}]
|
[]
|
[{"Link":"http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/nikon/htmls/models/digitalSLRs/E3E3s/specE3E3s.htm","external_links_name":"Nikon E3/E3s Digital Still SLR Camera - Specifications"},{"Link":"http://www.nikonweb.com/ds565/","external_links_name":"Fujix DS-565 (aka Nikon E3S)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=sY2neBqnpTwC&q=nikon+e3","external_links_name":"McBroom's Camera Bluebook By Michael McBroom"},{"Link":"http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/nikon/htmls/models/digitalSLRs/E3E3s/index.htm","external_links_name":"Nikon E3/E3s Digital Still SLR Camera"},{"Link":"http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/nikon/htmls/models/digitalSLRs/SVC/index.htm","external_links_name":"Additional information on Nikon Video Still Camera Model 1 & Nikon QV-1000C Still Video Camera"},{"Link":"http://www.nikonweb.com/svc/","external_links_name":"Nikon Still Video Camera (prototype)"},{"Link":"http://www.nikonweb.com/paris2005/","external_links_name":"Nikon QV-1000C? Never heard of it."},{"Link":"http://www.nikon.com/about/news/1998/maye3_98.htm","external_links_name":"Professional digital cameras Nikon E3 / E3s Digital Camera Refinement Redefined"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_Cambridge_colleges
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List of fictional Cambridge colleges
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["1 See also","2 References"]
|
Fictional colleges are perennially popular in modern novels, allowing the author much greater licence when describing the more intimate activities of a Cambridge college and a way of placing events that might not be permitted by actual Cambridge geography.
Below is a list of some of the fictional colleges of the University of Cambridge.
All Saints College, The Man in Room 17, The Green Man by Kingsley Amis, mentioned briefly in Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency by Douglas Adams and in Dreaming of the Bones by Deborah Crombie.
Boniface College, Cambridge, Pendennis by William Thackeray, inspired by his time at Cambridge and home to the poet Sprott.
Brakespeare College, Manalive by G. K. Chesterton
Canterbury College, The Mezzotint by M. R. James
Fawkes College, in the novels of Mary Selby/Joanna Bell. The College features her book Gargoyles and Port, in which it is rival to the neighbouring St Alupent's College
Fisher College, The Cambridge Murders by Dilwyn Rees, situated between real-life St John's College and Trinity College
Flopsy College, In the episode Return of the Mummy of children's spy series M.I. High
Haworth College, Dr Rose Fenemore in Stormy Petrel by Mary Stewart is described as the College's English tutor, though most of the novel is set on the Isle of Mull
Hawkins College, The longstanding rivals of Old College in the series of PorterGirl books and blog of the same name written by Lucy Brazier
Humber College, Hugo Lamb, narrator of the second chapter in David Mitchell's novel The Bone Clocks, is an undergraduate at Humber, a medieval college in the city centre
Lancaster College, various books by Simon Raven. Bears more than a passing resemblance to King's College, founded by Henry VI of the House of Lancaster
Lauds College, various books by Susan Howatch. Fictionally contains Cambridge Cathedral, so is similar to Christ Church, Oxford. Charles Ashworth was a fellow of the College and many other characters studied there. Named after William Laud, controversial 17th century Archbishop of Canterbury
Marcian College, Raisley Conyngham's old college in In the Image of God by Simon Raven. Located between the Round Church and Portugal Place, i.e. between St John's and Jesus. Described by its head porter as "the least distinguished college in the kingdom, with the possible exception of Hertford College, Oxford"
Old College, fictional college from the PorterGirl books and blog, written by Lucy Brazier
Pelby College, spoof college that Cambridge students use as an "unmistakable landmark" when giving directions to tourists. By convention it is located somewhere between Magdalene and St John's.
Porterhouse College, Porterhouse Blue and Grantchester Grind by Tom Sharpe. The name suggests Peterhouse, though it is also a pun on college porters and porterhouse steaks. It is also reputedly based loosely on Pembroke, Sharpe's alma mater or Corpus Christi which is next door and its location is somewhere near Peterhouse and Pembroke. Despite this, however, filming for the television series took place at Sidney Sussex College. A Porterhouse College in the (fictional) University of Carrbridge, Inverness-shire has been used in University of Cambridge mathematics exam questions.
Rachel Ambrose College, Christminster, Culture Shock (Duckworth 1988) by Valerie Grosvenor Myer, a graduate of Newnham, and sometime Associate of Lucy Cavendish, which, as a college for mature women students, it most resembles
St Agatha's College, The Wyndham Case (1993), A Piece of Justice (1995), Debts of Dishonour (2006) and The Bad Quarto (2007) by Jill Paton Walsh, located between Castle Mound and Chesterton Lane
St Alupent's College, in the novels of Mary Selby/Joanna Bell. The College is the setting of her book Gargoyles and Port. The author studied at Gonville and Caius College. She named St Alupent's after a branded asthma syrup available on the NHS at the time
St Angelicus College, The Gate of Angels (1990) by Penelope Fitzgerald. Situated not far from Christ's Pieces.
St Barnabas' College, Tomorrow's Ghost (1979) by Anthony Price
St Bartholemew's College, Nights in White Satin (1999) by Michelle Spring. Located near the police station and New Square, with murders investigated by Laura Principal of Newnham College
St Bernard's College, Darkness at Pemberley by T. H. White. Loosely disguised version of Queens' College
St Botolph's College, example college in Cambridge University Computing Service documentation.
St Bride's College, the setting for much of Charlie Cochrane's Cambridge Fellows Mysteries
St Cedd's College, various works by Douglas Adams. Based on St. John's College, the alma mater of Douglas Adams
St Dunstan's College, Cambridge, College of Professor Austin Herring, who appears in Chris Addison's The Ape That Got Lucky and Civilisation
St Ignatius' College, the university that Albert Campion went to, according to the novels of Margery Allingham; see his minibiography in Sweet Danger.
St Margaret's College, The Cambridge Theorem by Tony Cape
St Mark's College, Tom Browning's Schooldays by Joel Vincent
St Martha's College, Matricide at St. Martha's by Ruth Dudley Edwards
St Martin's College, War Game by Anthony Price
St Mary's College, The Hills of Varna by Geoffrey Trease
St Matthew's College, The Green Man by Kingsley Amis, next door to St Catharine's College. Also in various works by Stephen Fry - in which it is a loosely disguised version of Queens' College, revealed by names of bridges and courts
St Paul's College, located on St Andrew's Street, between Christ's and Emmanuel, in The Pink and the Grey by Anthony Camber
St Radegund's College, an all-female college in Hearts and Mind by Rosy Thornton
St Stephen's College, For the Sake of Elena by Elizabeth George, located between Trinity College and Trinity Hall, modelled on the latter. In the BBC adaptation of the Inspector Lynley Mysteries, St John's College was used as the setting
St Swithin's College, In James Hilton's Random Harvest, the college attended by Charles Ranier, the main character, and a decade later by Harrison, the narrator. Founded in the latter 16th century
Saviours’ College, In Sophie Hannah's The Monogram Murders, the college attended by Patrick Ive
Tudor College, the home of the main characters in The Night Climbers by Ivo Stourton
Weirdsister College, Magical college, setting of a sequel to The Worst Witch
Wetmarsh College, subject of an operetta by Mark Wainwright and Roland Anderson entitled Wetmarsh College, or, Dr Middlebottom, first staged at the ADC Theatre, Cambridge, in 2005 (Wetmarsh is never explicitly said to be in Cambridge, but Wainwright's libretto and the place of its composition and first performance make it fairly clear)
An unnamed college in C. P. Snow's novel The Masters and other novels in the Strangers and Brothers series. Snow disparaged what he called the 'Christminster' convention of the naming of fictitious colleges
An unnamed college in the BBC Radio 4 comedy series High Table, Lower Orders
See also
Colleges of the University of Cambridge
List of fictional Oxford colleges
List of fictional Oxbridge colleges
References
^ Thackeray, William Makepeace. "II. A Pedigree and other Family Matters". THE HISTORY OF PENDENNIS. Pendennis, by this time, had his handsomely framed and glazed, and hanging up in his drawing-room between the pictures of Codlingbury House in Somersetshire, and St. Boniface's College, Cambridge, where he had passed the brief and happy days of his early manhood.
^ Varsity, October 2002
^
"IA NST Maths, 2008 Paper 2, Question 11X" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2015.
"IA NST Maths, 2009 Paper 1, Question 12X" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2015.
"IA NST Maths, 2010 Paper 1, Question 12X" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2015.
"IA NST Maths, 2011 Paper 1, Question 12X" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2015.
^ Selby, Mary. (1998). Gargoyles and port. London: Black Swan. ISBN 0-552-99763-3. OCLC 38886188.
^ Darkness at Pemberley at England Have My Bones
^ "Tom Browning's Schooldays by Joel".
vteUniversity of CambridgePeople
Chancellor
The Lord Sainsbury of Turville
Vice-Chancellor
Deborah Prentice
List of University of Cambridge people
Colleges
Christ's
Churchill
Clare
Clare Hall
Corpus Christi
Darwin
Downing
Emmanuel
Fitzwilliam
Girton
Gonville and Caius
Homerton
Hughes Hall
Jesus
King’s
Lucy Cavendish
Magdalene
Murray Edwards
Newnham
Pembroke
Peterhouse
Queens’
Robinson
St Catharine’s
St Edmund’s
St John’s
Selwyn
Sidney Sussex
Trinity
Trinity Hall
Wolfson
Faculties anddepartments, by schoolArts andHumanities
English
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"The Man in Room 17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_in_Room_17"},{"link_name":"The Green Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Green_Man_(Amis_novel)"},{"link_name":"Kingsley Amis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingsley_Amis"},{"link_name":"Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirk_Gently%27s_Holistic_Detective_Agency"},{"link_name":"Douglas Adams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Adams"},{"link_name":"Dreaming of the Bones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dreaming_of_the_Bones&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Deborah Crombie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deborah_Crombie"},{"link_name":"Pendennis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendennis"},{"link_name":"William Thackeray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thackeray"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Manalive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manalive"},{"link_name":"G. K. Chesterton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._K._Chesterton"},{"link_name":"M. R. James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._R._James"},{"link_name":"Dilwyn Rees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyn_Daniel"},{"link_name":"St John's College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Trinity College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"M.I. High","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.I._High"},{"link_name":"Mary Stewart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Stewart_(novelist)"},{"link_name":"Isle of Mull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Mull"},{"link_name":"David Mitchell's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Mitchell_(author)"},{"link_name":"The Bone Clocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bone_Clocks"},{"link_name":"Simon Raven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Raven"},{"link_name":"King's College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Henry VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England"},{"link_name":"House of Lancaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Lancaster"},{"link_name":"Susan Howatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Howatch"},{"link_name":"Christ Church, Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_Church,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"William Laud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Laud"},{"link_name":"Archbishop of Canterbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury"},{"link_name":"Simon Raven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Raven"},{"link_name":"the Round Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Sepulchre,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Hertford College, Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertford_College,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Porterhouse College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porterhouse_Blue"},{"link_name":"Porterhouse Blue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porterhouse_Blue"},{"link_name":"Grantchester Grind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grantchester_Grind"},{"link_name":"Tom Sharpe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Sharpe"},{"link_name":"Peterhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterhouse,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Pembroke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembroke_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Corpus Christi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Christi_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Sidney Sussex College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Sussex_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Carrbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrbridge"},{"link_name":"Inverness-shire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverness-shire"},{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Duckworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duckworth_Overlook"},{"link_name":"Valerie Grosvenor Myer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valerie_Grosvenor_Myer"},{"link_name":"Newnham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newnham_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Lucy Cavendish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Cavendish"},{"link_name":"Jill Paton Walsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jill_Paton_Walsh"},{"link_name":"Castle Mound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Castle"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Gonville and Caius College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonville_and_Caius_College"},{"link_name":"The Gate of Angels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gate_of_Angels"},{"link_name":"Penelope Fitzgerald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penelope_Fitzgerald"},{"link_name":"Christ's Pieces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ%27s_Pieces"},{"link_name":"Anthony Price","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Price"},{"link_name":"Michelle Spring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Spring"},{"link_name":"Newnham College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newnham_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"T. H. White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._H._White"},{"link_name":"Queens' College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queens%27_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University Computing Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge_Computing_Service"},{"link_name":"Charlie Cochrane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Cochrane"},{"link_name":"Cambridge Fellows Mysteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cambridge_Fellows_Mysteries&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Douglas Adams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Adams"},{"link_name":"St. John's College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._John%27s_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Chris Addison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Addison"},{"link_name":"The Ape That Got Lucky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ape_That_Got_Lucky"},{"link_name":"Albert Campion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Campion"},{"link_name":"Margery Allingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margery_Allingham"},{"link_name":"Sweet Danger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet_Danger"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Ruth Dudley Edwards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Dudley_Edwards"},{"link_name":"Anthony Price","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Price"},{"link_name":"The Hills of Varna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hills_of_Varna"},{"link_name":"Geoffrey Trease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Trease"},{"link_name":"The Green Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Green_Man_(Kingsley_Amis_novel)"},{"link_name":"Kingsley Amis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingsley_Amis"},{"link_name":"St Catharine's College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Catharine%27s_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Stephen Fry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Fry"},{"link_name":"Queens' College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queens%27_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"The Pink and the Grey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Pink_and_the_Grey&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Anthony Camber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anthony_Camber&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth George","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_George"},{"link_name":"Trinity College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Trinity Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_Hall,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"St John's College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Random Harvest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_Harvest"},{"link_name":"Sophie Hannah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie_Hannah"},{"link_name":"The Monogram Murders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Monogram_Murders"},{"link_name":"Ivo Stourton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivo_Stourton"},{"link_name":"Weirdsister College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weirdsister_College"},{"link_name":"The Worst Witch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Worst_Witch"},{"link_name":"ADC Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADC_Theatre"},{"link_name":"C. P. Snow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._P._Snow"},{"link_name":"The Masters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Masters_(novel)"},{"link_name":"Strangers and Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strangers_and_Brothers"},{"link_name":"BBC Radio 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio_4"},{"link_name":"High Table, Lower Orders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Table,_Lower_Orders"}],"text":"Below is a list of some of the fictional colleges of the University of Cambridge.All Saints College, The Man in Room 17, The Green Man by Kingsley Amis, mentioned briefly in Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency by Douglas Adams and in Dreaming of the Bones by Deborah Crombie.\nBoniface College, Cambridge, Pendennis by William Thackeray, inspired by his time at Cambridge and home to the poet Sprott.[1]\nBrakespeare College, Manalive by G. K. Chesterton\nCanterbury College, The Mezzotint by M. R. James\nFawkes College, in the novels of Mary Selby/Joanna Bell. The College features her book Gargoyles and Port, in which it is rival to the neighbouring St Alupent's College\nFisher College, The Cambridge Murders by Dilwyn Rees, situated between real-life St John's College and Trinity College\nFlopsy College, In the episode Return of the Mummy of children's spy series M.I. High\nHaworth College, Dr Rose Fenemore in Stormy Petrel by Mary Stewart is described as the College's English tutor, though most of the novel is set on the Isle of Mull\nHawkins College, The longstanding rivals of Old College in the series of PorterGirl books and blog of the same name written by Lucy Brazier\nHumber College, Hugo Lamb, narrator of the second chapter in David Mitchell's novel The Bone Clocks, is an undergraduate at Humber, a medieval college in the city centre\nLancaster College, various books by Simon Raven. Bears more than a passing resemblance to King's College, founded by Henry VI of the House of Lancaster\nLauds College, various books by Susan Howatch. Fictionally contains Cambridge Cathedral, so is similar to Christ Church, Oxford. Charles Ashworth was a fellow of the College and many other characters studied there. Named after William Laud, controversial 17th century Archbishop of Canterbury\nMarcian College, Raisley Conyngham's old college in In the Image of God by Simon Raven. Located between the Round Church and Portugal Place, i.e. between St John's and Jesus. Described by its head porter as \"the least distinguished college in the kingdom, with the possible exception of Hertford College, Oxford\"\nOld College, fictional college from the PorterGirl books and blog, written by Lucy Brazier\nPelby College, spoof college that Cambridge students use as an \"unmistakable landmark\" when giving directions to tourists. By convention it is located somewhere between Magdalene and St John's.[2]\nPorterhouse College, Porterhouse Blue and Grantchester Grind by Tom Sharpe. The name suggests Peterhouse, though it is also a pun on college porters and porterhouse steaks. It is also reputedly based loosely on Pembroke, Sharpe's alma mater or Corpus Christi which is next door and its location is somewhere near Peterhouse and Pembroke. Despite this, however, filming for the television series took place at Sidney Sussex College. A Porterhouse College in the (fictional) University of Carrbridge, Inverness-shire has been used in University of Cambridge mathematics exam questions.[3]\nRachel Ambrose College, Christminster, Culture Shock (Duckworth 1988) by Valerie Grosvenor Myer, a graduate of Newnham, and sometime Associate of Lucy Cavendish, which, as a college for mature women students, it most resembles\nSt Agatha's College, The Wyndham Case (1993), A Piece of Justice (1995), Debts of Dishonour (2006) and The Bad Quarto (2007) by Jill Paton Walsh, located between Castle Mound and Chesterton Lane\nSt Alupent's College, in the novels of Mary Selby/Joanna Bell. The College is the setting of her book Gargoyles and Port.[4] The author studied at Gonville and Caius College. She named St Alupent's after a branded asthma syrup available on the NHS at the time\nSt Angelicus College, The Gate of Angels (1990) by Penelope Fitzgerald. Situated not far from Christ's Pieces.\nSt Barnabas' College, Tomorrow's Ghost (1979) by Anthony Price\nSt Bartholemew's College, Nights in White Satin (1999) by Michelle Spring. Located near the police station and New Square, with murders investigated by Laura Principal of Newnham College\nSt Bernard's College, Darkness at Pemberley by T. H. White. Loosely disguised version of Queens' College[5]\nSt Botolph's College, example college in Cambridge University Computing Service documentation.\nSt Bride's College, the setting for much of Charlie Cochrane's Cambridge Fellows Mysteries\nSt Cedd's College, various works by Douglas Adams. Based on St. John's College, the alma mater of Douglas Adams\nSt Dunstan's College, Cambridge, College of Professor Austin Herring, who appears in Chris Addison's The Ape That Got Lucky and Civilisation\nSt Ignatius' College, the university that Albert Campion went to, according to the novels of Margery Allingham; see his minibiography in Sweet Danger.\nSt Margaret's College, The Cambridge Theorem by Tony Cape\nSt Mark's College, Tom Browning's Schooldays by Joel Vincent[6]\nSt Martha's College, Matricide at St. Martha's by Ruth Dudley Edwards\nSt Martin's College, War Game by Anthony Price\nSt Mary's College, The Hills of Varna by Geoffrey Trease\nSt Matthew's College, The Green Man by Kingsley Amis, next door to St Catharine's College. Also in various works by Stephen Fry - in which it is a loosely disguised version of Queens' College, revealed by names of bridges and courts\nSt Paul's College, located on St Andrew's Street, between Christ's and Emmanuel, in The Pink and the Grey by Anthony Camber\nSt Radegund's College, an all-female college in Hearts and Mind by Rosy Thornton\nSt Stephen's College, For the Sake of Elena by Elizabeth George, located between Trinity College and Trinity Hall, modelled on the latter. In the BBC adaptation of the Inspector Lynley Mysteries, St John's College was used as the setting\nSt Swithin's College, In James Hilton's Random Harvest, the college attended by Charles Ranier, the main character, and a decade later by Harrison, the narrator. Founded in the latter 16th century\nSaviours’ College, In Sophie Hannah's The Monogram Murders, the college attended by Patrick Ive\nTudor College, the home of the main characters in The Night Climbers by Ivo Stourton\nWeirdsister College, Magical college, setting of a sequel to The Worst Witch\nWetmarsh College, subject of an operetta by Mark Wainwright and Roland Anderson entitled Wetmarsh College, or, Dr Middlebottom, first staged at the ADC Theatre, Cambridge, in 2005 (Wetmarsh is never explicitly said to be in Cambridge, but Wainwright's libretto [albeit including a little Oxford terminology] and the place of its composition and first performance make it fairly clear)\nAn unnamed college in C. P. Snow's novel The Masters and other novels in the Strangers and Brothers series. Snow disparaged what he called the 'Christminster' convention of the naming of fictitious colleges\nAn unnamed college in the BBC Radio 4 comedy series High Table, Lower Orders","title":"List of fictional Cambridge colleges"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Colleges of the University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colleges_of_the_University_of_Cambridge"},{"title":"List of fictional Oxford colleges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_Oxford_colleges"},{"title":"List of fictional Oxbridge colleges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_Oxbridge_colleges"}]
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[{"reference":"Thackeray, William Makepeace. \"II. A Pedigree and other Family Matters\". THE HISTORY OF PENDENNIS. Pendennis, by this time, had his handsomely framed and glazed, and hanging up in his drawing-room between the pictures of Codlingbury House in Somersetshire, and St. Boniface's College, Cambridge, where he had passed the brief and happy days of his early manhood.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gutenberg.org/files/7265/7265-h/7265-h.htm#link2HCH0002","url_text":"\"II. A Pedigree and other Family Matters\""}]},{"reference":"\"IA NST Maths, 2008 Paper 2, Question 11X\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150925203307/http://www2014.maths.cam.ac.uk/undergradnst/pastpapers/2008/PaperNST_IA_2.pdf","url_text":"\"IA NST Maths, 2008 Paper 2, Question 11X\""},{"url":"http://www.maths.cam.ac.uk/undergradnst/pastpapers/2008/PaperNST_IA_2.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"IA NST Maths, 2009 Paper 1, Question 12X\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150925201432/http://www2014.maths.cam.ac.uk/undergradnst/pastpapers/2009/PaperNST_IA_1.pdf","url_text":"\"IA NST Maths, 2009 Paper 1, Question 12X\""},{"url":"http://www.maths.cam.ac.uk/undergradnst/pastpapers/2009/PaperNST_IA_1.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"IA NST Maths, 2010 Paper 1, Question 12X\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150925202109/http://www2014.maths.cam.ac.uk/undergradnst/pastpapers/2010/PaperNST_IA_1.pdf","url_text":"\"IA NST Maths, 2010 Paper 1, Question 12X\""},{"url":"http://www.maths.cam.ac.uk/undergradnst/pastpapers/2010/PaperNST_IA_1.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"IA NST Maths, 2011 Paper 1, Question 12X\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150925220104/http://www2014.maths.cam.ac.uk/undergradnst/pastpapers/2011/PaperNST_IA_1.pdf","url_text":"\"IA NST Maths, 2011 Paper 1, Question 12X\""},{"url":"http://www.maths.cam.ac.uk/undergradnst/pastpapers/2011/PaperNST_IA_1.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Selby, Mary. (1998). Gargoyles and port. London: Black Swan. ISBN 0-552-99763-3. OCLC 38886188.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-552-99763-3","url_text":"0-552-99763-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/38886188","url_text":"38886188"}]},{"reference":"\"Tom Browning's Schooldays by Joel\".","urls":[{"url":"http://awesomedude.com/jovincent/tbsd/","url_text":"\"Tom Browning's Schooldays by Joel\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_SSEC
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IBM SSEC
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["1 History","1.1 Construction","1.2 Applications","1.3 Legacy","2 See also","3 References","4 Further reading","5 External links"]
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IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator
SSEC control desk
The IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC) was an electromechanical computer built by IBM. Its design was started in late 1944 and it operated from January 1948 to August 1952. It had many of the features of a stored-program computer, and was the first operational machine able to treat its instructions as data, but it was not fully electronic.
Although the SSEC proved useful for several high-profile applications, it soon became obsolete. As the last large electromechanical computer ever built, its greatest success was the publicity it provided for IBM.
History
During World War II, International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) funded and built an Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC) for Howard H. Aiken at Harvard University. The machine, formally dedicated in August 1944, was widely known as the Harvard Mark I. The President of IBM, Thomas J. Watson Sr., did not like Aiken's press release that gave no credit to IBM for its funding and engineering effort. Watson and Aiken decided to go their separate ways, and IBM began work on a project to build their own larger and more visible machine.
Astronomer Wallace John Eckert of Columbia University provided specifications for the new machine; the project budget of almost $1 million was an immense amount for the time.
Francis "Frank" E. Hamilton (1898–1972) supervised the construction of both the ASCC and the SSEC. Robert Rex Seeber Jr. was also hired away from the Harvard group, and became known as the chief architect of the new machine.
Modules were manufactured in IBM's facility at Endicott, New York, under Director of Engineering John McPherson after the basic design was ready in December 1945.
Construction
The February 1946 announcement of the fully electronic ENIAC energized the project.
The new machine, called the IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC), was ready to be installed by August 1947.
Watson called such machines calculators because computer then referred to humans employed to perform calculations and he wanted to convey the message that IBM's machines were not designed to replace people. Rather they were designed to help people, by relieving them of drudgery.: 143
The SSEC was installed on three sides of a room on the ground floor of a building near IBM's headquarters at 590 Madison Avenue in New York City, behind a large window where it was visible to people passing by on the busy street. The space had formerly been occupied by a women's shoe store. The noisy SSEC was sometimes called Poppa by the viewing pedestrians.
It was dedicated and first demonstrated to the public on January 27, 1948. A. Wayne Brooke served as the chief electronic engineer for the machine's operation starting in 1950.
Herb Grosch, the second person with a Ph.D. hired by IBM, was one of its first programmers. Another early programmer was Edgar "Ted" Codd. Elizabeth "Betsy" Stewart was chief operator, and often appeared in publicity photos.
The SSEC was an unusual hybrid of vacuum tubes and electromechanical relays. Approximately 12,500 vacuum tubes were used in the arithmetic unit, control, and its eight (relatively high-speed) registers, which had an access time of less than one millisecond. About 21,400 relays were used for control and 150 lower-speed registers, with an access time of 20 milliseconds. The relay technology was similar to the ASCC, based on technology invented by Clair D. Lake (1888–1958). The arithmetic logic unit of the SSEC was a modified IBM 603 electronic multiplier, which had been designed by James W. Bryce. The bulky tubes were military surplus radar technology, which filled one entire wall. The memory was organized as signed 19-digit decimal numbers. Multiplication was computed with 14 digits in each factor. Most of the quoted 400,000 digit capacity was in the form of reels of punched paper tape.
IBM SSEC block diagram
Addition took 285 microseconds and multiplication 20 milliseconds, making arithmetic operations much faster than the Harvard Mark I. Data that had to be retrieved quickly was held in electronic circuits; the remainder was stored in relays and as holes in three continuous card-stock tapes that filled another wall. A chain hoist was needed to lift the heavy reels of paper into place. The machine read instructions or data from 30 paper tape readers connected to three punches, and another a table look-up unit consisted of another 36 paper tape readers. A punched card reader was used to load data, and results were produced on punched cards or high-speed printers. The 19-digit word was stored on the card stock tape or registers in binary-coded decimal, resulting in 76 bits, with two extra bits for indicating positive or negative sign and parity, while the two side rows were used for sprockets. The familiar 80 columns of IBM punched card technology were recorded sideways as one column of the tape.
Using well-tested technology, the SSEC's calculations were accurate and precise for its time, but one early programmer, John Backus, said "you had to be there the entire time the program was running, because it would stop every three minutes, and only the people who had programmed it could see how to get it running again”. ENIAC co-designer J. Presper Eckert (no relation to the IBM Eckert) called it "some big monstrosity over there that I don't think ever worked right".
Seeber had carefully designed the SSEC to treat instructions as data, so they could be modified and stored under program control. IBM filed a patent based on the SSEC on January 19, 1949, which was later upheld as supporting the machine's stored program ability.: 136
Each instruction could take input from any source (electronic or mechanical registers or tape readers) store the result in any destination (electronic or mechanical registers, tape or card punch or printer), and gave the address of the next instruction, which could also be any source. This made it powerful in theory.
However, in practice instructions were stored usually on paper tape, resulting in an overall rate of only about 50 instructions per second.
The serial nature of the paper tape memory made programming the SSEC more like the calculators from the World War II era. For example, "loops" were usually literal loops of paper tape glued together. For each new program, tapes and card decks were literally "loaded" on the readers, and a plugboard changed in the printer to modify output formatting.
For these reasons, the SSEC is usually classified as the last of the "programmable calculator" machines instead of the first stored-program computer.
Applications
The first application of the SSEC was calculating the positions of the Moon and planets, known as an ephemeris.
Each position of the Moon required about 11,000 additions, 9,000 multiplications, and 2,000 table look-ups, which took the SSEC about seven minutes.
This application used the machine for about six months; by then other users were lined up to keep the machine busy.
It has sometimes been said that the SSEC produced the Moon-position tables that were later used for plotting the course of the 1969 Apollo flight to the Moon. Records closer to 1969 suggest, however, that while there was a relationship, it was most likely less immediate. Thus, Mulholland and Devine (1968), working at NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, reported
that the JPL Ephemeris Tape System was "used for virtually all computations of spacecraft trajectories in the US space program", and that it had, as its current lunar ephemeris, an evaluation of the Improved Lunar Ephemeris incorporating a number of corrections: sources are named as 'The Improved Lunar Ephemeris' (documentation which was the report of the Eckert computations carried out by the SSEC, complete with lunar position results from 1952 to 1971), with corrections as described by Eckert et al. (1966), and in the Supplement to the AE 1968. Taken together, the corrections thus referenced modify practically every individual element of the lunar computations, and thus the space program appears to have been using lunar data generated by a modified and corrected derivative of the computational procedure pioneered using the SSEC, rather than the directly resulting tables themselves.
The first paying customer of the SSEC was General Electric. The SSEC was also used for calculations by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission for the ANP project to power an airplane with a nuclear reactor. Robert D. Richtmyer of Los Alamos National Laboratory used the SSEC for some of the first large-scale applications of the Monte Carlo method.
Llewellyn Thomas solved problems with stability of laminar flow, programmed by Donald A. Quarles Jr. and Phyllis K. Brown.
In 1949, Cuthbert Hurd was hired (also after a visit to the SSEC) and started a department of applied science; the operation of SSEC was eventually put into that organization.
Legacy
The SSEC room was one of the first computers to use a raised floor, so visitors would not see unsightly cables or trip over them.
The large array of flashing lights and noisy electro-mechanical relays made IBM very visible to the public. The SSEC appeared in the film Walk East on Beacon, which is based on a book by J. Edgar Hoover.
It was widely covered positively by the press.
The SSEC attracted both customers and new employees. Both Hurd and Backus were hired after seeing demonstrations of the facility.
The 1946 ENIAC had more tubes than the SSEC and was faster in some operations, but was originally less flexible, needing to be rewired for each new problem. At the end of 1948 a new IBM 604 multiplier was announced, which used newer tube technology that already made the bulky tubes of the SSEC obsolete. By May 1949 the Card-Programmed Electronic Calculator was announced, and shipped in September. It was effectively a much scaled-down version of the SSEC technology to allow customers to perform similar calculations. Even by the end of 1948, the limited electronic memory of the SSEC was seen as a problem, and IBM soon licensed the Williams tube technology developed on the Manchester Baby at the Victoria University of Manchester.: 168 Subsequent computers would have electronic random access memory, and in fact the ability to execute instructions from processor registers was generally not adopted. The 77-bit wide programming word was also abandoned for fewer bits but much faster operation.
By 1951 the Ferranti Mark I was marketed in the UK as a commercial computer using Williams tube technology, followed by the UNIVAC I using delay-line memory in the US. These memory technologies allowed stored-program features to be more practical. The stored-program concept had been first widely published in 1945 in the First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC and became known as the Von Neumann architecture. The EDVAC (first working in 1949) was the ENIAC successor, designed by the team who then marketed the UNIVAC.
The SSEC ran until August 1952, when it was dismantled, having been made obsolete by fully electronic computers.
An IBM 701 computer, known as the Defense Calculator, was installed in the same room for its April 7, 1953, public debut.
In July 1953 the much less expensive (and even better selling) IBM 650 was announced, which had been developed by the same Endicott team who developed the SSEC.
See also
Self-modifying code
History of IBM
History of computer hardware
List of vacuum-tube computers
Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator
References
^ Bashe, Charles J.; Buchholz, Werner; Hawkins, George V.; Ingram, J. James; Rochester, Nathaniel (September 1981). "The Architecture of IBM's Early Computers" (PDF). IBM Journal of Research and Development. 25 (5): 363–376. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.93.8952. doi:10.1147/rd.255.0363. ISSN 0018-8646. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-03-01. Retrieved 2021-11-24. p. 365: The SSEC was the first operating computer capable of treating its own stored instructions exactly like data, modifying them, and acting on the result.
^ "IBM's ASCC introduction". IBM Archives. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
^ Interviewed by Grady Booch (September 5, 2006). "Oral History of John Backus" (PDF). Reference number: X3715.2007. Computer History Museum. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 25, 2012. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
^ Kevin Maney (2004). The Maverick and His Machine: Thomas Watson, Sr. and the Making of IBM. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 347–355. ISBN 978-0-471-67925-7.
^ "ASCC People and progeny: Frank E. Hamilton". IBM Archives. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
^ a b c d e Emerson W. Pugh (1995). Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology. MIT Press. pp. 124–190. ISBN 978-0-262-16147-3.
^ Frank da Cruz (February 17, 2005). "The IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator". Columbia University Computing History. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
^ Richard R. Mertz (August 24, 1970). "Herb Grosch Interview" (PDF). Computer Oral History Collection. Smithsonian National Museum of American History Archives Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 14, 2011. Retrieved April 30, 2011.
^ a b Jean Ford Brennan (1971). "The Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator". The IBM Watson Laboratory at Columbia University: A History. International Business Machines Corporation. pp. 21–26. (See comments and corrections)
^ Herman Heine Goldstine (1980). The computer from Pascal to von Neumann. Princeton University Press. p. 327. ISBN 978-0-691-02367-0.
^ a b "Guide to the A. Wayne Brooke Papers, 1948 - 1986". North Carolina State University library. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
^ a b Herbert R.J. Grosch (1991). Computer: Bit Slices From a Life. Third Millennium Books. ISBN 0-88733-085-1.
^ "ASCC People and progeny: Clair D. Lake". IBM Archives. Retrieved April 25, 2011.
^ "ASCC People and progeny: James W. Bryce". IBM archives. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
^ a b c d W. J. Eckert (November 1948). "Electrons and Computation". The Scientific Monthly. ISBN 9783540113195.
^ "Pathfinder". Think. July 1979. pp. 18–24. Retrieved April 22, 2011.
^ "Nancy B. Stern interview with J. Presper Eckert". Oral History. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. October 28, 1977. Retrieved April 22, 2011.
^ F. E. Hamilton; R. R. Seeber; R. A. Rowley; E. S. Hughes (January 19, 1949). "Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator". US Patent 2,636,672. Archived from the original on February 2, 2017. Retrieved April 28, 2011. Issued April 28, 1953.
^ Allan Olley (September 20–23, 2010). "Existence Precedes Essence—Meaning of the Stored-Program Concept". History of Computing:Learning from the Past: 169–178. ISBN 978-3-642-15198-9. (Proceedings of IFIP WG 9. 7 International Conference Held as Part of WCC 2010, Brisbane, Australia)
^ Alexander Feinberg (September 12, 1949). "Mechanical Giant Calculator in a Few Days Charts Sky a Century Ahead for Navigators; Also for Atomic Physics; Tool of Several Sciences Has Used 10,000,000 Operations in Fixing Positions of Stars". The New York Times. p. 23.
^ a b Robert Seidel (November 18, 1994). "An Interview with Cuthbert C. Hurd". Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Retrieved April 25, 2011.
^ J. D. Mulholland & C. J. Devine, Science (1968) 160, 874–875
^ Eckert, W. J., et al., Improved Lunar Ephemeris, (US Government Printing Office, 1954).
^ Eckert, W. J., et al., 1966, Transformations of the Lunar Coordinates and Orbital Parameters, Astron J 71, 314.
^ Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris 1968 (US Government Printing Office, 1966)
^ Nicholas Metropolis (1987). "The beginning of the Monte Carlo method" (PDF). Los Alamos Science (1987): 129. Special Issue dedicated to Stanislaw Ulam
^ L. H. Thomas (August 1953). "The Stability of Plane Poiseuille Flow". Physical Review. 91 (4): 780–783. Bibcode:1953PhRv...91..780T. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.91.780.
^ John Brooks; Brendan Gill (March 4, 1950). "Never Stumped". The New Yorker. pp. 20–21.
^ William Laurence (January 28, 1948). "Mechanical 'Brain' is Given to Science: Giant Electronic Calculator Built by IBM, Can Do in Days What Once Took a Lifetime". The New York Times. p. 25.
^ "A notable first: The IBM 701". IBM archives. Retrieved April 29, 2011.
^ "650 Chronology". IBM archives. Retrieved April 29, 2011.
Further reading
Charles J. Bashe (October 1982). "The SSEC in Historical Perspective". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 4 (4): 296–312. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1982.10037. S2CID 6582435.
John C. McPherson; Frank E. Hamilton; Robert R. Seeber Jr. (October 1982). "A Large-Scale, General-Purpose Electronic Digital Calculator: The SSEC". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 4 (4): 313–326. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1982.10041. S2CID 1108746. Originally written in 1948
Ernest S. Hughes (January 1986). "The SSEC and Its Carry-Over Effects on the IBM Type 650". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 8 (1): 12–13. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1986.10002. S2CID 12432891.
Byron E. Phelps (July 1980). "Early Electronic Computing Developments at IBM". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 2 (3): 253–267. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1980.10035. S2CID 34372610.
Cuthbert C. Hurd (November 1980). "Computer Developments at IBM". In Nicholas Metropolis; Jack Howlett; Gian-Carlo Rota (eds.). A history of computing in the twentieth century: a collection of essays. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-491650-0.
René Moreau (1984). The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-13194-3.
"The IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator" (PDF). www.bitsavers.org.
External links
IBM Archives: FAQ's for Products and Services
IBM SSEC Control Desk photo, in better quality
"Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC)". IBM Archives. Retrieved April 22, 2011. photo, better quality and other photos
"SSEC Tape". Columbia University. Retrieved April 25, 2011. photos
"Computer Pioneers: Pioneer Computers Part 1 - The Dawn of Electronic Computing 1935-1945". The Computer Museum, Boston. 1996. Archived from the original on 2021-12-13. Retrieved April 26, 2011. Video with Gordon Bell, SSEC about 42:00
Scene from Walk East on Beacon showing the SSEC
IBM film and photos of SSEC
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM_Armonk,_computing_artifact_tour_(4857025116).jpg"},{"link_name":"electromechanical computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromechanical_computer"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"stored-program computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stored-program_computer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bashe-Buchholz-Hawkins-Ingram-Rochester_1981-1"}],"text":"SSEC control deskThe IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC) was an electromechanical computer built by IBM. Its design was started in late 1944 and it operated from January 1948 to August 1952. It had many of the features of a stored-program computer, and was the first operational machine able to treat its instructions as data, but it was not fully electronic.[1]\nAlthough the SSEC proved useful for several high-profile applications, it soon became obsolete. As the last large electromechanical computer ever built, its greatest success was the publicity it provided for IBM.","title":"IBM SSEC"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Howard H. Aiken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_H._Aiken"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"Harvard Mark I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Thomas J. Watson Sr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Wallace John Eckert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_John_Eckert"},{"link_name":"Columbia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Robert Rex Seeber Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Rex_Seeber_Jr."},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pugh-6"},{"link_name":"Endicott, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endicott,_New_York"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"During World War II, International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) funded and built an Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC) for Howard H. Aiken at Harvard University. The machine, formally dedicated in August 1944, was widely known as the Harvard Mark I.[2] The President of IBM, Thomas J. Watson Sr., did not like Aiken's press release that gave no credit to IBM for its funding and engineering effort. Watson and Aiken decided to go their separate ways, and IBM began work on a project to build their own larger and more visible machine.[3]Astronomer Wallace John Eckert of Columbia University provided specifications for the new machine; the project budget of almost $1 million was an immense amount for the time.[4]\nFrancis \"Frank\" E. Hamilton (1898–1972) supervised the construction of both the ASCC and the SSEC.[5] Robert Rex Seeber Jr. was also hired away from the Harvard group, and became known as the chief architect of the new machine.[6]\nModules were manufactured in IBM's facility at Endicott, New York, under Director of Engineering John McPherson after the basic design was ready in December 1945.[7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ENIAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENIAC"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pugh-6"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brooke-11"},{"link_name":"Herb Grosch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb_Grosch"},{"link_name":"Edgar \"Ted\" Codd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_F._Codd"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-herb-12"},{"link_name":"vacuum tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"link_name":"relays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relay"},{"link_name":"registers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processor_register"},{"link_name":"millisecond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"arithmetic logic unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit"},{"link_name":"IBM 603","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_603"},{"link_name":"James W. Bryce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_W._Bryce"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eckert48-15"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM_SSEC_block_diagram.jpg"},{"link_name":"punched card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eckert48-15"},{"link_name":"binary-coded decimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-herb-12"},{"link_name":"John Backus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Backus"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"J. Presper Eckert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Presper_Eckert"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pugh-6"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eckert48-15"},{"link_name":"instructions per second","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructions_per_second"},{"link_name":"plugboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plugboard"},{"link_name":"stored-program computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stored-program_computer"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Construction","text":"The February 1946 announcement of the fully electronic ENIAC energized the project.[8]\nThe new machine, called the IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC), was ready to be installed by August 1947.[9]\nWatson called such machines calculators because computer then referred to humans employed to perform calculations and he wanted to convey the message that IBM's machines were not designed to replace people. Rather they were designed to help people, by relieving them of drudgery.[6]: 143The SSEC was installed on three sides of a room on the ground floor of a building near IBM's headquarters at 590 Madison Avenue in New York City, behind a large window where it was visible to people passing by on the busy street. The space had formerly been occupied by a women's shoe store. The noisy SSEC was sometimes called Poppa by the viewing pedestrians.[10]\nIt was dedicated and first demonstrated to the public on January 27, 1948. A. Wayne Brooke served as the chief electronic engineer for the machine's operation starting in 1950.[11]\nHerb Grosch, the second person with a Ph.D. hired by IBM, was one of its first programmers. Another early programmer was Edgar \"Ted\" Codd. Elizabeth \"Betsy\" Stewart was chief operator, and often appeared in publicity photos.[12]The SSEC was an unusual hybrid of vacuum tubes and electromechanical relays. Approximately 12,500 vacuum tubes were used in the arithmetic unit, control, and its eight (relatively high-speed) registers, which had an access time of less than one millisecond. About 21,400 relays were used for control and 150 lower-speed registers, with an access time of 20 milliseconds. The relay technology was similar to the ASCC, based on technology invented by Clair D. Lake (1888–1958).[13] The arithmetic logic unit of the SSEC was a modified IBM 603 electronic multiplier, which had been designed by James W. Bryce.[14] The bulky tubes were military surplus radar technology, which filled one entire wall. The memory was organized as signed 19-digit decimal numbers. Multiplication was computed with 14 digits in each factor. Most of the quoted 400,000 digit capacity was in the form of reels of punched paper tape.[15]IBM SSEC block diagramAddition took 285 microseconds and multiplication 20 milliseconds, making arithmetic operations much faster than the Harvard Mark I. Data that had to be retrieved quickly was held in electronic circuits; the remainder was stored in relays and as holes in three continuous card-stock tapes that filled another wall. A chain hoist was needed to lift the heavy reels of paper into place. The machine read instructions or data from 30 paper tape readers connected to three punches, and another a table look-up unit consisted of another 36 paper tape readers. A punched card reader was used to load data, and results were produced on punched cards or high-speed printers.[15] The 19-digit word was stored on the card stock tape or registers in binary-coded decimal, resulting in 76 bits, with two extra bits for indicating positive or negative sign and parity, while the two side rows were used for sprockets. The familiar 80 columns of IBM punched card technology were recorded sideways as one column of the tape.[12]Using well-tested technology, the SSEC's calculations were accurate and precise for its time, but one early programmer, John Backus, said \"you had to be there the entire time the program was running, because it would stop every three minutes, and only the people who had programmed it could see how to get it running again”.[16] ENIAC co-designer J. Presper Eckert (no relation to the IBM Eckert) called it \"some big monstrosity over there that I don't think ever worked right\".[17]Seeber had carefully designed the SSEC to treat instructions as data, so they could be modified and stored under program control. IBM filed a patent based on the SSEC on January 19, 1949, which was later upheld as supporting the machine's stored program ability.[6]: 136 [18]\nEach instruction could take input from any source (electronic or mechanical registers or tape readers) store the result in any destination (electronic or mechanical registers, tape or card punch or printer), and gave the address of the next instruction, which could also be any source. This made it powerful in theory.[15]\nHowever, in practice instructions were stored usually on paper tape, resulting in an overall rate of only about 50 instructions per second. \nThe serial nature of the paper tape memory made programming the SSEC more like the calculators from the World War II era. For example, \"loops\" were usually literal loops of paper tape glued together. For each new program, tapes and card decks were literally \"loaded\" on the readers, and a plugboard changed in the printer to modify output formatting.\nFor these reasons, the SSEC is usually classified as the last of the \"programmable calculator\" machines instead of the first stored-program computer.[19]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"planets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet"},{"link_name":"ephemeris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephemeris"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hurd-21"},{"link_name":"Apollo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Apollo"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"General Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric"},{"link_name":"U.S. Atomic Energy Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission"},{"link_name":"ANP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion"},{"link_name":"Robert D. Richtmyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_D._Richtmyer"},{"link_name":"Los Alamos National Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Monte Carlo method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Llewellyn Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llewellyn_Thomas"},{"link_name":"laminar flow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminar_flow"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Cuthbert Hurd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuthbert_Hurd"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hurd-21"}],"sub_title":"Applications","text":"The first application of the SSEC was calculating the positions of the Moon and planets, known as an ephemeris.[20]\nEach position of the Moon required about 11,000 additions, 9,000 multiplications, and 2,000 table look-ups, which took the SSEC about seven minutes.[9]\nThis application used the machine for about six months; by then other users were lined up to keep the machine busy.[21]It has sometimes been said that the SSEC produced the Moon-position tables that were later used for plotting the course of the 1969 Apollo flight to the Moon. Records closer to 1969 suggest, however, that while there was a relationship, it was most likely less immediate. Thus, Mulholland and Devine (1968), working at NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, reported[22]\nthat the JPL Ephemeris Tape System was \"used for virtually all computations of spacecraft trajectories in the US space program\", and that it had, as its current lunar ephemeris, an evaluation of the Improved Lunar Ephemeris incorporating a number of corrections: sources are named as 'The Improved Lunar Ephemeris' (documentation which was the report of the Eckert computations carried out by the SSEC, complete with lunar position results from 1952 to 1971),[23] with corrections as described by Eckert et al. (1966),[24] and in the Supplement to the AE 1968.[25] Taken together, the corrections thus referenced modify practically every individual element of the lunar computations, and thus the space program appears to have been using lunar data generated by a modified and corrected derivative of the computational procedure pioneered using the SSEC, rather than the directly resulting tables themselves.The first paying customer of the SSEC was General Electric. The SSEC was also used for calculations by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission for the ANP project to power an airplane with a nuclear reactor. Robert D. Richtmyer of Los Alamos National Laboratory used the SSEC for some of the first large-scale applications of the Monte Carlo method.[26]\nLlewellyn Thomas solved problems with stability of laminar flow, programmed by Donald A. Quarles Jr. and Phyllis K. Brown.[27]\nIn 1949, Cuthbert Hurd was hired (also after a visit to the SSEC) and started a department of applied science; the operation of SSEC was eventually put into that organization.[21]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"raised floor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raised_floor"},{"link_name":"relays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relay"},{"link_name":"Walk East on Beacon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walk_East_on_Beacon"},{"link_name":"J. Edgar Hoover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brooke-11"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"IBM 604","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_604"},{"link_name":"Card-Programmed Electronic Calculator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_CPC"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pugh-6"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eckert48-15"},{"link_name":"Williams tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_tube"},{"link_name":"Manchester Baby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Baby"},{"link_name":"Victoria University of Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_University_of_Manchester"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pugh-6"},{"link_name":"random access memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_access_memory"},{"link_name":"programming word","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_(computer_architecture)"},{"link_name":"Ferranti Mark I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferranti_Mark_I"},{"link_name":"UNIVAC I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC_I"},{"link_name":"delay-line memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delay-line_memory"},{"link_name":"First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Draft_of_a_Report_on_the_EDVAC"},{"link_name":"Von Neumann architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture"},{"link_name":"EDVAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDVAC"},{"link_name":"IBM 701","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_701"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"IBM 650","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_650"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"Legacy","text":"The SSEC room was one of the first computers to use a raised floor, so visitors would not see unsightly cables or trip over them.\nThe large array of flashing lights and noisy electro-mechanical relays made IBM very visible to the public. The SSEC appeared in the film Walk East on Beacon, which is based on a book by J. Edgar Hoover.[11]\nIt was widely covered positively by the press.[28][29]\nThe SSEC attracted both customers and new employees. Both Hurd and Backus were hired after seeing demonstrations of the facility.The 1946 ENIAC had more tubes than the SSEC and was faster in some operations, but was originally less flexible, needing to be rewired for each new problem. At the end of 1948 a new IBM 604 multiplier was announced, which used newer tube technology that already made the bulky tubes of the SSEC obsolete. By May 1949 the Card-Programmed Electronic Calculator was announced, and shipped in September. It was effectively a much scaled-down version of the SSEC technology to allow customers to perform similar calculations.[6] Even by the end of 1948, the limited electronic memory of the SSEC was seen as a problem,[15] and IBM soon licensed the Williams tube technology developed on the Manchester Baby at the Victoria University of Manchester.[6]: 168 Subsequent computers would have electronic random access memory, and in fact the ability to execute instructions from processor registers was generally not adopted. The 77-bit wide programming word was also abandoned for fewer bits but much faster operation.By 1951 the Ferranti Mark I was marketed in the UK as a commercial computer using Williams tube technology, followed by the UNIVAC I using delay-line memory in the US. These memory technologies allowed stored-program features to be more practical. The stored-program concept had been first widely published in 1945 in the First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC and became known as the Von Neumann architecture. The EDVAC (first working in 1949) was the ENIAC successor, designed by the team who then marketed the UNIVAC.The SSEC ran until August 1952, when it was dismantled, having been made obsolete by fully electronic computers.\nAn IBM 701 computer, known as the Defense Calculator, was installed in the same room for its April 7, 1953, public debut.[30]\nIn July 1953 the much less expensive (and even better selling) IBM 650 was announced, which had been developed by the same Endicott team who developed the SSEC.[31]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/MAHC.1982.10037","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FMAHC.1982.10037"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"6582435","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6582435"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/MAHC.1982.10041","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FMAHC.1982.10041"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1108746","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1108746"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/MAHC.1986.10002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FMAHC.1986.10002"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"12432891","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12432891"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/MAHC.1980.10035","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FMAHC.1980.10035"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"34372610","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34372610"},{"link_name":"A history of computing in the twentieth century: a collection of essays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=_H9QAAAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-12-491650-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-491650-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-262-13194-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-13194-3"},{"link_name":"\"The IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/ssec/Bhattacharya_The_IBM_Selective_Sequence_Electronic_Calculator_Jan82.pdf"}],"text":"Charles J. Bashe (October 1982). \"The SSEC in Historical Perspective\". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 4 (4): 296–312. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1982.10037. S2CID 6582435.\nJohn C. McPherson; Frank E. Hamilton; Robert R. Seeber Jr. (October 1982). \"A Large-Scale, General-Purpose Electronic Digital Calculator: The SSEC\". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 4 (4): 313–326. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1982.10041. S2CID 1108746. Originally written in 1948\nErnest S. Hughes (January 1986). \"The SSEC and Its Carry-Over Effects on the IBM Type 650\". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 8 (1): 12–13. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1986.10002. S2CID 12432891.\nByron E. Phelps (July 1980). \"Early Electronic Computing Developments at IBM\". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 2 (3): 253–267. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1980.10035. S2CID 34372610.\nCuthbert C. Hurd (November 1980). \"Computer Developments at IBM\". In Nicholas Metropolis; Jack Howlett; Gian-Carlo Rota (eds.). A history of computing in the twentieth century: a collection of essays. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-491650-0.\nRené Moreau (1984). The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-13194-3.\n\"The IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator\" (PDF). www.bitsavers.org.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"SSEC control desk","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/IBM_Armonk%2C_computing_artifact_tour_%284857025116%29.jpg/220px-IBM_Armonk%2C_computing_artifact_tour_%284857025116%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"IBM SSEC block diagram","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/IBM_SSEC_block_diagram.jpg/400px-IBM_SSEC_block_diagram.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Self-modifying code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-modifying_code"},{"title":"History of IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM"},{"title":"History of computer hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware"},{"title":"List of vacuum-tube computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vacuum-tube_computers"},{"title":"Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Delay_Storage_Automatic_Calculator"}]
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[{"reference":"Bashe, Charles J.; Buchholz, Werner; Hawkins, George V.; Ingram, J. James; Rochester, Nathaniel (September 1981). \"The Architecture of IBM's Early Computers\" (PDF). IBM Journal of Research and Development. 25 (5): 363–376. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.93.8952. doi:10.1147/rd.255.0363. ISSN 0018-8646. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-03-01. Retrieved 2021-11-24. p. 365: The SSEC was the first operating computer capable of treating its own stored instructions exactly like data, modifying them, and acting on the result.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Buchholz","url_text":"Buchholz, Werner"},{"url":"http://www.ece.ucdavis.edu/~vojin/CLASSES/EEC272/S2005/Papers/IBM-Architecture-Bashe_sep81.pdf","url_text":"\"The Architecture of IBM's Early Computers\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Journal_of_Research_and_Development","url_text":"IBM Journal of Research and Development"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.93.8952","url_text":"10.1.1.93.8952"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1147%2Frd.255.0363","url_text":"10.1147/rd.255.0363"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-8646","url_text":"0018-8646"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210301162207/https://www.ece.ucdavis.edu/~vojin/CLASSES/EEC272/S2005/Papers/IBM-Architecture-Bashe_sep81.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"IBM's ASCC introduction\". IBM Archives. Retrieved April 23, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/markI/markI_intro.html","url_text":"\"IBM's ASCC introduction\""}]},{"reference":"Interviewed by Grady Booch (September 5, 2006). \"Oral History of John Backus\" (PDF). Reference number: X3715.2007. Computer History Museum. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 25, 2012. Retrieved April 23, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120225061525/http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/text/Oral_History/Backus_John/Backus_John_1.oral_history.2006.102657970.pdf","url_text":"\"Oral History of John Backus\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_History_Museum","url_text":"Computer History Museum"},{"url":"http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/text/Oral_History/Backus_John/Backus_John_1.oral_history.2006.102657970.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kevin Maney (2004). The Maverick and His Machine: Thomas Watson, Sr. and the Making of IBM. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 347–355. ISBN 978-0-471-67925-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=uljGzJu2tuAC&pg=PA347","url_text":"The Maverick and His Machine: Thomas Watson, Sr. and the Making of IBM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-67925-7","url_text":"978-0-471-67925-7"}]},{"reference":"\"ASCC People and progeny: Frank E. Hamilton\". IBM Archives. Retrieved April 23, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/markI/markI_team5.html","url_text":"\"ASCC People and progeny: Frank E. Hamilton\""}]},{"reference":"Emerson W. Pugh (1995). Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology. MIT Press. pp. 124–190. ISBN 978-0-262-16147-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerson_W._Pugh","url_text":"Emerson W. Pugh"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Bc8BGhSOawgC","url_text":"Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-16147-3","url_text":"978-0-262-16147-3"}]},{"reference":"Frank da Cruz (February 17, 2005). \"The IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator\". Columbia University Computing History. Retrieved April 23, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/ssec.html","url_text":"\"The IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator\""}]},{"reference":"Richard R. Mertz (August 24, 1970). \"Herb Grosch Interview\" (PDF). Computer Oral History Collection. Smithsonian National Museum of American History Archives Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 14, 2011. Retrieved April 30, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110914105315/http://invention.smithsonian.org/downloads/fa_cohc_tr_gros700824.pdf","url_text":"\"Herb Grosch Interview\""},{"url":"http://invention.smithsonian.org/downloads/fa_cohc_tr_gros700824.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Jean Ford Brennan (1971). \"The Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator\". The IBM Watson Laboratory at Columbia University: A History. International Business Machines Corporation. pp. 21–26.","urls":[{"url":"http://columbiauniversity.org/acis/history/brennan/","url_text":"The IBM Watson Laboratory at Columbia University: A History"}]},{"reference":"Herman Heine Goldstine (1980). The computer from Pascal to von Neumann. Princeton University Press. p. 327. ISBN 978-0-691-02367-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Goldstine","url_text":"Herman Heine Goldstine"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3FvELn2KiUYC&pg=PA327","url_text":"The computer from Pascal to von Neumann"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02367-0","url_text":"978-0-691-02367-0"}]},{"reference":"\"Guide to the A. Wayne Brooke Papers, 1948 - 1986\". North Carolina State University library. Retrieved April 23, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/findingaids/mc00268/","url_text":"\"Guide to the A. Wayne Brooke Papers, 1948 - 1986\""}]},{"reference":"Herbert R.J. Grosch (1991). Computer: Bit Slices From a Life. Third Millennium Books. ISBN 0-88733-085-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb_Grosch","url_text":"Herbert R.J. Grosch"},{"url":"http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/computer.html","url_text":"Computer: Bit Slices From a Life"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88733-085-1","url_text":"0-88733-085-1"}]},{"reference":"\"ASCC People and progeny: Clair D. Lake\". IBM Archives. Retrieved April 25, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/markI/markI_team3.html","url_text":"\"ASCC People and progeny: Clair D. Lake\""}]},{"reference":"\"ASCC People and progeny: James W. Bryce\". IBM archives. Retrieved April 23, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/markI/markI_team2.html","url_text":"\"ASCC People and progeny: James W. Bryce\""}]},{"reference":"W. J. Eckert (November 1948). \"Electrons and Computation\". The Scientific Monthly. ISBN 9783540113195.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Dwj4RmcZ1AoC&pg=PA223","url_text":"\"Electrons and Computation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scientific_Monthly","url_text":"The Scientific Monthly"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783540113195","url_text":"9783540113195"}]},{"reference":"\"Pathfinder\". Think. July 1979. pp. 18–24. Retrieved April 22, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/builders/builders_backus2.html","url_text":"\"Pathfinder\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nancy B. Stern interview with J. Presper Eckert\". Oral History. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. October 28, 1977. Retrieved April 22, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://purl.umn.edu/107275","url_text":"\"Nancy B. Stern interview with J. Presper Eckert\""}]},{"reference":"F. E. Hamilton; R. R. Seeber; R. A. Rowley; E. S. Hughes (January 19, 1949). \"Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator\". US Patent 2,636,672. Archived from the original on February 2, 2017. Retrieved April 28, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170202001232/http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=2636672.PN.&OS=PN%2F2636672&RS=PN%2F2636672","url_text":"\"Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator\""},{"url":"http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=2636672.PN.&OS=PN/2636672&RS=PN/2636672","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Allan Olley (September 20–23, 2010). \"Existence Precedes Essence—Meaning of the Stored-Program Concept\". History of Computing:Learning from the Past: 169–178. ISBN 978-3-642-15198-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=EzuAjubj90AC&pg=PA169","url_text":"\"Existence Precedes Essence—Meaning of the Stored-Program Concept\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-15198-9","url_text":"978-3-642-15198-9"}]},{"reference":"Alexander Feinberg (September 12, 1949). \"Mechanical Giant Calculator in a Few Days Charts Sky a Century Ahead for Navigators; Also for Atomic Physics; Tool of Several Sciences Has Used 10,000,000 Operations in Fixing Positions of Stars\". The New York Times. p. 23.","urls":[{"url":"http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0813FE3F5F177B93C0A81782D85F4D8485F9","url_text":"\"Mechanical Giant Calculator in a Few Days Charts Sky a Century Ahead for Navigators; Also for Atomic Physics; Tool of Several Sciences Has Used 10,000,000 Operations in Fixing Positions of Stars\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Robert Seidel (November 18, 1994). \"An Interview with Cuthbert C. Hurd\". Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Retrieved April 25, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://purl.umn.edu/107370","url_text":"\"An Interview with Cuthbert C. Hurd\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage_Institute","url_text":"Charles Babbage Institute"}]},{"reference":"Nicholas Metropolis (1987). \"The beginning of the Monte Carlo method\" (PDF). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilman_Louie
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Gilman Louie
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["1 Early life and education","2 Career","2.1 Video games","2.2 Venture capital","2.3 Board activities","3 Other activities","4 Credits","5 Awards","6 References","7 External links"]
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American video game designer and venture capitalist (born 1960)
Gilman LouieLouie in 2008Born1960 (age 63–64)San Francisco, California, U.S.EducationSan Francisco State University (BSBA)Occupation(s)Venture capitalist, former video game designerKnown forCEO of Spectrum Holobyte, co-founder and CEO of In-Q-Tel
Gilman Louie (born 1960) is an American technology venture capitalist who got his start as a video game designer and then co-founded and ran the CIA venture capital fund In-Q-Tel. With his company Nexa Corporation he designed and developed multiple computer games such as the F-16 Fighting Falcon flight simulator series. His company later merged with Spectrum Holobyte where he was CEO until its acquisition by Hasbro, after which he became Chief Creative Officer and General Manager of its Games.com group. He has served on a number of boards of directors, including Wizards of the Coast, Niantic, Total Entertainment Network, FASA Interactive, Wickr, Aerospike, the Chinese American International School, Markle Foundation, Digital Promise, and Maxar Technologies. He is chairman of the Federation of American Scientists and Vricon. He is a member of the President’s Intelligence Advisory Board and the U.S. Department of State’s Foreign Affairs Policy Board.
Early life and education
Louie was born in San Francisco. He graduated in 1983 from San Francisco State University with a Bachelor of Science degree in business administration. In 1997, he attended the then thirteen-week Advanced Management Program (AMP) and International Senior Management Program (ISMP) at Harvard Business School.
Career
Video games
He built a career in the video game industry, founding a company in 1981 while still in college. He called it NEXA Corporation, based on a department at SFSU that was a combination of the humanities and the sciences. In 1986 his company merged with Spectrum Holobyte via a shell company called Sphere, Inc., with Louie as CEO, and then he became CEO of Spectrum Holobyte in 1992. In 1992 he acquired MicroProse. He designed and developed the F-16 Fighting Falcon flight simulator series (1984–1998). He was also chairman of Spectrum HoloByte when it published Tetris (1987), based on a disputed license. His company was acquired by Hasbro Interactive in 1998, where Louie served as Chief Creative Officer and general manager of the Games.com group.
Venture capital
In 1999 he co-founded and became the CEO of the non-profit Peleus (later In-Q-It and then In-Q-Tel). It was a company created with $30 million in seed money from the US federal government, and intended to help enhance national security by connecting the United States Intelligence Community with venture-backed entrepreneurial companies and making venture capital style investments in new technologies.
As of 2021, Louie is a partner of Alsop Louie Partners, a venture capital fund focused on helping entrepreneurs start companies. Known investments of Alsop Louie Partners include Niantic, Inc., Wickr, Cleversafe, Ribbit, Zephyr Technologies, Gridspeak, Netwitness, and LookingGlass Cyber Solutions.
Board activities
Louie has served on a number of boards of directors, including Wizards of the Coast, Total Entertainment Network, Direct Language, FASA Interactive, Netwitness, Motive Medical, Wickr, Gridspeak, the National Venture Capital Association (NVCA), Zephyr Technologies, the CIA Officers Memorial Foundation, Aerospike, GreatSchools and the Chinese American International School in San Francisco. He serves on the board of the Markle Foundation and is on the boards of Greatschools.org and Digital Promise. Louie is chairman of the Federation of American Scientists as well as the Mandarin Institute. In September 2015, he was elected Chairman of the Board for a US-based 3D Geospatial Mapping company called Vricon.
Other activities
In 2018, Louie was appointed to the United States National Security Commission for Artificial Intelligence. Gilman served as vice chairman of the standing committee on Technology, Insight-Gauge, Evaluate and Review for the United States National Academies. He also chaired the committee on Forecasting Future Disruptive Technologies for the United States National Academies that produced two reports.
In 2009, representing his company Alsop Louie Partners, he sat as a member of the committee for The Symposium on Avoiding Technology Surprise for Tomorrow's Warfighter working alongside Raytheon.
In May 2022, Louie was appointed to serve as a member of the President's Intelligence Advisory Board. In June 2022, he was appointed to serve as a member of the U.S. Department of State’s Foreign Affairs Policy Board.
Credits
Video games designed, programmed and/or produced:
Falcon 4.0 (1998), MicroProse
Falcon Gold (1994), Spectrum HoloByte
Falcon 3.0: MiG-29 (1993), Spectrum HoloByte
Falcon 3.0: Hornet (1993), Spectrum HoloByte
Falcon 3.0: Operation Fighting Tiger (1992), Spectrum HoloByte
Falcon 3.0 (1991), Spectrum HoloByte
Crisis in the Kremlin (1991), Spectrum HoloByte
Super Tetris (1991), Spectrum HoloByte
Stunt Driver (1990), Spectrum HoloByte
Tank: The M1A1 Abrams Battle Tank Simulation (1989), Spectrum HoloByte
Falcon AT (1989), Spectrum HoloByte
Vette! (1989), Spectrum HoloByte
L.A. Crackdown (1988), Epyx
Falcon (1987), Spectrum HoloByte
Captain Cosmo (1984), ASCII Corporation
F-16 Fighting Falcon (1984), ASCII Corporation, Sega
World's Greatest Football (1984) Epyx
Starship Simulator (1984), ASCII Corporation
Delta Squadron (1983), Nexa Corporation
Starship Commander (1981), Voyager Software
Battle Trek (1981), Voyager Software
Awards
1988 George Washington High School (San Francisco) Hall of Merit
1988 Excellence in Software Awards (Codie awards), Software and Information Industry Association (formerly the Software Publishers Association): Best Technical Achievement, Best Simulation, Best Action/Strategy Game for Falcon
1993 Asian Business League's Distinguished Entrepreneur of the Year
1995 San Francisco State University Hall of Fame
2002 Scientific American Fifty
2004 Potomac Institute for Policy Studies Navigator Award
2005 Federal 100 Award, Federal Computer Week
2006 National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency medallion for outstanding service and support to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency while serving as CEO and President of In-Q-Tel
2006 CIA Agency Seal Medallions (2) for his service to the intelligence community
2006 Director's Award by the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, Porter Goss, for his service in creating In-Q-Tel and providing service to the intelligence community
2007 Order of the Silver Helmet, Delta Sigma Pi
2008 Director of National Intelligence Medallion for service towards establishing an environment of equality, diversity and inclusion within the Intelligence Community
2021 Tech Titans, by the Washingtonian (magazine) for Cybersecurity
2021 Theodore Roosevelt Government Leadership Award by Government Executive for significant, lasting achievements around emerging technologies and cybersecurity
2023 Arthur C. Lundahl—Thomas C. Finnie Lifetime Achievement Award by United States Geospatial Intelligence Foundation
References
^ a b "Alsop-Louie Partners FAQ". Alsop-Louie Partners. Archived from the original on January 12, 2011.
^ a b Rodriguez, Giovanni. "Meet The VC Who's Betting On A Better World In 3D: Gilman Louie". Forbes. Retrieved 2020-02-11.
^ a b University of California, Los Angeles, Thirty-Thirty Seminar Series, March 23, 2011 Archived July 14, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, Panelist Biography
^ "Secretary Blinken Selects Members of the Foreign Affairs Policy Board". United States Department of State. Retrieved 2023-09-19.
^ House, The White (2022-05-04). "President Biden Announces Appointments to the President's Intelligence Advisory Board and the National Science Board". The White House. Retrieved 2023-09-19.
^ a b Van Slambrouck, Paul (January 14, 2000). "The spy who came in from Silicon Valley". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved December 12, 2021.
^ a b Staff writer (March 29, 2001). "Fact sheet - Gilman Louie". Venture Capital Journal. Retrieved December 12, 2021.
^ "Gilman Louie". Federation Of American Scientists. Retrieved 2020-03-24.
^ Public Affairs Office (April 24, 2007). "A few among many notable San Francisco State University alumni". San Francisco State University. Retrieved December 12, 2021.
^ Shead, Sam. "Ex-Google CEO To Lead US Government AI Advisory Group". Forbes. Retrieved 2020-06-27.
^ Persistent Forecasting of Disrupive Technologies, Report 1 of 2, The United States National Academies Press, 2009.
^ Persistent Forecasting of Disruptive Technologies, Report 2 of 2, The United States National Academies Press, 2010.
^ Report for The Symposium on Avoiding Technology Surprise for Tomorrow's Warfighter, The United States National Academies Press, 2009.
^ "President Biden Announces Appointments to the President's Intelligence Advisory Board and the National Science Board". The White House. 2022-05-04. Retrieved 2022-05-04.
^ "Secretary Blinken Selects Members of the Foreign Affairs Policy Board". United States Department of State. Retrieved 2023-09-19.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gilman Louie.
Gilman Louie at MobyGames
Markle.org
Fas.org
Nextgenerationproject.org
Gilman, Louie (May 29, 2012). "Paying attention to details: It's all in the details" (video). YouTube. - Lecture by Gilman Louie on the topic of starting a business, with conventional wisdom from the world of venture capital
Report of the National Commission for Review of the Research and Development Programs of the United States Intelligence Community
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
National
France
BnF data
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"venture capitalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venture_capitalist"},{"link_name":"video game designer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_designer"},{"link_name":"CIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA"},{"link_name":"In-Q-Tel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-Q-Tel"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FAQ-1"},{"link_name":"F-16 Fighting Falcon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_(series)#F-16_Fighting_Falcon"},{"link_name":"flight simulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_flight_simulation"},{"link_name":"Spectrum Holobyte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum_Holobyte"},{"link_name":"CEO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CEO"},{"link_name":"Hasbro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasbro"},{"link_name":"Wizards of the Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast"},{"link_name":"Niantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niantic_(company)"},{"link_name":"Total Entertainment Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Entertainment_Network"},{"link_name":"FASA Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FASA_Interactive"},{"link_name":"Wickr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wickr"},{"link_name":"Aerospike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospike_(company)"},{"link_name":"Chinese American International School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_American_International_School"},{"link_name":"Markle Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markle_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Digital Promise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Promise"},{"link_name":"Maxar Technologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxar_Technologies"},{"link_name":"Federation of American Scientists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_of_American_Scientists"},{"link_name":"Vricon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vricon"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rodriguez-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bio-3"},{"link_name":"President’s Intelligence Advisory Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%27s_Intelligence_Advisory_Board"},{"link_name":"U.S. Department of State’s Foreign Affairs Policy Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Affairs_Policy_Board"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Gilman Louie (born 1960) is an American technology venture capitalist who got his start as a video game designer and then co-founded and ran the CIA venture capital fund In-Q-Tel.[1] With his company Nexa Corporation he designed and developed multiple computer games such as the F-16 Fighting Falcon flight simulator series. His company later merged with Spectrum Holobyte where he was CEO until its acquisition by Hasbro, after which he became Chief Creative Officer and General Manager of its Games.com group. He has served on a number of boards of directors, including Wizards of the Coast, Niantic, Total Entertainment Network, FASA Interactive, Wickr, Aerospike, the Chinese American International School, Markle Foundation, Digital Promise, and Maxar Technologies. He is chairman of the Federation of American Scientists and Vricon.[2][3] He is a member of the President’s Intelligence Advisory Board and the U.S. Department of State’s Foreign Affairs Policy Board.[4][5]","title":"Gilman Louie"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-csm-6"},{"link_name":"San Francisco State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_State_University"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vcj-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Harvard Business School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_School"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vcj-7"}],"text":"Louie was born in San Francisco.[6] He graduated in 1983 from San Francisco State University with a Bachelor of Science degree in business administration.[7][8] In 1997, he attended the then thirteen-week Advanced Management Program (AMP) and International Senior Management Program (ISMP) at Harvard Business School.[7]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"video game industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_industry"},{"link_name":"Spectrum Holobyte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum_Holobyte"},{"link_name":"MicroProse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MicroProse"},{"link_name":"F-16 Fighting Falcon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_(series)#F-16_Fighting_Falcon"},{"link_name":"flight simulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_flight_simulation"},{"link_name":"Spectrum HoloByte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum_HoloByte"},{"link_name":"Tetris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetris"},{"link_name":"disputed license","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetris#Acquisition_of_rights_by_Mirrorsoft_and_Spectrum_HoloByte"},{"link_name":"Hasbro Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasbro_Interactive"},{"link_name":"Games.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Games.com&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Video games","text":"He built a career in the video game industry, founding a company in 1981 while still in college. He called it NEXA Corporation, based on a department at SFSU that was a combination of the humanities and the sciences. In 1986 his company merged with Spectrum Holobyte via a shell company called Sphere, Inc., with Louie as CEO, and then he became CEO of Spectrum Holobyte in 1992. In 1992 he acquired MicroProse. He designed and developed the F-16 Fighting Falcon flight simulator series (1984–1998). He was also chairman of Spectrum HoloByte when it published Tetris (1987), based on a disputed license. His company was acquired by Hasbro Interactive in 1998, where Louie served as Chief Creative Officer and general manager of the Games.com group.[9]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"In-Q-Tel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-Q-Tel"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-csm-6"},{"link_name":"United States Intelligence Community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FAQ-1"},{"link_name":"venture capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venture_capital"},{"link_name":"Niantic, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niantic_(company)"},{"link_name":"Wickr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wickr"},{"link_name":"Cleversafe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleversafe"},{"link_name":"Ribbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribbit_(telecommunications_company)"},{"link_name":"Netwitness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netwitness"}],"sub_title":"Venture capital","text":"In 1999 he co-founded and became the CEO of the non-profit Peleus (later In-Q-It and then In-Q-Tel). It was a company created with $30 million in seed money from the US federal government,[6] and intended to help enhance national security by connecting the United States Intelligence Community with venture-backed entrepreneurial companies and making venture capital style investments in new technologies.As of 2021, Louie is a partner of Alsop Louie Partners,[1] a venture capital fund focused on helping entrepreneurs start companies. Known investments of Alsop Louie Partners include Niantic, Inc., Wickr, Cleversafe, Ribbit, Zephyr Technologies, Gridspeak, Netwitness, and LookingGlass Cyber Solutions.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wizards of the Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast"},{"link_name":"Total Entertainment Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Entertainment_Network"},{"link_name":"FASA Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FASA_Interactive"},{"link_name":"Wickr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wickr"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bio-3"},{"link_name":"Aerospike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospike_(company)"},{"link_name":"Chinese American International School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_American_International_School"},{"link_name":"Markle Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markle_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Digital Promise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Promise"},{"link_name":"Federation of American Scientists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_of_American_Scientists"},{"link_name":"Vricon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vricon"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rodriguez-2"}],"sub_title":"Board activities","text":"Louie has served on a number of boards of directors, including Wizards of the Coast, Total Entertainment Network, Direct Language, FASA Interactive, Netwitness, Motive Medical, Wickr, Gridspeak, the National Venture Capital Association (NVCA),[3] Zephyr Technologies, the CIA Officers Memorial Foundation, Aerospike, GreatSchools and the Chinese American International School in San Francisco. He serves on the board of the Markle Foundation and is on the boards of Greatschools.org and Digital Promise. Louie is chairman of the Federation of American Scientists as well as the Mandarin Institute. In September 2015, he was elected Chairman of the Board for a US-based 3D Geospatial Mapping company called Vricon.[2]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"United States National Academies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Academies"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Raytheon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raytheon"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"President's Intelligence Advisory Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%27s_Intelligence_Advisory_Board"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"U.S. Department of State’s Foreign Affairs Policy Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Affairs_Policy_Board"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"In 2018, Louie was appointed to the United States National Security Commission for Artificial Intelligence.[10] Gilman served as vice chairman of the standing committee on Technology, Insight-Gauge, Evaluate and Review for the United States National Academies. He also chaired the committee on Forecasting Future Disruptive Technologies for the United States National Academies that produced two reports.[11][12]In 2009, representing his company Alsop Louie Partners, he sat as a member of the committee for The Symposium on Avoiding Technology Surprise for Tomorrow's Warfighter working alongside Raytheon.[13]In May 2022, Louie was appointed to serve as a member of the President's Intelligence Advisory Board.[14] In June 2022, he was appointed to serve as a member of the U.S. Department of State’s Foreign Affairs Policy Board.[15]","title":"Other activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Falcon 4.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_4.0"},{"link_name":"MicroProse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MicroProse"},{"link_name":"Falcon Gold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_(series)"},{"link_name":"Spectrum HoloByte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum_HoloByte"},{"link_name":"Falcon 3.0: MiG-29","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_3.0#Expansions"},{"link_name":"Falcon 3.0: Hornet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_3.0#Expansions"},{"link_name":"Falcon 3.0: Operation Fighting Tiger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_3.0#Expansions"},{"link_name":"Falcon 3.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_3.0"},{"link_name":"Crisis in the Kremlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_in_the_Kremlin"},{"link_name":"Super Tetris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Tetris_variants"},{"link_name":"Stunt Driver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stunt_Driver"},{"link_name":"Tank: The M1A1 Abrams Battle Tank Simulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank:_The_M1A1_Abrams_Battle_Tank_Simulation"},{"link_name":"Vette!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vette!"},{"link_name":"Epyx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epyx"},{"link_name":"Falcon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"ASCII Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII_Corporation"},{"link_name":"F-16 Fighting Falcon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_(series)#F-16_Fighting_Falcon"},{"link_name":"Sega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega"},{"link_name":"Delta Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Squadron_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Starship Commander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starship_Commander_(1981_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Battle Trek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_Trek"}],"text":"Video games designed, programmed and/or produced:Falcon 4.0 (1998), MicroProse\nFalcon Gold (1994), Spectrum HoloByte\nFalcon 3.0: MiG-29 (1993), Spectrum HoloByte\nFalcon 3.0: Hornet (1993), Spectrum HoloByte\nFalcon 3.0: Operation Fighting Tiger (1992), Spectrum HoloByte\nFalcon 3.0 (1991), Spectrum HoloByte\nCrisis in the Kremlin (1991), Spectrum HoloByte\nSuper Tetris (1991), Spectrum HoloByte\nStunt Driver (1990), Spectrum HoloByte\nTank: The M1A1 Abrams Battle Tank Simulation (1989), Spectrum HoloByte\nFalcon AT (1989), Spectrum HoloByte\nVette! (1989), Spectrum HoloByte\nL.A. Crackdown (1988), Epyx\nFalcon (1987), Spectrum HoloByte\nCaptain Cosmo (1984), ASCII Corporation\nF-16 Fighting Falcon (1984), ASCII Corporation, Sega\nWorld's Greatest Football (1984) Epyx\nStarship Simulator (1984), ASCII Corporation\nDelta Squadron (1983), Nexa Corporation\nStarship Commander (1981), Voyager Software\nBattle Trek (1981), Voyager Software","title":"Credits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George Washington High School (San Francisco)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_High_School_(San_Francisco)"},{"link_name":"Codie awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_and_Information_Industry_Association#CODiE_Awards"},{"link_name":"Software Publishers Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_Publishers_Association"},{"link_name":"San Francisco State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_State_University"},{"link_name":"Scientific American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American"},{"link_name":"Potomac Institute for Policy Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potomac_Institute_for_Policy_Studies"},{"link_name":"National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geospatial-Intelligence_Agency"},{"link_name":"Agency Seal Medallions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agency_Seal_Medallion"},{"link_name":"Central Intelligence Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency"},{"link_name":"Porter Goss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porter_Goss"},{"link_name":"Delta Sigma Pi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Sigma_Pi"},{"link_name":"Director of National Intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence"},{"link_name":"Washingtonian (magazine)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washingtonian_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Government Executive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_Executive"},{"link_name":"Geospatial Intelligence Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geospatial_Intelligence_Foundation"}],"text":"1988 George Washington High School (San Francisco) Hall of Merit\n1988 Excellence in Software Awards (Codie awards), Software and Information Industry Association (formerly the Software Publishers Association): Best Technical Achievement, Best Simulation, Best Action/Strategy Game for Falcon\n1993 Asian Business League's Distinguished Entrepreneur of the Year\n1995 San Francisco State University Hall of Fame\n2002 Scientific American Fifty\n2004 Potomac Institute for Policy Studies Navigator Award\n2005 Federal 100 Award, Federal Computer Week\n2006 National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency medallion for outstanding service and support to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency while serving as CEO and President of In-Q-Tel\n2006 CIA Agency Seal Medallions (2) for his service to the intelligence community\n2006 Director's Award by the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, Porter Goss, for his service in creating In-Q-Tel and providing service to the intelligence community\n2007 Order of the Silver Helmet, Delta Sigma Pi\n2008 Director of National Intelligence Medallion for service towards establishing an environment of equality, diversity and inclusion within the Intelligence Community\n2021 Tech Titans, by the Washingtonian (magazine) for Cybersecurity\n2021 Theodore Roosevelt Government Leadership Award by Government Executive for significant, lasting achievements around emerging technologies and cybersecurity\n2023 Arthur C. Lundahl—Thomas C. Finnie Lifetime Achievement Award by United States Geospatial Intelligence Foundation","title":"Awards"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"\"Alsop-Louie Partners FAQ\". Alsop-Louie Partners. Archived from the original on January 12, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110112172729/http://www.alsop-louie.com/about","url_text":"\"Alsop-Louie Partners FAQ\""},{"url":"http://www.alsop-louie.com/about","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Rodriguez, Giovanni. \"Meet The VC Who's Betting On A Better World In 3D: Gilman Louie\". Forbes. Retrieved 2020-02-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/giovannirodriguez/2017/11/14/meet-the-vc-who-sees-a-better-world-in-3d-gilman-louie/","url_text":"\"Meet The VC Who's Betting On A Better World In 3D: Gilman Louie\""}]},{"reference":"\"Secretary Blinken Selects Members of the Foreign Affairs Policy Board\". United States Department of State. Retrieved 2023-09-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.state.gov/secretary-blinken-selects-members-of-the-foreign-affairs-policy-board/","url_text":"\"Secretary Blinken Selects Members of the Foreign Affairs Policy Board\""}]},{"reference":"House, The White (2022-05-04). \"President Biden Announces Appointments to the President's Intelligence Advisory Board and the National Science Board\". The White House. Retrieved 2023-09-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/05/04/president-biden-announces-appointments-to-the-presidents-intelligence-advisory-board-and-the-national-science-board/","url_text":"\"President Biden Announces Appointments to the President's Intelligence Advisory Board and the National Science Board\""}]},{"reference":"Van Slambrouck, Paul (January 14, 2000). \"The spy who came in from Silicon Valley\". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved December 12, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.csmonitor.com/2000/0114/p1s4.html","url_text":"\"The spy who came in from Silicon Valley\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Science_Monitor","url_text":"Christian Science Monitor"}]},{"reference":"Staff writer (March 29, 2001). \"Fact sheet - Gilman Louie\". Venture Capital Journal. Retrieved December 12, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.venturecapitaljournal.com/fact-sheet-gilman-louie/","url_text":"\"Fact sheet - Gilman Louie\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venture_Capital_Journal","url_text":"Venture Capital Journal"}]},{"reference":"\"Gilman Louie\". Federation Of American Scientists. Retrieved 2020-03-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://fas.org/about-fas/board/gilman-louie/","url_text":"\"Gilman Louie\""}]},{"reference":"Public Affairs Office (April 24, 2007). \"A few among many notable San Francisco State University alumni\". San Francisco State University. Retrieved December 12, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sfsu.edu/~news/prsrelea/fy98/053.htm","url_text":"\"A few among many notable San Francisco State University alumni\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_State_University","url_text":"San Francisco State University"}]},{"reference":"Shead, Sam. \"Ex-Google CEO To Lead US Government AI Advisory Group\". Forbes. Retrieved 2020-06-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/samshead/2019/01/24/ex-google-ceo-to-lead-ai-us-government-ai-advisory-group/","url_text":"\"Ex-Google CEO To Lead US Government AI Advisory Group\""}]},{"reference":"\"President Biden Announces Appointments to the President's Intelligence Advisory Board and the National Science Board\". The White House. 2022-05-04. Retrieved 2022-05-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/05/04/president-biden-announces-appointments-to-the-presidents-intelligence-advisory-board-and-the-national-science-board/","url_text":"\"President Biden Announces Appointments to the President's Intelligence Advisory Board and the National Science Board\""}]},{"reference":"\"Secretary Blinken Selects Members of the Foreign Affairs Policy Board\". United States Department of State. Retrieved 2023-09-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.state.gov/secretary-blinken-selects-members-of-the-foreign-affairs-policy-board/","url_text":"\"Secretary Blinken Selects Members of the Foreign Affairs Policy Board\""}]},{"reference":"Gilman, Louie (May 29, 2012). \"Paying attention to details: It's all in the details\" (video). YouTube.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vHM9uYjUCzc","url_text":"\"Paying attention to details: It's all in the details\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110112172729/http://www.alsop-louie.com/about","external_links_name":"\"Alsop-Louie Partners FAQ\""},{"Link":"http://www.alsop-louie.com/about","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/giovannirodriguez/2017/11/14/meet-the-vc-who-sees-a-better-world-in-3d-gilman-louie/","external_links_name":"\"Meet The VC Who's Betting On A Better World In 3D: Gilman Louie\""},{"Link":"http://cnsi.ctrl.ucla.edu/file-sharing/publicview/incubator/Panelist_Bios-275476.pdf","external_links_name":"University of California, Los Angeles, Thirty-Thirty Seminar Series, March 23, 2011"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140714183142/http://cnsi.ctrl.ucla.edu/file-sharing/publicview/incubator/Panelist_Bios-275476.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.state.gov/secretary-blinken-selects-members-of-the-foreign-affairs-policy-board/","external_links_name":"\"Secretary Blinken Selects Members of the Foreign Affairs Policy Board\""},{"Link":"https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/05/04/president-biden-announces-appointments-to-the-presidents-intelligence-advisory-board-and-the-national-science-board/","external_links_name":"\"President Biden Announces Appointments to the President's Intelligence Advisory Board and the National Science Board\""},{"Link":"https://www.csmonitor.com/2000/0114/p1s4.html","external_links_name":"\"The spy who came in from Silicon Valley\""},{"Link":"https://www.venturecapitaljournal.com/fact-sheet-gilman-louie/","external_links_name":"\"Fact sheet - Gilman Louie\""},{"Link":"https://fas.org/about-fas/board/gilman-louie/","external_links_name":"\"Gilman Louie\""},{"Link":"http://www.sfsu.edu/~news/prsrelea/fy98/053.htm","external_links_name":"\"A few among many notable San Francisco State University alumni\""},{"Link":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/samshead/2019/01/24/ex-google-ceo-to-lead-ai-us-government-ai-advisory-group/","external_links_name":"\"Ex-Google CEO To Lead US Government AI Advisory Group\""},{"Link":"http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12557","external_links_name":"Persistent Forecasting of Disrupive Technologies, Report 1 of 2"},{"Link":"http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12834","external_links_name":"Persistent Forecasting of Disruptive Technologies, Report 2 of 2"},{"Link":"http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12735&page=R5","external_links_name":"Report for The Symposium on Avoiding Technology Surprise for Tomorrow's Warfighter"},{"Link":"https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/05/04/president-biden-announces-appointments-to-the-presidents-intelligence-advisory-board-and-the-national-science-board/","external_links_name":"\"President Biden Announces Appointments to the President's Intelligence Advisory Board and the National Science Board\""},{"Link":"https://www.state.gov/secretary-blinken-selects-members-of-the-foreign-affairs-policy-board/","external_links_name":"\"Secretary Blinken Selects Members of the Foreign Affairs Policy Board\""},{"Link":"https://www.mobygames.com/developer/sheet/view/developerId,3490/","external_links_name":"Gilman Louie"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070206194831/http://www.markle.org/markle_programs/policy_for_a_networked_society/national_security/index.php","external_links_name":"Markle.org"},{"Link":"http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2005_rpt/vital.pdf","external_links_name":"Fas.org"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140222142551/http://www.nextgenerationproject.org/images/stories/documents/assembly1/report%20final_w_cover.pdf","external_links_name":"Nextgenerationproject.org"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vHM9uYjUCzc","external_links_name":"\"Paying attention to details: It's all in the details\""},{"Link":"http://www.fas.org/irp/eprint/ncrdic.pdf","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000140663309","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/187065632","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb16542471s","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb16542471s","external_links_name":"BnF data"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams%27s_p_%2B_1_algorithm
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Williams's p + 1 algorithm
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["1 Algorithm","2 Example","3 Generalization","4 References","5 External links"]
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In computational number theory, Williams's p + 1 algorithm is an integer factorization algorithm, one of the family of algebraic-group factorisation algorithms. It was invented by Hugh C. Williams in 1982.
It works well if the number N to be factored contains one or more prime factors p such that p + 1 is smooth, i.e. p + 1 contains only small factors. It uses Lucas sequences to perform exponentiation in a quadratic field.
It is analogous to Pollard's p − 1 algorithm.
Algorithm
Choose some integer A greater than 2 which characterizes the Lucas sequence:
V
0
=
2
,
V
1
=
A
,
V
j
=
A
V
j
−
1
−
V
j
−
2
{\displaystyle V_{0}=2,V_{1}=A,V_{j}=AV_{j-1}-V_{j-2}}
where all operations are performed modulo N.
Then any odd prime p divides
gcd
(
N
,
V
M
−
2
)
{\displaystyle \gcd(N,V_{M}-2)}
whenever M is a multiple of
p
−
(
D
/
p
)
{\displaystyle p-(D/p)}
, where
D
=
A
2
−
4
{\displaystyle D=A^{2}-4}
and
(
D
/
p
)
{\displaystyle (D/p)}
is the Jacobi symbol.
We require that
(
D
/
p
)
=
−
1
{\displaystyle (D/p)=-1}
, that is, D should be a quadratic non-residue modulo p. But as we don't know p beforehand, more than one value of A may be required before finding a solution. If
(
D
/
p
)
=
+
1
{\displaystyle (D/p)=+1}
, this algorithm degenerates into a slow version of Pollard's p − 1 algorithm.
So, for different values of M we calculate
gcd
(
N
,
V
M
−
2
)
{\displaystyle \gcd(N,V_{M}-2)}
, and when the result is not equal to 1 or to N, we have found a non-trivial factor of N.
The values of M used are successive factorials, and
V
M
{\displaystyle V_{M}}
is the M-th value of the sequence characterized by
V
M
−
1
{\displaystyle V_{M-1}}
.
To find the M-th element V of the sequence characterized by B, we proceed in a manner similar to left-to-right exponentiation:
x := B
y := (B ^ 2 − 2) mod N
for each bit of M to the right of the most significant bit do
if the bit is 1 then
x := (x × y − B) mod N
y := (y ^ 2 − 2) mod N
else
y := (x × y − B) mod N
x := (x ^ 2 − 2) mod N
V := x
Example
With N=112729 and A=5, successive values of
V
M
{\displaystyle V_{M}}
are:
V1 of seq(5) = V1! of seq(5) = 5
V2 of seq(5) = V2! of seq(5) = 23
V3 of seq(23) = V3! of seq(5) = 12098
V4 of seq(12098) = V4! of seq(5) = 87680
V5 of seq(87680) = V5! of seq(5) = 53242
V6 of seq(53242) = V6! of seq(5) = 27666
V7 of seq(27666) = V7! of seq(5) = 110229.
At this point, gcd(110229-2,112729) = 139, so 139 is a non-trivial factor of 112729. Notice that p+1 = 140 = 22 × 5 × 7. The number 7! is the lowest factorial which is multiple of 140, so the proper factor 139 is found in this step.
Using another initial value, say A = 9, we get:
V1 of seq(9) = V1! of seq(9) = 9
V2 of seq(9) = V2! of seq(9) = 79
V3 of seq(79) = V3! of seq(9) = 41886
V4 of seq(41886) = V4! of seq(9) = 79378
V5 of seq(79378) = V5! of seq(9) = 1934
V6 of seq(1934) = V6! of seq(9) = 10582
V7 of seq(10582) = V7! of seq(9) = 84241
V8 of seq(84241) = V8! of seq(9) = 93973
V9 of seq(93973) = V9! of seq(9) = 91645.
At this point gcd(91645-2,112729) = 811, so 811 is a non-trivial factor of 112729. Notice that p−1 = 810 = 2 × 5 × 34. The number 9! is the lowest factorial which is multiple of 810, so the proper factor 811 is found in this step. The factor 139 is not found this time because p−1 = 138 = 2 × 3 × 23 which is not a divisor of 9!
As can be seen in these examples we do not know in advance whether the prime that will be found has a smooth p+1 or p−1.
Generalization
Based on Pollard's p − 1 and Williams's p+1 factoring algorithms, Eric Bach and Jeffrey Shallit developed techniques to factor n efficiently provided that it has a prime factor p such that any kth cyclotomic polynomial Φk(p) is smooth.
The first few cyclotomic polynomials are given by the sequence Φ1(p) = p−1, Φ2(p) = p+1, Φ3(p) = p2+p+1, and Φ4(p) = p2+1.
References
^ Bach, Eric; Shallit, Jeffrey (1989). "Factoring with Cyclotomic Polynomials" (PDF). Mathematics of Computation. 52 (185). American Mathematical Society: 201–219. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-1989-0947467-1. JSTOR 2008664.
Williams, H. C. (1982), "A p+1 method of factoring", Mathematics of Computation, 39 (159): 225–234, doi:10.2307/2007633, JSTOR 2007633, MR 0658227
External links
P + 1 factorization method at Prime Wiki
vteNumber-theoretic algorithmsPrimality tests
AKS
APR
Baillie–PSW
Elliptic curve
Pocklington
Fermat
Lucas
Lucas–Lehmer
Lucas–Lehmer–Riesel
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Sieve of Atkin
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Dixon's
Lenstra elliptic curve (ECM)
Euler's
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p − 1
p + 1
Quadratic sieve (QS)
General number field sieve (GNFS)
Special number field sieve (SNFS)
Rational sieve
Fermat's
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Trial division
Shor's
Multiplication
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Long
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Toom–Cook
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Fürer's
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Chunking
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Long
Short
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Chakravala
Cornacchia
Exponentiation by squaring
Integer square root
Integer relation (LLL; KZ)
Modular exponentiation
Montgomery reduction
Schoof
Trachtenberg system
Italics indicate that algorithm is for numbers of special forms
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"smooth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smooth_number"},{"link_name":"Lucas sequences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_sequence"},{"link_name":"quadratic field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_field"},{"link_name":"Pollard's p − 1 algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollard%27s_p_-_1_algorithm"}],"text":"It works well if the number N to be factored contains one or more prime factors p such that p + 1 is smooth, i.e. p + 1 contains only small factors. It uses Lucas sequences to perform exponentiation in a quadratic field.It is analogous to Pollard's p − 1 algorithm.","title":"Williams's p + 1 algorithm"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lucas sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_sequence"},{"link_name":"Jacobi symbol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobi_symbol"},{"link_name":"quadratic non-residue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_non-residue"},{"link_name":"Pollard's p − 1 algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollard%27s_p_-_1_algorithm"}],"text":"Choose some integer A greater than 2 which characterizes the Lucas sequence:V\n \n 0\n \n \n =\n 2\n ,\n \n V\n \n 1\n \n \n =\n A\n ,\n \n V\n \n j\n \n \n =\n A\n \n V\n \n j\n −\n 1\n \n \n −\n \n V\n \n j\n −\n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{0}=2,V_{1}=A,V_{j}=AV_{j-1}-V_{j-2}}where all operations are performed modulo N.Then any odd prime p divides \n \n \n \n gcd\n (\n N\n ,\n \n V\n \n M\n \n \n −\n 2\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\gcd(N,V_{M}-2)}\n \n whenever M is a multiple of \n \n \n \n p\n −\n (\n D\n \n /\n \n p\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p-(D/p)}\n \n, where \n\n \n \n \n D\n =\n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n 4\n \n \n {\\displaystyle D=A^{2}-4}\n \n and \n\n \n \n \n (\n D\n \n /\n \n p\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (D/p)}\n \n is the Jacobi symbol.We require that \n \n \n \n (\n D\n \n /\n \n p\n )\n =\n −\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (D/p)=-1}\n \n, that is, D should be a quadratic non-residue modulo p. But as we don't know p beforehand, more than one value of A may be required before finding a solution. If \n \n \n \n (\n D\n \n /\n \n p\n )\n =\n +\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (D/p)=+1}\n \n, this algorithm degenerates into a slow version of Pollard's p − 1 algorithm.So, for different values of M we calculate \n \n \n \n gcd\n (\n N\n ,\n \n V\n \n M\n \n \n −\n 2\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\gcd(N,V_{M}-2)}\n \n, and when the result is not equal to 1 or to N, we have found a non-trivial factor of N.The values of M used are successive factorials, and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n M\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{M}}\n \n is the M-th value of the sequence characterized by \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n M\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{M-1}}\n \n.To find the M-th element V of the sequence characterized by B, we proceed in a manner similar to left-to-right exponentiation:x := B \ny := (B ^ 2 − 2) mod N \nfor each bit of M to the right of the most significant bit do\n if the bit is 1 then\n x := (x × y − B) mod N \n y := (y ^ 2 − 2) mod N \n else\n y := (x × y − B) mod N \n x := (x ^ 2 − 2) mod N \nV := x","title":"Algorithm"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"With N=112729 and A=5, successive values of \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n M\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{M}}\n \n are:V1 of seq(5) = V1! of seq(5) = 5V2 of seq(5) = V2! of seq(5) = 23V3 of seq(23) = V3! of seq(5) = 12098V4 of seq(12098) = V4! of seq(5) = 87680V5 of seq(87680) = V5! of seq(5) = 53242V6 of seq(53242) = V6! of seq(5) = 27666V7 of seq(27666) = V7! of seq(5) = 110229.At this point, gcd(110229-2,112729) = 139, so 139 is a non-trivial factor of 112729. Notice that p+1 = 140 = 22 × 5 × 7. The number 7! is the lowest factorial which is multiple of 140, so the proper factor 139 is found in this step.Using another initial value, say A = 9, we get:V1 of seq(9) = V1! of seq(9) = 9V2 of seq(9) = V2! of seq(9) = 79V3 of seq(79) = V3! of seq(9) = 41886V4 of seq(41886) = V4! of seq(9) = 79378V5 of seq(79378) = V5! of seq(9) = 1934V6 of seq(1934) = V6! of seq(9) = 10582V7 of seq(10582) = V7! of seq(9) = 84241V8 of seq(84241) = V8! of seq(9) = 93973V9 of seq(93973) = V9! of seq(9) = 91645.At this point gcd(91645-2,112729) = 811, so 811 is a non-trivial factor of 112729. Notice that p−1 = 810 = 2 × 5 × 34. The number 9! is the lowest factorial which is multiple of 810, so the proper factor 811 is found in this step. The factor 139 is not found this time because p−1 = 138 = 2 × 3 × 23 which is not a divisor of 9!As can be seen in these examples we do not know in advance whether the prime that will be found has a smooth p+1 or p−1.","title":"Example"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pollard's p − 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollard%27s_p_%E2%88%92_1_algorithm"},{"link_name":"cyclotomic polynomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclotomic_polynomial"},{"link_name":"smooth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smooth_number"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Based on Pollard's p − 1 and Williams's p+1 factoring algorithms, Eric Bach and Jeffrey Shallit developed techniques to factor n efficiently provided that it has a prime factor p such that any kth cyclotomic polynomial Φk(p) is smooth.[1]\nThe first few cyclotomic polynomials are given by the sequence Φ1(p) = p−1, Φ2(p) = p+1, Φ3(p) = p2+p+1, and Φ4(p) = p2+1.","title":"Generalization"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"Bach, Eric; Shallit, Jeffrey (1989). \"Factoring with Cyclotomic Polynomials\" (PDF). Mathematics of Computation. 52 (185). American Mathematical Society: 201–219. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-1989-0947467-1. JSTOR 2008664.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ams.org/journals/mcom/1989-52-185/S0025-5718-1989-0947467-1/S0025-5718-1989-0947467-1.pdf","url_text":"\"Factoring with Cyclotomic Polynomials\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mathematical_Society","url_text":"American Mathematical Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS0025-5718-1989-0947467-1","url_text":"10.1090/S0025-5718-1989-0947467-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2008664","url_text":"2008664"}]},{"reference":"Williams, H. C. (1982), \"A p+1 method of factoring\", Mathematics of Computation, 39 (159): 225–234, doi:10.2307/2007633, JSTOR 2007633, MR 0658227","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2007633","url_text":"10.2307/2007633"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2007633","url_text":"2007633"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0658227","url_text":"0658227"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"http://www.ams.org/journals/mcom/1989-52-185/S0025-5718-1989-0947467-1/S0025-5718-1989-0947467-1.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Factoring with Cyclotomic Polynomials\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS0025-5718-1989-0947467-1","external_links_name":"10.1090/S0025-5718-1989-0947467-1"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2008664","external_links_name":"2008664"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2007633","external_links_name":"10.2307/2007633"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2007633","external_links_name":"2007633"},{"Link":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0658227","external_links_name":"0658227"},{"Link":"https://rieselprime.de/ziki/P%2B1_factorization_method","external_links_name":"P + 1 factorization method"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_flux
|
Neutron flux
|
["1 Natural neutron flux","2 Artificial neutron flux","2.1 Reactor vessel wall neutron fluence","3 See also","4 References"]
|
Total distance traveled by neutrons within a volume over a time period
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Science with neutrons
Foundations
Neutron temperature
Flux, Radiation, Transport
Cross section, Absorption, Activation
Neutron scattering
Neutron diffraction
Small-angle neutron scattering
GISANS
Reflectometry
Inelastic neutron scattering
Triple-axis spectrometer
Time-of-flight spectrometer
Backscattering spectrometer
Spin-echo spectrometer
Other applications
Neutron tomography
Activation analysis, Prompt gamma activation analysis
Fundamental research with neutrons: Ultracold neutrons, Interferometry
Fast neutron therapy
Neutron capture therapy
Infrastructure
Neutron sources: Research reactor, Spallation, Neutron moderator
Neutron optics: Reflector, Supermirror
Detection
Neutron facilities
America: HFIR, LANSCE, NIST CNR -SNS
Australia: OPAL
Asia: J-PARC, HANARO
Europe: BER II, FRM II, ILL, ISIS Neutron and Muon Source, JINR, SINQ
Historic: IPNS, HFBR
Under construction: ESS
vte
The neutron flux is a scalar quantity used in nuclear physics and nuclear reactor physics. It is the total distance travelled by all free neutrons per unit time and volume. Equivalently, it can be defined as the number of neutrons travelling through a small sphere of radius
R
{\displaystyle R}
in a time interval, divided by a maximal cross section of the sphere (the great disk area,
π
R
2
{\displaystyle \pi R^{2}}
) and by the duration of the time interval.: 82-83 The dimension of neutron flux is
L
−
2
T
−
1
{\displaystyle {\mathsf {L}}^{-2}{\mathsf {T}}^{-1}}
and the usual unit is cm−2s−1 (reciprocal square centimetre times reciprocal second).
The neutron fluence is defined as the neutron flux integrated over a certain time period. So its dimension is
L
−
2
{\displaystyle {\mathsf {L}}^{-2}}
and its usual unit is cm−2 (reciprocal square centimetre). An older term used instead of cm−2 was "n.v.t." (neutrons, velocity, time).
Natural neutron flux
Neutron flux in asymptotic giant branch stars and in supernovae is responsible for most of the natural nucleosynthesis producing elements heavier than iron. In stars there is a relatively low neutron flux on the order of 105 to 1011 cm−2 s−1, resulting in nucleosynthesis by the s-process (slow neutron-capture process). By contrast, after a core-collapse supernova, there is an extremely high neutron flux, on the order of 1032 cm−2 s−1, resulting in nucleosynthesis by the r-process (rapid neutron-capture process).
Earth atmospheric neutron flux, apparently from thunderstorms, can reach levels of 3·10−2 to 9·10+1 cm−2 s−1. However, recent results (considered invalid by the original investigators) obtained with unshielded scintillation neutron detectors show a decrease in the neutron flux during thunderstorms. Recent research appears to support lightning generating 1013–1015 neutrons per discharge via photonuclear processes.
Artificial neutron flux
Further information: Neutron radiation
Artificial neutron flux refers to neutron flux which is man-made, either as byproducts from weapons or nuclear energy production or for a specific application such as from a research reactor or by spallation. A flow of neutrons is often used to initiate the fission of unstable large nuclei. The additional neutron(s) may cause the nucleus to become unstable, causing it to decay (split) to form more stable products. This effect is essential in fission reactors and nuclear weapons.
Within a nuclear fission reactor, the neutron flux is the primary quantity measured to control the reaction inside. The flux shape is the term applied to the density or relative strength of the flux as it moves around the reactor. Typically the strongest neutron flux occurs in the middle of the reactor core, becoming lower toward the edges. The higher the neutron flux the greater the chance of a nuclear reaction occurring as there are more neutrons going through an area per unit time.
Reactor vessel wall neutron fluence
A reactor vessel of a typical nuclear power plant (PWR) endures in 40 years (32 full reactor years) of operation approximately 6.5×1019 cm−2 (E > 1 MeV) of neutron fluence. Neutron flux causes reactor vessels to suffer from neutron embrittlement.
See also
Neutron radiation
Neutron transport
References
^ Stamm'ler, Rudi J. J.; Abbate, Máximo Julio (1 July 1983). Methods of Steady-State Reactor Physics in Nuclear Design (1st ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0126633207. LCCN 82072342. OCLC 9915614. OL 3512075M.
^ Beckurts, Karl-Heinrich; Wirtz, Karl (1964). "5.1.1 Neutron Flux, Neutron Density, and Neutron Current". Neutron Physics. Translated by Dresner, L. (1st ed.). Springer-Verlang. ISBN 978-3540030966. LCCN 64025646. OCLC 569910840. OL 27986790M – via Internet Archive.
^ M. F. Kaplan (August 1983). Nuclear Radiation and the Properties of Concrete (PDF). University of Cape Town. p. 2. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
^ Burbidge, E. Margaret; Burbidge, G. R.; Fowler, William A.; Hoyle, F. (October 1957). "Synthesis of the Elements in Stars". Reviews of Modern Physics. 29 (4): 548–650. Bibcode:1957RvMP...29..547B. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547.
^ Gurevich, A. V.; Antonova, V. P. (2012). "Strong Flux of Low-Energy Neutrons Produced by Thunderstorms". Physical Review Letters. 108 (12). American Physical Society: 125001. Bibcode:2012PhRvL.108l5001G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.108.125001. PMID 22540588.
^ Gurevich, A. V.; Almenova, A. M. (2016). "Observations of high-energy radiation during thunderstorms at Tien-Shan". Physical Review D. 94 (2). American Physical Society: 023003. Bibcode:2016PhRvD..94b3003G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.94.023003.
^ Alekseenko, V.; Arneodo, F.; Bruno, G.; Di Giovanni, A.; Fulgion, W.; Gromushkin, D.; Shchegolev, O.; Stenkin, Yu.; Stepanov, V.; Sulakov, V.; Yashin, I. (2015). "Decrease of Atmospheric Neutron Counts Observed during Thunderstorms". Physical Review Letters. 114 (12). American Physical Society: 125003. Bibcode:2015PhRvL.114l5003A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.114.125003. PMID 25860750.
^ Gurevich, A. V.; Ptitsyn, M. O. (2015). "Comment on "Decrease of Atmospheric Neutron Counts Observed during Thunderstorms"". Physical Review Letters. 115 (12). American Physical Society: 179501. Bibcode:2015PhRvL.115q9501G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.179501. PMID 26551144.
^ Köhn, Christoph; Diniz, Gabriel; Harakeh, GMushin (2017). "Production mechanisms of leptons, photons, and hadrons and their possible feedback close to lightning leaders". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 122 (2). American Geophysical Union: 1366. Bibcode:2017JGRD..122.1365K. doi:10.1002/2016JD025445. PMC 5349290. PMID 28357174.
^ Nuclear Power Plant Borssele Reactor Pressure Vessel Safety Assessment, p. 29, 5.6 Neutron Fluence Calculation.
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ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"scalar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_(physics)"},{"link_name":"nuclear physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physics"},{"link_name":"nuclear reactor physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_physics"},{"link_name":"neutrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stamm'ler_1983-1"},{"link_name":"great disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_disk"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Beckurts_1964-2"},{"link_name":"82-83","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/neutronphysics0000beck/page/82/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"dimension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension_(physics)"},{"link_name":"unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Units_of_measurement"},{"link_name":"square centimetre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_centimetre"},{"link_name":"reciprocal second","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocal_second"},{"link_name":"integrated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The neutron flux is a scalar quantity used in nuclear physics and nuclear reactor physics. It is the total distance travelled by all free neutrons per unit time and volume.[1] Equivalently, it can be defined as the number of neutrons travelling through a small sphere of radius \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R}\n \n in a time interval, divided by a maximal cross section of the sphere (the great disk area, \n \n \n \n π\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\pi R^{2}}\n \n) and by the duration of the time interval.[2]: 82-83 The dimension of neutron flux is \n \n \n \n \n \n \n L\n \n \n \n −\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathsf {L}}^{-2}{\\mathsf {T}}^{-1}}\n \n and the usual unit is cm−2s−1 (reciprocal square centimetre times reciprocal second).The neutron fluence is defined as the neutron flux integrated over a certain time period. So its dimension is \n \n \n \n \n \n \n L\n \n \n \n −\n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathsf {L}}^{-2}}\n \n and its usual unit is cm−2 (reciprocal square centimetre). An older term used instead of cm−2 was \"n.v.t.\" (neutrons, velocity, time).[3]","title":"Neutron flux"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"asymptotic giant branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branch"},{"link_name":"stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star"},{"link_name":"supernovae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernovae"},{"link_name":"nucleosynthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleosynthesis"},{"link_name":"elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_element"},{"link_name":"iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"},{"link_name":"s-process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-process"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"r-process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-process"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"photonuclear processes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodisintegration"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Neutron flux in asymptotic giant branch stars and in supernovae is responsible for most of the natural nucleosynthesis producing elements heavier than iron. In stars there is a relatively low neutron flux on the order of 105 to 1011 cm−2 s−1, resulting in nucleosynthesis by the s-process (slow neutron-capture process). By contrast, after a core-collapse supernova, there is an extremely high neutron flux, on the order of 1032 cm−2 s−1,[4] resulting in nucleosynthesis by the r-process (rapid neutron-capture process).Earth atmospheric neutron flux, apparently from thunderstorms, can reach levels of 3·10−2 to 9·10+1 cm−2 s−1.[5][6] However, recent results[7] (considered invalid by the original investigators[8]) obtained with unshielded scintillation neutron detectors show a decrease in the neutron flux during thunderstorms. Recent research appears to support lightning generating 1013–1015 neutrons per discharge via photonuclear processes.[9]","title":"Natural neutron flux"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Neutron radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_radiation"},{"link_name":"research reactor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_reactor"},{"link_name":"spallation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spallation"},{"link_name":"fission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fission"},{"link_name":"fission reactors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fission_reactor"},{"link_name":"nuclear weapons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon"}],"text":"Further information: Neutron radiationArtificial neutron flux refers to neutron flux which is man-made, either as byproducts from weapons or nuclear energy production or for a specific application such as from a research reactor or by spallation. A flow of neutrons is often used to initiate the fission of unstable large nuclei. The additional neutron(s) may cause the nucleus to become unstable, causing it to decay (split) to form more stable products. This effect is essential in fission reactors and nuclear weapons.Within a nuclear fission reactor, the neutron flux is the primary quantity measured to control the reaction inside. The flux shape is the term applied to the density or relative strength of the flux as it moves around the reactor. Typically the strongest neutron flux occurs in the middle of the reactor core, becoming lower toward the edges. The higher the neutron flux the greater the chance of a nuclear reaction occurring as there are more neutrons going through an area per unit time.","title":"Artificial neutron flux"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"reactor vessel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactor_vessel"},{"link_name":"PWR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor"},{"link_name":"E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy"},{"link_name":"MeV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronvolt"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"neutron embrittlement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_embrittlement"}],"sub_title":"Reactor vessel wall neutron fluence","text":"A reactor vessel of a typical nuclear power plant (PWR) endures in 40 years (32 full reactor years) of operation approximately 6.5×1019 cm−2 (E > 1 MeV) of neutron fluence.[10] Neutron flux causes reactor vessels to suffer from neutron embrittlement.","title":"Artificial neutron flux"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Neutron radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_radiation"},{"title":"Neutron transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_transport"}]
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[{"reference":"Stamm'ler, Rudi J. J.; Abbate, Máximo Julio (1 July 1983). Methods of Steady-State Reactor Physics in Nuclear Design (1st ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0126633207. LCCN 82072342. OCLC 9915614. OL 3512075M.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Press","url_text":"Academic Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0126633207","url_text":"978-0126633207"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/82072342","url_text":"82072342"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/9915614","url_text":"9915614"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OL_(identifier)","url_text":"OL"},{"url":"https://openlibrary.org/books/OL3512075M","url_text":"3512075M"}]},{"reference":"Beckurts, Karl-Heinrich; Wirtz, Karl (1964). \"5.1.1 Neutron Flux, Neutron Density, and Neutron Current\". Neutron Physics. Translated by Dresner, L. (1st ed.). Springer-Verlang. ISBN 978-3540030966. LCCN 64025646. OCLC 569910840. OL 27986790M – via Internet Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/neutronphysics0000beck/page/82/mode/2up","url_text":"\"5.1.1 Neutron Flux, Neutron Density, and Neutron Current\""},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/neutronphysics0000beck","url_text":"Neutron Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media","url_text":"Springer-Verlang"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3540030966","url_text":"978-3540030966"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/64025646","url_text":"64025646"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/569910840","url_text":"569910840"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OL_(identifier)","url_text":"OL"},{"url":"https://openlibrary.org/books/OL27986790M","url_text":"27986790M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive","url_text":"Internet Archive"}]},{"reference":"M. F. Kaplan (August 1983). Nuclear Radiation and the Properties of Concrete (PDF). University of Cape Town. p. 2. Retrieved 14 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/15/052/15052206.pdf","url_text":"Nuclear Radiation and the Properties of Concrete"}]},{"reference":"Burbidge, E. Margaret; Burbidge, G. R.; Fowler, William A.; Hoyle, F. (October 1957). \"Synthesis of the Elements in Stars\". Reviews of Modern Physics. 29 (4): 548–650. Bibcode:1957RvMP...29..547B. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.29.547","url_text":"\"Synthesis of the Elements in Stars\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957RvMP...29..547B","url_text":"1957RvMP...29..547B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.29.547","url_text":"10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547"}]},{"reference":"Gurevich, A. V.; Antonova, V. P. (2012). \"Strong Flux of Low-Energy Neutrons Produced by Thunderstorms\". Physical Review Letters. 108 (12). American Physical Society: 125001. Bibcode:2012PhRvL.108l5001G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.108.125001. PMID 22540588.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PhRvL.108l5001G","url_text":"2012PhRvL.108l5001G"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.108.125001","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.108.125001"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22540588","url_text":"22540588"}]},{"reference":"Gurevich, A. V.; Almenova, A. M. (2016). \"Observations of high-energy radiation during thunderstorms at Tien-Shan\". Physical Review D. 94 (2). American Physical Society: 023003. Bibcode:2016PhRvD..94b3003G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.94.023003.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016PhRvD..94b3003G","url_text":"2016PhRvD..94b3003G"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.94.023003","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevD.94.023003"}]},{"reference":"Alekseenko, V.; Arneodo, F.; Bruno, G.; Di Giovanni, A.; Fulgion, W.; Gromushkin, D.; Shchegolev, O.; Stenkin, Yu.; Stepanov, V.; Sulakov, V.; Yashin, I. (2015). \"Decrease of Atmospheric Neutron Counts Observed during Thunderstorms\". Physical Review Letters. 114 (12). American Physical Society: 125003. Bibcode:2015PhRvL.114l5003A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.114.125003. PMID 25860750.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.openaccessrepository.it/record/140269","url_text":"\"Decrease of Atmospheric Neutron Counts Observed during Thunderstorms\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PhRvL.114l5003A","url_text":"2015PhRvL.114l5003A"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.114.125003","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.114.125003"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25860750","url_text":"25860750"}]},{"reference":"Gurevich, A. V.; Ptitsyn, M. O. (2015). \"Comment on \"Decrease of Atmospheric Neutron Counts Observed during Thunderstorms\"\". Physical Review Letters. 115 (12). American Physical Society: 179501. Bibcode:2015PhRvL.115q9501G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.179501. PMID 26551144.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PhRvL.115q9501G","url_text":"2015PhRvL.115q9501G"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.115.179501","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.179501"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26551144","url_text":"26551144"}]},{"reference":"Köhn, Christoph; Diniz, Gabriel; Harakeh, GMushin (2017). \"Production mechanisms of leptons, photons, and hadrons and their possible feedback close to lightning leaders\". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 122 (2). American Geophysical Union: 1366. Bibcode:2017JGRD..122.1365K. doi:10.1002/2016JD025445. PMC 5349290. PMID 28357174.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5349290","url_text":"\"Production mechanisms of leptons, photons, and hadrons and their possible feedback close to lightning leaders\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017JGRD..122.1365K","url_text":"2017JGRD..122.1365K"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F2016JD025445","url_text":"10.1002/2016JD025445"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5349290","url_text":"5349290"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28357174","url_text":"28357174"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Educational_Network_for_Satellite_Operations
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Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations
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["1 History","2 How GENSO works","3 List of members","4 See also","5 Notes and references","6 External links"]
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The Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations (GENSO) is forming by a worldwide network of ground stations and spacecraft which can interact via a software standard. The GENSO aims to increase the return from educational space missions and changed the way that these missions are managed, dramatically increasing the level of access to orbital educational spacecraft.
History
GENSO network map coverage Jan 2013
In November 2007, a kickoff meeting was held at the CubeSat workshop. This short presentation (at Aalborg University in Denmark) to the rest of the GENSO groups described work at Cal Poly for the project. This workshop kicked off the Alpha Test phase of the project. The entire project was successfully demoed in front of a live audience (us). The Mission Control Client booked downlink sessions with the Ground Station Server, and the Ground Station Server controlled the radio and rotors at the AAU ground station (across the building). The running Authentication Server authenticated people and registered satellites on the network.
In February 2009, the ROBUSTA project joined the GENSO initiative. ROBUSTA is the first French university CubeSat. The objective of the payload experiment is to measure the radiation induced degradation of electronic devices. Flight data will be compared to the results of a novel prediction method taking into account the Enhanced Low Dose Rate Sensitivity. The second interesting point of this project is that it's a real educational project. Although the system hasn't yet grown to the "hundreds" of ground stations identified in Alexandru Munteanu's Thesis from 2009, testing and integration continue to proceed.
The GENSO project initiated under the guidance of the International Space Education Board (ISEB) has many existing capabilities and is accumulating the interest of large groups inside and outside of the United States. However, it is still lacking a fully equipped ground station that can complement its capabilities.
Since 2011, a great deal of work has been done on Release 1E of GENSO to help make it more user friendly and reliable for the Amateur Radio community. Ground stations like the one at COSMIAC are now running 24/7 downloading data for educational satellites such as the University of Michigan RAX-2 spacecraft.
How GENSO works
The GENSO system is a software networking standard which allows a user to communicate with a spacecraft by using a remote ground station which has a clear view of the spacecraft. Communications between the client computer (a mission controlcomputer) and the ground station server are conducted across the Internet.
There are three major components to the GENSO system :
GSS – Ground Station Server
MCC - The Mission Control Client is the control station for a satellite. Each satellite will have one MCC. A GSS will see a snapshot of the satellite but only MCC will have the entire picture
AUS – The Authentication Server is the server that mediates communication between MCCs and GSSs on the GENSO network. When a ground station wants to join the network, the AUS permits them and then assigns them bookings to accomplish. The current AUS is located in Vigo, Spain and the backup is at Cal Poly: San Luis Obispo.
There are also three main components that the GENSO system remotely controls:
Rotator Controller
Terminal node control
Radio Controller
The GENSO software is written in Java. GENSO was developed and is currently maintained under the auspices of the European Space Agency (ESA).
List of members
Source:
ORGANIZATION (country)
COMPONENT (satellite)
Aalto University (Finland)
GSS
California Polytechnic State University (United States)
GSS
Delft University of Technology (Netherlands)
MCC (Delft)
ESOC (Germany)
GSS
ESTEC (Netherlands)
GSS
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL), Space Centre (Switzerland)
MCC (SwissCube)
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL), Space Centre (Switzerland)
GSS
Graz University of Technology (Austria)
GSS
International Space University (France)
GSS
Isis Space (Netherlands)
GSS
MyGroundStations.com (UK)
GSS
Polytechnic University of Catalonia (Spain)
GSS
Radio Amateur – G3VZV (UK)
GSS
Radio Amateur – G4DPZ (UK)
GSS
Radio Amateur – KA0SWT (United States)
GSS
Sergio Arboleda University (Colombia)
GSS
University of Applied Sciences, Heidelberg (Germany)
GSS
University of Kentucky (United States)
GSS
University of Montpellier (France)
GSS
University of New Mexico, Configurable Space Microsystems Innovations & Applications Centre (United States)
GSS
University of Surrey, Surrey Space Centre (UK)
GSS
University of Texas at Austin (United States)
MCC (FASTRAC 1)
University of Texas at Austin (United States)
MCC (FASTRAC 2)
University of Texas at Austin (United States)
GSS
University of Valladolid (Spain)
GSS
University of Vigo (Spain)
AUS
University of Vigo (Spain)
MCC (Test Satellites)
University of Vigo (Spain)
MCC (Xatcobeo)
University of Vigo (Spain)
GSS
University of York (UK)
GSS
University of La Reunion, LIM, ESIROI IT Dept (Réunion/France)
GSS
Stanford Research Institute International & University of Michigan, College of Engineering
MCC (RAX-2)
University of Michigan (United States)
MCC (M-CUBED)
Sapienza University of Rome
MCC (UniCubeSat-GG)
Warsaw University of Technology & Space Research Centre of Polish Academy of Sciences
MCC (PW-Sat)
Politecnico di Torino (Italy)
MCC (E-st@r)
Hungary
MCC (MaSat-1)
IDeTIC-ULPGC (University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria) (Spain, Canary Islands)
GSS
See also
AX.25 Packets
Antenna Rotator
Amsat
CNES
JAXA
NASA
Canadian Space Agency
SatNOGS
Notes and references
^ "From Micro- to Nano... Seeking The Business Sweet-Spot" (PDF). Satmagazine: 17. January 2011. OCLC 173221287.
^ "GENSO: A Global Ground Station Network" (PDF).
^ "Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations". ESA.
^ "Cubesats". Missions | BIS. Archived from the original on 2013-10-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ Leonard David (2004-09-10). "CubeSats: Tiny spacecraft, big payoffs". CNN.com.
^ David, Leonard (28 September 2005). "Big News about Small Satellites: Cubesats Rule!". space.com.
^ "GENSO takes first steps". ESA. 2007-09-11.
^ "Robusta". Archived from the original on 2012-03-18. Retrieved 2012-07-30.
^ Alexandru Munteanu's Thesis
^ Craig Kief (May–June 2011). "GENSO – A Ground Station is a Terrible Thing to Waste" (PDF). AMSAT Journal.
^ "How GENSO works". Archived from the original on 2013-01-26. Retrieved 2012-07-18.
^ "ESA-Bulletin-149". ESA. p. 43.
^ "Cubesat Réunion Island Station, qu'est-ce que c'est ?". la Ptite Gazette de La Réunion (in French). 2003-03-01.
^ Siva, Baradi (8 February 2012). "L'ESIROI va lancer sa station satellite". Reunion Multimedia.
^ Dupuis, Alain (27 June 2012). "Des élèves ingénieurs réunionnais dans la course à l'espace". Le journal de l'Ile de La Réunion (in French).
^ "Une station satellite bientôt à l'école d'ingénieurs". L'info.re (in French). 9 May 2012.
^ "Une station pour capter les micro-satellites". Le Quotidien de la Réunion (in French). February 2012. Archived from the original on December 17, 2012.
^ Yepes, M. (March 2012). "CRIS bientôt dans l'espace grâce à l'ESIROI" (PDF). Memento (in French).
External links
GENSO Website Archived 2011-12-22 at the Wayback Machine
GENSO was recently presented in the 2011 August CubeSat Workshop in Logan Utah. Here is the video.
GENSO – A Ground Station is a Terrible Thing to Waste by Craig Kief, KE5VSH, [email protected] from AMSAT Journal May/June 2011 AMSAT Article on GENSO
PDF of paper GENSO, SPA, SDR, and GNU Radio: The Pathway Ahead for Space Dial Tone Ryan L. Buffington, Craig J. Kief, R. Scott Erwin, Joshua F. Androlewicz, and James Lyke Infotech@Aerospace Conference, Unleashing Unmanned Systems St. Louis, Missouri, 29-31 March 2011
GENSO European Space Agency created and validated it through the GEOID project.
Ivo Klinkert (PA1IVO) from the Open Universiteit in the Netherlands describes many of the features and capabilities in his Master Thesis shown here or here
GENSO AIAA SpaceDialTone
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[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GENSO_network_map_coverage_July_2012.png"},{"link_name":"CubeSat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CubeSat"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kickoff_meeting-7"},{"link_name":"Aalborg University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aalborg_University"},{"link_name":"Cal Poly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Polytechnic_State_University"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"ROBUSTA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubesat_ROBUSTA"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Amateur Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_Radio"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ham_radio-10"},{"link_name":"University of Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Michigan"}],"text":"GENSO network map coverage Jan 2013In November 2007, a kickoff meeting was held at the CubeSat workshop.[4][5][6][7] This short presentation (at Aalborg University in Denmark) to the rest of the GENSO groups described work at Cal Poly for the project. This workshop kicked off the Alpha Test phase of the project. The entire project was successfully demoed in front of a live audience (us). The Mission Control Client booked downlink sessions with the Ground Station Server, and the Ground Station Server controlled the radio and rotors at the AAU ground station (across the building). The running Authentication Server authenticated people and registered satellites on the network.In February 2009, the ROBUSTA[8] project joined the GENSO initiative. ROBUSTA is the first French university CubeSat. The objective of the payload experiment is to measure the radiation induced degradation of electronic devices. Flight data will be compared to the results of a novel prediction method taking into account the Enhanced Low Dose Rate Sensitivity. The second interesting point of this project is that it's a real educational project. Although the system hasn't yet grown to the \"hundreds\" of ground stations identified in Alexandru Munteanu's Thesis from 2009,[9] testing and integration continue to proceed.The GENSO project initiated under the guidance of the International Space Education Board (ISEB) has many existing capabilities and is accumulating the interest of large groups inside and outside of the United States. However, it is still lacking a fully equipped ground station that can complement its capabilities.Since 2011, a great deal of work has been done on Release 1E of GENSO to help make it more user friendly and reliable for the Amateur Radio[10] community. Ground stations like the one at COSMIAC are now running 24/7 downloading data for educational satellites such as the University of Michigan RAX-2 spacecraft.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"spacecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft"},{"link_name":"computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-how_genso_works-11"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"European Space Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Space_Agency"}],"text":"The GENSO system is a software networking standard which allows a user to communicate with a spacecraft by using a remote ground station which has a clear view of the spacecraft. Communications between the client computer (a mission controlcomputer) and the ground station server are conducted across the Internet.[11]\nThere are three major components to the GENSO system :GSS – Ground Station Server\nMCC - The Mission Control Client is the control station for a satellite. Each satellite will have one MCC. A GSS will see a snapshot of the satellite but only MCC will have the entire picture\nAUS – The Authentication Server is the server that mediates communication between MCCs and GSSs on the GENSO network. When a ground station wants to join the network, the AUS permits them and then assigns them bookings to accomplish. The current AUS is located in Vigo, Spain and the backup is at Cal Poly: San Luis Obispo.There are also three main components that the GENSO system remotely controls:Rotator Controller\nTerminal node control\nRadio ControllerThe GENSO software is written in Java. GENSO was developed and is currently maintained under the auspices of the European Space Agency (ESA).","title":"How GENSO works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-list_members-12"}],"text":"Source:[12]","title":"List of members"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"From Micro- to Nano... Seeking The Business Sweet-Spot\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.satmagazine.com/2011/SM_January_2011.pdf"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"173221287","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/173221287"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"GENSO: A Global Ground Station Network\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.klofas.com/papers/AMSAT_2007.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-esa_definition_3-0"},{"link_name":"\"Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Education/SEMKO03MDAF_0.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"Cubesats\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20131004021652/http://www.bis.gov.uk/ukspaceagency/missions/cubesats"},{"link_name":"cite web","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_web"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"CubeSats: Tiny spacecraft, big payoffs\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cnn.com/2004/TECH/space/09/09/space.cubes/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"Big News about Small Satellites: Cubesats Rule!\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.space.com/1570-big-news-small-satellites-cubesats-rule.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-kickoff_meeting_7-0"},{"link_name":"\"GENSO takes first steps\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.esa.int/esaMI/Education/SEMQM953R8F_0.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"Robusta\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20120318144055/http://www.ies.univ-montp2.fr/robusta/satellite/?lang=en"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ies.univ-montp2.fr/robusta/satellite/?lang=en"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"Alexandru Munteanu's Thesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//epubl.ltu.se/1653-0187/2009/092/LTU-PB-EX-09092-SE.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ham_radio_10-0"},{"link_name":"\"GENSO – A Ground Station is a Terrible Thing to Waste\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cosmiacpubs.org/pubs/MayJun11GENSO.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-how_genso_works_11-0"},{"link_name":"\"How GENSO works\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20130126164759/http://genso.org/index.php/how-genso-works"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.genso.org/index.php/how-genso-works"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-list_members_12-0"},{"link_name":"\"ESA-Bulletin-149\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//esamultimedia.esa.int/multimedia/publications/ESA-Bulletin-149/pageflip.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CRIS_13-0"},{"link_name":"\"Cubesat Réunion Island Station, qu'est-ce que c'est ?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.la-ptite-gazette.com/2012/02/cubesat-reunion-island-station-qu-est-ce-que-cest/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"\"L'ESIROI va lancer sa station satellite\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.reunion-multimedia.re/?L-ESIROI-entre-en-orbite"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"\"Des élèves ingénieurs réunionnais dans la course à l'espace\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.clicanoo.re/329887-des-eleves-ingenieurs-reunionnais-dans-la-course-a-l-espace.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"\"Une station satellite bientôt à l'école d'ingénieurs\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.linfo.re/-Societe-/Une-station-satellite-bientot-a-l-ecole-d-ingenieurs?ps=514615"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"\"Une station pour capter les micro-satellites\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.today/20121217130007/https://dl.dropbox.com/u/19805848/articles%20de%20presse/article%20de%20presse%20QUOTIDIEN.jpg"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//dl.dropbox.com/u/19805848/articles%20de%20presse/article%20de%20presse%20QUOTIDIEN.jpg"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"\"CRIS bientôt dans l'espace grâce à l'ESIROI\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//dl.dropbox.com/u/19805848/articles%20de%20presse/Memento-387-Mars%202012-p.38-Esiroi-Stim%20-Cubesat.pdf"},{"link_name":"permanent dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"}],"text":"^ \"From Micro- to Nano... Seeking The Business Sweet-Spot\" (PDF). Satmagazine: 17. January 2011. OCLC 173221287.\n\n^ \"GENSO: A Global Ground Station Network\" (PDF).\n\n^ \"Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations\". ESA.\n\n^ \"Cubesats\". Missions | BIS. Archived from the original on 2013-10-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)\n\n^ Leonard David (2004-09-10). \"CubeSats: Tiny spacecraft, big payoffs\". CNN.com.\n\n^ David, Leonard (28 September 2005). \"Big News about Small Satellites: Cubesats Rule!\". space.com.\n\n^ \"GENSO takes first steps\". ESA. 2007-09-11.\n\n^ \"Robusta\". Archived from the original on 2012-03-18. Retrieved 2012-07-30.\n\n^ Alexandru Munteanu's Thesis\n\n^ Craig Kief (May–June 2011). \"GENSO – A Ground Station is a Terrible Thing to Waste\" (PDF). AMSAT Journal.\n\n^ \"How GENSO works\". Archived from the original on 2013-01-26. Retrieved 2012-07-18.\n\n^ \"ESA-Bulletin-149\". ESA. p. 43.\n\n^ \"Cubesat Réunion Island Station, qu'est-ce que c'est ?\". la Ptite Gazette de La Réunion (in French). 2003-03-01.\n\n^ Siva, Baradi (8 February 2012). \"L'ESIROI va lancer sa station satellite\". Reunion Multimedia.\n\n^ Dupuis, Alain (27 June 2012). \"Des élèves ingénieurs réunionnais dans la course à l'espace\". Le journal de l'Ile de La Réunion (in French).\n\n^ \"Une station satellite bientôt à l'école d'ingénieurs\". L'info.re (in French). 9 May 2012.\n\n^ \"Une station pour capter les micro-satellites\". Le Quotidien de la Réunion (in French). February 2012. Archived from the original on December 17, 2012.\n\n^ Yepes, M. (March 2012). \"CRIS bientôt dans l'espace grâce à l'ESIROI\" (PDF). Memento (in French).[permanent dead link]","title":"Notes and references"}]
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[{"image_text":"GENSO network map coverage Jan 2013","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/GENSO_network_map_coverage_July_2012.png/220px-GENSO_network_map_coverage_July_2012.png"}]
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[{"title":"AX.25 Packets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ax.25"},{"title":"Antenna Rotator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_rotator"},{"title":"Amsat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsat"},{"title":"CNES","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNES"},{"title":"JAXA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAXA"},{"title":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"title":"Canadian Space Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Space_Agency"},{"title":"SatNOGS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SatNOGS"}]
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[{"reference":"\"From Micro- to Nano... Seeking The Business Sweet-Spot\" (PDF). Satmagazine: 17. January 2011. OCLC 173221287.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.satmagazine.com/2011/SM_January_2011.pdf","url_text":"\"From Micro- to Nano... Seeking The Business Sweet-Spot\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/173221287","url_text":"173221287"}]},{"reference":"\"GENSO: A Global Ground Station Network\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.klofas.com/papers/AMSAT_2007.pdf","url_text":"\"GENSO: A Global Ground Station Network\""}]},{"reference":"\"Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations\". ESA.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Education/SEMKO03MDAF_0.html","url_text":"\"Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cubesats\". Missions | BIS. Archived from the original on 2013-10-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131004021652/http://www.bis.gov.uk/ukspaceagency/missions/cubesats","url_text":"\"Cubesats\""}]},{"reference":"Leonard David (2004-09-10). \"CubeSats: Tiny spacecraft, big payoffs\". CNN.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cnn.com/2004/TECH/space/09/09/space.cubes/","url_text":"\"CubeSats: Tiny spacecraft, big payoffs\""}]},{"reference":"David, Leonard (28 September 2005). \"Big News about Small Satellites: Cubesats Rule!\". space.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.space.com/1570-big-news-small-satellites-cubesats-rule.html","url_text":"\"Big News about Small Satellites: Cubesats Rule!\""}]},{"reference":"\"GENSO takes first steps\". ESA. 2007-09-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.esa.int/esaMI/Education/SEMQM953R8F_0.html","url_text":"\"GENSO takes first steps\""}]},{"reference":"\"Robusta\". Archived from the original on 2012-03-18. Retrieved 2012-07-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120318144055/http://www.ies.univ-montp2.fr/robusta/satellite/?lang=en","url_text":"\"Robusta\""},{"url":"http://www.ies.univ-montp2.fr/robusta/satellite/?lang=en","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Craig Kief (May–June 2011). \"GENSO – A Ground Station is a Terrible Thing to Waste\" (PDF). AMSAT Journal.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cosmiacpubs.org/pubs/MayJun11GENSO.pdf","url_text":"\"GENSO – A Ground Station is a Terrible Thing to Waste\""}]},{"reference":"\"How GENSO works\". Archived from the original on 2013-01-26. Retrieved 2012-07-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130126164759/http://genso.org/index.php/how-genso-works","url_text":"\"How GENSO works\""},{"url":"http://www.genso.org/index.php/how-genso-works","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"ESA-Bulletin-149\". ESA. p. 43.","urls":[{"url":"http://esamultimedia.esa.int/multimedia/publications/ESA-Bulletin-149/pageflip.html","url_text":"\"ESA-Bulletin-149\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cubesat Réunion Island Station, qu'est-ce que c'est ?\". la Ptite Gazette de La Réunion (in French). 2003-03-01.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.la-ptite-gazette.com/2012/02/cubesat-reunion-island-station-qu-est-ce-que-cest/","url_text":"\"Cubesat Réunion Island Station, qu'est-ce que c'est ?\""}]},{"reference":"Siva, Baradi (8 February 2012). \"L'ESIROI va lancer sa station satellite\". Reunion Multimedia.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.reunion-multimedia.re/?L-ESIROI-entre-en-orbite","url_text":"\"L'ESIROI va lancer sa station satellite\""}]},{"reference":"Dupuis, Alain (27 June 2012). \"Des élèves ingénieurs réunionnais dans la course à l'espace\". Le journal de l'Ile de La Réunion (in French).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.clicanoo.re/329887-des-eleves-ingenieurs-reunionnais-dans-la-course-a-l-espace.html","url_text":"\"Des élèves ingénieurs réunionnais dans la course à l'espace\""}]},{"reference":"\"Une station satellite bientôt à l'école d'ingénieurs\". L'info.re (in French). 9 May 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.linfo.re/-Societe-/Une-station-satellite-bientot-a-l-ecole-d-ingenieurs?ps=514615","url_text":"\"Une station satellite bientôt à l'école d'ingénieurs\""}]},{"reference":"\"Une station pour capter les micro-satellites\". Le Quotidien de la Réunion (in French). February 2012. Archived from the original on December 17, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20121217130007/https://dl.dropbox.com/u/19805848/articles%20de%20presse/article%20de%20presse%20QUOTIDIEN.jpg","url_text":"\"Une station pour capter les micro-satellites\""},{"url":"https://dl.dropbox.com/u/19805848/articles%20de%20presse/article%20de%20presse%20QUOTIDIEN.jpg","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Yepes, M. (March 2012). \"CRIS bientôt dans l'espace grâce à l'ESIROI\" (PDF). Memento (in French).","urls":[{"url":"https://dl.dropbox.com/u/19805848/articles%20de%20presse/Memento-387-Mars%202012-p.38-Esiroi-Stim%20-Cubesat.pdf","url_text":"\"CRIS bientôt dans l'espace grâce à l'ESIROI\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BeIA
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BeIA
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["1 Compression techniques","2 Version history","3 List of BeIA devices","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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Embedded operating system
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "BeIA" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
BeIA (BeOS for Internet Appliances) is a discontinued operating system for embedded systems, developed by Be Inc. from 2000 to 2001. It was a minimized version of their BeOS operating system and was developed for the x86 and PowerPC architectures.
The BeIA system presents a browser-based interface to the user. The browser was based on the Opera 4.0 code base, but most of times it featured built-in dashboard (like Sony eVilla), and was named Wagner. Unlike the BeOS, which runs the Tracker and Deskbar at boot-up, the BeIA OS boots straight into the Opera browser interface (only on Compaq IA-1, similar as the later ChromeOS does with the Google Chrome browser). While it is possible to boot BeIA into an interface similar to the standard BeOS, doing so involves special knowledge.
During 2001, a Zanussi "internet fridge" toured the US with a BeIA powered DT-300 webpad docked in its door.
BeIA was discontinued after Be Inc's assets were sold to Palm, Inc., with BeIA not able to help the company's financial situation and the failure of the Sony eVilla.
Compression techniques
The BeIA operating system employs a number of techniques to minimise the system footprint. These involve a number of pre processes which yield an installable file system image.
The Compressed File System (CFS) was is a file system created in house at Be Inc that aimed to compress the files within itself to save space. The filesystem had a similar set of properties to the native BeOS file system BFS, but some of the more advanced features (live queries and attributes) were either broken or non-functional in many of the Beta releases of the software.
The BeOS uses ELF format executable files, much as many other operating systems. BeIA uses an extended version of ELF, the name of which is unknown but which has come to be known as CELF, from the CEL magic word within the executable header and the fact that it is derived from ELF format executables through a compression process. The CELF (Compressed ELF) files use a patented technique to compress the op codes within the executable and reduce the overall footprint of each executable file. The file was compressed by creating a set of dictionaries that contain the op codes and are read by the kernel at start up and mapped into the executable in memory at run time. This makes the file fast loading, but has an extreme disadvantage, in that the dictionary is not extendible by the user and adding extra executable was not possible when using CELF compression techniques unless the executable symbols existed within the dictionary already present. The creation of CELF executables is generally done in batch. The entire system will be compressed and a file system image created from the crushed files.
Crushing was the term coined for the compression of the system using CELF format. BeIA can run either as CELF or ELF based. However, it can only use one or the other file formats.
Version history
The following BeIA versions were released to developers at stages of the development of the system:
Date
Notes
Pre-1.0 build
Reports to be 4.5.2; this is likely a hang over from the BeOS version
1.0 Beta
February 2000
Codenamed "Stinger"
1.0 Release Candidate
? 2000
1.0
October 2000
1.09.2
May 2001
1.5
? 2001
2.0
? 2001
List of BeIA devices
Sony eVilla - sold as a home web terminal with BeIA preloaded
Compaq IA-1 - sold with either BeIA or MSN Companion.
HARP - not a computer, but a standard for audio streaming terminals, used by Virgin in some of their stores
Proview iPAD (PI-520B)
DT Research DT-300 (NB. DT-325 was used with later 2.0 betas)
First International Computer Genesis 2000
Hardware known to run BeIA (official and unofficial)
See also
BeOS
BeIA Product overview
BeIA FAQ
BeIA DataSheet
BeIA browser tests
Link discussing BeIA technical terminology
DT300 and BeIA hacking discussion. Archived 2018-09-24 at the Wayback Machine
References
^ a b "BeIA Operating System". www.operating-system.org. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
^ a b "VintageOS (vintageos.org) asks... What is BeOS?". vintageos.org. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
^ "Be Dope - All the news that fits we print". www.bedope.com. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
^ Smith, Tony. "Be takeover imminent". www.theregister.com. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
^ Smith, Tony. "Be axes 25 per cent of staff". www.theregister.com. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
^ "Sony kills eVilla Web-surfing appliance". ZDNET. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
^ BeIA compression patent United States Patent: 6883087
^ "Be Incorporated's BeIA Software Platform to Power New Internet Appliance from First International Computer, Inc". 2000-08-15. Archived from the original on 2000-08-15. Retrieved 2023-11-23.
External links
U.S. Trademark 76,113,641 (BeIA)
BeIA Demo
vteBeOSCompanies
Be Inc.
Gobe Software
yellowTAB
Magnussoft
Metrowerks
Computers
BeBox
Sony eVilla
Operating systems
BeOS
BeIA
Haiku
magnussoft ZETA
Software
CodeWarrior
Pe (text editor)
Internals
Be File System
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It was a minimized version of their BeOS operating system and was developed for the x86 and PowerPC architectures.[1]The BeIA system presents a browser-based interface to the user. The browser was based on the Opera 4.0 code base,[2] but most of times it featured built-in dashboard (like Sony eVilla), and was named Wagner.[3] Unlike the BeOS, which runs the Tracker and Deskbar at boot-up, the BeIA OS boots straight into the Opera browser interface (only on Compaq IA-1, similar as the later ChromeOS does with the Google Chrome browser). While it is possible to boot BeIA into an interface similar to the standard BeOS, doing so involves special knowledge.[citation needed]During 2001, a Zanussi \"internet fridge\" toured the US with a BeIA powered DT-300 webpad docked in its door.[citation needed]BeIA was discontinued after Be Inc's assets were sold to Palm, Inc.,[4] with BeIA not able to help the company's financial situation[5] and the failure of the Sony eVilla.[6]","title":"BeIA"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Patent_referring_to_BeIA_specific_compression.-7"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"file system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_system"},{"link_name":"ELF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable_and_Linkable_Format"}],"text":"The BeIA operating system employs a number of techniques to minimise the system footprint. These involve a number of pre processes which yield an installable file system image.[7]The Compressed File System (CFS)[2] was is a file system created in house at Be Inc that aimed to compress the files within itself to save space. The filesystem had a similar set of properties to the native BeOS file system BFS, but some of the more advanced features (live queries and attributes) were either broken or non-functional in many of the Beta releases of the software.The BeOS uses ELF format executable files, much as many other operating systems. BeIA uses an extended version of ELF, the name of which is unknown but which has come to be known as CELF, from the CEL magic word within the executable header and the fact that it is derived from ELF format executables through a compression process. The CELF (Compressed ELF) files use a patented technique to compress the op codes within the executable and reduce the overall footprint of each executable file. The file was compressed by creating a set of dictionaries that contain the op codes and are read by the kernel at start up and mapped into the executable in memory at run time. This makes the file fast loading, but has an extreme disadvantage, in that the dictionary is not extendible by the user and adding extra executable was not possible when using CELF compression techniques unless the executable symbols existed within the dictionary already present. The creation of CELF executables is generally done in batch. The entire system will be compressed and a file system image created from the crushed files.Crushing was the term coined for the compression of the system using CELF format. BeIA can run either as CELF or ELF based. However, it can only use one or the other file formats.","title":"Compression techniques"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"text":"The following BeIA versions were released to developers at stages of the development of the system:[1]","title":"Version history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sony eVilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_eVilla"},{"link_name":"Compaq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compaq"},{"link_name":"MSN Companion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSN_Companion"},{"link_name":"HARP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Home_Audio_Reference_Platform&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Virgin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Group"},{"link_name":"Proview","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proview"},{"link_name":"DT Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.dtresearch.com/"},{"link_name":"First International Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_International_Computer"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Hardware known to run BeIA (official and unofficial)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110707220959/http://wiki.bebits.com/page/BeIASupportedHardware"}],"text":"Sony eVilla - sold as a home web terminal with BeIA preloaded\nCompaq IA-1 - sold with either BeIA or MSN Companion.\nHARP - not a computer, but a standard for audio streaming terminals, used by Virgin in some of their stores\nProview iPAD (PI-520B)\nDT Research DT-300 (NB. DT-325 was used with later 2.0 betas)\nFirst International Computer Genesis 2000[8]\nHardware known to run BeIA (official and unofficial)","title":"List of BeIA devices"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"\"BeIA Operating System\". www.operating-system.org. Retrieved 2023-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.operating-system.org/betriebssystem/_english/bs-beia.htm","url_text":"\"BeIA Operating System\""}]},{"reference":"\"VintageOS (vintageos.org) asks... What is BeOS?\". vintageos.org. Retrieved 2023-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://vintageos.org/beos.html","url_text":"\"VintageOS (vintageos.org) asks... What is BeOS?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Be Dope - All the news that fits we print\". www.bedope.com. Retrieved 2023-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bedope.com/stories/0123.html","url_text":"\"Be Dope - All the news that fits we print\""}]},{"reference":"Smith, Tony. \"Be takeover imminent\". www.theregister.com. Retrieved 2023-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theregister.com/2001/08/03/be_takeover_imminent/","url_text":"\"Be takeover imminent\""}]},{"reference":"Smith, Tony. \"Be axes 25 per cent of staff\". www.theregister.com. Retrieved 2023-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theregister.com/2001/04/03/be_axes_25_per_cent/","url_text":"\"Be axes 25 per cent of staff\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sony kills eVilla Web-surfing appliance\". ZDNET. Retrieved 2023-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zdnet.com/article/sony-kills-evilla-web-surfing-appliance/","url_text":"\"Sony kills eVilla Web-surfing appliance\""}]},{"reference":"\"Be Incorporated's BeIA Software Platform to Power New Internet Appliance from First International Computer, Inc\". 2000-08-15. Archived from the original on 2000-08-15. Retrieved 2023-11-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20000815094250/http://www.be.com/press/pressreleases/00-07-26_fic.html","url_text":"\"Be Incorporated's BeIA Software Platform to Power New Internet Appliance from First International Computer, Inc\""},{"url":"http://www.be.com/press/pressreleases/00-07-26_fic.html","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyc%C3%A9e_Jean-Piaget
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Lycée Jean-Piaget
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["1 References","2 External links"]
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Lycée Jean-Piaget is an institution in Neuchâtel, Switzerland offering secondary education, tertiary education and language education.
In 1998, the business school, l'École supérieure de commerce de Neuchâtel, merged with l'École supérieure Numa-Droz to form Lycée Jean-Piaget.
References
^ "Contact Archived 2013-02-05 at the Wayback Machine." Lycée Jean-Piaget. Retrieved on 14 May 2014. "Lycée Jean-Piaget Ecole supérieure de commerce de Neuchâtel Rue des Beaux-Arts 30"
^ "French as a Foreign Language Archived 2013-02-05 at the Wayback Machine." Lycée Jean-Piaget. Retrieved on 14 May 2014.
External links
Lycée Jean-Piaget
(in French) Lycée Jean-Piaget
vteDegré secondaire II schools in Romandy (French-speaking Switzerland)Diplomas
Maturité professionnelle
Maturité spécialisée
Maturité gymnasiale
Certificat fédéral de capacité
Diplôme de culture générale
Diplôme de commerce
Attestation de formation professionnelle
Écoles de maturitéFribourg
Collège Saint-Michel
Collège de Gambach
Collège Sainte-Croix
Collège du Sud
Gymnase intercantonal de la Broye
Geneva
Collège Rousseau
Collège Sismondi
Collège Voltaire
Collège Claparède
Collège Madame de Staël
Collège de Saussure
Collège Calvin
Collège de Candolle
École Moser
Collège et école de commerce André-Chavanne
Collège et école de commerce Émilie-Gourd
Collège pour adultes Alice-Rivaz
Jura
Lycée cantonal de Porrentruy
Collège Saint-Charles
Neuchâtel
Lycée Denis-de-Rougemont
Lycée Blaise-Cendrars
Lycée Jean-Piaget
Valais
Lycée-collège Spiritus Sanctus
Lycée-collège des Creusets
Lycée-collège de la Planta
Lycée-collège de l'Abbaye de Saint-Maurice
Vaud
Gymnase Auguste Piccard
Gymnase de Beaulieu
Gymnase du Bugnon
Gymnase de Burier
Gymnase de Chamblandes
Gymnase de la Cité
Gymnase de Morges
Gymnase de Nyon
Gymnase Provence (de Rennes)
Gymnase d'Yverdon
Gymnase intercantonal de la Broye
Bern
Gymnase français de Bienne
Gymnase Biel-Seeland
Écoles de culture généraleand école de commerceFribourg
École de culture générale Fribourg
Gymnase intercantonal de la Broye
Geneva
École de culture générale Henry-Dunant
École de culture générale Jean-Piaget
École de culture générale Ella-Maillart
École de commerce André-Chavanne
École de commerce Émilie-Gourd
École de commerce Aimée-Stitelmann
École de commerce Nicolas-Bouvier
Jura
Centre jurassien d'enseignement et de formation
Neuchâtel
Centre interrégional de formation des Montagnes neuchâteloises
Centre professionnel du littoral neuchâtelois
Valais
ECCG de Monthey
ECCG de Martigny
ECCG-EPP de St-Guérin
ECCG de Sierre
Oberwalliser Mittelschule St. Ursula de Brigue
Vaud
Gymnase Auguste Piccard
Gymnase de Beaulieu
Gymnase du Bugnon
Gymnase de Burier
Gymnase de Chamblandes
Gymnase de la Cité
Gymnase de Morges
Gymnase de Nyon
Gymnase Provence
Gymnase d'Yverdon
Gymnase intercantonal de la Broye
Écoles professionnellesand écoles des métiersFribourg
École des métiers de Fribourg
eikon EMF
Geneva
Centre de formation professionnelle technique
Centre de formation professionnelle arts appliqués
Centre de formation professionnelle nature et environnement
Centre de formation professionnelle santé et social
Jura
Centre jurassien d'enseignement et de formation
Neuchâtel
Centre interrégional de formation des Montagnes neuchâteloises
Centre professionnel du littoral neuchâtelois
Valais
École des métiers du Valais
Vaud
École professionnelle commerciale de Lausanne
Centre d'enseignement professionnel de Vevey
Centre professionnel du nord vaudois
École professionnelle commerciale de Nyon (EPCN)
École technique de la vallée de joux (ETVJ)
École technique et des métiers de Lausanne (ETML)
École romande d'art et de communication (ERACOM)
Epsic
Education in Switzerland
Degré secondaire I (junior high school)
International schools in Switzerland
^ Not approved as Mittelschule/Collège/Liceo by the Swiss Federal State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI)
Authority control databases
VIAF
This Swiss school-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Lycée Jean-Piaget"}]
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[]
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[]
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[{"Link":"http://www.lyceejeanpiaget.ch/FLE/8.html","external_links_name":"Contact"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130205070638/http://www.lyceejeanpiaget.ch/FLE/8.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.lyceejeanpiaget.ch/FLE/1.html","external_links_name":"French as a Foreign Language"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130205070555/http://www.lyceejeanpiaget.ch/FLE/1.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130205070555/http://www.lyceejeanpiaget.ch/FLE/1.html","external_links_name":"Lycée Jean-Piaget"},{"Link":"http://www.lyceejeanpiaget.ch/","external_links_name":"Lycée Jean-Piaget"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/245877128","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lyc%C3%A9e_Jean-Piaget&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EHarmony.com
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eHarmony
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["1 History","2 Methodology","3 Reception and analysis","3.1 Applicant rejection","3.2 Same-sex couples","3.3 Matching paying members with non-paying members","3.4 Security breach","3.5 Explaining success","3.6 Criticism over claims","3.7 Complaints over subscription practices","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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Dating website
This article reads like a press release or a news article and may be largely based on routine coverage. Please help improve this article and add independent sources. (March 2016)
eharmony.comType of businessPrivateFoundedAugust 22, 2000; 23 years ago (2000-08-22)Pasadena, California, U.S.HeadquartersLos Angeles, California, U.S.Key peopleNeil Clark Warren (Founder) Greg Forgatch (Founder)ParentNuCom Group (ProSiebenSat.1 Media 75.1% and General Atlantic 24.9%)URLwww.eharmony.comLaunchedAugust 22, 2000; 23 years ago (2000-08-22)
Previous eHarmony headquarters in the OneWest Bank building in downtown Pasadena, California
eHarmony is an online dating website launched in 2000. eHarmony is based in Los Angeles, California, and owned by Nucom ecommerce, a joint venture of German mass media company ProSiebenSat.1 Media and American private equity firm General Atlantic.
History
eHarmony's original logo, used until August 20, 2017
eHarmony logo, used from 2017 to 2023
eHarmony was founded by Neil Clark Warren, a clinical psychologist, with his son-in-law, Greg Forgatch. Warren and Forgatch created Neil Clark Warren & Associates, a seminar company, in 1995. The company eventually became the dating website eHarmony. During its initial four years, the website was developed by TechEmpower.
The service was financed with a $3 million investment from Fayez Sarofim & Co. and individual investors. eHarmony was launched in 2000, making it the first algorithm-based dating site. Between 2000 and 2010, about 33 million members used the service. As of 2008, about 15,000 people were taking the eHarmony questionnaire each day. Harris Interactive said in 2010 that after finding a match on eHarmony, an average of 542 eHarmony members in the United States marry every day.
eHarmony has been profitable since 2004. In 2009, eHarmony's cumulative revenue exceeded $1.0 billion while their annual revenue was about $250 million. As of 2012, eHarmony had 14 percent of the U.S. dating-services market.
In July 2012, Neil Clark Warren came out of retirement to become chief executive officer. Warren closed unprofitable international operations, switched advertisers, made changes to the board, and bought back stock from Sequoia Capital and Technology Crossover Ventures. eHarmony featured in the 2013 film The Secret Life of Walter Mitty, where the namesake protagonist speaks to a personal counselor at the company. In 2017, it was reported that eHarmony had about 750,000 paid subscribers and 10 million active users, which was about the same as it had been in 2012. Warren left the company again in July 2016.
In 2016, eHarmony announced their questionnaire would now be optional for users. By 2017, the questionnaire consisted of 150 questions, down from 450 questions.
In 2018, German mass media company ProSiebenSat.1 Media purchased eHarmony via their Nucom ecommerce division (a joint venture of ProSiebenSat and private equity firm General Atlantic).
Methodology
Prospective members complete a proprietary questionnaire about their characteristics, beliefs, values, emotional health and skills. Matching algorithms, which the company believes match people's core traits and values to replicate the traits of happy couples, use these answers to match members with users the company believes will be compatible. The software technology also evaluates users' behavioral data such as average time spent on the site.
Buckwalter says that the compatibility system rests a lot on commonality, for their belief is that "Opposites attract, then they attack."
Starting in January 2017, eHarmony users could see why they are considered compatible with a feature called "The Two Of You Together". They will be able to see the matches who score at an advanced level of compatibility and also why.
Reception and analysis
Applicant rejection
It is estimated that about 20% of eHarmony applicants are rejected. In 2007, eHarmony stated since the site's launch, they had rejected about a million people who applied to use the service. They reported that about 30% of those applicants were denied because they were already married, 27% were younger than the minimum application age of 21, and 9% provided inconsistent answers on the application. eHarmony also stated they reject anyone under the age of 60 who has been married more than four times, or who fails their "dysthymia scale", testing as having a depressed disposition.
Same-sex couples
When it began, eHarmony did not offer same-sex matches; however from 2009 through 2019 the company provided service through a separate platform, Compatible Partners. Warren said that he had done extensive research on heterosexual marriage but did not know enough about homosexual relationships to do same-sex match-making, which he said "calls for some very careful thinking. Very careful research." He also said that eHarmony promotes heterosexual marriage, adding that (at the time) same-sex marriage was illegal in most places, saying "We don't really want to participate in something that's illegal." In another interview, Warren went into more detail on his own views, noting that "cities like San Francisco, Chicago or New York... they could shut down so fast. We don't want to make enemies out of them. But at the same time, I take a real strong stand against same-sex marriage, anywhere that I can comment on it."
eHarmony's lack of same-sex matching options prompted lawsuits claiming that eHarmony violated laws prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. As part of the settlement of a New Jersey case, eHarmony launched a partner website called Compatible Partners providing match-making "for men and women looking for a serious same-sex relationship". Theodore B. Olson, an attorney for eHarmony, said that even though the company believed the complaint was "an unfair characterization of our business", it chose to settle because of the unpredictable nature of litigation. In 2010, eHarmony settled a separate class-action lawsuit filed in California that alleged illegal discrimination based on sexual orientation. The company agreed to allow access to both its gay and straight dating sites with a single subscription, to display its gay dating services more prominently and to establish a settlement fund to pay people who can show they were harmed by the company's policies.
As of 2013, about 200,000 people had registered with Compatible Partners. Michelle Garcia, writing in the LGBT-interest magazine The Advocate, also said that, like eHarmony, Compatible Partners attracts high-quality customers. According to Garcia, "Because of the price tag and the emphasis on long-term relationships... Compatible Partners' users are seen as quite desirable."
In 2021, eHarmony released an advertisement that included a same-sex couple, emphasizing the platform's diverse user base. Nevertheless, certain conservative groups expressed criticism, suggesting the platform deviated from its Christian roots.
Matching paying members with non-paying members
After approval by the questionnaire, eHarmony begins to match members regardless of their subscription status. A member's list of matches does not indicate which members are paying or non-paying, so users may not be able to communicate with all of their matches.
Security breach
On June 6, 2012, eHarmony confirmed that its password database had been breached and a section of its user base had been affected. Affected members were sent e-mails by the company requesting them to change their password immediately.
Explaining success
A 2010 article published by the Harvard Business Review attributed the success of eHarmony's system to their large membership base, their efforts to exclude people who are not serious about dating, and their membership fees being more expensive than the fees for other dating websites. The author hypothesizes that, since eHarmony's questionnaire and high cost of membership deter people who are interested in casual dating, eHarmony's members are more likely to be interested in a long-term relationship.
Criticism over claims
A 2012 analysis of dating websites by Scientific American stated that eHarmony, along with other algorithm-based dating sites, had not yet provided members of the scientific community with information about their matching algorithm which could be used to vet their claims about their algorithms being scientifically based.
In 2014, eHarmony was criticized by the National Advertising Division of the Better Business Bureau over claims the company had made about their rates of success. This occurred after Match.com challenged claims made by eHarmony about the two companies' relative success.
In 2018, the Advertising Standards Authority stated that an eHarmony ad which included the lines, "It's time science had a go at love", and "Imagine being able to stack the odds of finding lasting love entirely in your favor", was misleading. When the ASA asked for evidence supporting eHarmony's claims that their scientifically proven matching system increases the odds of finding love, eHarmony was not able to provide any. The ASA subsequently banned advertisements that claimed the use of a scientifically proven matching system. eHarmony publicly disagreed with the ASA but said it would work with them to clarify its advertising.
Complaints over subscription practices
In September 2023, the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission (ACCC) launched court action against eHarmony over allegations of misleading content and hundreds of customer complaints about the company's auto-subscription practices. Customers who have signed up to the service have had their accounts debited without their consent as part of a default auto-renewable subscription that is difficult to cancel. The ACCC referred to this as a "subscription trap" that it alleges has been in place since at least 2019.
See also
Comparison of online dating websites
References
^ a b c "Germany's ProSieben buys U.S. online dating site eharmony". Reuters Business News. October 29, 2018. Retrieved April 29, 2019.
^ "eHarmony's new inclusive ads are enraging some on the right". NBC News. February 10, 2021. Retrieved December 4, 2021.
^ a b c d Utermohlen, Karl (July 26, 2016). "eHarmony Founder Neil Clark Warren Steps Down as CEO". InvestorPlace. Retrieved January 3, 2018.
^ "TechEmpower". www.techempower.com. Retrieved June 1, 2020.
^ a b "History of eHarmony". Online Dating Magazine. September 16, 2008.
^ a b Eli J. Finkel, Susan Sprecher (May 8, 2012). "The Scientific Flaws of Online Dating Sites". Scientific American. Retrieved January 8, 2018.
^ Vega, Tanzina (August 15, 2010). "Dating Site Marks 10 Years With Ad Campaign". The New York Times. Retrieved November 1, 2013.
^ Kirkpatrick, David (September 14, 2007). "eHarmony does what tech ought to do". CNN. Retrieved April 3, 2010.
^ "eHarmony Celebrates 10 Years of Online Relationships | Fox Business Video". Video.foxbusiness.com. August 30, 2010. Retrieved November 1, 2013.
^ a b Clark, Andrew (August 24, 2010). "Dating site eHarmony aims to dominate British market". The Guardian. Retrieved January 5, 2018.
^ Geron, Tomio (July 12, 2010). "The $100M Revenue Club: EHarmony Captures the Hearts of VCs". The Wall Street Journal's Venture Capital Dispatch.
^ a b "eHarmony founder breaks up with investors in company reboot". Delawareonline.com. Archived from the original on November 4, 2013. Retrieved November 1, 2013.
^ "EHarmony founder has his heart set on reviving the dating site". Los Angeles Times. December 13, 2012. Retrieved November 1, 2013.
^ "EHarmony Launches Service Modeled After 'Walter Mitty' Plotline". The Hollywood Reporter. December 11, 2013. Archived from the original on December 15, 2013. Retrieved March 21, 2021.
^ Weller, Chris (February 18, 2017). "eHarmony is gearing up for a battle to win back millennials from Tinder and Bumble". Business Insider. Retrieved January 5, 2018.
^ Crook, Jordan (December 15, 2016). "eHarmony makes its questionnaire optional to get hip with the times". TechCrunch. Retrieved January 3, 2018.
^ Marinova, Polina (February 14, 2017). "How Dating Site eHarmony Uses Machine Learning to Help You Find Love". Retrieved January 3, 2018.
^ Georgina Prodhan (October 7, 2008). "Brits value sex and in-laws, Web dating company finds". Reuters. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
^ Jessica Shambora (September 23, 2010). "eHarmony's algorithm of love". Fortune. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
^ Canning, Andrea (February 13, 2008). "A Look Inside the eHarmony Love Lab". ABC News. Retrieved November 1, 2013.
^ "eHarmony's New CEO Grant Langston Shares His New Vision". OnlinePersonalsWatch.com. December 23, 2016. Retrieved December 26, 2016.
^ Miller, Lisa (April 26, 2008). "Belief Watch: eHarmony's Algorithm for Mr. Right". Newsweek. Retrieved January 8, 2018.
^ Farhi, Paul (May 13, 2007). "They Met Online, but Definitely Didn't Click". The Washington Post. pp. D01. Retrieved May 13, 2007.
^ a b c Kornblum, Janet. "eHarmony: Heart and soul", USA Today, May 18, 2005
^ "Interview with Neil Clark Warren". Focus on the Family. Archived from the original on February 25, 2004. Retrieved March 3, 2004.
^ Egelko, Bob (June 1, 2007). "EHarmony sued for excluding same-sex matches". The San Francisco Chronicle.
^ Miller, Joshua Rhett. "eHarmony to Provide Gay Dating Service after Lawsuit", Fox News, November 20, 2008
^ "How to surf the Web for a mate: eHarmony founder". CNBC. May 9, 2015. Retrieved September 17, 2015.
^ "eHarmony agrees to provide same-sex matches". NBC News. November 20, 2008. Retrieved November 1, 2013.
^ Rachel Gordon (January 27, 2010). "EHarmony settles lawsuit over gay matchmaking". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved September 3, 2010.
^ "eHarmony Settles Gay Discrimination Suit". CBS News. Associated Press. January 27, 2010. Retrieved September 3, 2010.
^ a b Garcia, Michelle (March 31, 2010). "The Online Dating Game". Advocate.com. Retrieved November 1, 2013.
^ Avery, Dan (February 10, 2021). "eHarmony's new inclusive ads are enraging some on the right". NBC News. Retrieved October 26, 2023.
^ "eHarmony Receives Applause and Backlash for More Inclusive Ad Campaign - Dating Sites Reviews". www.datingsitesreviews.com. Retrieved October 26, 2023.
^ eHarmony? More like tone deaf 08.11.04 Joel Keller blacktable.com
^ Mills, Elinor (June 6, 2012). "eHarmony member passwords compromised". CNET. Retrieved July 11, 2013.
^ CBS News: eHarmony suffers password breach on heels of LinkedIn
^ "Update on Compromised Passwords". eHarmony blog. June 6, 2012. Retrieved July 11, 2013.
^ Halaburda, Hanna (October 15, 2010). "Fewer Customers, but the Right Ones". Harvard Business Review. Retrieved January 8, 2018.
^ Gelles, Jeff (August 17, 2014). "Dating site dinged for exaggerating claims of success". The Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved January 3, 2018.
^ Wakefield, Jane (January 3, 2018). "Dating website eHarmony's 'scientific' match ad banned". BBC News. Retrieved January 4, 2018.
^ Siddique, Haroon. (January 3, 2018). "Watchdog bans advert's claim eHarmony is 'scientifically proven'", The Guardian, Guardian Media Group, London, UK. Retrieved February 8, 2019.
^ "ACCC court action against eHarmony for alleged misleading online dating membership statements". Australian Competition & Consumer Commission. September 7, 2023. Retrieved December 2, 2023.
^ Dating site eHarmony sued over alleged subscription trap and other 'misleading' statements ABC News September 7, 2023
External links
Official website
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Onewestbankheadquarters.jpg"},{"link_name":"OneWest Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OneWest_Bank"},{"link_name":"online dating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_dating_service"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles,_California"},{"link_name":"ProSiebenSat.1 Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProSiebenSat.1_Media"},{"link_name":"General Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Atlantic"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reuters-1"}],"text":"Dating websitePrevious eHarmony headquarters in the OneWest Bank building in downtown Pasadena, CaliforniaeHarmony is an online dating website launched in 2000. eHarmony is based in Los Angeles, California, and owned by Nucom ecommerce, a joint venture of German mass media company ProSiebenSat.1 Media and American private equity firm General Atlantic.[1]","title":"eHarmony"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EHarmonyLogo.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eharmony_new_logo.jpg"},{"link_name":"Neil Clark Warren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Clark_Warren"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Investor-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Investor-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Investor-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SA-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_York_Times-7"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EHarmony&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Harris Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harris_Insights_%26_Analytics"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guardian-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guardian-10"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EHarmony&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-delawareonline.com-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-latimes.com-13"},{"link_name":"Technology Crossover Ventures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_Crossover_Ventures"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-delawareonline.com-12"},{"link_name":"The Secret Life of Walter Mitty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Secret_Life_of_Walter_Mitty_(2013_film)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Investor-3"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TechCrunch-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Nucom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nucom&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"General Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Atlantic"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reuters-1"}],"text":"eHarmony's original logo, used until August 20, 2017eHarmony logo, used from 2017 to 2023eHarmony was founded by Neil Clark Warren, a clinical psychologist, with his son-in-law, Greg Forgatch.[2][3] Warren and Forgatch created Neil Clark Warren & Associates, a seminar company, in 1995.[3] The company eventually became the dating website eHarmony.[3] During its initial four years, the website was developed by TechEmpower.[4]The service was financed with a $3 million investment from Fayez Sarofim & Co. and individual investors.[5] eHarmony was launched in 2000, making it the first algorithm-based dating site.[5][6] Between 2000 and 2010, about 33 million members used the service.[7] As of 2008[update], about 15,000 people were taking the eHarmony questionnaire each day.[8] Harris Interactive said in 2010 that after finding a match on eHarmony, an average of 542 eHarmony members in the United States marry every day.[9]eHarmony has been profitable since 2004.[10] In 2009, eHarmony's cumulative revenue exceeded $1.0 billion while their annual revenue was about $250 million.[11][10] As of 2012[update], eHarmony had 14 percent of the U.S. dating-services market.[12]In July 2012, Neil Clark Warren came out of retirement to become chief executive officer. Warren closed unprofitable international operations, switched advertisers, made changes to the board,[13] and bought back stock from Sequoia Capital and Technology Crossover Ventures.[12] eHarmony featured in the 2013 film The Secret Life of Walter Mitty, where the namesake protagonist speaks to a personal counselor at the company.[14] In 2017, it was reported that eHarmony had about 750,000 paid subscribers and 10 million active users, which was about the same as it had been in 2012.[15] Warren left the company again in July 2016.[3]In 2016, eHarmony announced their questionnaire would now be optional for users.[16] By 2017, the questionnaire consisted of 150 questions, down from 450 questions.[17]In 2018, German mass media company ProSiebenSat.1 Media purchased eHarmony via their Nucom ecommerce division (a joint venture of ProSiebenSat and private equity firm General Atlantic).[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithms"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brits_Value_Sex_and_Inlaws-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Prospective members complete a proprietary questionnaire about their characteristics, beliefs, values, emotional health and skills. Matching algorithms, which the company believes match people's core traits and values to replicate the traits of happy couples, use these answers to match members with users the company believes will be compatible.[18] The software technology also evaluates users' behavioral data such as average time spent on the site.[19]Buckwalter says that the compatibility system rests a lot on commonality, for their belief is that \"Opposites attract, then they attack.\"[20]Starting in January 2017, eHarmony users could see why they are considered compatible with a feature called \"The Two Of You Together\". They will be able to see the matches who score at an advanced level of compatibility and also why.[21]","title":"Methodology"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Reception and analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"dysthymia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysthymia"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Applicant rejection","text":"It is estimated that about 20% of eHarmony applicants are rejected.[22] In 2007, eHarmony stated since the site's launch, they had rejected about a million people who applied to use the service. They reported that about 30% of those applicants were denied because they were already married, 27% were younger than the minimum application age of 21, and 9% provided inconsistent answers on the application. eHarmony also stated they reject anyone under the age of 60 who has been married more than four times, or who fails their \"dysthymia scale\", testing as having a depressed disposition.[23]","title":"Reception and analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"same-sex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Same-sex_relationship"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usatoday-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usatoday-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usatoday-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"lawsuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawsuit"},{"link_name":"sexual orientation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_orientation"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-foxnews-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Theodore B. Olson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_B._Olson"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"dating services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dating_services"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EHarmony&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-advocate.com-32"},{"link_name":"LGBT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT"},{"link_name":"The Advocate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Advocate_(LGBT_magazine)"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-advocate.com-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Same-sex couples","text":"When it began, eHarmony did not offer same-sex matches; however from 2009 through 2019 the company provided service through a separate platform, Compatible Partners.[24] Warren said that he had done extensive research on heterosexual marriage but did not know enough about homosexual relationships to do same-sex match-making, which he said \"calls for some very careful thinking. Very careful research.\"[24] He also said that eHarmony promotes heterosexual marriage, adding that (at the time) same-sex marriage was illegal in most places, saying \"We don't really want to participate in something that's illegal.\"[24] In another interview, Warren went into more detail on his own views, noting that \"cities like San Francisco, Chicago or New York... they could shut [eHarmony] down so fast. We don't want to make enemies out of them. But at the same time, I take a real strong stand against same-sex marriage, anywhere that I can comment on it.\"[25]eHarmony's lack of same-sex matching options prompted lawsuits claiming that eHarmony violated laws prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.[26] As part of the settlement of a New Jersey case,[27] eHarmony launched a partner website called Compatible Partners providing match-making \"for men and women looking for a serious same-sex relationship\".[28] Theodore B. Olson, an attorney for eHarmony, said that even though the company believed the complaint was \"an unfair characterization of our business\", it chose to settle because of the unpredictable nature of litigation.[29] In 2010, eHarmony settled a separate class-action lawsuit filed in California that alleged illegal discrimination based on sexual orientation. The company agreed to allow access to both its gay and straight dating sites with a single subscription, to display its gay dating services more prominently and to establish a settlement fund to pay people who can show they were harmed by the company's policies.[30][31]As of 2013[update], about 200,000 people had registered with Compatible Partners.[32] Michelle Garcia, writing in the LGBT-interest magazine The Advocate, also said that, like eHarmony, Compatible Partners attracts high-quality customers. According to Garcia, \"Because of the price tag and the emphasis on long-term relationships... Compatible Partners' users are seen as quite desirable.\"[32]In 2021, eHarmony released an advertisement that included a same-sex couple, emphasizing the platform's diverse user base.[33] Nevertheless, certain conservative groups expressed criticism, suggesting the platform deviated from its Christian roots.[34]","title":"Reception and analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"sub_title":"Matching paying members with non-paying members","text":"After approval by the questionnaire, eHarmony begins to match members regardless of their subscription status. A member's list of matches does not indicate which members are paying or non-paying, so users may not be able to communicate with all of their matches.[35]","title":"Reception and analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"sub_title":"Security breach","text":"On June 6, 2012, eHarmony confirmed that its password database had been breached and a section of its user base had been affected.[36][37] Affected members were sent e-mails by the company requesting them to change their password immediately.[38]","title":"Reception and analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Harvard Business Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_Review"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"Explaining success","text":"A 2010 article published by the Harvard Business Review attributed the success of eHarmony's system to their large membership base, their efforts to exclude people who are not serious about dating, and their membership fees being more expensive than the fees for other dating websites. The author hypothesizes that, since eHarmony's questionnaire and high cost of membership deter people who are interested in casual dating, eHarmony's members are more likely to be interested in a long-term relationship.[39]","title":"Reception and analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scientific American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SA-6"},{"link_name":"Better Business Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Better_Business_Bureau"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Advertising Standards Authority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising_Standards_Authority_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"sub_title":"Criticism over claims","text":"A 2012 analysis of dating websites by Scientific American stated that eHarmony, along with other algorithm-based dating sites, had not yet provided members of the scientific community with information about their matching algorithm which could be used to vet their claims about their algorithms being scientifically based.[6]In 2014, eHarmony was criticized by the National Advertising Division of the Better Business Bureau over claims the company had made about their rates of success. This occurred after Match.com challenged claims made by eHarmony about the two companies' relative success.[40]In 2018, the Advertising Standards Authority stated that an eHarmony ad which included the lines, \"It's time science had a go at love\", and \"Imagine being able to stack the odds of finding lasting love entirely in your favor\", was misleading. When the ASA asked for evidence supporting eHarmony's claims that their scientifically proven matching system increases the odds of finding love, eHarmony was not able to provide any.[41] The ASA subsequently banned advertisements that claimed the use of a scientifically proven matching system. eHarmony publicly disagreed with the ASA but said it would work with them to clarify its advertising.[42]","title":"Reception and analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Australian Competition & Consumer Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Competition_%26_Consumer_Commission"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"Complaints over subscription practices","text":"In September 2023, the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission (ACCC) launched court action against eHarmony over allegations of misleading content and hundreds of customer complaints about the company's auto-subscription practices. Customers who have signed up to the service have had their accounts debited without their consent as part of a default auto-renewable subscription that is difficult to cancel. The ACCC referred to this as a \"subscription trap\" that it alleges has been in place since at least 2019.[43][44]","title":"Reception and analysis"}]
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[{"image_text":"Previous eHarmony headquarters in the OneWest Bank building in downtown Pasadena, California","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Onewestbankheadquarters.jpg/220px-Onewestbankheadquarters.jpg"},{"image_text":"eHarmony's original logo, used until August 20, 2017","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/EHarmonyLogo.png/220px-EHarmonyLogo.png"},{"image_text":"eHarmony logo, used from 2017 to 2023","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/df/Eharmony_new_logo.jpg/220px-Eharmony_new_logo.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Comparison of online dating websites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_online_dating_websites"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Germany's ProSieben buys U.S. online dating site eharmony\". Reuters Business News. October 29, 2018. Retrieved April 29, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eharmony-m-a-prosieben-media/germanys-prosieben-buys-us-online-dating-site-eharmony-idUSKCN1N30Y6","url_text":"\"Germany's ProSieben buys U.S. online dating site eharmony\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters","url_text":"Reuters Business News"}]},{"reference":"\"eHarmony's new inclusive ads are enraging some on the right\". NBC News. February 10, 2021. Retrieved December 4, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/eharmony-s-new-inclusive-ads-are-enraging-some-right-n1257175","url_text":"\"eHarmony's new inclusive ads are enraging some on the right\""}]},{"reference":"Utermohlen, Karl (July 26, 2016). \"eHarmony Founder Neil Clark Warren Steps Down as CEO\". InvestorPlace. Retrieved January 3, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://investorplace.com/2016/07/eharmony-neil-clark-warren/#.Wk1KgFWnGUk","url_text":"\"eHarmony Founder Neil Clark Warren Steps Down as CEO\""}]},{"reference":"\"TechEmpower\". www.techempower.com. Retrieved June 1, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.techempower.com/portfolio.html","url_text":"\"TechEmpower\""}]},{"reference":"\"History of eHarmony\". Online Dating Magazine. September 16, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.onlinedatingmagazine.com/history/eharmonyhistory.html","url_text":"\"History of eHarmony\""}]},{"reference":"Eli J. Finkel, Susan Sprecher (May 8, 2012). \"The Scientific Flaws of Online Dating Sites\". Scientific American. Retrieved January 8, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/scientific-flaws-online-dating-sites/","url_text":"\"The Scientific Flaws of Online Dating Sites\""}]},{"reference":"Vega, Tanzina (August 15, 2010). \"Dating Site Marks 10 Years With Ad Campaign\". The New York Times. Retrieved November 1, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzina_Vega","url_text":"Vega, Tanzina"},{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/16/business/media/16eharmony.html","url_text":"\"Dating Site Marks 10 Years With Ad Campaign\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Kirkpatrick, David (September 14, 2007). \"eHarmony does what tech ought to do\". CNN. Retrieved April 3, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://money.cnn.com/2007/09/14/magazines/fortune/fastforward_eharmony.fortune/index.htm","url_text":"\"eHarmony does what tech ought to do\""}]},{"reference":"\"eHarmony Celebrates 10 Years of Online Relationships | Fox Business Video\". Video.foxbusiness.com. August 30, 2010. Retrieved November 1, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://video.foxbusiness.com/v/4324601/eharmony-celebrates-10-years-of-online-relationships-/","url_text":"\"eHarmony Celebrates 10 Years of Online Relationships | Fox Business Video\""}]},{"reference":"Clark, Andrew (August 24, 2010). \"Dating site eHarmony aims to dominate British market\". The Guardian. Retrieved January 5, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/business/2010/aug/24/eharmony-dating-british-ambition","url_text":"\"Dating site eHarmony aims to dominate British market\""}]},{"reference":"Geron, Tomio (July 12, 2010). \"The $100M Revenue Club: EHarmony Captures the Hearts of VCs\". The Wall Street Journal's Venture Capital Dispatch.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.wsj.com/venturecapital/2010/07/12/the-100m-revenue-club-eharmony-captures-hearts-of-vcs/","url_text":"\"The $100M Revenue Club: EHarmony Captures the Hearts of VCs\""}]},{"reference":"\"eHarmony founder breaks up with investors in company reboot\". Delawareonline.com. Archived from the original on November 4, 2013. Retrieved November 1, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131104021206/http://www.delawareonline.com/article/20121209/BUSINESS08/312090017/eHarmony-founder-breaks-up-investors-company-reboot?nclick_check=1","url_text":"\"eHarmony founder breaks up with investors in company reboot\""},{"url":"http://www.delawareonline.com/article/20121209/BUSINESS08/312090017/eharmony-founder-breaks-up-investors-company-reboot?nclick_check=1","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"EHarmony founder has his heart set on reviving the dating site\". Los Angeles Times. December 13, 2012. Retrieved November 1, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-eharmony-20121214,0,496523.story","url_text":"\"EHarmony founder has his heart set on reviving the dating site\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]},{"reference":"\"EHarmony Launches Service Modeled After 'Walter Mitty' Plotline\". The Hollywood Reporter. December 11, 2013. Archived from the original on December 15, 2013. Retrieved March 21, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/secret-life-walter-mitty-eharmony-664616","url_text":"\"EHarmony Launches Service Modeled After 'Walter Mitty' Plotline\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131215074352/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com:80/news/secret-life-walter-mitty-eharmony-664616","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Weller, Chris (February 18, 2017). \"eHarmony is gearing up for a battle to win back millennials from Tinder and Bumble\". Business Insider. 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Retrieved November 1, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/OnCall/story?id=4280987&page=1","url_text":"\"A Look Inside the eHarmony Love Lab\""}]},{"reference":"\"eHarmony's New CEO Grant Langston Shares His New Vision\". OnlinePersonalsWatch.com. December 23, 2016. Retrieved December 26, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.onlinepersonalswatch.com/news/2016/12/eharmonys-new-ceo-grant-langston-shares-his-new-vision.html","url_text":"\"eHarmony's New CEO Grant Langston Shares His New Vision\""}]},{"reference":"Miller, Lisa (April 26, 2008). \"Belief Watch: eHarmony's Algorithm for Mr. Right\". Newsweek. Retrieved January 8, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.newsweek.com/belief-watch-eharmonys-algorithm-mr-right-86273","url_text":"\"Belief Watch: eHarmony's Algorithm for Mr. Right\""}]},{"reference":"Farhi, Paul (May 13, 2007). \"They Met Online, but Definitely Didn't Click\". The Washington Post. pp. D01. Retrieved May 13, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/12/AR2007051201350.html?hpid=topnews","url_text":"\"They Met Online, but Definitely Didn't Click\""}]},{"reference":"\"Interview with Neil Clark Warren\". Focus on the Family. Archived from the original on February 25, 2004. Retrieved March 3, 2004.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20040225142236/http://www.family.org/married/youngcouples/a0021741.cfm","url_text":"\"Interview with Neil Clark Warren\""},{"url":"http://www.family.org/married/youngcouples/a0021741.cfm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Egelko, Bob (June 1, 2007). \"EHarmony sued for excluding same-sex matches\". The San Francisco Chronicle.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/06/01/BAGNSQ63EQ6.DTL","url_text":"\"EHarmony sued for excluding same-sex matches\""}]},{"reference":"\"How to surf the Web for a mate: eHarmony founder\". CNBC. May 9, 2015. Retrieved September 17, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cnbc.com/2015/05/08/how-to-surf-the-web-for-a-mate-eharmony-founder.html","url_text":"\"How to surf the Web for a mate: eHarmony founder\""}]},{"reference":"\"eHarmony agrees to provide same-sex matches\". NBC News. November 20, 2008. Retrieved November 1, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27821393","url_text":"\"eHarmony agrees to provide same-sex matches\""}]},{"reference":"Rachel Gordon (January 27, 2010). \"EHarmony settles lawsuit over gay matchmaking\". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved September 3, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://articles.sfgate.com/2010-01-27/bay-area/17836024_1_eharmony-lesbian-sexual-orientation","url_text":"\"EHarmony settles lawsuit over gay matchmaking\""}]},{"reference":"\"eHarmony Settles Gay Discrimination Suit\". CBS News. Associated Press. January 27, 2010. Retrieved September 3, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/01/27/national/main6147090.shtml","url_text":"\"eHarmony Settles Gay Discrimination Suit\""}]},{"reference":"Garcia, Michelle (March 31, 2010). \"The Online Dating Game\". Advocate.com. Retrieved November 1, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.advocate.com/politics/commentary/2010/03/31/online-dating-game","url_text":"\"The Online Dating Game\""}]},{"reference":"Avery, Dan (February 10, 2021). \"eHarmony's new inclusive ads are enraging some on the right\". NBC News. Retrieved October 26, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/eharmony-s-new-inclusive-ads-are-enraging-some-right-n1257175","url_text":"\"eHarmony's new inclusive ads are enraging some on the right\""}]},{"reference":"\"eHarmony Receives Applause and Backlash for More Inclusive Ad Campaign - Dating Sites Reviews\". www.datingsitesreviews.com. Retrieved October 26, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.datingsitesreviews.com/article.php?story=eharmony-receives-applause-and-backlash-for-more-inclusive-ad-campaign","url_text":"\"eHarmony Receives Applause and Backlash for More Inclusive Ad Campaign - Dating Sites Reviews\""}]},{"reference":"Mills, Elinor (June 6, 2012). \"eHarmony member passwords compromised\". CNET. Retrieved July 11, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-57448672-83/eharmony-member-passwords-compromised/","url_text":"\"eHarmony member passwords compromised\""}]},{"reference":"\"Update on Compromised Passwords\". eHarmony blog. June 6, 2012. Retrieved July 11, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.eharmony.com/blog/2012/06/06/update-on-compromised-passwords/#.Ud7Ij_lmiSo","url_text":"\"Update on Compromised Passwords\""}]},{"reference":"Halaburda, Hanna (October 15, 2010). \"Fewer Customers, but the Right Ones\". Harvard Business Review. Retrieved January 8, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://hbr.org/2010/10/fewer-customers-but-the-right","url_text":"\"Fewer Customers, but the Right Ones\""}]},{"reference":"Gelles, Jeff (August 17, 2014). \"Dating site dinged for exaggerating claims of success\". The Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved January 3, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.philly.com/philly/business/consumer_news/20140817_Dating_site_dinged_for_exaggerating_claims_of_success.html","url_text":"\"Dating site dinged for exaggerating claims of success\""}]},{"reference":"Wakefield, Jane (January 3, 2018). \"Dating website eHarmony's 'scientific' match ad banned\". BBC News. Retrieved January 4, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-42546586","url_text":"\"Dating website eHarmony's 'scientific' match ad banned\""}]},{"reference":"\"ACCC court action against eHarmony for alleged misleading online dating membership statements\". Australian Competition & Consumer Commission. September 7, 2023. Retrieved December 2, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.accc.gov.au/media-release/accc-court-action-against-eharmony-for-alleged-misleading-online-dating-membership-statements","url_text":"\"ACCC court action against eHarmony for alleged misleading online dating membership statements\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Competition_%26_Consumer_Commission","url_text":"Australian Competition & Consumer Commission"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EHarmony&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve this article"},{"Link":"http://www.eharmony.com/","external_links_name":"www.eharmony.com"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EHarmony&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EHarmony&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EHarmony&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eharmony-m-a-prosieben-media/germanys-prosieben-buys-us-online-dating-site-eharmony-idUSKCN1N30Y6","external_links_name":"\"Germany's ProSieben buys U.S. online dating site eharmony\""},{"Link":"https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/eharmony-s-new-inclusive-ads-are-enraging-some-right-n1257175","external_links_name":"\"eHarmony's new inclusive ads are enraging some on the right\""},{"Link":"https://investorplace.com/2016/07/eharmony-neil-clark-warren/#.Wk1KgFWnGUk","external_links_name":"\"eHarmony Founder Neil Clark Warren Steps Down as CEO\""},{"Link":"https://www.techempower.com/portfolio.html","external_links_name":"\"TechEmpower\""},{"Link":"http://www.onlinedatingmagazine.com/history/eharmonyhistory.html","external_links_name":"\"History of eHarmony\""},{"Link":"https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/scientific-flaws-online-dating-sites/","external_links_name":"\"The Scientific Flaws of Online Dating Sites\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/16/business/media/16eharmony.html","external_links_name":"\"Dating Site Marks 10 Years With Ad Campaign\""},{"Link":"https://money.cnn.com/2007/09/14/magazines/fortune/fastforward_eharmony.fortune/index.htm","external_links_name":"\"eHarmony does what tech ought to do\""},{"Link":"http://video.foxbusiness.com/v/4324601/eharmony-celebrates-10-years-of-online-relationships-/","external_links_name":"\"eHarmony Celebrates 10 Years of Online Relationships | Fox Business Video\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/business/2010/aug/24/eharmony-dating-british-ambition","external_links_name":"\"Dating site eHarmony aims to dominate British market\""},{"Link":"https://blogs.wsj.com/venturecapital/2010/07/12/the-100m-revenue-club-eharmony-captures-hearts-of-vcs/","external_links_name":"\"The $100M Revenue Club: EHarmony Captures the Hearts of VCs\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131104021206/http://www.delawareonline.com/article/20121209/BUSINESS08/312090017/eHarmony-founder-breaks-up-investors-company-reboot?nclick_check=1","external_links_name":"\"eHarmony founder breaks up with investors in company reboot\""},{"Link":"http://www.delawareonline.com/article/20121209/BUSINESS08/312090017/eharmony-founder-breaks-up-investors-company-reboot?nclick_check=1","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-eharmony-20121214,0,496523.story","external_links_name":"\"EHarmony founder has his heart set on reviving the dating site\""},{"Link":"https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/secret-life-walter-mitty-eharmony-664616","external_links_name":"\"EHarmony Launches Service Modeled After 'Walter Mitty' Plotline\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131215074352/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com:80/news/secret-life-walter-mitty-eharmony-664616","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.businessinsider.com/eharmony-win-back-millennials-2017-2","external_links_name":"\"eHarmony is gearing up for a battle to win back millennials from Tinder and Bumble\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2016/12/15/eharmony-makes-its-questionnaire-optional-to-get-hip-with-the-times/","external_links_name":"\"eHarmony makes its questionnaire optional to get hip with the times\""},{"Link":"http://fortune.com/2017/02/14/eharmony-dating-machine-learning/","external_links_name":"\"How Dating Site eHarmony Uses Machine Learning to Help You Find Love\""},{"Link":"https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE4967YO20081007","external_links_name":"\"Brits value sex and in-laws, Web dating company finds\""},{"Link":"http://fortune.com/2010/09/23/eharmonys-algorithm-of-love/","external_links_name":"\"eHarmony's algorithm of love\""},{"Link":"https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/OnCall/story?id=4280987&page=1","external_links_name":"\"A Look Inside the eHarmony Love Lab\""},{"Link":"http://www.onlinepersonalswatch.com/news/2016/12/eharmonys-new-ceo-grant-langston-shares-his-new-vision.html","external_links_name":"\"eHarmony's New CEO Grant Langston Shares His New Vision\""},{"Link":"http://www.newsweek.com/belief-watch-eharmonys-algorithm-mr-right-86273","external_links_name":"\"Belief Watch: eHarmony's Algorithm for Mr. Right\""},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/12/AR2007051201350.html?hpid=topnews","external_links_name":"\"They Met Online, but Definitely Didn't Click\""},{"Link":"https://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2005-05-18-eharmony_x.htm","external_links_name":"eHarmony: Heart and soul"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20040225142236/http://www.family.org/married/youngcouples/a0021741.cfm","external_links_name":"\"Interview with Neil Clark Warren\""},{"Link":"http://www.family.org/married/youngcouples/a0021741.cfm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/06/01/BAGNSQ63EQ6.DTL","external_links_name":"\"EHarmony sued for excluding same-sex matches\""},{"Link":"http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,454904,00.html","external_links_name":"\"eHarmony to Provide Gay Dating Service after Lawsuit\""},{"Link":"https://www.cnbc.com/2015/05/08/how-to-surf-the-web-for-a-mate-eharmony-founder.html","external_links_name":"\"How to surf the Web for a mate: eHarmony founder\""},{"Link":"http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27821393","external_links_name":"\"eHarmony agrees to provide same-sex matches\""},{"Link":"http://articles.sfgate.com/2010-01-27/bay-area/17836024_1_eharmony-lesbian-sexual-orientation","external_links_name":"\"EHarmony settles lawsuit over gay matchmaking\""},{"Link":"http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/01/27/national/main6147090.shtml","external_links_name":"\"eHarmony Settles Gay Discrimination Suit\""},{"Link":"http://www.advocate.com/politics/commentary/2010/03/31/online-dating-game","external_links_name":"\"The Online Dating Game\""},{"Link":"https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/eharmony-s-new-inclusive-ads-are-enraging-some-right-n1257175","external_links_name":"\"eHarmony's new inclusive ads are enraging some on the right\""},{"Link":"https://www.datingsitesreviews.com/article.php?story=eharmony-receives-applause-and-backlash-for-more-inclusive-ad-campaign","external_links_name":"\"eHarmony Receives Applause and Backlash for More Inclusive Ad Campaign - Dating Sites Reviews\""},{"Link":"http://www.blacktable.com/keller040811.htm","external_links_name":"eHarmony? More like tone deaf"},{"Link":"http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-57448672-83/eharmony-member-passwords-compromised/","external_links_name":"\"eHarmony member passwords compromised\""},{"Link":"https://www.cbsnews.com/news/eharmony-suffers-password-breach-on-heels-of-linkedin/","external_links_name":"CBS News: eHarmony suffers password breach on heels of LinkedIn"},{"Link":"http://www.eharmony.com/blog/2012/06/06/update-on-compromised-passwords/#.Ud7Ij_lmiSo","external_links_name":"\"Update on Compromised Passwords\""},{"Link":"https://hbr.org/2010/10/fewer-customers-but-the-right","external_links_name":"\"Fewer Customers, but the Right Ones\""},{"Link":"http://www.philly.com/philly/business/consumer_news/20140817_Dating_site_dinged_for_exaggerating_claims_of_success.html","external_links_name":"\"Dating site dinged for exaggerating claims of success\""},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-42546586","external_links_name":"\"Dating website eHarmony's 'scientific' match ad banned\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2018/jan/03/watchdog-bans-adverts-claim-eharmony-is-scientifically-proven","external_links_name":"Watchdog bans advert's claim eHarmony is 'scientifically proven'"},{"Link":"https://www.accc.gov.au/media-release/accc-court-action-against-eharmony-for-alleged-misleading-online-dating-membership-statements","external_links_name":"\"ACCC court action against eHarmony for alleged misleading online dating membership statements\""},{"Link":"https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/eharmony-sued-by-accc-in-federal-court/102825988","external_links_name":"Dating site eHarmony sued over alleged subscription trap and other 'misleading' statements"},{"Link":"http://www.eharmony.com/","external_links_name":"Official website"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_constant
|
Gravitational constant
|
["1 Definition","2 Value and uncertainty","2.1 Natural units","2.2 Orbital mechanics","3 History of measurement","3.1 Early history","3.2 19th century","3.3 Modern value","4 Constancy","5 See also","6 References","6.1 Sources","7 External links"]
|
Physical constant relating the gravitational force between objects to their mass and distance
Not to be confused with g, the gravity of Earth.
Value of G
Unit
6.67430(15)×10−11
N⋅m2⋅kg−2
6.67430(15)×10−8
dyn⋅cm2⋅g−2
4.3009172706(3)×10−3
pc⋅M⊙−1⋅(km/s)2
The gravitational constant G is a key quantity in Newton's law of universal gravitation.
The gravitational constant is an empirical physical constant involved in the calculation of gravitational effects in Sir Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation and in Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. It is also known as the universal gravitational constant, the Newtonian constant of gravitation, or the Cavendish gravitational constant, denoted by the capital letter G.
In Newton's law, it is the proportionality constant connecting the gravitational force between two bodies with the product of their masses and the inverse square of their distance. In the Einstein field equations, it quantifies the relation between the geometry of spacetime and the energy–momentum tensor (also referred to as the stress–energy tensor).
The measured value of the constant is known with some certainty to four significant digits. In SI units, its value is approximately 6.6743×10−11 N⋅m2/kg2.
The modern notation of Newton's law involving G was introduced in the 1890s by C. V. Boys. The first implicit measurement with an accuracy within about 1% is attributed to Henry Cavendish in a 1798 experiment.
Definition
According to Newton's law of universal gravitation, the magnitude of the attractive force (F) between two bodies each with a spherically symmetric density distribution is directly proportional to the product of their masses, m1 and m2, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance, r, directed along the line connecting their centres of mass:
F
=
G
m
1
m
2
r
2
.
{\displaystyle F=G{\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}}.}
The constant of proportionality, G, in this non-relativistic formulation is the gravitational constant. Colloquially, the gravitational constant is also called "Big G", distinct from "small g" (g), which is the local gravitational field of Earth (equivalent to the free-fall acceleration). Where
M
⊕
{\displaystyle M_{\oplus }}
is the mass of the Earth and
r
⊕
{\displaystyle r_{\oplus }}
is the radius of the Earth, the two quantities are related by:
g
=
G
M
⊕
r
⊕
2
.
{\displaystyle g=G{\frac {M_{\oplus }}{r_{\oplus }^{2}}}.}
The gravitational constant appears in the Einstein field equations of general relativity,
G
μ
ν
+
Λ
g
μ
ν
=
κ
T
μ
ν
,
{\displaystyle G_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }=\kappa T_{\mu \nu }\,,}
where Gμν is the Einstein tensor (not the gravitational constant despite the use of G), Λ is the cosmological constant, gμν is the metric tensor, Tμν is the stress–energy tensor, and κ is the Einstein gravitational constant, a constant originally introduced by Einstein that is directly related to the Newtonian constant of gravitation:
κ
=
8
π
G
c
4
≈
2.076647
(
46
)
×
10
−
43
N
−
1
.
{\displaystyle \kappa ={\frac {8\pi G}{c^{4}}}\approx 2.076647(46)\times 10^{-43}\mathrm {\,N^{-1}} .}
Value and uncertainty
The gravitational constant is a physical constant that is difficult to measure with high accuracy. This is because the gravitational force is an extremely weak force as compared to other fundamental forces at the laboratory scale.
In SI units, the CODATA-recommended value of the gravitational constant is:
G
{\displaystyle G}
= 6.67430(15)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2
The relative standard uncertainty is 2.2×10−5.
Natural units
Due to its use as a defining constant in some systems of natural units, particularly geometrized unit systems such as Planck units and Stoney units, the value of the gravitational constant will generally have a numeric value of 1 or a value close to it when expressed in terms of those units. Due to the significant uncertainty in the measured value of G in terms of other known fundamental constants, a similar level of uncertainty will show up in the value of many quantities when expressed in such a unit system.
Orbital mechanics
Further information: Standard gravitational parameter, orbital mechanics, celestial mechanics, Gaussian gravitational constant, Earth mass, and Solar mass
In astrophysics, it is convenient to measure distances in parsecs (pc), velocities in kilometres per second (km/s) and masses in solar units M⊙. In these units, the gravitational constant is:
G
≈
4.3009
×
10
−
3
p
c
⋅
(
k
m
/
s
)
2
M
⊙
−
1
.
{\displaystyle G\approx 4.3009\times 10^{-3}\ {\mathrm {pc{\cdot }(km/s)^{2}} \,M_{\odot }}^{-1}.}
For situations where tides are important, the relevant length scales are solar radii rather than parsecs. In these units, the gravitational constant is:
G
≈
1.90809
×
10
5
(
k
m
/
s
)
2
R
⊙
M
⊙
−
1
.
{\displaystyle G\approx 1.90809\times 10^{5}\mathrm {\ (km/s)^{2}} \,R_{\odot }M_{\odot }^{-1}.}
In orbital mechanics, the period P of an object in circular orbit around a spherical object obeys
G
M
=
3
π
V
P
2
,
{\displaystyle GM={\frac {3\pi V}{P^{2}}},}
where V is the volume inside the radius of the orbit. It follows that
P
2
=
3
π
G
V
M
≈
10.896
h
2
⋅
g
⋅
c
m
−
3
V
M
.
{\displaystyle P^{2}={\frac {3\pi }{G}}{\frac {V}{M}}\approx 10.896\,\mathrm {h^{2}{\cdot }g{\cdot }cm^{-3}\,} {\frac {V}{M}}.}
This way of expressing G shows the relationship between the average density of a planet and the period of a satellite orbiting just above its surface.
For elliptical orbits, applying Kepler's 3rd law, expressed in units characteristic of Earth's orbit:
G
=
4
π
2
A
U
3
⋅
y
r
−
2
M
−
1
≈
39.478
A
U
3
⋅
y
r
−
2
M
⊙
−
1
,
{\displaystyle G=4\pi ^{2}\mathrm {\ AU^{3}{\cdot }yr^{-2}} \ M^{-1}\approx 39.478\mathrm {\ AU^{3}{\cdot }yr^{-2}} \ M_{\odot }^{-1},}
where distance is measured in terms of the semi-major axis of Earth's orbit (the astronomical unit, AU), time in years, and mass in the total mass of the orbiting system (M = M☉ + ME + M☾).
The above equation is exact only within the approximation of the Earth's orbit around the Sun as a two-body problem in Newtonian mechanics, the measured quantities contain corrections from the perturbations from other bodies in the solar system and from general relativity.
From 1964 until 2012, however, it was used as the definition of the astronomical unit and thus held by definition:
1
A
U
=
(
G
M
4
π
2
y
r
2
)
1
3
≈
1.495979
×
10
11
m
.
{\displaystyle 1\ \mathrm {AU} =\left({\frac {GM}{4\pi ^{2}}}\mathrm {yr} ^{2}\right)^{\frac {1}{3}}\approx 1.495979\times 10^{11}\ \mathrm {m} .}
Since 2012, the AU is defined as 1.495978707×1011 m exactly, and the equation can no longer be taken as holding precisely.
The quantity GM—the product of the gravitational constant and the mass of a given astronomical body such as the Sun or Earth—is known as the standard gravitational parameter (also denoted μ). The standard gravitational parameter GM appears as above in Newton's law of universal gravitation, as well as in formulas for the deflection of light caused by gravitational lensing, in Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and in the formula for escape velocity.
This quantity gives a convenient simplification of various gravity-related formulas. The product GM is known much more accurately than either factor is.
Values for GM
Body
μ = GM
Value
Relative uncertainty
Sun
GM☉
1.32712440018(8)×1020 m3⋅s−2
6×10−11
Earth
GME
3.986004418(8)×1014 m3⋅s−2
2×10−9
Calculations in celestial mechanics can also be carried out using the units of solar masses, mean solar days and astronomical units rather than standard SI units. For this purpose, the Gaussian gravitational constant was historically in widespread use, k = 0.01720209895 radians per day, expressing the mean angular velocity of the Sun–Earth system. The use of this constant, and the implied definition of the astronomical unit discussed above, has been deprecated by the IAU since 2012.
History of measurement
Further information: Earth mass, Schiehallion experiment, and Cavendish experiment
Early history
The existence of the constant is implied in Newton's law of universal gravitation as published in the 1680s (although its notation as G dates to the 1890s), but is not calculated in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica where it postulates the inverse-square law of gravitation. In the Principia, Newton considered the possibility of measuring gravity's strength by measuring the deflection of a pendulum in the vicinity of a large hill, but thought that the effect would be too small to be measurable. Nevertheless, he had the opportunity to estimate the order of magnitude of the constant when he surmised that "the mean density of the earth might be five or six times as great as the density of water", which is equivalent to a gravitational constant of the order:
G ≈ (6.7±0.6)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2
A measurement was attempted in 1738 by Pierre Bouguer and Charles Marie de La Condamine in their "Peruvian expedition". Bouguer downplayed the significance of their results in 1740, suggesting that the experiment had at least proved that the Earth could not be a hollow shell, as some thinkers of the day, including Edmond Halley, had suggested.
The Schiehallion experiment, proposed in 1772 and completed in 1776, was the first successful measurement of the mean density of the Earth, and thus indirectly of the gravitational constant. The result reported by Charles Hutton (1778) suggested a density of 4.5 g/cm3 (4+1/2 times the density of water), about 20% below the modern value. This immediately led to estimates on the densities and masses of the Sun, Moon and planets, sent by Hutton to Jérôme Lalande for inclusion in his planetary tables. As discussed above, establishing the average density of Earth is equivalent to measuring the gravitational constant, given Earth's mean radius and the mean gravitational acceleration at Earth's surface, by setting
G
=
g
R
⊕
2
M
⊕
=
3
g
4
π
R
⊕
ρ
⊕
.
{\displaystyle G=g{\frac {R_{\oplus }^{2}}{M_{\oplus }}}={\frac {3g}{4\pi R_{\oplus }\rho _{\oplus }}}.}
Based on this, Hutton's 1778 result is equivalent to G ≈ 8×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2.
Diagram of torsion balance used in the Cavendish experiment performed by Henry Cavendish in 1798, to measure G, with the help of a pulley, large balls hung from a frame were rotated into position next to the small balls.
The first direct measurement of gravitational attraction between two bodies in the laboratory was performed in 1798, seventy-one years after Newton's death, by Henry Cavendish. He determined a value for G implicitly, using a torsion balance invented by the geologist Rev. John Michell (1753). He used a horizontal torsion beam with lead balls whose inertia (in relation to the torsion constant) he could tell by timing the beam's oscillation. Their faint attraction to other balls placed alongside the beam was detectable by the deflection it caused. In spite of the experimental design being due to Michell, the experiment is now known as the Cavendish experiment for its first successful execution by Cavendish.
Cavendish's stated aim was the "weighing of Earth", that is, determining the average density of Earth and the Earth's mass. His result, ρ🜨 = 5.448(33) g⋅cm−3, corresponds to value of G = 6.74(4)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2. It is surprisingly accurate, about 1% above the modern value (comparable to the claimed relative standard uncertainty of 0.6%).
19th century
The accuracy of the measured value of G has increased only modestly since the original Cavendish experiment. G is quite difficult to measure because gravity is much weaker than other fundamental forces, and an experimental apparatus cannot be separated from the gravitational influence of other bodies.
Measurements with pendulums were made by Francesco Carlini (1821, 4.39 g/cm3), Edward Sabine (1827, 4.77 g/cm3), Carlo Ignazio Giulio (1841, 4.95 g/cm3) and George Biddell Airy (1854, 6.6 g/cm3).
Cavendish's experiment was first repeated by Ferdinand Reich (1838, 1842, 1853), who found a value of 5.5832(149) g⋅cm−3, which is actually worse than Cavendish's result, differing from the modern value by 1.5%. Cornu and Baille (1873), found 5.56 g⋅cm−3.
Cavendish's experiment proved to result in more reliable measurements than pendulum experiments of the "Schiehallion" (deflection) type or "Peruvian" (period as a function of altitude) type. Pendulum experiments still continued to be performed, by Robert von Sterneck (1883, results between 5.0 and 6.3 g/cm3) and Thomas Corwin Mendenhall (1880, 5.77 g/cm3).
Cavendish's result was first improved upon by John Henry Poynting (1891), who published a value of 5.49(3) g⋅cm−3, differing from the modern value by 0.2%, but compatible with the modern value within the cited relative standard uncertainty of 0.55%. In addition to Poynting, measurements were made by C. V. Boys (1895) and Carl Braun (1897), with compatible results suggesting G = 6.66(1)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2. The modern notation involving the constant G was introduced by Boys in 1894 and becomes standard by the end of the 1890s, with values usually cited in the cgs system. Richarz and Krigar-Menzel (1898) attempted a repetition of the Cavendish experiment using 100,000 kg of lead for the attracting mass. The precision of their result of 6.683(11)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 was, however, of the same order of magnitude as the other results at the time.
Arthur Stanley Mackenzie in The Laws of Gravitation (1899) reviews the work done in the 19th century. Poynting is the author of the article "Gravitation" in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911). Here, he cites a value of G = 6.66×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 with an relative uncertainty of 0.2%.
Modern value
Paul R. Heyl (1930) published the value of 6.670(5)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 (relative uncertainty 0.1%), improved to 6.673(3)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 (relative uncertainty 0.045% = 450 ppm) in 1942.
However, Heyl used the statistical spread as his standard deviation, and he admitted himself that measurements using the same material yielded very similar results while measurements using different materials yielded vastly different results. He spent the next 12 years after his 1930-paper to do more precise measurements, hoping that the composition-dependent effect would go away, but it did not, as he noted in his final paper from the year 1942.
Published values of G derived from high-precision measurements since the 1950s have remained compatible with Heyl (1930), but within the relative uncertainty of about 0.1% (or 1000 ppm) have varied rather broadly, and it is not entirely clear if the uncertainty has been reduced at all since the 1942 measurement. Some measurements published in the 1980s to 2000s were, in fact, mutually exclusive. Establishing a standard value for G with a relative standard uncertainty better than 0.1% has therefore remained rather speculative.
By 1969, the value recommended by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) was cited with a relative standard uncertainty of 0.046% (460 ppm), lowered to 0.012% (120 ppm) by 1986. But the continued publication of conflicting measurements led NIST to considerably increase the standard uncertainty in the 1998 recommended value, by a factor of 12, to a standard uncertainty of 0.15%, larger than the one given by Heyl (1930).
The uncertainty was again lowered in 2002 and 2006, but once again raised, by a more conservative 20%, in 2010, matching the relative standard uncertainty of 120 ppm published in 1986. For the 2014 update, CODATA reduced the uncertainty to 46 ppm, less than half the 2010 value, and one order of magnitude below the 1969 recommendation.
The following table shows the NIST recommended values published since 1969:
Timeline of measurements and recommended values for G since 1900: values recommended based on a literature review are shown in red, individual torsion balance experiments in blue, other types of experiments in green.
Recommended values for G
Year
G (10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2)
Relative standard uncertainty
Ref.
1969
6.6732(31)
460 ppm
1973
6.6720(49)
730 ppm
1986
6.67449(81)
120 ppm
1998
6.673(10)
1500 ppm
2002
6.6742(10)
150 ppm
2006
6.67428(67)
100 ppm
2010
6.67384(80)
120 ppm
2014
6.67408(31)
46 ppm
2018
6.67430(15)
22 ppm
2022
6.67430(15)
22 ppm
In the January 2007 issue of Science, Fixler et al. described a measurement of the gravitational constant by a new technique, atom interferometry, reporting a value of G = 6.693(34)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2, 0.28% (2800 ppm) higher than the 2006 CODATA value. An improved cold atom measurement by Rosi et al. was published in 2014 of G = 6.67191(99)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2. Although much closer to the accepted value (suggesting that the Fixler et al. measurement was erroneous), this result was 325 ppm below the recommended 2014 CODATA value, with non-overlapping standard uncertainty intervals.
As of 2018, efforts to re-evaluate the conflicting results of measurements are underway, coordinated by NIST, notably a repetition of the experiments reported by Quinn et al. (2013).
In August 2018, a Chinese research group announced new measurements based on torsion balances, 6.674184(78)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 and 6.674484(78)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 based on two different methods. These are claimed as the most accurate measurements ever made, with a standard uncertainties cited as low as 12 ppm. The difference of 2.7σ between the two results suggests there could be sources of error unaccounted for.
Constancy
Further information: Time-variation of fundamental constants
Analysis of observations of 580 type Ia supernovae shows that the gravitational constant has varied by less than one part in ten billion per year over the last nine billion years.
See also
Physics portal
Gravity of Earth
Standard gravity
Gaussian gravitational constant
Orbital mechanics
Escape velocity
Gravitational potential
Gravitational wave
Strong gravity
Dirac large numbers hypothesis
Accelerating expansion of the universe
Lunar Laser Ranging experiment
Cosmological constant
References
Footnotes
^ "Newtonian constant of gravitation" is the name introduced for G by Boys (2000). Use of the term by T.E. Stern (1928) was misquoted as "Newton's constant of gravitation" in Pure Science Reviewed for Profound and Unsophisticated Students (1930), in what is apparently the first use of that term. Use of "Newton's constant" (without specifying "gravitation" or "gravity") is more recent, as "Newton's constant" was also used for the heat transfer coefficient in Newton's law of cooling, but has by now become quite common, e.g.
Calmet et al, Quantum Black Holes (2013), p. 93; P. de Aquino, Beyond Standard Model Phenomenology at the LHC (2013), p. 3.
The name "Cavendish gravitational constant", sometimes "Newton–Cavendish gravitational constant", appears to have been common in the 1970s to 1980s, especially in (translations from) Soviet-era Russian literature, e.g. Sagitov (1970 ), Soviet Physics: Uspekhi 30 (1987), Issues 1–6, p. 342 .
"Cavendish constant" and "Cavendish gravitational constant" is also used in Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne, John Archibald Wheeler, "Gravitation", (1973), 1126f.
Colloquial use of "Big G", as opposed to "little g" for gravitational acceleration dates to the 1960s (R.W. Fairbridge, The encyclopedia of atmospheric sciences and astrogeology, 1967, p. 436; note use of "Big G's" vs. "little g's" as early as the 1940s of the Einstein tensor Gμν vs. the metric tensor gμν, Scientific, medical, and technical books published in the United States of America: a selected list of titles in print with annotations: supplement of books published 1945–1948, Committee on American Scientific and Technical Bibliography National Research Council, 1950, p. 26).
^ Cavendish determined the value of G indirectly, by reporting a value for the Earth's mass, or the average density of Earth, as 5.448 g⋅cm−3.
^ Depending on the choice of definition of the Einstein tensor and of the stress–energy tensor it can alternatively be defined as κ = 8πG/c2 ≈ 1.866×10−26 m⋅kg−1
^ For example, the gravitational force between an electron and a proton 1 m apart is approximately 10−67 N, whereas the electromagnetic force between the same two particles is approximately 10−28 N. The electromagnetic force in this example is in the order of 1039 times greater than the force of gravity—roughly the same ratio as the mass of the Sun to a microgram.
^
M ≈ 1.000003040433 M☉, so that M = M☉ can be used for accuracies of five or fewer significant digits.
Citations
^ a b c "2022 CODATA Value: Newtonian constant of gravitation". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. May 2024. Retrieved 18 May 2024.
^ Gundlach, Jens H.; Merkowitz, Stephen M. (23 December 2002). "University of Washington Big G Measurement". Astrophysics Science Division. Goddard Space Flight Center. Since Cavendish first measured Newton's Gravitational constant 200 years ago, 'Big G' remains one of the most elusive constants in physics
^ Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl (September 2007). Fundamentals of Physics (8th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Limited. p. 336. ISBN 978-0-470-04618-0.
^ Grøn, Øyvind; Hervik, Sigbjorn (2007). Einstein's General Theory of Relativity: With Modern Applications in Cosmology (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-387-69200-5.
^ a b Einstein, Albert (1916). "The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity". Annalen der Physik. 354 (7): 769–822. Bibcode:1916AnP...354..769E. doi:10.1002/andp.19163540702. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2012.
^ Adler, Ronald; Bazin, Maurice; Schiffer, Menahem (1975). Introduction to General Relativity (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 345. ISBN 978-0-07-000423-8.
^ a b Gillies, George T. (1997). "The Newtonian gravitational constant: recent measurements and related studies". Reports on Progress in Physics. 60 (2): 151–225. Bibcode:1997RPPh...60..151G. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/60/2/001. S2CID 250810284.. A lengthy, detailed review. See Figure 1 and Table 2 in particular.
^ "Astrodynamic Constants". NASA/JPL. 27 February 2009. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
^ "Geocentric gravitational constant". Numerical Standards for Fundamental Astronomy. IAU Division I Working Group on Numerical Standards for Fundamental Astronomy. Retrieved 24 June 2021 – via iau-a3.gitlab.io. Citing
Ries JC, Eanes RJ, Shum CK, Watkins MM (20 March 1992). "Progress in the determination of the gravitational coefficient of the Earth". Geophysical Research Letters. 19 (6): 529–531. Bibcode:1992GeoRL..19..529R. doi:10.1029/92GL00259. S2CID 123322272.
^ a b c Boys 1894, p.330 In this lecture before the Royal Society, Boys introduces G and argues for its acceptance. See:
Poynting 1894, p. 4, MacKenzie 1900, p.vi
^ Davies, R.D. (1985). "A Commemoration of Maskelyne at Schiehallion". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 26 (3): 289–294. Bibcode:1985QJRAS..26..289D.
^ "Sir Isaac Newton thought it probable, that the mean density of the earth might be five or six times as great as the density of water; and we have now found, by experiment, that it is very little less than what he had thought it to be: so much justness was even in the surmises of this wonderful man!" Hutton (1778), p. 783
^ Poynting, J.H. (1913). The Earth: its shape, size, weight and spin. Cambridge. pp. 50–56.
^ Hutton, C. (1778). "An Account of the Calculations Made from the Survey and Measures Taken at Schehallien". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 68: 689–788. doi:10.1098/rstl.1778.0034.
^ Published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (1798); reprint: Cavendish, Henry (1798). "Experiments to Determine the Density of the Earth". In MacKenzie, A. S., Scientific Memoirs Vol. 9: The Laws of Gravitation. American Book Co. (1900), pp. 59–105.
^ 2014 CODATA value 6.674×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2.
^
Brush, Stephen G.; Holton, Gerald James (2001). Physics, the human adventure: from Copernicus to Einstein and beyond. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 137. ISBN 978-0-8135-2908-0.
Lee, Jennifer Lauren (16 November 2016). "Big G Redux: Solving the Mystery of a Perplexing Result". NIST.
^ Poynting, John Henry (1894). The Mean Density of the Earth. London: Charles Griffin. pp. 22–24.
^ F. Reich, On the Repetition of the Cavendish Experiments for Determining the mean density of the Earth" Philosophical Magazine 12: 283–284.
^ Mackenzie (1899), p. 125.
^ A.S. Mackenzie, The Laws of Gravitation (1899), 127f.
^ Poynting, John Henry (1894). The mean density of the earth. Gerstein - University of Toronto. London.
^ Boys, C. V. (1 January 1895). "On the Newtonian Constant of Gravitation". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 186. The Royal Society: 1–72. Bibcode:1895RSPTA.186....1B. doi:10.1098/rsta.1895.0001. ISSN 1364-503X.
^ Carl Braun, Denkschriften der k. Akad. d. Wiss. (Wien), math. u. naturwiss. Classe, 64 (1897).
Braun (1897) quoted an optimistic relative standard uncertainty of 0.03%, 6.649(2)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 but his result was significantly worse than the 0.2% feasible at the time.
^ Sagitov, M. U., "Current Status of Determinations of the Gravitational Constant and the Mass of the Earth", Soviet Astronomy, Vol. 13 (1970), 712–718, translated from Astronomicheskii Zhurnal Vol. 46, No. 4 (July–August 1969), 907–915 (table of historical experiments p. 715).
^ Mackenzie, A. Stanley, The laws of gravitation; memoirs by Newton, Bouguer and Cavendish, together with abstracts of other important memoirs, American Book Company (1900 ).
^ Heyl, P. R. (1930). "A redetermination of the constant of gravitation". Bureau of Standards Journal of Research. 5 (6): 1243–1290. doi:10.6028/jres.005.074.
^ P. R. Heyl and P. Chrzanowski (1942), cited after Sagitov (1969:715).
^ Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N. (2012). "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2002" (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics. 77 (1): 1–107. arXiv:1203.5425. Bibcode:2005RvMP...77....1M. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.245.4554. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.77.1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2007. Retrieved 1 July 2006. Section Q (pp. 42–47) describes the mutually inconsistent measurement experiments from which the CODATA value for G was derived.
^ Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Newell, David B. (13 November 2012). "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2010" (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics. 84 (4): 1527–1605. arXiv:1203.5425. Bibcode:2012RvMP...84.1527M. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.150.3858. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.84.1527. S2CID 103378639.
^ Taylor, B. N.; Parker, W. H.; Langenberg, D. N. (1 July 1969). "Determination of e/h, Using Macroscopic Quantum Phase Coherence in Superconductors: Implications for Quantum Electrodynamics and the Fundamental Physical Constants". Reviews of Modern Physics. 41 (3). American Physical Society (APS): 375–496. Bibcode:1969RvMP...41..375T. doi:10.1103/revmodphys.41.375. ISSN 0034-6861.
^ Cohen, E. Richard; Taylor, B. N. (1973). "The 1973 Least-Squares Adjustment of the Fundamental Constants". Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data. 2 (4). AIP Publishing: 663–734. Bibcode:1973JPCRD...2..663C. doi:10.1063/1.3253130. hdl:2027/pst.000029951949. ISSN 0047-2689.
^ Cohen, E. Richard; Taylor, Barry N. (1 October 1987). "The 1986 adjustment of the fundamental physical constants". Reviews of Modern Physics. 59 (4). American Physical Society (APS): 1121–1148. Bibcode:1987RvMP...59.1121C. doi:10.1103/revmodphys.59.1121. ISSN 0034-6861.
^ Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N. (2012). "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 1998". Reviews of Modern Physics. 72 (2): 351–495. arXiv:1203.5425. Bibcode:2000RvMP...72..351M. doi:10.1103/revmodphys.72.351. ISSN 0034-6861.
^ Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N. (2012). "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2002". Reviews of Modern Physics. 77 (1): 1–107. arXiv:1203.5425. Bibcode:2005RvMP...77....1M. doi:10.1103/revmodphys.77.1. ISSN 0034-6861.
^ Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Newell, David B. (2012). "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2006". Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data. 37 (3): 1187–1284. arXiv:1203.5425. Bibcode:2008JPCRD..37.1187M. doi:10.1063/1.2844785. ISSN 0047-2689.
^ Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Newell, David B. (2012). "CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2010". Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data. 41 (4): 1527–1605. arXiv:1203.5425. Bibcode:2012JPCRD..41d3109M. doi:10.1063/1.4724320. ISSN 0047-2689.
^ Mohr, Peter J.; Newell, David B.; Taylor, Barry N. (2016). "CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2014". Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data. 45 (4): 1527–1605. arXiv:1203.5425. Bibcode:2016JPCRD..45d3102M. doi:10.1063/1.4954402. ISSN 0047-2689.
^ Eite Tiesinga, Peter J. Mohr, David B. Newell, and Barry N. Taylor (2019), "The 2018 CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants" (Web Version 8.0). Database developed by J. Baker, M. Douma, and S. Kotochigova. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899.
^ Mohr, P.; Tiesinga, E.; Newell, D.; Taylor, B. (8 May 2024), Codata Internationally Recommended 2022 Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants, retrieved 15 May 2024
^ Fixler, J. B.; Foster, G. T.; McGuirk, J. M.; Kasevich, M. A. (5 January 2007). "Atom Interferometer Measurement of the Newtonian Constant of Gravity". Science. 315 (5808): 74–77. Bibcode:2007Sci...315...74F. doi:10.1126/science.1135459. PMID 17204644. S2CID 6271411.
^
Rosi, G.; Sorrentino, F.; Cacciapuoti, L.; Prevedelli, M.; Tino, G. M. (26 June 2014). "Precision measurement of the Newtonian gravitational constant using cold atoms" (PDF). Nature. 510 (7506): 518–521. arXiv:1412.7954. Bibcode:2014Natur.510..518R. doi:10.1038/nature13433. PMID 24965653. S2CID 4469248. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
^
Schlamminger, Stephan (18 June 2014). "Fundamental constants: A cool way to measure big G" (PDF). Nature. 510 (7506): 478–480. Bibcode:2014Natur.510..478S. doi:10.1038/nature13507. PMID 24965646. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
^ C. Rothleitner; S. Schlamminger (2017). "Invited Review Article: Measurements of the Newtonian constant of gravitation, G". Review of Scientific Instruments. 88 (11): 111101. Bibcode:2017RScI...88k1101R. doi:10.1063/1.4994619. PMC 8195032. PMID 29195410. 111101. However, re-evaluating or repeating experiments that have already been performed may provide insights into hidden biases or dark uncertainty. NIST has the unique opportunity to repeat the experiment of Quinn et al. with an almost identical setup. By mid-2018, NIST researchers will publish their results and assign a number as well as an uncertainty to their value. Referencing:
T. Quinn; H. Parks; C. Speake; R. Davis (2013). "Improved determination of G using two methods" (PDF). Phys. Rev. Lett. 111 (10): 101102. Bibcode:2013PhRvL.111j1102Q. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.101102. PMID 25166649. 101102. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 December 2020. Retrieved 4 August 2019.
The 2018 experiment was described by C. Rothleitner. Newton's Gravitational Constant 'Big' G – A proposed Free-fall Measurement (PDF). CODATA Fundamental Constants Meeting, Eltville – 5 February 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
^ Li, Qing; et al. (2018). "Measurements of the gravitational constant using two independent methods". Nature. 560 (7720): 582–588. Bibcode:2018Natur.560..582L. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0431-5. PMID 30158607. S2CID 52121922..
See also: "Physicists just made the most precise measurement ever of Gravity's strength". 31 August 2018. Retrieved 13 October 2018.
^ Mould, J.; Uddin, S. A. (10 April 2014). "Constraining a Possible Variation of G with Type Ia Supernovae". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia. 31: e015. arXiv:1402.1534. Bibcode:2014PASA...31...15M. doi:10.1017/pasa.2014.9. S2CID 119292899.
Sources
Standish., E. Myles (1995). "Report of the IAU WGAS Sub-group on Numerical Standards". In Appenzeller, I. (ed.). Highlights of Astronomy. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Complete report available online: PostScript; PDF. Tables from the report also available: Astrodynamic Constants and Parameters)
Gundlach, Jens H.; Merkowitz, Stephen M. (2000). "Measurement of Newton's Constant Using a Torsion Balance with Angular Acceleration Feedback". Physical Review Letters. 85 (14): 2869–2872. arXiv:gr-qc/0006043. Bibcode:2000PhRvL..85.2869G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.85.2869. PMID 11005956. S2CID 15206636.
External links
Newtonian constant of gravitation G at the National Institute of Standards and Technology References on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
The Controversy over Newton's Gravitational Constant — additional commentary on measurement problems
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gravity of Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NewtonsLawOfUniversalGravitation.svg"},{"link_name":"Newton's law of universal gravitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation"},{"link_name":"empirical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical"},{"link_name":"physical constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_constant"},{"link_name":"gravitational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational"},{"link_name":"Sir Isaac Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"law of universal gravitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation"},{"link_name":"Albert Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},{"link_name":"theory of general relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"gravitational force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_force"},{"link_name":"masses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass"},{"link_name":"inverse square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse-square_law"},{"link_name":"distance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance"},{"link_name":"Einstein field equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_field_equations"},{"link_name":"stress–energy tensor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress%E2%80%93energy_tensor"},{"link_name":"SI units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI_units"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-physconst-G-1"},{"link_name":"C. V. Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._V._Boys"},{"link_name":"Henry Cavendish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cavendish"},{"link_name":"1798 experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavendish_experiment"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Not to be confused with g, the gravity of Earth.The gravitational constant G is a key quantity in Newton's law of universal gravitation.The gravitational constant is an empirical physical constant involved in the calculation of gravitational effects in Sir Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation and in Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. It is also known as the universal gravitational constant, the Newtonian constant of gravitation, or the Cavendish gravitational constant,[a] denoted by the capital letter G.In Newton's law, it is the proportionality constant connecting the gravitational force between two bodies with the product of their masses and the inverse square of their distance. In the Einstein field equations, it quantifies the relation between the geometry of spacetime and the energy–momentum tensor (also referred to as the stress–energy tensor).The measured value of the constant is known with some certainty to four significant digits. In SI units, its value is approximately 6.6743×10−11 N⋅m2/kg2.[1]The modern notation of Newton's law involving G was introduced in the 1890s by C. V. Boys. The first implicit measurement with an accuracy within about 1% is attributed to Henry Cavendish in a 1798 experiment.[b]","title":"Gravitational constant"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Newton's law of universal gravitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation"},{"link_name":"magnitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(mathematics)#Euclidean_norm"},{"link_name":"force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force"},{"link_name":"masses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass"},{"link_name":"inversely proportional to the square of the distance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse-square_law"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Einstein field equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_field_equations"},{"link_name":"general relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ein-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ein-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"According to Newton's law of universal gravitation, the magnitude of the attractive force (F) between two bodies each with a spherically symmetric density distribution is directly proportional to the product of their masses, m1 and m2, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance, r, directed along the line connecting their centres of mass:F\n =\n G\n \n \n \n \n m\n \n 1\n \n \n \n m\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n r\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F=G{\\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}}.}constant of proportionalityGglocal gravitational field of Earth[2][3]M\n \n ⊕\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{\\oplus }}mass of the Earthr\n \n ⊕\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle r_{\\oplus }}radius of the Earthg\n =\n G\n \n \n \n M\n \n ⊕\n \n \n \n r\n \n ⊕\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g=G{\\frac {M_{\\oplus }}{r_{\\oplus }^{2}}}.}The gravitational constant appears in the Einstein field equations of general relativity,[4][5]G\n \n μ\n ν\n \n \n +\n Λ\n \n g\n \n μ\n ν\n \n \n =\n κ\n \n T\n \n μ\n ν\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G_{\\mu \\nu }+\\Lambda g_{\\mu \\nu }=\\kappa T_{\\mu \\nu }\\,,}GμνEinstein tensorGΛcosmological constantgμνmetric tensorTμνstress–energy tensorκEinstein gravitational constantEinstein[5][6][c]κ\n =\n \n \n \n 8\n π\n G\n \n \n c\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n ≈\n 2.076647\n (\n 46\n )\n ×\n \n 10\n \n −\n 43\n \n \n \n \n \n N\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\kappa ={\\frac {8\\pi G}{c^{4}}}\\approx 2.076647(46)\\times 10^{-43}\\mathrm {\\,N^{-1}} .}","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gillies-10"},{"link_name":"fundamental forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_forces"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"SI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Units"},{"link_name":"CODATA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CODATA"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-physconst-G-1"},{"link_name":"uncertainty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement_uncertainty"}],"text":"The gravitational constant is a physical constant that is difficult to measure with high accuracy.[7] This is because the gravitational force is an extremely weak force as compared to other fundamental forces at the laboratory scale.[d]In SI units, the CODATA-recommended value of the gravitational constant is:[1]G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n = 6.67430(15)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2The relative standard uncertainty is 2.2×10−5.","title":"Value and uncertainty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"natural units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_units"},{"link_name":"geometrized unit systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometrized_unit_system"},{"link_name":"Planck units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_units"},{"link_name":"Stoney units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoney_units"}],"sub_title":"Natural units","text":"Due to its use as a defining constant in some systems of natural units, particularly geometrized unit systems such as Planck units and Stoney units, the value of the gravitational constant will generally have a numeric value of 1 or a value close to it when expressed in terms of those units. Due to the significant uncertainty in the measured value of G in terms of other known fundamental constants, a similar level of uncertainty will show up in the value of many quantities when expressed in such a unit system.","title":"Value and uncertainty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Standard gravitational parameter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_gravitational_parameter"},{"link_name":"orbital mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_mechanics"},{"link_name":"celestial mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_mechanics"},{"link_name":"Gaussian gravitational constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_gravitational_constant"},{"link_name":"Earth mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_mass"},{"link_name":"Solar mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_mass"},{"link_name":"astrophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysics"},{"link_name":"parsecs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsec"},{"link_name":"solar units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_mass"},{"link_name":"Kepler's 3rd law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion#Third_law"},{"link_name":"Earth's orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit"},{"link_name":"semi-major axis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-major_axis"},{"link_name":"astronomical unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_unit"},{"link_name":"years","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_year"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"two-body problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-body_problem"},{"link_name":"standard gravitational parameter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_gravitational_parameter"},{"link_name":"gravitational lensing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_lensing"},{"link_name":"Kepler's laws of planetary motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion"},{"link_name":"escape velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape_velocity"},{"link_name":"celestial mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_mechanics"},{"link_name":"solar masses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_mass"},{"link_name":"mean solar days","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_solar_day"},{"link_name":"astronomical units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_unit"},{"link_name":"Gaussian gravitational constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_gravitational_constant"},{"link_name":"radians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radian"},{"link_name":"day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day"},{"link_name":"angular velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_velocity"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"astronomical unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_unit"},{"link_name":"IAU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAU"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Orbital mechanics","text":"Further information: Standard gravitational parameter, orbital mechanics, celestial mechanics, Gaussian gravitational constant, Earth mass, and Solar massIn astrophysics, it is convenient to measure distances in parsecs (pc), velocities in kilometres per second (km/s) and masses in solar units M⊙. In these units, the gravitational constant is:G\n ≈\n 4.3009\n ×\n \n 10\n \n −\n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n p\n c\n \n ⋅\n \n (\n k\n m\n \n /\n \n s\n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ⊙\n \n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G\\approx 4.3009\\times 10^{-3}\\ {\\mathrm {pc{\\cdot }(km/s)^{2}} \\,M_{\\odot }}^{-1}.}solar radiiG\n ≈\n 1.90809\n ×\n \n 10\n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n (\n k\n m\n \n /\n \n s\n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n ⊙\n \n \n \n M\n \n ⊙\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G\\approx 1.90809\\times 10^{5}\\mathrm {\\ (km/s)^{2}} \\,R_{\\odot }M_{\\odot }^{-1}.}orbital mechanicsPG\n M\n =\n \n \n \n 3\n π\n V\n \n \n P\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle GM={\\frac {3\\pi V}{P^{2}}},}VP\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 3\n π\n \n G\n \n \n \n \n V\n M\n \n \n ≈\n 10.896\n \n \n \n h\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n g\n \n ⋅\n \n c\n \n m\n \n −\n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n M\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P^{2}={\\frac {3\\pi }{G}}{\\frac {V}{M}}\\approx 10.896\\,\\mathrm {h^{2}{\\cdot }g{\\cdot }cm^{-3}\\,} {\\frac {V}{M}}.}This way of expressing G shows the relationship between the average density of a planet and the period of a satellite orbiting just above its surface.For elliptical orbits, applying Kepler's 3rd law, expressed in units characteristic of Earth's orbit:G\n =\n 4\n \n π\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n A\n \n U\n \n 3\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n y\n \n r\n \n −\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n ≈\n 39.478\n \n \n A\n \n U\n \n 3\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n y\n \n r\n \n −\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ⊙\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G=4\\pi ^{2}\\mathrm {\\ AU^{3}{\\cdot }yr^{-2}} \\ M^{-1}\\approx 39.478\\mathrm {\\ AU^{3}{\\cdot }yr^{-2}} \\ M_{\\odot }^{-1},}where distance is measured in terms of the semi-major axis of Earth's orbit (the astronomical unit, AU), time in years, and mass in the total mass of the orbiting system (M = M☉ + ME + M☾[e]).The above equation is exact only within the approximation of the Earth's orbit around the Sun as a two-body problem in Newtonian mechanics, the measured quantities contain corrections from the perturbations from other bodies in the solar system and from general relativity.From 1964 until 2012, however, it was used as the definition of the astronomical unit and thus held by definition:1\n \n \n A\n U\n \n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n G\n M\n \n \n 4\n \n π\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n y\n r\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n 1\n 3\n \n \n \n ≈\n 1.495979\n ×\n \n 10\n \n 11\n \n \n \n \n m\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1\\ \\mathrm {AU} =\\left({\\frac {GM}{4\\pi ^{2}}}\\mathrm {yr} ^{2}\\right)^{\\frac {1}{3}}\\approx 1.495979\\times 10^{11}\\ \\mathrm {m} .}1.495978707×1011 mThe quantity GM—the product of the gravitational constant and the mass of a given astronomical body such as the Sun or Earth—is known as the standard gravitational parameter (also denoted μ). The standard gravitational parameter GM appears as above in Newton's law of universal gravitation, as well as in formulas for the deflection of light caused by gravitational lensing, in Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and in the formula for escape velocity.This quantity gives a convenient simplification of various gravity-related formulas. The product GM is known much more accurately than either factor is.Calculations in celestial mechanics can also be carried out using the units of solar masses, mean solar days and astronomical units rather than standard SI units. For this purpose, the Gaussian gravitational constant was historically in widespread use, k = 0.01720209895 radians per day, expressing the mean angular velocity of the Sun–Earth system.[citation needed] The use of this constant, and the implied definition of the astronomical unit discussed above, has been deprecated by the IAU since 2012.[citation needed]","title":"Value and uncertainty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Earth mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_mass"},{"link_name":"Schiehallion experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schiehallion_experiment"},{"link_name":"Cavendish experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavendish_experiment"}],"text":"Further information: Earth mass, Schiehallion experiment, and Cavendish experiment","title":"History of measurement"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Newton's law of universal gravitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BoysG-15"},{"link_name":"calculated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra#Algebra_as_a_branch_of_mathematics"},{"link_name":"Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica"},{"link_name":"inverse-square law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse-square_law"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davies-16"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Pierre Bouguer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Bouguer"},{"link_name":"Charles Marie de La Condamine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Marie_de_La_Condamine"},{"link_name":"Peruvian expedition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Geodesic_Mission"},{"link_name":"hollow shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_Earth"},{"link_name":"Edmond Halley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_Halley"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Poynting_p50-56-18"},{"link_name":"Schiehallion experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schiehallion_experiment"},{"link_name":"Charles Hutton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Hutton"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hutton-19"},{"link_name":"Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun"},{"link_name":"Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"planets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planets"},{"link_name":"Jérôme Lalande","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Lalande"},{"link_name":"Earth's mean radius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius#Mean_radius"},{"link_name":"mean gravitational acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_g"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BoysG-15"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cavendish_Torsion_Balance_Diagram.svg"},{"link_name":"Cavendish experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavendish_experiment"},{"link_name":"Henry Cavendish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cavendish"},{"link_name":"Henry Cavendish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cavendish"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"torsion balance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion_spring#Torsion_balance"},{"link_name":"John Michell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Michell"},{"link_name":"torsion beam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion_beam"},{"link_name":"Cavendish experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavendish_experiment"},{"link_name":"Earth's mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_mass"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"sub_title":"Early history","text":"The existence of the constant is implied in Newton's law of universal gravitation as published in the 1680s (although its notation as G dates to the 1890s),[10] but is not calculated in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica where it postulates the inverse-square law of gravitation. In the Principia, Newton considered the possibility of measuring gravity's strength by measuring the deflection of a pendulum in the vicinity of a large hill, but thought that the effect would be too small to be measurable.[11] Nevertheless, he had the opportunity to estimate the order of magnitude of the constant when he surmised that \"the mean density of the earth might be five or six times as great as the density of water\", which is equivalent to a gravitational constant of the order:[12]G ≈ (6.7±0.6)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2A measurement was attempted in 1738 by Pierre Bouguer and Charles Marie de La Condamine in their \"Peruvian expedition\". Bouguer downplayed the significance of their results in 1740, suggesting that the experiment had at least proved that the Earth could not be a hollow shell, as some thinkers of the day, including Edmond Halley, had suggested.[13]The Schiehallion experiment, proposed in 1772 and completed in 1776, was the first successful measurement of the mean density of the Earth, and thus indirectly of the gravitational constant. The result reported by Charles Hutton (1778) suggested a density of 4.5 g/cm3 (4+1/2 times the density of water), about 20% below the modern value.[14] This immediately led to estimates on the densities and masses of the Sun, Moon and planets, sent by Hutton to Jérôme Lalande for inclusion in his planetary tables. As discussed above, establishing the average density of Earth is equivalent to measuring the gravitational constant, given Earth's mean radius and the mean gravitational acceleration at Earth's surface, by setting[10]G\n =\n g\n \n \n \n R\n \n ⊕\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n M\n \n ⊕\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 3\n g\n \n \n 4\n π\n \n R\n \n ⊕\n \n \n \n ρ\n \n ⊕\n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G=g{\\frac {R_{\\oplus }^{2}}{M_{\\oplus }}}={\\frac {3g}{4\\pi R_{\\oplus }\\rho _{\\oplus }}}.}G ≈ 8×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2Diagram of torsion balance used in the Cavendish experiment performed by Henry Cavendish in 1798, to measure G, with the help of a pulley, large balls hung from a frame were rotated into position next to the small balls.The first direct measurement of gravitational attraction between two bodies in the laboratory was performed in 1798, seventy-one years after Newton's death, by Henry Cavendish.[15] He determined a value for G implicitly, using a torsion balance invented by the geologist Rev. John Michell (1753). He used a horizontal torsion beam with lead balls whose inertia (in relation to the torsion constant) he could tell by timing the beam's oscillation. Their faint attraction to other balls placed alongside the beam was detectable by the deflection it caused. In spite of the experimental design being due to Michell, the experiment is now known as the Cavendish experiment for its first successful execution by Cavendish.Cavendish's stated aim was the \"weighing of Earth\", that is, determining the average density of Earth and the Earth's mass. His result, ρ🜨 = 5.448(33) g⋅cm−3, corresponds to value of G = 6.74(4)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2. It is surprisingly accurate, about 1% above the modern value (comparable to the claimed relative standard uncertainty of 0.6%).[16]","title":"History of measurement"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Francesco Carlini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Carlini"},{"link_name":"Edward Sabine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sabine"},{"link_name":"George Biddell Airy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand Reich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Reich"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Robert von Sterneck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_von_Sterneck"},{"link_name":"Thomas Corwin Mendenhall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Corwin_Mendenhall"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"John Henry Poynting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Henry_Poynting"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"C. V. Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._V._Boys"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Carl Braun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carl_Braun_(astronomer)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BoysG-15"},{"link_name":"cgs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cgs"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sagitov-30"},{"link_name":"Arthur Stanley Mackenzie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Stanley_Mackenzie"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"}],"sub_title":"19th century","text":"The accuracy of the measured value of G has increased only modestly since the original Cavendish experiment.[17] G is quite difficult to measure because gravity is much weaker than other fundamental forces, and an experimental apparatus cannot be separated from the gravitational influence of other bodies.Measurements with pendulums were made by Francesco Carlini (1821, 4.39 g/cm3), Edward Sabine (1827, 4.77 g/cm3), Carlo Ignazio Giulio (1841, 4.95 g/cm3) and George Biddell Airy (1854, 6.6 g/cm3).[18]Cavendish's experiment was first repeated by Ferdinand Reich (1838, 1842, 1853), who found a value of 5.5832(149) g⋅cm−3,[19] which is actually worse than Cavendish's result, differing from the modern value by 1.5%. Cornu and Baille (1873), found 5.56 g⋅cm−3.[20]Cavendish's experiment proved to result in more reliable measurements than pendulum experiments of the \"Schiehallion\" (deflection) type or \"Peruvian\" (period as a function of altitude) type. Pendulum experiments still continued to be performed, by Robert von Sterneck (1883, results between 5.0 and 6.3 g/cm3) and Thomas Corwin Mendenhall (1880, 5.77 g/cm3).[21]Cavendish's result was first improved upon by John Henry Poynting (1891),[22] who published a value of 5.49(3) g⋅cm−3, differing from the modern value by 0.2%, but compatible with the modern value within the cited relative standard uncertainty of 0.55%. In addition to Poynting, measurements were made by C. V. Boys (1895)[23] and Carl Braun (1897),[24] with compatible results suggesting G = 6.66(1)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2. The modern notation involving the constant G was introduced by Boys in 1894[10] and becomes standard by the end of the 1890s, with values usually cited in the cgs system. Richarz and Krigar-Menzel (1898) attempted a repetition of the Cavendish experiment using 100,000 kg of lead for the attracting mass. The precision of their result of 6.683(11)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 was, however, of the same order of magnitude as the other results at the time.[25]Arthur Stanley Mackenzie in The Laws of Gravitation (1899) reviews the work done in the 19th century.[26] Poynting is the author of the article \"Gravitation\" in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911). Here, he cites a value of G = 6.66×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 with an relative uncertainty of 0.2%.","title":"History of measurement"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Paul R. Heyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_R._Heyl"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gillies-10"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-codata2002-34"},{"link_name":"National Institute of Standards and Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gravitational_constant_historical.png"},{"link_name":"Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(journal)"},{"link_name":"atom interferometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom_interferometry"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"standard uncertainty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_uncertainty"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"σ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation"}],"sub_title":"Modern value","text":"Paul R. Heyl (1930) published the value of 6.670(5)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 (relative uncertainty 0.1%),[27] improved to 6.673(3)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 (relative uncertainty 0.045% = 450 ppm) in 1942.[28]However, Heyl used the statistical spread as his standard deviation, and he admitted himself that measurements using the same material yielded very similar results while measurements using different materials yielded vastly different results. He spent the next 12 years after his 1930-paper to do more precise measurements, hoping that the composition-dependent effect would go away, but it did not, as he noted in his final paper from the year 1942.Published values of G derived from high-precision measurements since the 1950s have remained compatible with Heyl (1930), but within the relative uncertainty of about 0.1% (or 1000 ppm) have varied rather broadly, and it is not entirely clear if the uncertainty has been reduced at all since the 1942 measurement. Some measurements published in the 1980s to 2000s were, in fact, mutually exclusive.[7][29] Establishing a standard value for G with a relative standard uncertainty better than 0.1% has therefore remained rather speculative.By 1969, the value recommended by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) was cited with a relative standard uncertainty of 0.046% (460 ppm), lowered to 0.012% (120 ppm) by 1986. But the continued publication of conflicting measurements led NIST to considerably increase the standard uncertainty in the 1998 recommended value, by a factor of 12, to a standard uncertainty of 0.15%, larger than the one given by Heyl (1930).The uncertainty was again lowered in 2002 and 2006, but once again raised, by a more conservative 20%, in 2010, matching the relative standard uncertainty of 120 ppm published in 1986.[30] For the 2014 update, CODATA reduced the uncertainty to 46 ppm, less than half the 2010 value, and one order of magnitude below the 1969 recommendation.The following table shows the NIST recommended values published since 1969:Timeline of measurements and recommended values for G since 1900: values recommended based on a literature review are shown in red, individual torsion balance experiments in blue, other types of experiments in green.In the January 2007 issue of Science, Fixler et al. described a measurement of the gravitational constant by a new technique, atom interferometry, reporting a value of G = 6.693(34)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2, 0.28% (2800 ppm) higher than the 2006 CODATA value.[41] An improved cold atom measurement by Rosi et al. was published in 2014 of G = 6.67191(99)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2.[42][43] Although much closer to the accepted value (suggesting that the Fixler et al. measurement was erroneous), this result was 325 ppm below the recommended 2014 CODATA value, with non-overlapping standard uncertainty intervals.As of 2018, efforts to re-evaluate the conflicting results of measurements are underway, coordinated by NIST, notably a repetition of the experiments reported by Quinn et al. (2013).[44]In August 2018, a Chinese research group announced new measurements based on torsion balances, 6.674184(78)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 and 6.674484(78)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 based on two different methods.[45] These are claimed as the most accurate measurements ever made, with a standard uncertainties cited as low as 12 ppm. The difference of 2.7σ between the two results suggests there could be sources of error unaccounted for.","title":"History of measurement"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Time-variation of fundamental constants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-variation_of_fundamental_constants"},{"link_name":"type Ia supernovae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_Ia_supernovae"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"}],"text":"Further information: Time-variation of fundamental constantsAnalysis of observations of 580 type Ia supernovae shows that the gravitational constant has varied by less than one part in ten billion per year over the last nine billion years.[46]","title":"Constancy"}]
|
[{"image_text":"The gravitational constant G is a key quantity in Newton's law of universal gravitation.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/NewtonsLawOfUniversalGravitation.svg/300px-NewtonsLawOfUniversalGravitation.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Diagram of torsion balance used in the Cavendish experiment performed by Henry Cavendish in 1798, to measure G, with the help of a pulley, large balls hung from a frame were rotated into position next to the small balls.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Cavendish_Torsion_Balance_Diagram.svg/220px-Cavendish_Torsion_Balance_Diagram.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Timeline of measurements and recommended values for G since 1900: values recommended based on a literature review are shown in red, individual torsion balance experiments in blue, other types of experiments in green.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Gravitational_constant_historical.png/350px-Gravitational_constant_historical.png"}]
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[{"reference":"\"2022 CODATA Value: Newtonian constant of gravitation\". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. May 2024. Retrieved 18 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bg","url_text":"\"2022 CODATA Value: Newtonian constant of gravitation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology","url_text":"NIST"}]},{"reference":"Gundlach, Jens H.; Merkowitz, Stephen M. (23 December 2002). \"University of Washington Big G Measurement\". Astrophysics Science Division. Goddard Space Flight Center. Since Cavendish first measured Newton's Gravitational constant 200 years ago, 'Big G' remains one of the most elusive constants in physics","urls":[{"url":"http://asd.gsfc.nasa.gov/Stephen.Merkowitz/G/Big_G.html","url_text":"\"University of Washington Big G Measurement\""}]},{"reference":"Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl (September 2007). Fundamentals of Physics (8th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Limited. p. 336. ISBN 978-0-470-04618-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamentals_of_Physics","url_text":"Fundamentals of Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-04618-0","url_text":"978-0-470-04618-0"}]},{"reference":"Grøn, Øyvind; Hervik, Sigbjorn (2007). Einstein's General Theory of Relativity: With Modern Applications in Cosmology (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-387-69200-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=IyJhCHAryuUC&pg=PA180","url_text":"Einstein's General Theory of Relativity: With Modern Applications in Cosmology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-69200-5","url_text":"978-0-387-69200-5"}]},{"reference":"Einstein, Albert (1916). \"The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity\". Annalen der Physik. 354 (7): 769–822. Bibcode:1916AnP...354..769E. doi:10.1002/andp.19163540702. 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ISBN 978-0-07-000423-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/introductiontoge00adle","url_text":"Introduction to General Relativity"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/introductiontoge00adle/page/n360","url_text":"345"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-000423-8","url_text":"978-0-07-000423-8"}]},{"reference":"Gillies, George T. (1997). \"The Newtonian gravitational constant: recent measurements and related studies\". Reports on Progress in Physics. 60 (2): 151–225. Bibcode:1997RPPh...60..151G. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/60/2/001. 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IAU Division I Working Group on Numerical Standards for Fundamental Astronomy. Retrieved 24 June 2021 – via iau-a3.gitlab.io.","urls":[{"url":"https://iau-a3.gitlab.io/NSFA/NSFA_cbe.html#GME2009","url_text":"\"Geocentric gravitational constant\""}]},{"reference":"Ries JC, Eanes RJ, Shum CK, Watkins MM (20 March 1992). \"Progress in the determination of the gravitational coefficient of the Earth\". Geophysical Research Letters. 19 (6): 529–531. Bibcode:1992GeoRL..19..529R. doi:10.1029/92GL00259. 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R."},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.6028%2Fjres.005.074","url_text":"\"A redetermination of the constant of gravitation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.6028%2Fjres.005.074","url_text":"10.6028/jres.005.074"}]},{"reference":"Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N. (2012). \"CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2002\" (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics. 77 (1): 1–107. arXiv:1203.5425. Bibcode:2005RvMP...77....1M. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.245.4554. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.77.1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2007. Retrieved 1 July 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070306174141/http://www.atomwave.org/rmparticle/ao%20refs/aifm%20refs%20sorted%20by%20topic/other%20rmp%20articles/CODATA2005.pdf","url_text":"\"CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2002\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1203.5425","url_text":"1203.5425"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005RvMP...77....1M","url_text":"2005RvMP...77....1M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.245.4554","url_text":"10.1.1.245.4554"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.77.1","url_text":"10.1103/RevModPhys.77.1"},{"url":"http://www.atomwave.org/rmparticle/ao%20refs/aifm%20refs%20sorted%20by%20topic/other%20rmp%20articles/CODATA2005.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Newell, David B. (13 November 2012). \"CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2010\" (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics. 84 (4): 1527–1605. arXiv:1203.5425. Bibcode:2012RvMP...84.1527M. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.150.3858. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.84.1527. 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Parameters"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0006043","external_links_name":"gr-qc/0006043"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PhRvL..85.2869G","external_links_name":"2000PhRvL..85.2869G"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.85.2869","external_links_name":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.85.2869"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11005956","external_links_name":"11005956"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15206636","external_links_name":"15206636"},{"Link":"http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bg","external_links_name":"Newtonian constant of gravitation G"},{"Link":"http://physics.nist.gov/cuu","external_links_name":"References on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty"},{"Link":"https://www.npl.washington.edu/eotwash/gravitational-constant","external_links_name":"The Controversy over Newton's Gravitational Constant"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4593074-0","external_links_name":"Germany"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._Wallace_McDowell_Award
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W. Wallace McDowell Award
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["1 W. Wallace McDowell Award recipients","2 See also","3 Notes","4 Further reading","5 External links"]
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W. Wallace McDowell AwardAwarded forSignificant achievements in information technologyPresented byIEEE Computer SocietyFirst awarded1966Websitehttps://www.computer.org/volunteering/awards/mcdowell
The W. Wallace McDowell Award is awarded by the IEEE Computer Society for outstanding theoretical, design, educational, practical, or related innovative contributions that fall within the scope of Computer Society interest. This is the highest technical award made solely by the IEEE Computer Society where selection of the awardee is based on the "highest level of technical accomplishment and achievement". The IEEE Computer Society (with over 85000 members from every field of computing) is "dedicated to advancing the theory, practice, and application of computer and information processing technology." Another award considered to be the "most prestigious technical award in computing" is the A. M. Turing Award awarded by Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). This is popularly referred to as the "computer science's equivalent of the Nobel Prize". The W. Wallace McDowell Award is sometimes popularly referred to as the "IT Nobel".
The award is named after W. Wallace McDowell who was director of engineering at IBM, during the development of the landmark product IBM 701. Mr. McDowell was responsible for the transition from electro-mechanical techniques to electronics, and the subsequent transition to solid state devices.
The first recipient, in 1966, was Fernando J. Corbató who was a prominent American computer scientist, notable as a pioneer in the development of time-sharing operating systems, then of Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The second recipient, in 1967, was John Backus who was awarded the Mcdowell Award for the development of FORTRAN and the syntactical forms incorporated in ALGOL. John Backus was the developer of FORTRAN, for years one of the best known and most used programming systems in the world.
W. Wallace McDowell Award recipients
Year
Recipients
Citation
1966
Fernando J. Corbató
For his pioneering work in organizing and spearheading the early development of the first practical large-scale time-sharing computer system, and for his tireless efforts in providing direction for the entire time-sharing concept.
1967
John W. Backus
For his early and continuing contribution to the field of higher-level languages, in particular for his conception and leadership resulting in the completion of the first FORTRAN projects; and for his work in syntactical forms incorporated in ALGOL.
1968
Seymour R. Cray
For his continuing technical contributions to computer development through design automation and system definition, and for outstanding managerial leadership in producing a series of large scale computers.
1969
Herman Lukoff
For his insight and leadership in solving primary problems of early computers and his continuing contributions that have paved the way for tomorrows computing systems.
1970
Frederick P. Brooks, Jr.
For his significant contributions to computer architecture and programming and his leadership in cooperative efforts to further education in the computer field.
1971
Tom Kilburn
For his achievement in designing and building some of the first-- as well as some of the most powerful -- computers in the world.
1972
Jean A. Hoerni
For significantly influencing the architecture and design of data processing systems by inventing the planar process of semi-conductor circuit fabrication -- the development that made possible the economical mass production of reliable integrated circuits and semi-conductor memories.
1973
David A. Huffman
For his contributions to the solution of sequential circuit problems and coding theory, and for his leadership as a teacher.
1974
Shmuel Winograd
For his pioneering work in computational complexity and for stimulating further research on the scientific basis for evaluating the efficiency of computational algorithms.
1975
C. Gordon Bell
For outstanding contributions in the areas of technical design, education, and publications influential in developing the computer field.
1976
Gene M. Amdahl
For his contributions to the architecture and design of computer systems, and for his achievements in promoting advancements in the computer state of the art through business enterprise.
1977
Robert S. Barton
For his innovative architectural computer concepts, such as stack processing, data stored with self-describing tags, and the direct execution of higher level languages, as embodied in the B-5000 and successor machines.
1978
Gordon E. Moore
For outstanding contributions to research and development of semi-conductor components and his insights and leadership in the micro-processor and semi conductor memory fields.
1979
Grace Murray Hopper
For her combination of technical skill, leadership, teaching capability, and single-minded drive for the invention, adoption, and standardization of high-level programming languages.
1980
Donald E. Knuth
For his many contributions to software engineering and education and for the excellence of his scholarship and creativity in organizing vast subject areas of computer science so that they are accessible to all segments of the computing community.
1981
Maurice V. Wilkes
For a lifetime of innovative technical contributions to the computer field in the areas of software engineering, structured programming, distributed computing, data base structures, time-sharing, storage hierarchies, paging, and microprogramming.
1982
Rex Rice
For his outstanding technical and managerial contributions to computer development through the invention of the universally utilized dual-in-line semi-conductor component package, and the design and production of the first large LSI semi-conductor memory systems.
1983
Daniel Slotnick
For his pioneering contributions to centrally controlled parallel computers and for his achievement in creating the parallel computer ILLIAC IV.
1984
Thomas M. McWilliams and Lawrence C. Widdoes, Jr.
For creating the structured computer-aided logic (SCALD) design methodology, which is the basis for many of the successful computer-aided engineering systems used in the industry.
1985
William D. Strecker
For being principal designer of the VAX architecture and for contributions to local area networks, high-performance interconnects, caches, and memory hierarchies.
1987
Sidney Fernbach
For continuously challenging, inspiring, and supporting American designers and industry to produce many successive generations of super computers.
1988
William Poduska
For his continued creative contributions to hardware and software developments and for management expertise in bringing them to products.
1989
Edward B. Eichelberger and Thomas W. Williams
For developing the level-sensitive scan technique of testing solid-state logic circuits and for leading, defining, and promoting design for testability concepts."
1990
Lawrence G. Roberts
For designing packet switching technology and bringing it into practical use by means of the ARPA network.
1994
Federico Faggin
For the development of the Silicon Gate Process, and the first commercial microprocessor.
1995
Ken Kennedy
For important contributions to theory and practice of compiler optimization and leadership in the development of software for parallel computation.
1996
Timothy Berners-Lee
For innovative invention of the World Wide Web, which extends hypertext to distributed information, which has brought about a revolutionary transformation in the use of computers and networks.
1997
Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina
For Developing a Multi-Platform Browsing Tool for the World Wide Web.
1998
Tilak Agerwala
For outstanding contributions to the development of high performance computers.
1999
Yale Patt
For your impact on the high performance microprocessor industry via a combination of important contributions to both engineering and education.
2000
Raymond Ozzie
For his vision, determination, and programming skill in the development of Lotus Notes, a program that enables groups of people to work collaboratively over computer networks.
2001
Pradeep K. Khosla
For significant contributions to the design of re-configurable real-time software systems, and for significant contributions to undergraduate and graduate education in electrical and computer engineering and robotics.
2002
Jaishankar Menon
For leading contributions on the architecture and design of data storage systems and RAID technology.
2003
Sartaj K. Sahni
For contributions to the theory of NP-hard and NP-complete problems.
2004
Simon Lam
For outstanding fundamental contributions in network protocols and security services.
2005
Krishan K. Sabnani
For seminal contributions to networking protocols and to wireless data networks.
2006
Benjamin W. Wah
For fundamental contributions to the theory and applications of nonlinear and resource-constrained optimization.
2007
Anil K. Jain
For pioneering contributions to theory, technique, and practice of pattern recognition, computer vision, and biometric recognition systems.
2008
Krishna Palem
For pioneering contributions to the algorithmic, compilation, and architectural foundations of embedded computing.
2009
Jiawei Han
For significant contributions to knowledge discovery and data mining.
2011
Ian F. Akyildiz
For pioneering contributions to wireless sensor network architectures and communication protocols.
2012
Ronald Fagin
For fundamental and lasting contributions to the theory of databases.
2013
Maurice Herlihy
For fundamental contributions to the theory and practice of multi-processor computation.
2014
Hanan Samet
For fundamental contributions to the development of multidimensional spatial data structures and indexing, translation validation, and proof-carrying code.
2015
Viktor K. Prasanna
For fundamental algorithmic and application specific architectural contributions to reconfigurable computing.
2016
Dexter C. Kozen
For groundbreaking contributions to topics ranging from computational complexity, to the analysis of algebraic computations, to logics of programs and verification.
2017
Srinivas Devadas
For fundamental contributions that have shaped the field of secure hardware, impacting circuits, microprocessors, and systems.
2018
Moti Yung
For innovative contributions to computer and network security, predicting, both, attack scenarios and design needs in this important evolving area.
2019
Rajesh K. Gupta
For seminal contributions in design and implementation of Microelectronic Systems-on-Chip and Cyberphysical Systems.
2020
Sushil Jajodia
For contributions to the scientific and engineering principles that enable effective adaptive cyber defense.
2021
Charu C. Aggarwal
For contributions to knowledge discovery and data mining.
2022
Rafail Ostrovsky
For visionary contributions to computer security theory and practice, including foreseeing new cloud vulnerabilities and then pioneering corresponding novel solutions.
See also
List of computer-related awards
List of computer science awards
Notes
^ a b "Past recipients for W. Wallace McDowell Award". IEEE Computer Society. 6 April 2018.
^ "IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY POLICIES AND PROCEDURES MANUAL" (PDF). IEEE Computer Society.
^ "IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY". IEEE Computer Society.
^ "IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY 2009 Member Resource Guide" (PDF). IEEE Computer Society.
^ "ACM Awards: A.M Turing Award". ACM. Archived from the original on 2010-01-05. Retrieved 2009-12-28.
^ Chang, Kenneth (2009-11-15). "Amir Pnueli, Pioneer of Temporal Logic, Dies at 68". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-12.
^ "FIRST WOMAN TO RECEIVE ACM TURING AWARD". ACM. Archived from the original on 2012-05-26. Retrieved 2007-07-02.
^ "Reddit discussion". 10 October 2014.
^ ""IT Nobel" Awarded to IBM Researcher". IBM Research Blog. 2012-03-28. Retrieved 2020-11-19.
^ "Tribute to W. Wallace McDowell". IEEE Computer Society.
^ "Computer Pioneers - Fernando Jose Corbató". history.computer.org. Retrieved 2024-06-07.
^ "John Backus". IBM.
Further reading
"Tribute to W. Wallace McDowell". computer.org. Retrieved March 20, 2018.
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Frank Rosenblatt Award (computational paradigms)
Charles Proteus Steinmetz Award (standardization)
Marie Sklodowska-Curie Award (nuclear and plasma engineering)
Eric E. Sumner Award (communications technology)
Undergraduate Teaching Award
Nikola Tesla Award (power)
Kiyo Tomiyasu Award (mid-career contributions)
Transportation Technologies Award
David Sarnoff Award (electronics, 1959–2016)
Other IEEE-level awards
Honorary Membership
Corporate Innovation Recognition
Richard M. Emberson Award (service to technical objectives of IEEE)
Haraden Pratt Award (service to IEEE)
Centennial Medal (1984 commemorative)
W.R.G. Baker Award (outstanding paper, 1957–2015)
Donald G. Fink Prize Paper Award (1981–2016)
Ernst Weber Engineering Leadership Recognition (1986–2016)
Society-level awards
Taylor L. Booth Education Award (Computer Society)
Seymour Cray Computer Engineering Award (Computer Society)
Eckert–Mauchly Award (Computer Society and ACM)
Computer Entrepreneur Award (Computer Society)
Computer Pioneer Award (Computer Society)
Sidney Fernbach Award (Computer Society)
Harry H. Goode Memorial Award (Computer Society)
Tsutomu Kanai Award (Computer Society)
Ken Kennedy Award (Computer Society and ACM)
Knuth Prize (Computer Society and ACM SIGACT)
W. Wallace McDowell Award (Computer Society)
Harlan D. Mills Award (Computer Society)
Software Process Achievement Award (Computer Society and SEI)
J. J. Ebers Award (Electron Devices Society)
Claude E. Shannon Award (Information Theory Society)
Erwin Marx Award (Nuclear and Plasma Sciences Society)
John Tyndall Award (Photonics Society and OSA)
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-past-1"},{"link_name":"IEEE Computer Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society"},{"link_name":"innovative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation"},{"link_name":"IEEE Computer Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"IEEE Computer Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"A. M. Turing Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._M._Turing_Award"},{"link_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"IBM 701","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_701"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wallace-10"},{"link_name":"Fernando J. Corbató","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_J._Corbat%C3%B3"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"John Backus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Backus"},{"link_name":"FORTRAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FORTRAN"},{"link_name":"ALGOL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALGOL"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-past-1"},{"link_name":"FORTRAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FORTRAN"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"The W. Wallace McDowell Award[1] is awarded by the IEEE Computer Society for outstanding theoretical, design, educational, practical, or related innovative contributions that fall within the scope of Computer Society interest. This is the highest technical award made solely by the IEEE Computer Society where selection of the awardee is based on the \"highest level of technical accomplishment and achievement\".[2] The IEEE Computer Society[3] (with over 85000 members from every field of computing[4]) is \"dedicated to advancing the theory, practice, and application of computer and information processing technology.\" Another award considered to be the \"most prestigious technical award in computing\"[5] is the A. M. Turing Award awarded by Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). This is popularly referred to as the \"computer science's equivalent of the Nobel Prize\".[6][7] The W. Wallace McDowell Award is sometimes popularly referred to as the \"IT Nobel\".[8][9]The award is named after W. Wallace McDowell who was director of engineering at IBM, during the development of the landmark product IBM 701. Mr. McDowell was responsible for the transition from electro-mechanical techniques to electronics, and the subsequent transition to solid state devices.[10]The first recipient, in 1966, was Fernando J. Corbató who was a prominent American computer scientist, notable as a pioneer in the development of time-sharing operating systems, then of Massachusetts Institute of Technology.[11] The second recipient, in 1967, was John Backus who was awarded the Mcdowell Award for the development of FORTRAN and the syntactical forms incorporated in ALGOL.[1] John Backus was the developer of FORTRAN, for years one of the best known and most used programming systems in the world.[12]","title":"W. Wallace McDowell Award"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"W. Wallace McDowell Award recipients"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-past_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-past_1-1"},{"link_name":"\"Past recipients for W. Wallace McDowell Award\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.computer.org/volunteering/awards/mcdowell"},{"link_name":"IEEE Computer Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY POLICIES AND PROCEDURES MANUAL\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//standards.computer.org/sabminutes/2005Wint/CS%20P&P%20Jan05.pdf"},{"link_name":"IEEE Computer Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.computer.org/portal/web/guest/home"},{"link_name":"IEEE Computer Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY 2009 Member Resource Guide\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.computer.org/cms/Computer.org/About%20Documents/IEEE_MemberResourceGuide_PRINT.pdf"},{"link_name":"IEEE Computer Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"ACM Awards: A.M Turing Award\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20100105185650/http://awards.acm.org/homepage.cfm?awd=140"},{"link_name":"ACM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//awards.acm.org/homepage.cfm?awd=140"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"Amir Pnueli, Pioneer of Temporal Logic, Dies at 68\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nytimes.com/2009/11/15/us/15pnueli.html"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"FIRST WOMAN TO RECEIVE ACM TURING AWARD\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.today/20120526031046/http://campus.acm.org/public/pressroom/press_releases/2_2007/turing2006.cfm"},{"link_name":"ACM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//campus.acm.org/public/pressroom/press_releases/2_2007/turing2006.cfm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"Reddit discussion\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.reddit.com/r/india/comments/2iuljo/til_since_2001_7_indians_have_won_it_nobel_w/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"\"\"IT Nobel\" Awarded to IBM Researcher\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ibm.com/blogs/research/2012/03/it-nobel-awarded-to-ibm-researcher/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-wallace_10-0"},{"link_name":"\"Tribute to W. Wallace McDowell\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.computer.org/portal/web/awards/wallacebiography?p_p_id=15&p_p_lifecycle=1&p_p_state=normal"},{"link_name":"IEEE Computer Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"\"Computer Pioneers - Fernando Jose Corbató\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//history.computer.org/pioneers/corbato.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"\"John Backus\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/builders/builders_backus.html"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"}],"text":"^ a b \"Past recipients for W. Wallace McDowell Award\". IEEE Computer Society. 6 April 2018.\n\n^ \"IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY POLICIES AND PROCEDURES MANUAL\" (PDF). IEEE Computer Society.\n\n^ \"IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY\". IEEE Computer Society.\n\n^ \"IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY 2009 Member Resource Guide\" (PDF). IEEE Computer Society.\n\n^ \"ACM Awards: A.M Turing Award\". ACM. Archived from the original on 2010-01-05. Retrieved 2009-12-28.\n\n^ Chang, Kenneth (2009-11-15). \"Amir Pnueli, Pioneer of Temporal Logic, Dies at 68\". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-12.\n\n^ \"FIRST WOMAN TO RECEIVE ACM TURING AWARD\". ACM. Archived from the original on 2012-05-26. Retrieved 2007-07-02.\n\n^ \"Reddit discussion\". 10 October 2014.\n\n^ \"\"IT Nobel\" Awarded to IBM Researcher\". IBM Research Blog. 2012-03-28. Retrieved 2020-11-19.\n\n^ \"Tribute to W. Wallace McDowell\". IEEE Computer Society.\n\n^ \"Computer Pioneers - Fernando Jose Corbató\". history.computer.org. Retrieved 2024-06-07.\n\n^ \"John Backus\". IBM.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Tribute to W. Wallace McDowell\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.computer.org/volunteering/awards/mcdowell"}],"text":"\"Tribute to W. Wallace McDowell\". computer.org. Retrieved March 20, 2018.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"List of computer-related awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer-related_awards"},{"title":"List of computer science awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_science_awards"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Past recipients for W. Wallace McDowell Award\". IEEE Computer Society. 6 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computer.org/volunteering/awards/mcdowell","url_text":"\"Past recipients for W. Wallace McDowell Award\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society","url_text":"IEEE Computer Society"}]},{"reference":"\"IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY POLICIES AND PROCEDURES MANUAL\" (PDF). IEEE Computer Society.","urls":[{"url":"http://standards.computer.org/sabminutes/2005Wint/CS%20P&P%20Jan05.pdf","url_text":"\"IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY POLICIES AND PROCEDURES MANUAL\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society","url_text":"IEEE Computer Society"}]},{"reference":"\"IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY\". IEEE Computer Society.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.computer.org/portal/web/guest/home","url_text":"\"IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society","url_text":"IEEE Computer Society"}]},{"reference":"\"IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY 2009 Member Resource Guide\" (PDF). IEEE Computer Society.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.computer.org/cms/Computer.org/About%20Documents/IEEE_MemberResourceGuide_PRINT.pdf","url_text":"\"IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY 2009 Member Resource Guide\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society","url_text":"IEEE Computer Society"}]},{"reference":"\"ACM Awards: A.M Turing Award\". ACM. Archived from the original on 2010-01-05. Retrieved 2009-12-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100105185650/http://awards.acm.org/homepage.cfm?awd=140","url_text":"\"ACM Awards: A.M Turing Award\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery","url_text":"ACM"},{"url":"http://awards.acm.org/homepage.cfm?awd=140","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chang, Kenneth (2009-11-15). \"Amir Pnueli, Pioneer of Temporal Logic, Dies at 68\". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/15/us/15pnueli.html","url_text":"\"Amir Pnueli, Pioneer of Temporal Logic, Dies at 68\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"\"FIRST WOMAN TO RECEIVE ACM TURING AWARD\". ACM. Archived from the original on 2012-05-26. Retrieved 2007-07-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20120526031046/http://campus.acm.org/public/pressroom/press_releases/2_2007/turing2006.cfm","url_text":"\"FIRST WOMAN TO RECEIVE ACM TURING AWARD\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery","url_text":"ACM"},{"url":"http://campus.acm.org/public/pressroom/press_releases/2_2007/turing2006.cfm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Reddit discussion\". 10 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reddit.com/r/india/comments/2iuljo/til_since_2001_7_indians_have_won_it_nobel_w/","url_text":"\"Reddit discussion\""}]},{"reference":"\"\"IT Nobel\" Awarded to IBM Researcher\". IBM Research Blog. 2012-03-28. Retrieved 2020-11-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ibm.com/blogs/research/2012/03/it-nobel-awarded-to-ibm-researcher/","url_text":"\"\"IT Nobel\" Awarded to IBM Researcher\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tribute to W. Wallace McDowell\". IEEE Computer Society.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.computer.org/portal/web/awards/wallacebiography?p_p_id=15&p_p_lifecycle=1&p_p_state=normal","url_text":"\"Tribute to W. Wallace McDowell\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society","url_text":"IEEE Computer Society"}]},{"reference":"\"Computer Pioneers - Fernando Jose Corbató\". history.computer.org. Retrieved 2024-06-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://history.computer.org/pioneers/corbato.html","url_text":"\"Computer Pioneers - Fernando Jose Corbató\""}]},{"reference":"\"John Backus\". IBM.","urls":[{"url":"http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/builders/builders_backus.html","url_text":"\"John Backus\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM","url_text":"IBM"}]},{"reference":"\"Tribute to W. Wallace McDowell\". computer.org. Retrieved March 20, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computer.org/volunteering/awards/mcdowell","url_text":"\"Tribute to W. Wallace McDowell\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.computer.org/volunteering/awards/mcdowell","external_links_name":"https://www.computer.org/volunteering/awards/mcdowell"},{"Link":"https://www.computer.org/volunteering/awards/mcdowell","external_links_name":"\"Past recipients for W. Wallace McDowell Award\""},{"Link":"http://standards.computer.org/sabminutes/2005Wint/CS%20P&P%20Jan05.pdf","external_links_name":"\"IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY POLICIES AND PROCEDURES MANUAL\""},{"Link":"http://www.computer.org/portal/web/guest/home","external_links_name":"\"IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY\""},{"Link":"http://www.computer.org/cms/Computer.org/About%20Documents/IEEE_MemberResourceGuide_PRINT.pdf","external_links_name":"\"IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY 2009 Member Resource Guide\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100105185650/http://awards.acm.org/homepage.cfm?awd=140","external_links_name":"\"ACM Awards: A.M Turing Award\""},{"Link":"http://awards.acm.org/homepage.cfm?awd=140","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/15/us/15pnueli.html","external_links_name":"\"Amir Pnueli, Pioneer of Temporal Logic, Dies at 68\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20120526031046/http://campus.acm.org/public/pressroom/press_releases/2_2007/turing2006.cfm","external_links_name":"\"FIRST WOMAN TO RECEIVE ACM TURING AWARD\""},{"Link":"http://campus.acm.org/public/pressroom/press_releases/2_2007/turing2006.cfm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.reddit.com/r/india/comments/2iuljo/til_since_2001_7_indians_have_won_it_nobel_w/","external_links_name":"\"Reddit discussion\""},{"Link":"https://www.ibm.com/blogs/research/2012/03/it-nobel-awarded-to-ibm-researcher/","external_links_name":"\"\"IT Nobel\" Awarded to IBM Researcher\""},{"Link":"http://www.computer.org/portal/web/awards/wallacebiography?p_p_id=15&p_p_lifecycle=1&p_p_state=normal","external_links_name":"\"Tribute to W. Wallace McDowell\""},{"Link":"https://history.computer.org/pioneers/corbato.html","external_links_name":"\"Computer Pioneers - Fernando Jose Corbató\""},{"Link":"http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/builders/builders_backus.html","external_links_name":"\"John Backus\""},{"Link":"https://www.computer.org/volunteering/awards/mcdowell","external_links_name":"\"Tribute to W. Wallace McDowell\""},{"Link":"https://www.computer.org/volunteering/awards/mcdowell","external_links_name":"[1]"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symobi
|
Symobi
|
["1 Design","2 Classification","3 History","4 Support","5 Application areas","6 Advantages and disadvantages","7 References","8 External links"]
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Symobi (System for mobile applications) is a proprietary modern and mobile real-time operating system. It was and is developed by the German company Miray Software, since 2002 partly in cooperation with the research team of Prof. Dr. Uwe Baumgarten at the Technical University of Munich. The graphical operating system is designed for the area of embedded and mobile systems. It is also often used on PCs for end users and in the field of industry.
Design
The basis of Symobi is the message-oriented operating system μnOS, which is on its part based on the real-time microkernel Sphere. μnOS offers communication through message passing between all processes (from basic operating system service processes to application processes) using the integrated process manager. On the lowest level, the responsibility of the Sphere microkernel is to implement and enforce security mechanisms and resource management in real-time. Symobi itself additionally offers a complete graphical operating system environment with system services, a consistent graphical user interface, as well as standard programs and drivers.
Classification
Symobi combines features from different fields of application in one operating system. As a modern operating system it offers separated, isolated processes, light-weight threads, and dynamic libraries, like Windows, Linux, and Unix for example. In the area of mobile embedded operating systems, through its low resource requirement and the support of mobile devices it resembles systems like Windows CE, SymbianOS or Palm OS. With conventional real-time operating systems like QNX or VxWorks it shares the real-time ability and the support of different processor architectures.
History
The development of Sphere, μnOS and Symobi is based on the ideas and work of Konrad Foikis and Michael Haunreiter (founders of the company Miray Software), initiated during their schooldays, even before they started studying computer science. The basic concept was to combine useful and necessary features (like real-time and portability) with modern characteristics (like microkernel and inter-process communication etc.) to form a stable and reliable operating system. Originally, it was only supposed to serve as a basis for the different application programs developed by Foikis and Haunreiter during their studies. In 2000, Konrad Foikis and Michael Haunreiter founded the company Miray Software when they realised that μnOS was suited for far more than their own use. The cooperation with the TU Munich already evolved two years later. In 2006, the first official version of Symobi was completed, and in autumn of the same year it was introduced in professional circles on the Systems exhibition.
Support
Single-Core
Intel: 80386, 80486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium 4, Core Solo, Core 2 Solo
AMD: Élan SC410, Élan SC520, K6, K6-2, K6-III, Duron, Sempron, Athlon, Opteron
VIA: Cyrix Mark II, Cyrix III, C3, C7, Eden
Rise: mP6
Marvell / Intel: PXA-250, PXA-255, PXA-270, IXP-420
Motorola / Freescale: G2, G3, G4
Multi-Core
Intel: Pentium 4, Core Duo, Core 2 Duo
AMD: Athlon X2, Opteron
Application areas
Symobi is suited for hand-held products (portable communicators, internet appliances), as well as for consumer appliances (set-top boxes, home gateways, games, consoles). Furthermore, it is used in the areas of automotive (control and infotainment systems), industrial control systems (motion control, process control), and point of sale
(cashier systems, ticket machines, information terminals).
Advantages and disadvantages
The operating system stands out through its real-time microkernel and its multi-processor ability. Furthermore, it is portable and therefore not bound to specific hardware platforms. Symobi's inter-process communication guarantees security and flexibility. It has a modern architecture and runs with only low resource requirements (processor, system memory). The system offers a Java-VM. In the area of standard appliances the operating system it not yet widely spread. It has only a rudimentary POSIX support and has restricted hardware support through drivers. In addition, Symobi is not an open source operating system and at present does not offer office applications, email functions, or a web browser.
References
Miray Software: Introducing Symobi, a modern embeddable RTOS, 2006
^ "Home". os.in.tum.de.
External links
Symobi
Chair for Operating Systems at the Technical University of Munich
Miray Software
|
[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Symobi"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"microkernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microkernel"},{"link_name":"message passing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message_passing"},{"link_name":"graphical user interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface"},{"link_name":"drivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_driver"}],"text":"The basis of Symobi is the message-oriented operating system μnOS, which is on its part based on the real-time microkernel Sphere. μnOS offers communication through message passing between all processes (from basic operating system service processes to application processes) using the integrated process manager. On the lowest level, the responsibility of the Sphere microkernel is to implement and enforce security mechanisms and resource management in real-time. Symobi itself additionally offers a complete graphical operating system environment with system services, a consistent graphical user interface, as well as standard programs and drivers.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"threads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread_(yarn)"}],"text":"Symobi combines features from different fields of application in one operating system. As a modern operating system it offers separated, isolated processes, light-weight threads, and dynamic libraries, like Windows, Linux, and Unix for example. In the area of mobile embedded operating systems, through its low resource requirement and the support of mobile devices it resembles systems like Windows CE, SymbianOS or Palm OS. With conventional real-time operating systems like QNX or VxWorks it shares the real-time ability and the support of different processor architectures.","title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"inter-process communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-process_communication"}],"text":"The development of Sphere, μnOS and Symobi is based on the ideas and work of Konrad Foikis and Michael Haunreiter (founders of the company Miray Software), initiated during their schooldays, even before they started studying computer science. The basic concept was to combine useful and necessary features (like real-time and portability) with modern characteristics (like microkernel and inter-process communication etc.) to form a stable and reliable operating system. Originally, it was only supposed to serve as a basis for the different application programs developed by Foikis and Haunreiter during their studies. In 2000, Konrad Foikis and Michael Haunreiter founded the company Miray Software when they realised that μnOS was suited for far more than their own use. The cooperation with the TU Munich already evolved two years later. In 2006, the first official version of Symobi was completed, and in autumn of the same year it was introduced in professional circles on the Systems exhibition.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pentium Pro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_Pro"},{"link_name":"Pentium II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_II"},{"link_name":"Pentium III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_III"},{"link_name":"Élan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_%C3%89lan"},{"link_name":"K6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_K6"},{"link_name":"K6-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K6-2"},{"link_name":"K6-III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K6-III"},{"link_name":"Cyrix III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrix_III"},{"link_name":"C3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_C3"},{"link_name":"C7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIA_C7"},{"link_name":"Eden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIA_Eden"},{"link_name":"PXA-250","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XScale"},{"link_name":"Pentium 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_4"},{"link_name":"Core Duo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_Duo"},{"link_name":"Core 2 Duo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_2_Duo"},{"link_name":"Athlon X2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athlon_X2"}],"text":"Single-CoreIntel: 80386, 80486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium 4, Core Solo, Core 2 Solo\nAMD: Élan SC410, Élan SC520, K6, K6-2, K6-III, Duron, Sempron, Athlon, Opteron\nVIA: Cyrix Mark II, Cyrix III, C3, C7, Eden\nRise: mP6\nMarvell / Intel: PXA-250, PXA-255, PXA-270, IXP-420\nMotorola / Freescale: G2, G3, G4Multi-CoreIntel: Pentium 4, Core Duo, Core 2 Duo\nAMD: Athlon X2, Opteron","title":"Support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"consoles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console"},{"link_name":"point of sale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_of_sale"}],"text":"Symobi is suited for hand-held products (portable communicators, internet appliances), as well as for consumer appliances (set-top boxes, home gateways, games, consoles). Furthermore, it is used in the areas of automotive (control and infotainment systems), industrial control systems (motion control, process control), and point of sale\n(cashier systems, ticket machines, information terminals).","title":"Application areas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"multi-processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-processor"},{"link_name":"Java-VM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Machine"},{"link_name":"open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source"}],"text":"The operating system stands out through its real-time microkernel and its multi-processor ability. Furthermore, it is portable and therefore not bound to specific hardware platforms. Symobi's inter-process communication guarantees security and flexibility. It has a modern architecture and runs with only low resource requirements (processor, system memory). The system offers a Java-VM. In the area of standard appliances the operating system it not yet widely spread. It has only a rudimentary POSIX support and has restricted hardware support through drivers. In addition, Symobi is not an open source operating system and at present does not offer office applications, email functions, or a web browser.","title":"Advantages and disadvantages"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Home\". os.in.tum.de.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.os.in.tum.de/","url_text":"\"Home\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.os.in.tum.de/","external_links_name":"\"Home\""},{"Link":"http://www.symobi.com/","external_links_name":"Symobi"},{"Link":"https://www.os.in.tum.de/","external_links_name":"Chair for Operating Systems"},{"Link":"http://www.miray.de/home/index.html","external_links_name":"Miray Software"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Application_Solution_Language
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Compact Application Solution Language
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["1 Overview"]
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Programming language
Not to be confused with Common Algebraic Specification Language.
Compact Application Solution Language (CASL) is a programming language used to create computer programs for Palm OS, and Microsoft Windows desktops, laptops, and Pocket PCs with Windows Mobile. It is published by WAGWARE Systems, Inc., and Brainyware, LLC.
Overview
As a language, CASL is similar to Pascal or Visual Basic with object-oriented programming features. The CASL software development kit (SDK) includes a graphical user interface (GUI) forms editor, an integrated development environment (IDE), and a compiler. CASL programs can either be run as interpreted applications on target devices (using a small helper binary), or compiled directly to native code (CASLpro). One of CASL's key features is that the same source can be compiled to Palm OS, Windows, or Pocket PC with Windows Mobile, without changing the code, termed "write once, run all".
In July 2005, CASLsoft announced they were discontinuing support for CASL and releasing it as freeware, with version 4.2 as the last official release. A month later, WAGWARE Systems, Inc. and Brainyware, LLC announced the purchase of CASL, updated the product and continue to release it as commercial software. CASL Version 4.3 was released on 3 July 2006.
In January 2007, more libraries were released to support the Janam XP20/XP30 series of barcode devices. The CASL libraries are also backward compatible with the Symbol SPT series devices.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Common Algebraic Specification Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Algebraic_Specification_Language"},{"link_name":"programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"link_name":"Palm OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_OS"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"Pocket PCs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocket_PC"},{"link_name":"Windows Mobile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Mobile"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Common Algebraic Specification Language.Compact Application Solution Language (CASL) is a programming language used to create computer programs for Palm OS, and Microsoft Windows desktops, laptops, and Pocket PCs with Windows Mobile. It is published by WAGWARE Systems, Inc., and Brainyware, LLC.","title":"Compact Application Solution Language"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Visual Basic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Basic"},{"link_name":"object-oriented programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming"},{"link_name":"software development kit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development_kit"},{"link_name":"graphical user interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface"},{"link_name":"integrated development environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_development_environment"},{"link_name":"compiler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler"},{"link_name":"binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_file"},{"link_name":"freeware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeware"}],"text":"As a language, CASL is similar to Pascal or Visual Basic with object-oriented programming features. The CASL software development kit (SDK) includes a graphical user interface (GUI) forms editor, an integrated development environment (IDE), and a compiler. CASL programs can either be run as interpreted applications on target devices (using a small helper binary), or compiled directly to native code (CASLpro). One of CASL's key features is that the same source can be compiled to Palm OS, Windows, or Pocket PC with Windows Mobile, without changing the code, termed \"write once, run all\".In July 2005, CASLsoft announced they were discontinuing support for CASL and releasing it as freeware, with version 4.2 as the last official release. A month later, WAGWARE Systems, Inc. and Brainyware, LLC announced the purchase of CASL, updated the product and continue to release it as commercial software. CASL Version 4.3 was released on 3 July 2006.In January 2007, more libraries were released to support the Janam XP20/XP30 series of barcode devices. The CASL libraries are also backward compatible with the Symbol SPT series devices.","title":"Overview"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Materiel_Command
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Air Materiel Command
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["1 History","1.1 Airplane Engineering Department","1.2 Materiel Division","1.3 Air Service Command","1.4 Air Technical Services Command","1.5 Air Materiel Command","2 Lineage","3 See also","4 References","5 Further reading"]
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1944-1992 United States Air Force major command
Not to be confused with Air Force Materiel Command.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Air Materiel Command" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Air Materiel CommandEmblem of Air Force Logistics CommandActive1946–1961CountryUnited StatesBranchUnited States Army Air Forces (1944–1946)United States Air Force (1946–1961)TypeMajor CommandRoleLogistics, Depot-Level aircraft maintenance, research and developmentGarrison/HQWright-Patterson Air Force Base, OhioMilitary unit
Air Materiel Command (AMC) was a United States Army Air Forces and United States Air Force command. Its headquarters was located at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. In 1961, the command was redesignated the Air Force Logistics Command with some of its functions transferred to the new Air Force Systems Command.
History
The logistics function can be traced before the earliest days of the Air Service, when the Equipment Division of the U.S. Army Signal Corps established a headquarters for its new Airplane Engineering Department at McCook Field, Dayton, Ohio.
Airplane Engineering Department
The Airplane Engineering Department was established by the Equipment Division of the U.S. Army Signal Corps in 1917 for World War I experimental engineering. The department had a 1917 Foreign Data Section, and the Airplane Engineering Department was on McCook Field at Dayton, Ohio. McCook Field established the Air School of Application in 1919 and after WW I, the department was renamed the Airplane Engineering Division on 31 August 1918, under Lt Col Jesse G. Vincent (Packard co-engineer of the 1917 V-12 Liberty engine) to study and design American versions of foreign aircraft. The division merged in 1926 with the Air Service's Supply Division (formed by 1919) to form the Materiel Division (Air Corps). In 1920, the Engineering Division's Bureau of Aircraft Production completed the design of the Ground Attack, Experimental, (GAX) aircraft built as the Boeing GA-1, and designed the VCP-1 that won the initial Pulitzer Race in 1920 at Roosevelt Field (the division also designed the TP-1 and TW-1).
Materiel Division
The Materiel Division was set up near Dayton, Ohio on 15 January 1926. The Materiel Division, controlled by the Office of the Chief of Air Corps (OCAC), possessed many characteristics of a major command. It brought together four major functions performed previously by three organizations: research and development (R&D), procurement, supply, and maintenance.
With the construction of nearby Wilbur Wright Field, McCook Field was closed on 1 April 1927, and was subsequently demolished after its assets moved to the new Wright Field, the latter serving as the Air Corps', and later the Army Air Forces', principal R&D center from 1927 to 1947, including the Physiological Research Laboratory which opened in 1935. By 22 August 1935, the division operated an Army Aeronautical Museum at Wright Field, and by 22 November 1935, had an "Industrial War Plans Section". F.B. Vose became the Materiel Division commander on 19 October 1940, with the division employing procurement inspectors at Wright Field the same year. The division had four Field Service Sections: San Antonio, Fairfield, Middletown, and Sacramento.
Then-Brigadier General Benjamin Foulois had a year as Chief of the Materiel Division at Wright Field from June 1929 to July 1930.
The Air Corps Maintenance Command was established under the Materiel Division on June 25, 1941 - less than a week after the creation of the USAAF itself on June 20, 1941 - to control supply and maintenance and retained the "Air Corps" designation that remained in effect for the USAAF's training and logistics units.
On 11 December 1941, with United States newly engaged in World War II, these four functions were divided between two organizations.
Air Service Command
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Air Materiel Command" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Maintenance Command was redesignated Air Service Command and kept responsibility for supply and maintenance functions.
The chief of the Air Service Command, Brig. Gen. Henry J. F. Miller, was charged with supervision in the United States of all AAF activities pertaining to storage and issue of supplies procured by the Air Corps and with overhaul, repair, maintenance, and salvage of all Air Corps equipment and supplies beyond the limits of the first two echelons of maintenance. The command was directed to compile AAF requirements for Air Corps and other supplies, to procure equipment and supplies needed for the operation and maintenance of AAF units, to prepare and issue all technical orders and instructions regarding Air Corps materiel, and to exercise technical control* over air depots outside of the continental limits of the United States. In addition, ASC received responsibility for coordination with the Army technical services in the supply and maintenance of equipment and supplies procured by them for the use of the AAF. The new command was separated from the Materiel Division but remained a part of the Office of the Chief of Air Corps.
Between October 1941 and March 1942 the Air Service Command remained under the jurisdiction of the Chief of the Air Corps. Immediately after the beginning of the war it moved its headquarters to Washington, where it began operations on 15 December 1941. But a large portion of the headquarters organization remained at Wright Field, where it carried on the greater part of the command's activities.
On 15 December 1942, its headquarters moved back to Dayton, establishing itself at Patterson Field, immediately adjacent to Wright Field.
On 9 March 1942, the Air Service Command now became one of the major AAF commands, with relatively clear lines of responsibility
and authority. Four air service area commands (San Antonio, Fairfield, Middletown, and Sacramento?), successors to the maintenance wings (and field service sections, originally activated in 1940?), had been activated in December 1941 to supervise the depots in given geographical areas. The depots, of which there were eleven by April 1942, became the centers of depot control areas, which directed the activities of subdepots within defined geographical limits. Unfortunately, the boundaries of some of the depot control areas overlapped those of air service areas, and since the depots were the real focal points of supply and maintenance activities, the air service areas never attained the status of fully functioning ASC subcommands. The air service areas were disbanded on 1 February 1943, to be succeeded by air depot control area commands, which were simply the eleven former depot control areas under a new name. The elimination of the four air service areas was apparently justified by subsequent operations; according to Maj. Gen. Walter H. Frank, commander of the ASC, the step proved "most beneficial."
In May 1943 the air depot control area commands were redesignated air service commands with appropriate geographical designations, and from then to the end of the war the ASC conducted its operations in the continental United States through its eleven air service commands, each serving a separate geographical area. These air service commands included the Middletown Air Service Command (Olmsted Field, Middletown, Pennsylvania), Mobile ASC, Ogden Air Service Command, Oklahoma City Air Service Command, Rome Air Service Command, Sacramento Air Service Command, the San Antonio Air Service Command, the San Bernardino Air Service Command, Warner Robins Air Service Command, Warner Robins, as well as five-six others. In 1944 the air service commands were redesignated air technical service commands.
The Materiel Division was assumed responsibility for R&D and procurement, and was redesignated Air Corps Materiel Command on 1 April 1942. This became Air Force Materiel Command in April 1942; Materiel Command in April 1943, and AAF Materiel Command on 15 January 1944. On 17 July 1944, Air Service Command and AAF Materiel Command were placed under a new organization, AAF Materiel and Services. On 31 August 1944, AAF Materiel and Services was redesignated Army Air Forces Technical Service Command.
The 4000th Army Air Forces Base Unit (Command) was among units assigned directly to AAF Technical Service Command when it was established at Wright-Patterson Field on 1 April 1944. Chico Army Air Field transferred to the ATSC on 15 October 1944.
Air Technical Services Command
Emblem of Air Technical Service Command
Army Air Forces Technical Service Command was redesignated Air Technical Service Command (ATSC) on 1 July 1945.
By 1945, 14 bases in the United States were home to Air Technical Service Commands: Newark, New Jersey; Fairfield, California; Miami, Florida; Middletown, Pennsylvania; Mobile, Alabama; Ogden, Utah; Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; Oakland, California; Rome, New York; Sacramento, California; San Antonio, Texas; San Bernardino, California; the Spokane Air Technical Service Command at Spokane Army Air Field, Washington State; and Warner Robins, Georgia. In 1945, planning began for a separate, independent United States Air Force. In January 1946, General of the Army Eisenhower and Army Air Forces General Spaatz agreed on an Air Force organization of seven major commands, including the Air Technical Service Command. ATSC centers were also renamed. For example, San Antonio Air Technical Services Command at Kelly Air Force Base in Texas became the San Antonio Air Materiel Area in 1946.
Air Materiel Command
In 1946 AAF Technical Service Command was redesignated Air Materiel Command, and the air technical service commands were reorganized as Air Materiel Areas:
Marianas Air Materiel Area (Harmon Field, Guam)(active as Provisional formation by 17 August 1948; active 1 February 1949) Under the command of the 19th Bombardment Wing from August 1948 to October 1949.
Middletown Air Materiel Area (Middletown, Pennsylvania)
Mobile Air Materiel Area (Brookley Air Force Base, Mobile, Alabama)
Ogden Air Materiel Area (Hill Field, Utah)
Oklahoma City Air Materiel Area (Tinker Field, Oklahoma)
Philippine Air Materiel Area (Nichols Field)
Rome Air Materiel Area (Rome, New York) (1 February 1943 – 25 June 1947)
Sacramento Air Materiel Area (Sacramento, California)
San Antonio Air Materiel Area (San Antonio, Texas)
San Bernardino Air Materiel Area (1949–66), at Norton Field, California
Warner Robins Air Materiel Area (1951–61) at Robins AFB and redesignated Warner Robins Air Logistics Center
Two further Air Materiel Areas were established in the late 1940s and early 1950s:
Japan Air Materiel Area (JAMA, 1947–1949), at Tachikawa Air Base, replaced by the Far East Air Materiel Command (FEAMCOM).
Central Air Materiel Area, Europe (CAMAE, 1956–67), at Chateauroux Air Depot in France
The functions of research and development and logistics were operated separately during World War II until they were reunited for several years in the late 1940s under Air Materiel Command. Among its forces was the Air Materiel Force, European Area, which was transferred from USAFE in on 1 January 1956. Air Materiel Force, European Area, at Chateauroux Air Depot, France, and Air Materiel Force, Pacific Area, at Tachikawa Air Base, Japan, were of Numbered Air Force status. Often these formations supervised Air Depot Wings, for example the 75th Air Depot Wing which was based at Chinhae Air Base in South Korea during the Korean War.
In 1950, research and development were split off into a separate formation, the Air Research and Development Command.
From the early 1950s to 1962, the 3079th Aviation Depot Wing under AMC, headquartered at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, was a weapons of mass destruction unit of key strategic importance. It was active until 1962.
In 1961, Air Materiel Command became the Air Force Logistics Command, while the Air Research and Development Command gained responsibility for weapon system acquisition and was renamed the Air Force Systems Command.
Lineage
Established as Army Air Forces Materiel and Services on 14 July 1944
Organized as a major command on 17 July 1944
Redesignated: Army Air Forces Technical Service Command on 31 August 1944
Redesignated: Air Technical Service Command on 1 July 1945
Redesignated: Air Materiel Command on 9 March 1946
Redesignated: Air Force Logistics Command on 1 April 1961
Inactivated on 1 July 1992
See also
Cheli Air Force Station
References
^ a b "Records of the Army Air Forces " (weblist). NARA. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
^ "Augustine Warner Robins, Brigadier General, United States Army Air Corps". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
^ Administrator. "all-aero". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
^ Aeronautical Research in Ohio cug.org
^ National Air and Space Intelligence Center History (PDF) (Report). Archived from the original (AFD-120627-049) on 25 October 2012. Alt URL
^ "U.S. Gao - A-67411, November 22, 1935, 15 Comp. Gen. 436". Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 27 October 2015.
^ Zimmerman, David (1996). Top Secret Mission: The Tizard Mission and the Scientific War. ISBN 9780773514010. Retrieved 19 August 2013. (Zimmerman cites "NARS, RG 165, box 383)"
^ "Sarasota Herald-Tribune - Google News Archive Search". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
^ "The Army Air Forces in World War II Volume VI: Men and Planes: Chapter 11". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
^ Ravenstein, 'The organization and lineage of the United States Air Force,' via DIANE Publishing, 7-8.
^ Craven and Cate, The Army Air Forces in World War II: Men and Planes, 367.
^ "Draft letter, Brig. Gen. Carl Spaatz, 'Organization of the Air Service Command By Command of Maj. Gen. Arnold'". Air Force Historical Research Agency. 17 October 1941. pp. 24–27. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
^ "Griffiss Air Force Base, New York". www.techbastard.com.
^ Charles A. Ravenstein (1986). The organization and lineage of the United States Air Force. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-4289-9344-0.
^ "Historic California Posts, Camps, Stations and Airfields". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
^ Leonard, Barry (2009). History of Strategic Air and Ballistic Missile Defense (PDF). Vol. II, 1955–1972. Fort McNair: Center for Military History. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-4379-2131-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 December 2019. Retrieved 27 October 2015.
^ San Antonio Air Logistics Center Office of History, Kelly AFB, Texas. A Brief History of Kelly Air Force Base. San Antonio, June 1993.
^ Ravenstein, Air Force combat wings : lineage and honors histories 1947-1977, 196. Had 374 TCW under command in 1948.
^ Ravenstein, Charles A. (1996), The Organization and Lineage of the United States Air Force. United States Air Force Historical Research Center ISBN 0-912799-17-X
^ Pike, John. "3079th Aviation Depot Wing". www.globalsecurity.org.
^ "Air Force Logistics Command Fact Sheet". Air Force Historical Research Agency. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency
Further reading
Elliot V. Converse III, Rearming for the Cold War 1945–1960, Government Printing Office
AMC's History Office published Materiel Research and Development in the Army Air Arm, 1914-1945 (November 1946)
Authority control databases: National
Israel
United States
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In 1961, the command was redesignated the Air Force Logistics Command with some of its functions transferred to the new Air Force Systems Command.","title":"Air Materiel Command"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Air Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Service"},{"link_name":"U.S. Army Signal Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Army_Signal_Corps"},{"link_name":"McCook Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCook_Field"},{"link_name":"Dayton, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton,_Ohio"}],"text":"The logistics function can be traced before the earliest days of the Air Service, when the Equipment Division of the U.S. Army Signal Corps established a headquarters for its new Airplane Engineering Department at McCook Field, Dayton, Ohio.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"U.S. Army Signal Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Army_Signal_Corps"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Foreign Data Section","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Air_and_Space_Intelligence_Center#History"},{"link_name":"McCook Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCook_Field"},{"link_name":"Air School of Application","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFIT"},{"link_name":"Engineering Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_Division"},{"link_name":"Jesse G. 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The department had a 1917 Foreign Data Section, and the Airplane Engineering Department was on McCook Field at Dayton, Ohio. McCook Field established the Air School of Application in 1919 and after WW I, the department was renamed the Airplane Engineering Division on 31 August 1918, under Lt Col Jesse G. Vincent (Packard co-engineer of the 1917 V-12 Liberty engine) to study and design American versions of foreign aircraft. The division merged in 1926 with the Air Service's Supply Division[1] (formed by 1919)[2] to form the Materiel Division (Air Corps).[1] In 1920, the Engineering Division's Bureau of Aircraft Production completed the design of the Ground Attack, Experimental, (GAX) aircraft built as the Boeing GA-1, and designed the VCP-1 that won the initial Pulitzer Race in 1920 at Roosevelt Field (the division also designed the TP-1 and TW-1).[3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Office of the Chief of Air Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_Chief_of_Air_Corps"},{"link_name":"Wilbur Wright Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilbur_Wright_Field"},{"link_name":"McCook Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCook_Field"},{"link_name":"Wright Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Field"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AFD-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Wright Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Field"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Foulois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Foulois"},{"link_name":"Wright Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Field"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"the creation of the USAAF itself on June 20, 1941","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1941_in_aviation#June"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Materiel Division","text":"The Materiel Division was set up near Dayton, Ohio on 15 January 1926. The Materiel Division, controlled by the Office of the Chief of Air Corps (OCAC), possessed many characteristics of a major command. It brought together four major functions performed previously by three organizations: research and development (R&D), procurement, supply, and maintenance.With the construction of nearby Wilbur Wright Field, McCook Field was closed on 1 April 1927, and was subsequently demolished after its assets moved to the new Wright Field, the latter serving as the Air Corps', and later the Army Air Forces', principal R&D center from 1927 to 1947, including the Physiological Research Laboratory which opened in 1935.[4] By 22 August 1935, the division[citation needed] operated an Army Aeronautical Museum at Wright Field,[5] and by 22 November 1935, had an \"Industrial War Plans Section\".[6] F.B. Vose became the Materiel Division commander on 19 October 1940,[7] with the division employing procurement inspectors at Wright Field the same year.[8] The division had four Field Service Sections: San Antonio, Fairfield, Middletown, and Sacramento.[9]Then-Brigadier General Benjamin Foulois had a year as Chief of the Materiel Division at Wright Field from June 1929 to July 1930.[citation needed]The Air Corps Maintenance Command was established under the Materiel Division on June 25, 1941 - less than a week after the creation of the USAAF itself on June 20, 1941 - to control supply and maintenance and retained the \"Air Corps\" designation that remained in effect for the USAAF's training and logistics units. \nOn 11 December 1941, with United States newly engaged in World War II, these four functions were divided between two organizations.[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Henry J. F. Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_J._F._Miller"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-draft19411017ltr-12"},{"link_name":"Walter H. Frank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Walter_H._Frank&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Middletown Air Service Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middletown_Air_Service_Command&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Olmsted Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmsted_Field"},{"link_name":"Middletown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middletown,_Dauphin_County,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Ogden Air Service Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ogden_Air_Service_Command&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Oklahoma City Air Service Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oklahoma_City_Air_Service_Command&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Rome Air Service Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rome_Air_Service_Command&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Sacramento Air Service Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McClellan_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"San Antonio Air Service Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Antonio_Air_Technical_Service_Command"},{"link_name":"San Bernardino Air Service Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=San_Bernardino_Air_Service_Command&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Warner Robins Air Service Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warner_Robins_Air_Service_Command"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"4000th Army Air Forces Base Unit (Command)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/88th_Air_Base_Wing"},{"link_name":"Wright-Patterson Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright-Patterson_Field"},{"link_name":"Chico Army Air Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chico_Army_Air_Field"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Air Service Command","text":"Maintenance Command was redesignated Air Service Command and kept responsibility for supply and maintenance functions.[10]The chief of the Air Service Command, Brig. Gen. Henry J. F. Miller, was charged with supervision in the United States of all AAF activities pertaining to storage and issue of supplies procured by the Air Corps and with overhaul, repair, maintenance, and salvage of all Air Corps equipment and supplies beyond the limits of the first two echelons of maintenance.[11] The command was directed to compile AAF requirements for Air Corps and other supplies, to procure equipment and supplies needed for the operation and maintenance of AAF units, to prepare and issue all technical orders and instructions regarding Air Corps materiel, and to exercise technical control* over air depots outside of the continental limits of the United States. In addition, ASC received responsibility for coordination with the Army technical services in the supply and maintenance of equipment and supplies procured by them for the use of the AAF. The new command was separated from the Materiel Division but remained a part of the Office of the Chief of Air Corps.Between October 1941 and March 1942 the Air Service Command remained under the jurisdiction of the Chief of the Air Corps.[12] Immediately after the beginning of the war it moved its headquarters to Washington, where it began operations on 15 December 1941. But a large portion of the headquarters organization remained at Wright Field, where it carried on the greater part of the command's activities.\nOn 15 December 1942, its headquarters moved back to Dayton, establishing itself at Patterson Field, immediately adjacent to Wright Field.On 9 March 1942, the Air Service Command now became one of the major AAF commands, with relatively clear lines of responsibility\nand authority. Four air service area commands (San Antonio, Fairfield, Middletown, and Sacramento?), successors to the maintenance wings (and field service sections, originally activated in 1940?), had been activated in December 1941 to supervise the depots in given geographical areas. The depots, of which there were eleven by April 1942, became the centers of depot control areas, which directed the activities of subdepots within defined geographical limits. Unfortunately, the boundaries of some of the depot control areas overlapped those of air service areas, and since the depots were the real focal points of supply and maintenance activities, the air service areas never attained the status of fully functioning ASC subcommands. The air service areas were disbanded on 1 February 1943, to be succeeded by air depot control area commands, which were simply the eleven former depot control areas under a new name. The elimination of the four air service areas was apparently justified by subsequent operations; according to Maj. Gen. Walter H. Frank, commander of the ASC, the step proved \"most beneficial.\"In May 1943 the air depot control area commands were redesignated air service commands with appropriate geographical designations, and from then to the end of the war the ASC conducted its operations in the continental United States through its eleven air service commands, each serving a separate geographical area. These air service commands included the Middletown Air Service Command (Olmsted Field, Middletown, Pennsylvania), Mobile ASC, Ogden Air Service Command, Oklahoma City Air Service Command, Rome Air Service Command,[13] Sacramento Air Service Command, the San Antonio Air Service Command, the San Bernardino Air Service Command, Warner Robins Air Service Command, Warner Robins, as well as five-six others. In 1944 the air service commands were redesignated air technical service commands.The Materiel Division was assumed responsibility for R&D and procurement, and was redesignated Air Corps Materiel Command on 1 April 1942. This became Air Force Materiel Command in April 1942; Materiel Command in April 1943, and AAF Materiel Command on 15 January 1944. On 17 July 1944, Air Service Command and AAF Materiel Command were placed under a new organization, AAF Materiel and Services. On 31 August 1944, AAF Materiel and Services was redesignated Army Air Forces Technical Service Command.[14]The 4000th Army Air Forces Base Unit (Command) was among units assigned directly to AAF Technical Service Command when it was established at Wright-Patterson Field on 1 April 1944. Chico Army Air Field transferred to the ATSC on 15 October 1944.[15]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Air_Technical_Service_Command_-_Emblem.png"},{"link_name":"Spokane Air Technical Service Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spokane_Air_Technical_Service_Command&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Spokane Army Air Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spokane_Army_Air_Field"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"General of the Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_of_the_Army"},{"link_name":"Eisenhower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower"},{"link_name":"General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General"},{"link_name":"Spaatz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Andrew_Spaatz"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leonard-16"},{"link_name":"Kelly Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"San Antonio Air Materiel Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Antonio_Air_Materiel_Area"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"Air Technical Services Command","text":"Emblem of Air Technical Service CommandArmy Air Forces Technical Service Command was redesignated Air Technical Service Command (ATSC) on 1 July 1945.By 1945, 14 bases in the United States were home to Air Technical Service Commands: Newark, New Jersey; Fairfield, California; Miami, Florida; Middletown, Pennsylvania; Mobile, Alabama; Ogden, Utah; Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; Oakland, California; Rome, New York; Sacramento, California; San Antonio, Texas; San Bernardino, California; the Spokane Air Technical Service Command at Spokane Army Air Field, Washington State; and Warner Robins, Georgia.[citation needed] In 1945, planning began for a separate, independent United States Air Force. In January 1946, General of the Army Eisenhower and Army Air Forces General Spaatz agreed on an Air Force organization of seven major commands, including the Air Technical Service Command.[16] ATSC centers were also renamed. For example, San Antonio Air Technical Services Command at Kelly Air Force Base in Texas became the San Antonio Air Materiel Area in 1946.[17]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Marianas Air Materiel Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marianas_Air_Materiel_Area&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Harmon Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmon_Field"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"19th Bombardment Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_Bombardment_Wing"},{"link_name":"Middletown Air Materiel Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middletown_Air_Materiel_Area&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mobile Air Materiel Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mobile_Air_Materiel_Area&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Brookley Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookley_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Ogden Air Materiel Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogden_Air_Materiel_Area"},{"link_name":"Hill Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_Field"},{"link_name":"Oklahoma City Air Materiel Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma_City_Air_Materiel_Area"},{"link_name":"Tinker Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinker_Field"},{"link_name":"Philippine Air Materiel Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philippine_Air_Materiel_Area&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Nichols Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nichols_Field"},{"link_name":"Rome Air Materiel Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_Air_Materiel_Area"},{"link_name":"Sacramento Air Materiel Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramento_Air_Materiel_Area"},{"link_name":"San Antonio Air Materiel Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Antonio_Air_Materiel_Area"},{"link_name":"San Bernardino Air Materiel Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Bernardino_Air_Materiel_Area"},{"link_name":"Norton Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norton_Field"},{"link_name":"Warner Robins Air Materiel Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warner_Robins_Air_Materiel_Area"},{"link_name":"Japan Air Materiel Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Air_Materiel_Area"},{"link_name":"Far East Air Materiel Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far_East_Air_Materiel_Command"},{"link_name":"Central Air Materiel Area, Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Central_Air_Materiel_Area,_Europe&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Chateauroux Air Depot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chateauroux_Air_Depot&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Chateauroux Air Depot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chateauroux_Air_Depot&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tachikawa Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachikawa_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"Numbered Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numbered_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rav1996-19"},{"link_name":"75th Air Depot Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=75th_Air_Depot_Wing&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Chinhae Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinhae_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"Korean War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War"},{"link_name":"Air Research and Development Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Research_and_Development_Command"},{"link_name":"3079th Aviation Depot Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3079th_Aviation_Depot_Wing"},{"link_name":"Wright-Patterson Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright-Patterson_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio"},{"link_name":"weapons of mass destruction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weapons_of_mass_destruction"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Air Research and Development Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Research_and_Development_Command"},{"link_name":"Air Force Systems Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Systems_Command"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AFFactSheet-21"}],"sub_title":"Air Materiel Command","text":"In 1946 AAF Technical Service Command was redesignated Air Materiel Command, and the air technical service commands were reorganized as Air Materiel Areas:Marianas Air Materiel Area (Harmon Field, Guam)(active as Provisional formation by 17 August 1948; active 1 February 1949)[18] Under the command of the 19th Bombardment Wing from August 1948 to October 1949.\nMiddletown Air Materiel Area (Middletown, Pennsylvania)\nMobile Air Materiel Area (Brookley Air Force Base, Mobile, Alabama)\nOgden Air Materiel Area (Hill Field, Utah)\nOklahoma City Air Materiel Area (Tinker Field, Oklahoma)\nPhilippine Air Materiel Area (Nichols Field)\nRome Air Materiel Area (Rome, New York) (1 February 1943 – 25 June 1947)\nSacramento Air Materiel Area (Sacramento, California)\nSan Antonio Air Materiel Area (San Antonio, Texas)\nSan Bernardino Air Materiel Area (1949–66), at Norton Field, California\nWarner Robins Air Materiel Area (1951–61) at Robins AFB and redesignated Warner Robins Air Logistics CenterTwo further Air Materiel Areas were established in the late 1940s and early 1950s:Japan Air Materiel Area (JAMA, 1947–1949), at Tachikawa Air Base, replaced by the Far East Air Materiel Command (FEAMCOM).\nCentral Air Materiel Area, Europe (CAMAE, 1956–67), at Chateauroux Air Depot in FranceThe functions of research and development and logistics were operated separately during World War II until they were reunited for several years in the late 1940s under Air Materiel Command. Among its forces was the Air Materiel Force, European Area, which was transferred from USAFE in on 1 January 1956. Air Materiel Force, European Area, at Chateauroux Air Depot, France, and Air Materiel Force, Pacific Area, at Tachikawa Air Base, Japan, were of Numbered Air Force status.[19] Often these formations supervised Air Depot Wings, for example the 75th Air Depot Wing which was based at Chinhae Air Base in South Korea during the Korean War.In 1950, research and development were split off into a separate formation, the Air Research and Development Command.\nFrom the early 1950s to 1962, the 3079th Aviation Depot Wing under AMC, headquartered at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, was a weapons of mass destruction unit of key strategic importance.[20] It was active until 1962.In 1961, Air Materiel Command became the Air Force Logistics Command, while the Air Research and Development Command gained responsibility for weapon system acquisition and was renamed the Air Force Systems Command.[21]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Established as Army Air Forces Materiel and Services on 14 July 1944Organized as a major command on 17 July 1944\nRedesignated: Army Air Forces Technical Service Command on 31 August 1944\nRedesignated: Air Technical Service Command on 1 July 1945\nRedesignated: Air Materiel Command on 9 March 1946\nRedesignated: Air Force Logistics Command on 1 April 1961\nInactivated on 1 July 1992","title":"Lineage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4697918#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007425667505171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/n81067831"}],"text":"Elliot V. Converse III, Rearming for the Cold War 1945–1960, Government Printing Office\nAMC's History Office published Materiel Research and Development in the Army Air Arm, 1914-1945 (November 1946)Authority control databases: National \nIsrael\nUnited States","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Emblem of Air Technical Service Command","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Air_Technical_Service_Command_-_Emblem.png/220px-Air_Technical_Service_Command_-_Emblem.png"}]
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[{"title":"Cheli Air Force Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheli_Air_Force_Station"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Records of the Army Air Forces [AAF]\" (weblist). NARA. Retrieved 19 August 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/018.html","url_text":"\"Records of the Army Air Forces [AAF]\""}]},{"reference":"\"Augustine Warner Robins, Brigadier General, United States Army Air Corps\". Retrieved 5 March 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/awrobins.htm","url_text":"\"Augustine Warner Robins, Brigadier General, United States Army Air Corps\""}]},{"reference":"Administrator. \"all-aero\". Retrieved 5 March 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://all-aero.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3299:engineering-division-bureau-of-aircraft-production&catid=36","url_text":"\"all-aero\""}]},{"reference":"National Air and Space Intelligence Center History (PDF) (Report). Archived from the original (AFD-120627-049) on 25 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121025053015/http://www.afisr.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-120627-049.pdf","url_text":"National Air and Space Intelligence Center History"},{"url":"http://www.afisr.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-120627-049.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"U.S. Gao - A-67411, November 22, 1935, 15 Comp. Gen. 436\". Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 27 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131005013947/http://redbook.gao.gov/9/fl0043381.php","url_text":"\"U.S. Gao - A-67411, November 22, 1935, 15 Comp. Gen. 436\""},{"url":"http://redbook.gao.gov/9/fl0043381.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Zimmerman, David (1996). Top Secret Mission: The Tizard Mission and the Scientific War. ISBN 9780773514010. Retrieved 19 August 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=k76Q1P4HEmwC&pg=PA221","url_text":"Top Secret Mission: The Tizard Mission and the Scientific War"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780773514010","url_text":"9780773514010"}]},{"reference":"\"Sarasota Herald-Tribune - Google News Archive Search\". Retrieved 5 March 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1755&dat=19400926&id=24UcAAAAIBAJ&pg=1856,5742427","url_text":"\"Sarasota Herald-Tribune - Google News Archive Search\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Army Air Forces in World War II Volume VI: Men and Planes: Chapter 11\". Retrieved 5 March 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/VI/AAF-VI-11.html","url_text":"\"The Army Air Forces in World War II Volume VI: Men and Planes: Chapter 11\""}]},{"reference":"\"Draft letter, Brig. Gen. Carl Spaatz, 'Organization of the Air Service Command By Command of Maj. Gen. Arnold'\". Air Force Historical Research Agency. 17 October 1941. pp. 24–27. Retrieved 4 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/afhra-k205.10-952/AFHRA%20K205.10-944%20bios/page/n23/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Draft letter, Brig. Gen. Carl Spaatz, 'Organization of the Air Service Command By Command of Maj. Gen. Arnold'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Historical_Research_Agency","url_text":"Air Force Historical Research Agency"}]},{"reference":"\"Griffiss Air Force Base, New York\". www.techbastard.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.techbastard.com/afb/ny/griffiss.php","url_text":"\"Griffiss Air Force Base, New York\""}]},{"reference":"Charles A. Ravenstein (1986). The organization and lineage of the United States Air Force. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-4289-9344-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=EdQDrJkeu54C&pg=PA39","url_text":"The organization and lineage of the United States Air Force"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4289-9344-0","url_text":"978-1-4289-9344-0"}]},{"reference":"\"Historic California Posts, Camps, Stations and Airfields\". Retrieved 5 March 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.militarymuseum.org/SiskiyouAP.html","url_text":"\"Historic California Posts, Camps, Stations and Airfields\""}]},{"reference":"Leonard, Barry (2009). History of Strategic Air and Ballistic Missile Defense (PDF). Vol. II, 1955–1972. Fort McNair: Center for Military History. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-4379-2131-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 December 2019. Retrieved 27 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191216135402/https://history.army.mil/html/books/bmd/BMDV2.pdf","url_text":"History of Strategic Air and Ballistic Missile Defense"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4379-2131-1","url_text":"978-1-4379-2131-1"},{"url":"http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/bmd/BMDV2.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Pike, John. \"3079th Aviation Depot Wing\". www.globalsecurity.org.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/agency/3079adw.htm","url_text":"\"3079th Aviation Depot Wing\""}]},{"reference":"\"Air Force Logistics Command Fact Sheet\". Air Force Historical Research Agency. Retrieved 28 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.afhra.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/433901/air-force-logistics-command/","url_text":"\"Air Force Logistics Command Fact Sheet\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapis_lazuli
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Lapis lazuli
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["1 Major sources","2 Etymology","3 Science and uses","3.1 Composition","3.2 Color","3.3 Sources","3.4 Uses and substitutes","4 History and art","4.1 In the ancient world","4.2 Vermeer","4.3 Yeats","5 Gallery","6 See also","7 References","7.1 Bibliography","8 External links"]
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Not to be confused with Lazulite.
For the Fabergé egg, see Lapis Lazuli (Fabergé egg).
"Lazuli" redirects here. For other uses, see Lazuli (disambiguation).
Metamorphic rock containing lazurite, prized for its intense blue color
Lapis lazuliMetamorphic rockLapis lazuli in its natural state, with pyrite inclusions (specimen from Afghanistan)CompositionPrimaryLazuriteSecondaryA mixture of other minerals, often including pyrite
Lapis lazuli (UK: /ˌlæpɪs ˈlæz(j)ʊli, ˈlæʒʊ-, -ˌli/; US: /ˈlæz(j)əli, ˈlæʒə-, -ˌli/), or lapis for short, is a deep-blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense color. Originating from the Persian word for the gem, lāžward, lapis lazuli is a rock composed primarily of the minerals lazurite, pyrite and calcite. As early as the 7th millennium BC, lapis lazuli was mined in the Sar-i Sang mines, in Shortugai, and in other mines in Badakhshan province in modern northeast Afghanistan. Lapis lazuli artifacts, dated to 7570 BC, have been found at Bhirrana, which is the oldest site of Indus Valley civilisation. Lapis was highly valued by the Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1900 BC). Lapis beads have been found at Neolithic burials in Mehrgarh, the Caucasus, and as far away as Mauritania. It was used in the funeral mask of Tutankhamun (1341–1323 BC).
By the end of the Middle Ages, lapis lazuli began to be exported to Europe, where it was ground into powder and made into the pigment, ultramarine. Ultramarine was used by some of the most important artists of the Renaissance and Baroque, including Masaccio, Perugino, Titian and Vermeer, and was often reserved for the clothing of the central figures of their paintings, especially the Virgin Mary. Ultramarine has also been found in dental tartar of medieval nuns and scribes, perhaps as a result of licking their painting brushes while producing medieval texts and manuscripts.
Major sources
Mines in northeast Afghanistan continue to be a major source of lapis lazuli. Important amounts are also produced from mines west of Lake Baikal in Russia, and in the Andes mountains in Chile which is the source that the Inca used to carve artifacts and jewelry. Smaller quantities are mined in Pakistan, Italy, Mongolia, the United States, and Canada.
Etymology
Lapis is the Latin word for "stone" and lazulī is the genitive form of the Medieval Latin lazulum, which is taken from the Arabic لازورد lāzaward, itself from the Persian لاژورد lāžavard/lāževard and/or لاجورد lājevard. It means "sky" or "heaven"; so this is a "stone (of/from) the sky" or "stone (of/from) heaven". For example, in the following Persian poem by Ferdowsi:
As the sun struck the dome of lazuli,
A golden curtain was drawn, most truly.
Historically, it was mined in the Badakhshan region of upper Afghanistan. Lazulum is etymologically related to the color blue, and used as a root for the word for blue in several languages, including Spanish and Portuguese azul as well as English azure.
Science and uses
Composition
The most important mineral component of lapis lazuli is lazurite (25% to 40%), a blue feldspathoid silicate mineral of the sodalite family, with the formula (Na,Ca)8(AlSiO4)6(S,SO4,Cl)1–2. Most lapis lazuli also contains calcite (white), and pyrite (metallic yellow). Some samples of lapis lazuli contain augite, diopside, enstatite, mica, hauynite, hornblende, nosean, and sulfur-rich löllingite geyerite.
Lapis lazuli usually occurs in crystalline marble as a result of contact metamorphism.
Color
Lapis lazuli seen through a microscope (x240 magnification)
The intense blue color is due to the presence of the trisulfur radical anion (S•−3) in the crystal. The presence of disulfur (S•−2) and tetrasulfur (S•−4) radicals can shift the color towards yellow or red, respectively. These radical anions substitute for the chloride anions within the sodalite structure. The S•−3 radical anion exhibits a visible absorption band in the range 595–620 nm with high molar absorptivity, leading to its bright blue color.
Sources
Lapis lazuli is found in limestone in the Kokcha River valley of Badakhshan province in north-eastern Afghanistan, where the Sar-i Sang mine deposits have been worked for more than 6,000 years. Afghanistan was the source of lapis for the ancient Persian, Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations, as well as the later Greeks and Romans. Ancient Egyptians obtained the material through trade with Mesopotamians, as part of Egypt–Mesopotamia relations. During the height of the Indus Valley civilisation, approximately 2000 BC, the Harappan colony, now known as Shortugai, was established near the lapis mines.
In addition to the Afghan deposits, lapis is also extracted in the Andes (near Ovalle, Chile); and to the west of Lake Baikal in Siberia, Russia, at the Tultui lazurite deposit. It is mined in smaller amounts in Angola, Argentina, Burma, Pakistan, Canada, Italy, India, and in the United States in California and Colorado.
Uses and substitutes
Lapis takes an excellent polish and can be made into jewellery, carvings, boxes, mosaics, ornaments, small statues, and vases. Interior items and finishing buildings can be also made with lapis. During the Renaissance, lapis was ground and processed to make the pigment ultramarine for use in frescoes and oil painting. Its usage as a pigment in oil paint largely ended during the early 19th century, when a chemically identical synthetic variety became available.
Lapis lazuli is commercially synthesized or simulated by the Gillson process, which is used to make artificial ultramarine and hydrous zinc phosphates. Spinel or sodalite, or dyed jasper or howlite, can be substituted for lapis.
Crystals of lazurite (the main mineral in lapis lazuli) from the Sar-i Sang Mining District in Afghanistan
A polished block of lapis lazuli
Natural ultramarine pigment made from ground lapis lazuli. During the Middle Ages and Renaissance it was the most expensive pigment available (gold being second) and was often reserved for depicting the robes of Angels or the Virgin Mary
19th-century lapis lazuli and diamond pendant
History and art
In the ancient world
Further information: Art of ancient Egypt § Lapis lazuli
Ancient Egyptian cult image of Ptah; 945–600 BC; lapis lazuli; height of the figure: 5.2 cm, height of the dais: 0.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
Lapis lazuli has been mined in Afghanistan and exported to the Mediterranean world and South Asia since the Neolithic age, along the ancient trade route between Afghanistan and the Indus Valley dating to the 7th millennium BC. Quantities of these beads have also been found at 4th millennium BC settlements in Northern Mesopotamia, and at the Bronze Age site of Shahr-e Sukhteh in southeast Iran (3rd millennium BC). A dagger with a lapis handle, a bowl inlaid with lapis, amulets, beads, and inlays representing eyebrows and beards, were found in the Royal Tombs of the Sumerian city-state of Ur from the 3rd millennium BC.
Lapis was also used in ancient Persia, Mesopotamia by the Akkadians, Assyrians, and Babylonians for seals and jewelry. It is mentioned several times in the Mesopotamian poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh (17th–18th century BC), one of the oldest known works of literature. The Statue of Ebih-Il, a 3rd millennium BC statue found in the ancient city-state of Mari in modern-day Syria, now in the Louvre, uses lapis lazuli inlays for the irises of the eyes.
In ancient Egypt, lapis lazuli was a favorite stone for amulets and ornaments such as scarabs. Lapis jewellery has been found at excavations of the Predynastic Egyptian site Naqada (3300–3100 BC). At Karnak, the relief carvings of Thutmose III (1479–1429 BC) show fragments and barrel-shaped pieces of lapis lazuli being delivered to him as tribute. Powdered lapis was used as eyeshadow by Cleopatra.
Jewelry made of lapis lazuli has also been found at Mycenae attesting to relations between the Myceneans and the developed civilizations of Egypt and the East.
Pliny the Elder wrote that lapis lazuli is "opaque and sprinkled with specks of gold". Because the stone combines the blue of the heavens and golden glitter of the sun, it was emblematic of success in the old Jewish tradition. In the early Christian tradition lapis lazuli was regarded as the stone of Virgin Mary.
In late classical times and as late as the Middle Ages, lapis lazuli was often called sapphire (sapphirus in Latin, sappir in Hebrew), though it had little to do with the stone today known as the blue corundum variety sapphire. In his book on stones, the Greek scientist Theophrastus described "the sapphirus, which is speckled with gold," a description which matches lapis lazuli.
Girl with a Pearl Earring by Vermeer
There are many references to "sapphire" in the Old Testament, but most scholars agree that, since sapphire was not known before the Roman Empire, they most likely are references to lapis lazuli. For instance, Exodus 24:10: "And they saw the God of Israel, and there was under his feet as it were a paved work of a sapphire stone..." (KJV). The words used in the Latin Vulgate Bible in this citation are "quasi opus lapidis sapphirini", the terms for lapis lazuli. Modern translations of the Bible, such as the New Living Translation Second Edition, refer to lapis lazuli in most instances instead of sapphire.
Vermeer
Johannes Vermeer used lapis lazuli paint, in the Girl with a Pearl Earring painting.
Yeats
The poet, William Butler Yeats, describes a figurine of sculpted lapis lazuli in a poem entitled "Lapis Lazuli". The sculpture of three men from China, a bird, and a musical instrument serves in the poem as a reminder of "gaiety" in the face of tragedy.
Gallery
A bovine with eyes decorated with lapis lazuli. Fertile Crescent, Sumerian, 889-853 B.C.
Sumerian bald clean-shaven male worshipper head, 2600–2500 BC; gypsum, shell, lapis lazuli and bitumen; from Nippur (Iraq); Museum of the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures (Chicago)
Sumerian necklace beads; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 54 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
Sumerian necklace; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 22.5 cm; from the Royal Cemetery at Ur (Iraq); Metropolitan Museum of Art
Ancient Egyptian scarab finger ring; 1850–1750 BC; lapis lazuli scarab set in gold plate and on a gold wire ring lapis-lazuli; diameter: 2.5 cm, the scarab: 1.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Neo-Babylonian conical seal; 7th–6th century BC; lapis lazuli; height: 2.7 cm, diameter: 2.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Ancient Egyptian plaque with an Eye of Horus; 664–332 BC; lapis lazuli; length: 1.8 cm, width: 1.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Greek or Roman ring stone; lapis lazuli; 2.1 x 1.6 x 0.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Roman bead ornament; gold and lapis lazuli; 3 × 1.8 × 0.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
20th century silver ring with polished lapis oval; 2 x 2.4 x 1 cm
Elephant carved from lapis lazuli. Length 7 cm.
Large lapis lazuli specimen from Afghanistan's Hindu Kush mountains. National Museum of Natural History (Washington, D.C.)
See also
Dvārakā–Kamboja route
Hauyne – Silicate mineral
Lapis armenus – Precious stone resembling lapis lazuli
Sar-i Sang – town in Badakhshan Province, AfghanistanPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
Shades of blue – Variety of the color blue
Ultramarine – Deep blue purple color pigment which was originally made with ground lapis lazuli
References
^ "lapis lazuli". Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Retrieved 6 April 2024.
^ David Bomford and Ashok Roy, A Closer Look- Colour (2009), National Gallery Company, London, (ISBN 978-1-85709-442-8)
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^ a b "Excavation Bhirrana | ASI Nagpur". excnagasi.in. Archived from the original on 2020-08-04. Retrieved 2020-08-21.
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^ a b c Bowersox & Chamberlin 1995
^ Alessandro Bongioanni & Maria Croce
^ Zhang, Sarah (January 9, 2019). "Why a Medieval Woman Had Lapis Lazuli Hidden in Her Teeth". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on May 8, 2020. Retrieved May 9, 2020.
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^ Ganio, Monica; Pouyet, Emeline S.; Webb, Samuel M.; Patterson, Catherine M. Schmidt; Walton, Marc S. (2018-03-01). "From lapis lazuli to ultramarine blue: investigating Cennino Cennini's recipe using sulfur K-edge XANES". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 90 (3): 463–475. doi:10.1515/pac-2017-0502. ISSN 1365-3075. S2CID 102593589.
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Bibliography
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Bariand, Pierre, "Lapis Lazuli", Mineral Digest, Vol 4 Winter 1972.
Bowersox, Gary W.; Chamberlin, Bonita E. (1995). Gemstones of Afghanistan. Tucson, AZ: Geoscience Press.
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Lapparent A. F., Bariand, P. et Blaise, J., "Une visite au gisement de lapis lazuli de Sar-e-Sang du Hindu Kouch, Afghanistan," C.R. Somm.S.G.P.p. 30, 1964.
Oldershaw, Cally (2003). Firefly Guide to Gems. Toronto: Firefly Books..
Wise, Richard W., Secrets of the Gem Trade: The Connoisseur's Guide to Precious Gemstones, 2016 ISBN 9780972822329
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lapis Lazuli (minerals).
Lapis lazuli at Gemstone.org
Documentation from online course produced by University of California at Berkeley
Lapislazuli: Occurrence, Mining and Market Potential of a blue Mineral Pigment
"Lapis Lazuli" . The New Student's Reference Work . 1914.
"Why a Medieval Woman Had Lapis Lazuli Hidden in Her Teeth", The Atlantic, January 2019
Lapis Lazuli birthstone virtues and story at birthstone.guide
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Clockmaker
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Jewellery designer
Lapidarist
Silversmith
Watchmaker
Processes
Carving
Casting
centrifugal
lost-wax
vacuum
Enameling
Engraving
Filigree
Kazaziye
Metal clay
Plating
Polishing
Repoussé and chasing
Soldering
Stonesetting
Wire sculpture
Wire wrapped jewelry
Tools
Draw plate
File
Hammer
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Pliers
MaterialsPrecious metals
Gold
Palladium
Platinum
Rhodium
Silver
Precious metal alloys
Britannia silver
Colored gold
Crown gold
Electrum
Shakudō
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Base metals
Brass
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Mineral gemstones
Agate
Amazonite
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Chrysoberyl
Chrysocolla
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Fluorite
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Howlite
Jade
Jasper
Kyanite
Labradorite
Lapis lazuli
Larimar
Malachite
Marcasite
Moonstone
Obsidian
Onyx
Opal
Peridot
Prasiolite
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Ruby
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Sodalite
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Organic gemstones
Abalone
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Bezoar
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Spondylus shell
Toadstone
Terms
Art jewelry
Carat (mass)
Carat (purity)
Finding
Fineness
Related topics
Body piercing
Fashion
Gemology
Metalworking
Phaleristics
Wearable art
vteTypes of rocksIgneous rock
Adakite
Andesite
Alkali feldspar granite
Anorthosite
Aplite
Basalt
Basaltic trachyandesite
Mugearite
Shoshonite
Basanite
Blairmorite
Boninite
Carbonatite
Charnockite
Enderbite
Dacite
Diabase
Diorite
Napoleonite
Dunite
Essexite
Foidolite
Gabbro
Granite
Granodiorite
Granophyre
Harzburgite
Hornblendite
Hyaloclastite
Icelandite
Ignimbrite
Ijolite
Kimberlite
Komatiite
Lamproite
Lamprophyre
Latite
Lherzolite
Monzogranite
Monzonite
Nepheline syenite
Nephelinite
Norite
Obsidian
Pegmatite
Peridotite
Phonolite
Phonotephrite
Picrite
Porphyry
Pumice
Pyroxenite
Quartz diorite
Quartz monzonite
Quartzolite
Rhyodacite
Rhyolite
Comendite
Pantellerite
Scoria
Shonkinite
Sovite
Syenite
Tachylyte
Tephriphonolite
Tephrite
Tonalite
Trachyandesite
Benmoreite
Trachybasalt
Hawaiite
Trachyte
Troctolite
Trondhjemite
Tuff
Websterite
Wehrlite
Sedimentary rock
Argillite
Arkose
Banded iron formation
Breccia
Calcarenite
Chalk
Chert
Claystone
Coal
Conglomerate
Coquina
Diamictite
Diatomite
Dolomite
Evaporite
Flint
Geyserite
Greywacke
Gritstone
Itacolumite
Jaspillite
Laterite
Lignite
Limestone
Lumachelle
Marl
Mudstone
Oil shale
Oolite
Phosphorite
Sandstone
Shale
Siltstone
Sylvinite
Tillite
Travertine
Tufa
Turbidite
Varve
Wackestone
Metamorphic rock
Anthracite
Amphibolite
Blueschist
Cataclasite
Eclogite
Gneiss
Granulite
Greenschist
Hornfels
Calcflinta
Itabirite
Litchfieldite
Marble
Migmatite
Mylonite
Metapelite
Metapsammite
Phyllite
Pseudotachylite
Quartzite
Schist
Serpentinite
Skarn
Slate
Suevite
Talc carbonate
Soapstone
Tectonite
Whiteschist
Specific varieties
Adamellite
Appinite
Aphanite
Borolanite
Blue Granite
Epidosite
Felsite
Flint
Ganister
Gossan
Hyaloclastite
Ijolite
Jadeitite
Jasperoid
Kenyte
Lapis lazuli
Larvikite
Litchfieldite
Llanite
Luxullianite
Mangerite
Novaculite
Pietersite
Pyrolite
Rapakivi granite
Rhomb porphyry
Rodingite
Shonkinite
Taconite
Tachylite
Teschenite
Theralite
Unakite
Variolite
Wad
Authority control databases: National
Germany
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lazulite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazulite"},{"link_name":"Lapis Lazuli (Fabergé egg)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapis_Lazuli_(Faberg%C3%A9_egg)"},{"link_name":"Lazuli (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazuli_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English"},{"link_name":"/ˌlæpɪs ˈlæz(j)ʊli, ˈlæʒʊ-, -ˌli/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"US","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English"},{"link_name":"/ˈlæz(j)əli, ˈlæʒə-, -ˌli/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"metamorphic rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphic_rock"},{"link_name":"semi-precious stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemstone"},{"link_name":"antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_history"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"lazurite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazurite"},{"link_name":"pyrite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrite"},{"link_name":"calcite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcite"},{"link_name":"7th millennium BC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7th_millennium_BC"},{"link_name":"Sar-i Sang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sar-i_Sang"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ashok_Roy_2009-2"},{"link_name":"Shortugai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortugai"},{"link_name":"Badakhshan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badakhshan"},{"link_name":"Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Bhirrana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhirrana"},{"link_name":"Indus Valley civilisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic"},{"link_name":"Mehrgarh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarh"},{"link_name":"Caucasus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus"},{"link_name":"Mauritania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritania"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bc1995-7"},{"link_name":"funeral mask of Tutankhamun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutankhamun%27s_mask"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"ultramarine.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultramarine"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"Baroque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque"},{"link_name":"Masaccio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masaccio"},{"link_name":"Perugino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perugino"},{"link_name":"Titian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titian"},{"link_name":"Vermeer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermeer"},{"link_name":"Virgin Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Mary"},{"link_name":"dental tartar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_tartar"},{"link_name":"medieval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"nuns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuns"},{"link_name":"scribes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scribes"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Lazulite.For the Fabergé egg, see Lapis Lazuli (Fabergé egg).\"Lazuli\" redirects here. For other uses, see Lazuli (disambiguation).Metamorphic rock containing lazurite, prized for its intense blue colorLapis lazuli (UK: /ˌlæpɪs ˈlæz(j)ʊli, ˈlæʒʊ-, -ˌli/; US: /ˈlæz(j)əli, ˈlæʒə-, -ˌli/), or lapis for short, is a deep-blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense color. Originating from the Persian word for the gem, lāžward,[1] lapis lazuli is a rock composed primarily of the minerals lazurite, pyrite and calcite. As early as the 7th millennium BC, lapis lazuli was mined in the Sar-i Sang mines,[2] in Shortugai, and in other mines in Badakhshan province in modern northeast Afghanistan.[3] Lapis lazuli artifacts, dated to 7570 BC, have been found at Bhirrana, which is the oldest site of Indus Valley civilisation.[4] Lapis was highly valued by the Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1900 BC).[4][5][6] Lapis beads have been found at Neolithic burials in Mehrgarh, the Caucasus, and as far away as Mauritania.[7] It was used in the funeral mask of Tutankhamun (1341–1323 BC).[8]By the end of the Middle Ages, lapis lazuli began to be exported to Europe, where it was ground into powder and made into the pigment, ultramarine. Ultramarine was used by some of the most important artists of the Renaissance and Baroque, including Masaccio, Perugino, Titian and Vermeer, and was often reserved for the clothing of the central figures of their paintings, especially the Virgin Mary. Ultramarine has also been found in dental tartar of medieval nuns and scribes, perhaps as a result of licking their painting brushes while producing medieval texts and manuscripts.[9]","title":"Lapis lazuli"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lake Baikal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Baikal"},{"link_name":"Andes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andes"},{"link_name":"Chile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile"},{"link_name":"Inca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inca"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGA-10"}],"text":"Mines in northeast Afghanistan continue to be a major source of lapis lazuli. Important amounts are also produced from mines west of Lake Baikal in Russia, and in the Andes mountains in Chile which is the source that the Inca used to carve artifacts and jewelry. Smaller quantities are mined in Pakistan, Italy, Mongolia, the United States, and Canada.[10]","title":"Major sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"genitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genitive"},{"link_name":"Medieval Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Latin"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-11"},{"link_name":"Persian poem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_literature#Poetry"},{"link_name":"Ferdowsi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdowsi"},{"link_name":"Badakhshan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badakhshan"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-12"}],"text":"Lapis is the Latin word for \"stone\" and lazulī is the genitive form of the Medieval Latin lazulum, which is taken from the Arabic لازورد lāzaward, itself from the Persian لاژورد lāžavard/lāževard and/or لاجورد lājevard. It means \"sky\" or \"heaven\"; so this is a \"stone (of/from) the sky\" or \"stone (of/from) heaven\".[11] For example, in the following Persian poem by Ferdowsi:As the sun struck the dome of lazuli,A golden curtain was drawn, most truly.Historically, it was mined in the Badakhshan region of upper Afghanistan. Lazulum is etymologically related to the color blue, and used as a root for the word for blue in several languages, including Spanish and Portuguese azul as well as English azure.[11][12]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Science and uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lazurite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazurite"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"feldspathoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldspathoid"},{"link_name":"silicate mineral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_mineral"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"calcite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcite"},{"link_name":"pyrite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrite"},{"link_name":"augite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augite"},{"link_name":"diopside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diopside"},{"link_name":"enstatite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enstatite"},{"link_name":"mica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mica"},{"link_name":"hauynite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauynite"},{"link_name":"hornblende","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hornblende"},{"link_name":"nosean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosean"},{"link_name":"löllingite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6llingite"},{"link_name":"marble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marble"},{"link_name":"contact metamorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_metamorphism"}],"sub_title":"Composition","text":"The most important mineral component of lapis lazuli is lazurite[13] (25% to 40%), a blue feldspathoid silicate mineral of the sodalite family, with the formula (Na,Ca)8(AlSiO4)6(S,SO4,Cl)1–2.[14] Most lapis lazuli also contains calcite (white), and pyrite (metallic yellow). Some samples of lapis lazuli contain augite, diopside, enstatite, mica, hauynite, hornblende, nosean, and sulfur-rich löllingite geyerite.Lapis lazuli usually occurs in crystalline marble as a result of contact metamorphism.","title":"Science and uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lapis-Lazuli_microscope_x240.jpg"},{"link_name":"trisulfur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trisulfur"},{"link_name":"radical anion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_anion"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"sodalite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodalite"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Color","text":"Lapis lazuli seen through a microscope (x240 magnification)The intense blue color is due to the presence of the trisulfur radical anion (S•−3) in the crystal.[15] The presence of disulfur (S•−2) and tetrasulfur (S•−4) radicals can shift the color towards yellow or red, respectively.[16] These radical anions substitute for the chloride anions within the sodalite structure.[17] The S•−3 radical anion exhibits a visible absorption band in the range 595–620 nm with high molar absorptivity, leading to its bright blue color.[18]","title":"Science and uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kokcha River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokcha_River"},{"link_name":"Badakhshan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badakhshan"},{"link_name":"Sar-i Sang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sar-i_Sang"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-co2003-19"},{"link_name":"Egypt–Mesopotamia relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations"},{"link_name":"Indus Valley civilisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation"},{"link_name":"Shortugai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortugai"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bc1995-7"},{"link_name":"Andes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andes"},{"link_name":"Ovalle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovalle,_Chile"},{"link_name":"Chile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile"},{"link_name":"Lake Baikal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Baikal"},{"link_name":"Angola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angola"},{"link_name":"Burma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGA-10"}],"sub_title":"Sources","text":"Lapis lazuli is found in limestone in the Kokcha River valley of Badakhshan province in north-eastern Afghanistan, where the Sar-i Sang mine deposits have been worked for more than 6,000 years.[19] Afghanistan was the source of lapis for the ancient Persian, Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations, as well as the later Greeks and Romans. Ancient Egyptians obtained the material through trade with Mesopotamians, as part of Egypt–Mesopotamia relations. During the height of the Indus Valley civilisation, approximately 2000 BC, the Harappan colony, now known as Shortugai, was established near the lapis mines.[7]In addition to the Afghan deposits, lapis is also extracted in the Andes (near Ovalle, Chile); and to the west of Lake Baikal in Siberia, Russia, at the Tultui lazurite deposit. It is mined in smaller amounts in Angola, Argentina, Burma, Pakistan, Canada, Italy, India, and in the United States in California and Colorado.[10]","title":"Science and uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mosaics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaic"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"pigment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigment"},{"link_name":"ultramarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultramarine"},{"link_name":"frescoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresco"},{"link_name":"oil painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_painting"},{"link_name":"ultramarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultramarine"},{"link_name":"hydrous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrate"},{"link_name":"zinc phosphates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_phosphate"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Spinel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinel"},{"link_name":"sodalite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodalite"},{"link_name":"jasper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jasper"},{"link_name":"howlite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howlite"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lazurite.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lapis_lazuli_block.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Natural_ultramarine_pigment.jpg"},{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"Angels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angels"},{"link_name":"Virgin Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Mary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:19th_Century_lapis_lazuli_and_diamond_pendant.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Uses and substitutes","text":"Lapis takes an excellent polish and can be made into jewellery, carvings, boxes, mosaics, ornaments, small statues, and vases. Interior items and finishing buildings can be also made with lapis. During the Renaissance, lapis was ground and processed to make the pigment ultramarine for use in frescoes and oil painting. Its usage as a pigment in oil paint largely ended during the early 19th century, when a chemically identical synthetic variety became available.Lapis lazuli is commercially synthesized or simulated by the Gillson process, which is used to make artificial ultramarine and hydrous zinc phosphates.[20] Spinel or sodalite, or dyed jasper or howlite, can be substituted for lapis.[21]Crystals of lazurite (the main mineral in lapis lazuli) from the Sar-i Sang Mining District in Afghanistan\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA polished block of lapis lazuli\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNatural ultramarine pigment made from ground lapis lazuli. During the Middle Ages and Renaissance it was the most expensive pigment available (gold being second) and was often reserved for depicting the robes of Angels or the Virgin Mary\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t19th-century lapis lazuli and diamond pendant","title":"Science and uses"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History and art"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Art of ancient Egypt § Lapis lazuli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt#Lapis_lazuli"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cult_Image_of_the_God_Ptah_MET_DP142956.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ptah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptah"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moorey_1999_86%E2%80%9387-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Indus Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley"},{"link_name":"Mesopotamia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia"},{"link_name":"Bronze Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age"},{"link_name":"Shahr-e Sukhteh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahr-e_Sukhteh"},{"link_name":"Ur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ur"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moorey_1999_86%E2%80%9387-22"},{"link_name":"Akkadians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadians"},{"link_name":"Assyrians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyria"},{"link_name":"Babylonians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonians"},{"link_name":"seals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_seal"},{"link_name":"Epic of Gilgamesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh"},{"link_name":"Statue of Ebih-Il","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Ebih-Il"},{"link_name":"Mari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mari,_Syria"},{"link_name":"Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria"},{"link_name":"Louvre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-louvre-24"},{"link_name":"scarabs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarab_(artifact)"},{"link_name":"Predynastic Egyptian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Naqada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naqada"},{"link_name":"Karnak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnak"},{"link_name":"Thutmose III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutmose_III"},{"link_name":"Cleopatra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bc1995-7"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Mycenae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenae"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Pliny the Elder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"Virgin Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"sapphire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapphire"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"corundum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corundum"},{"link_name":"Theophrastus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophrastus"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meisje_met_de_parel.jpg"},{"link_name":"Girl with a Pearl Earring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girl_with_a_Pearl_Earring"},{"link_name":"Vermeer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermeer"},{"link_name":"Old Testament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testament"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"In the ancient world","text":"Further information: Art of ancient Egypt § Lapis lazuliAncient Egyptian cult image of Ptah; 945–600 BC; lapis lazuli; height of the figure: 5.2 cm, height of the dais: 0.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)Lapis lazuli has been mined in Afghanistan and exported to the Mediterranean world and South Asia since the Neolithic age,[22][23] along the ancient trade route between Afghanistan and the Indus Valley dating to the 7th millennium BC. Quantities of these beads have also been found at 4th millennium BC settlements in Northern Mesopotamia, and at the Bronze Age site of Shahr-e Sukhteh in southeast Iran (3rd millennium BC). A dagger with a lapis handle, a bowl inlaid with lapis, amulets, beads, and inlays representing eyebrows and beards, were found in the Royal Tombs of the Sumerian city-state of Ur from the 3rd millennium BC.[22]Lapis was also used in ancient Persia, Mesopotamia by the Akkadians, Assyrians, and Babylonians for seals and jewelry. It is mentioned several times in the Mesopotamian poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh (17th–18th century BC), one of the oldest known works of literature. The Statue of Ebih-Il, a 3rd millennium BC statue found in the ancient city-state of Mari in modern-day Syria, now in the Louvre, uses lapis lazuli inlays for the irises of the eyes.[24]In ancient Egypt, lapis lazuli was a favorite stone for amulets and ornaments such as scarabs. Lapis jewellery has been found at excavations of the Predynastic Egyptian site Naqada (3300–3100 BC). At Karnak, the relief carvings of Thutmose III (1479–1429 BC) show fragments and barrel-shaped pieces of lapis lazuli being delivered to him as tribute. Powdered lapis was used as eyeshadow by Cleopatra.[7][25]Jewelry made of lapis lazuli has also been found at Mycenae attesting to relations between the Myceneans and the developed civilizations of Egypt and the East.[26]Pliny the Elder wrote that lapis lazuli is \"opaque and sprinkled with specks of gold\". Because the stone combines the blue of the heavens and golden glitter of the sun, it was emblematic of success in the old Jewish tradition. In the early Christian tradition lapis lazuli was regarded as the stone of Virgin Mary.In late classical times and as late as the Middle Ages, lapis lazuli was often called sapphire (sapphirus in Latin, sappir in Hebrew),[27] though it had little to do with the stone today known as the blue corundum variety sapphire. In his book on stones, the Greek scientist Theophrastus described \"the sapphirus, which is speckled with gold,\" a description which matches lapis lazuli.[28]Girl with a Pearl Earring by VermeerThere are many references to \"sapphire\" in the Old Testament, but most scholars agree that, since sapphire was not known before the Roman Empire, they most likely are references to lapis lazuli. For instance, Exodus 24:10: \"And they saw the God of Israel, and there was under his feet as it were a paved work of a sapphire stone...\" (KJV). The words used in the Latin Vulgate Bible in this citation are \"quasi opus lapidis sapphirini\", the terms for lapis lazuli.[29] Modern translations of the Bible, such as the New Living Translation Second Edition,[30] refer to lapis lazuli in most instances instead of sapphire.","title":"History and art"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Johannes Vermeer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Vermeer"},{"link_name":"Girl with a Pearl Earring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girl_with_a_Pearl_Earring"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"Vermeer","text":"Johannes Vermeer used lapis lazuli paint, in the Girl with a Pearl Earring painting.[31][32]","title":"History and art"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William Butler Yeats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._B._Yeats"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"Yeats","text":"The poet, William Butler Yeats, describes a figurine of sculpted lapis lazuli in a poem entitled \"Lapis Lazuli\". The sculpture of three men from China, a bird, and a musical instrument serves in the poem as a reminder of \"gaiety\" in the face of tragedy.[33]","title":"History and art"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bull_LACMA_M.71.73.4.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fertile Crescent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertile_Crescent"},{"link_name":"Sumerian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oriental_Institute_Museum._ORLY%3F_(5948770604).jpg"},{"link_name":"Sumerian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer"},{"link_name":"gypsum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsum"},{"link_name":"bitumen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitumen"},{"link_name":"Nippur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nippur"},{"link_name":"Iraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq"},{"link_name":"Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_the_Study_of_Ancient_Cultures"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Necklace_beads_MET_DP104225.jpg"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Necklace_MET_an33.35.47.jpg"},{"link_name":"Royal Cemetery at Ur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scarab_Finger_Ring_MET_26.7.755_top.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ancient Egyptian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conical_seal_MET_vsz1999_325_097.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plaque-_Wedjat_Eye_MET_30.8.1053_view_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Eye of Horus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_of_Horus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lapis_lazuli_ring_stone_MET_DP261442_(cropped).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bead_ornament_with_lapis_lazuli_MET_sf951625color.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lapis_lazuli_oval_set_in_silver_ring.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Elephant_carved_in_lapis_lazuli_Length_7_cm_arp.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lapis_lazuli,_Smithsonian_Objects_of_Wonder.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hindu Kush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_Kush"},{"link_name":"National Museum of Natural History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History"}],"text":"A bovine with eyes decorated with lapis lazuli. Fertile Crescent, Sumerian, 889-853 B.C.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSumerian bald clean-shaven male worshipper head, 2600–2500 BC; gypsum, shell, lapis lazuli and bitumen; from Nippur (Iraq); Museum of the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures (Chicago)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSumerian necklace beads; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 54 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSumerian necklace; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 22.5 cm; from the Royal Cemetery at Ur (Iraq); Metropolitan Museum of Art\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAncient Egyptian scarab finger ring; 1850–1750 BC; lapis lazuli scarab set in gold plate and on a gold wire ring lapis-lazuli; diameter: 2.5 cm, the scarab: 1.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNeo-Babylonian conical seal; 7th–6th century BC; lapis lazuli; height: 2.7 cm, diameter: 2.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAncient Egyptian plaque with an Eye of Horus; 664–332 BC; lapis lazuli; length: 1.8 cm, width: 1.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tGreek or Roman ring stone; lapis lazuli; 2.1 x 1.6 x 0.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRoman bead ornament; gold and lapis lazuli; 3 × 1.8 × 0.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t20th century silver ring with polished lapis oval; 2 x 2.4 x 1 cm\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tElephant carved from lapis lazuli. Length 7 cm.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLarge lapis lazuli specimen from Afghanistan's Hindu Kush mountains. National Museum of Natural History (Washington, D.C.)","title":"Gallery"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Lapis lazuli seen through a microscope (x240 magnification)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Lapis-Lazuli_microscope_x240.jpg/170px-Lapis-Lazuli_microscope_x240.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ancient Egyptian cult image of Ptah; 945–600 BC; lapis lazuli; height of the figure: 5.2 cm, height of the dais: 0.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Cult_Image_of_the_God_Ptah_MET_DP142956.jpg/170px-Cult_Image_of_the_God_Ptah_MET_DP142956.jpg"},{"image_text":"Girl with a Pearl Earring by Vermeer","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Meisje_met_de_parel.jpg/220px-Meisje_met_de_parel.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Dvārakā–Kamboja route","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dv%C4%81rak%C4%81%E2%80%93Kamboja_route"},{"title":"Hauyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauyne"},{"title":"Lapis armenus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapis_armenus"},{"title":"Sar-i Sang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sar-i_Sang"},{"title":"Shades of blue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shades_of_blue"},{"title":"Ultramarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultramarine"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"lapis lazuli\". Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Retrieved 6 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/lapis-lazuli?q=lapis+lazuli","url_text":"\"lapis lazuli\""}]},{"reference":"Moorey, Peter Roger (1999). Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: the Archaeological Evidence. Eisenbrauns. pp. 86–87. ISBN 978-1-57506-042-2. Archived from the original on 2015-10-03. Retrieved 2020-11-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC&q=Lapis+lazuli+++mines+in+the+Badakhshan&pg=PA86","url_text":"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: the Archaeological Evidence"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-042-2","url_text":"978-1-57506-042-2"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151003232804/https://books.google.com/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA86&dq=Lapis+lazuli+++mines+in+the+Badakhshan&hl=en&ei=sW6_TvWKBIKr8AOTn623BA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&sqi=2&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Excavation Bhirrana | ASI Nagpur\". excnagasi.in. Archived from the original on 2020-08-04. Retrieved 2020-08-21.","urls":[{"url":"http://excnagasi.in/excavation_bhirrana.html","url_text":"\"Excavation Bhirrana | ASI Nagpur\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200804104933/http://excnagasi.in/excavation_bhirrana.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sarkar, Anindya; Mukherjee, Arati Deshpande; Bera, M. K.; Das, B.; Juyal, Navin; Morthekai, P.; Deshpande, R. D.; Shinde, V. S.; Rao, L. S. (2016-05-25). \"Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India: Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization\". Scientific Reports. 6 (1): 26555. Bibcode:2016NatSR...626555S. doi:10.1038/srep26555. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4879637. PMID 27222033. S2CID 4425978.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4879637","url_text":"\"Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India: Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016NatSR...626555S","url_text":"2016NatSR...626555S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep26555","url_text":"10.1038/srep26555"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2045-2322","url_text":"2045-2322"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4879637","url_text":"4879637"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27222033","url_text":"27222033"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4425978","url_text":"4425978"}]},{"reference":"DIKSHIT, K.N. (2012). \"The Rise of Indian Civilization: Recent Archaeological Evidence from the Plains of 'Lost' River Saraswati and Radio-Metric Dates\". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 72/73: 1–42. ISSN 0045-9801. JSTOR 43610686.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0045-9801","url_text":"0045-9801"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/43610686","url_text":"43610686"}]},{"reference":"Zhang, Sarah (January 9, 2019). \"Why a Medieval Woman Had Lapis Lazuli Hidden in Her Teeth\". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on May 8, 2020. Retrieved May 9, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/01/the-woman-with-lapis-lazuli-in-her-teeth/579760/","url_text":"\"Why a Medieval Woman Had Lapis Lazuli Hidden in Her Teeth\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic","url_text":"The Atlantic"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200508110154/https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/01/the-woman-with-lapis-lazuli-in-her-teeth/579760/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Lapis Lazuli\". www.gemstone.org. International Colored Gemstone Association. Archived from the original on 2020-03-21. Retrieved 2020-02-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gemstone.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=117:sapphire&catid=1:gem-by-gem&Itemid=14","url_text":"\"Lapis Lazuli\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200321162641/https://www.gemstone.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=117%3Asapphire&catid=1%3Agem-by-gem&Itemid=14","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Senning, Alexander (2007). \"lapis lazuli (lazurite)\". Elsevier's Dictionary of Chemoetymology. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 224. ISBN 978-0-444-52239-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/elseviersdiction00senn","url_text":"Elsevier's Dictionary of Chemoetymology"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/elseviersdiction00senn/page/n232","url_text":"224"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-52239-9","url_text":"978-0-444-52239-9"}]},{"reference":"Weekley, Ernest (1967). \"azure\". An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. New York: Dover Publications. p. 97.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/etymologicaldict00week","url_text":"An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/etymologicaldict00week/page/n50","url_text":"97"}]},{"reference":"\"Lapis lazuli: Mineral information, data and localities\". www.mindat.org. Archived from the original on 2020-01-29. Retrieved 2020-02-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mindat.org/min-2330.html","url_text":"\"Lapis lazuli: Mineral information, data and localities\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200129083053/https://www.mindat.org/min-2330.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Lazurite: Mineral information, data and localities\". www.mindat.org. Archived from the original on 2020-04-03. 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Jewellery & Watch Magazine | Jewellery news, jewellery fashion and trends, jewellery designer reviews, jewellery education, opinions | Wrist watch reviews. Archived from the original on 2017-08-28. Retrieved 2017-08-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.jewellerymonthly.com/what-is-a-gemstone/","url_text":"\"A complete guide to Gemstones\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170828191332/http://www.jewellerymonthly.com/what-is-a-gemstone/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Claire, Iselin. \"Ebih-Il, the Superintendent of Mari\". Musée du Louvre. Archived from the original on 30 December 2012. 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Tucson, AZ: Geoscience Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Oldershaw, Cally (2003). Firefly Guide to Gems. Toronto: Firefly Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cally_Oldershaw","url_text":"Oldershaw, Cally"}]},{"reference":"\"Lapis Lazuli\" . The New Student's Reference Work . 1914.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work/Lapis_Lazuli","url_text":"\"Lapis Lazuli\""},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work","url_text":"The New Student's Reference Work"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrietta_Swan_Leavitt
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Henrietta Swan Leavitt
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["1 Early life and education","2 Astronomical career","3 Scientific impact","4 Illness and death","5 Posthumous honors","6 In popular culture","7 See also","8 References","9 Further reading","10 Sources","11 External links"]
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American astronomer (1868–1921)
Henrietta Swan LeavittBorn(1868-07-04)July 4, 1868Lancaster, Massachusetts, U.S.DiedDecember 12, 1921(1921-12-12) (aged 53)Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.EducationOberlin CollegeSociety for the Collegiate Instruction of Women (BS)Known forLeavitt's Law: the period-luminosity relationship for Cepheid variablesScientific careerFieldsAstronomyInstitutionsHarvard University, Oberlin College
Henrietta Swan Leavitt (/ˈlɛvɪt/; July 4, 1868 – December 12, 1921) was an American astronomer. Her discovery of how to effectively measure vast distances to remote galaxies led to a shift in the scale and understanding of the scale and the nature of the universe. Nomination of Leavitt for the Nobel Prize had to be halted because of her death.
A graduate of Radcliffe College, she worked at the Harvard College Observatory as a human computer, tasked with measuring photographic plates to catalog the positions and brightness of stars. This work led her to discover the relation between the luminosity and the period of Cepheid variables. Leavitt's discovery provided astronomers with the first standard candle with which to measure the distance to other galaxies.
Before Leavitt discovered the period-luminosity relationship for Cepheid variables (sometimes referred to as Leavitt's Law), the only techniques available to astronomers for measuring the distance to a star were based on stellar parallax. Such techniques can only be used for measuring distances out to several hundred light years. Leavitt's great insight was that while no one knew the distance to the Small Magellanic Cloud, all its stars must be roughly the same distance from Earth. Therefore, a relationship she discovered in it, between the period of certain variable stars (Cepheids) and their apparent brightness, reflected a relationship in their absolute brightness. Once calibrated by measuring the distance to a nearby star of the same type via parallax, her discovery became a measuring stick with vastly greater reach.
After Leavitt's death, Edwin Hubble found Cepheids in several nebulae, including the Andromeda Nebula, and, using Leavitt's Law, calculated that their distance was far too great to be part of the Milky Way and were separate galaxies in their own right. This settled astronomy's Great Debate over the size of the universe. Hubble later used Leavitt's Law, together with galactic redshifts, to establish that the universe is expanding (see Hubble's law).
Early life and education
The observatory at Harvard where Henrietta Swan Leavitt worked
Henrietta Swan Leavitt was born in Lancaster, Massachusetts, the daughter of Henrietta Swan Kendrick and Congregational church minister George Roswell Leavitt. She was a descendant of Deacon John Leavitt, an English Puritan tailor, who settled in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the early seventeenth century. (In the early Massachusetts records the family name was spelled "Levett".) Henrietta Leavitt remained deeply religious and committed to her church throughout her life.
Leavitt attended Oberlin College for two years before transferring to Harvard University's Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women (later Radcliffe College), where she received a bachelor degree in 1892. At Oberlin and Harvard, Leavitt studied a broad curriculum that included Latin and classical Greek, fine arts, philosophy, analytic geometry, and calculus. It wasn't until her fourth year of college that Leavitt took a course in astronomy, in which she earned an A−.: 27 Henrietta Leavitt (third from left) is shown working among "The Harvard Computers" who assisted astronomer Edward Charles Pickering at the Harvard College Observatory. The assistants also included Annie Jump Cannon, Williamina Fleming, and Antonia Maury.
Leavitt also began working as volunteer assistant, one of the "computers" at the Harvard College Observatory. In 1902, she was hired by the director of the observatory, Edward Charles Pickering, to measure and catalog the brightness of stars as they appeared in the observatory's photographic plate collection. (In the early 1900s, women were not allowed to operate telescopes, but the scientific data were on the photographic plates.)
In 1893, Leavitt obtained credits toward a graduate degree in astronomy for her work at the Harvard College Observatory, but due to chronic illness, she never completed that degree. In 1898, she became a member of the Harvard staff. Leavitt left the observatory to make two trips to Europe and completed a stint as an art assistant at Beloit College in Wisconsin. At this time, she contracted an illness that led to progressive hearing loss.
Astronomical career
Leavitt working at her desk in the Harvard College Observatory
Leavitt returned to the Harvard College Observatory in 1903. Because Leavitt was financially independent, Pickering initially did not have to pay her. Later, she received $0.30 (equivalent to $10.17 in 2023) an hour for her work,: 32 and only $10.50 (equivalent to $356.07 in 2023) per week. She was reportedly "hard-working, serious-minded …, little given to frivolous pursuits and selflessly devoted to her family, her church, and her career." At the Harvard Observatory, Leavitt worked alongside Annie Jump Cannon, who also was deaf.
Pickering assigned Leavitt to study variable stars of the Small and Large Magellanic Clouds, as recorded on photographic plates taken with the Bruce Astrograph of the Boyden Station of the Harvard Observatory in Arequipa, Peru. She identified 1,777 variable stars. In 1908, Leavitt published the results of her studies in the Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College, noting that the brighter variables had the longer period.
Plot from a paper prepared by Leavitt in 1912 - The horizontal axis is the logarithm of the period of the corresponding Cepheid, and the vertical axis is its magnitude. The lines drawn connect points corresponding respectively to the stars' minimum and maximum brightness.
In a 1912 paper, Leavitt examined the relationship between the periods and the brightness of a sample of 25 of the Cepheids variables in the Small Magellanic Cloud. The paper was communicated and signed by Edward Pickering, but the first sentence indicates that it was "prepared by Miss Leavitt". Leavitt made a graph of magnitude versus logarithm of period and determined that, in her own words,
A straight line can be readily drawn among each of the two series of points corresponding to maxima and minima, thus showing that there is a simple relation between the brightness of the Cepheid variables and their periods.
Leavitt then used the simplifying assumption that all of the Cepheids within the Small Magellanic Cloud were at approximately the same distance, so that their intrinsic brightness could be deduced from their apparent brightness as registered in the photographic plates, up to a scale factor, since the distance to the Magellanic Clouds were as yet unknown. She expressed the hope that parallaxes to some Cepheids would be measured. This soon occurred, allowing her period-luminosity scale to be calibrated. This reasoning allowed Leavitt to establish that the logarithm of the period is linearly related to the logarithm of the star's average intrinsic optical luminosity (the amount of power radiated by the star in the visible spectrum).
Henrietta found that Delta Cepheus was the "standard candle" that had long been sought by astronomers. A similar five-day cepheid variable in the Small Magellanic cloud she found to be about one ten-thousandth as bright as our five-day Delta Cepheus. Using the inverse-square law, she calculated that the Small Magellanic cloud was 100 times as far away as Delta Cepheus, thus having discovered a way to calculate the distance to another galaxy.
Leavitt also developed, and continued to refine, the Harvard Standard for photographic measurements, a logarithmic scale that orders stars by brightness greater than 17 magnitudes. She initially analyzed 299 plates from 13 telescopes to construct her scale, which was accepted by the International Committee of Photographic Magnitudes in 1913.
In 1913, Leavitt discovered T Pyxidis, a recurrent nova in the constellation Pyxis, and one of the most frequent recurrent novae in the sky, with eruptions observed in 1890, 1902, 1920, 1944, 1967, and 2011.
Leavitt was a member of Phi Beta Kappa, the American Association of University Women, the American Astronomical and Astrophysical Society, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and an honorary member of the American Association of Variable Star Observers. In 1921, when Harlow Shapley took over as director of the observatory, Leavitt was made head of stellar photometry. By the end of that year she had died from cancer.: 89
Scientific impact
Leavitt making measurements in 1921
According to science writer Jeremy Bernstein, "variable stars had been of interest for years, but when she was studying those plates, I doubt Pickering thought she would make a significant discovery—one that would eventually change astronomy." The period–luminosity relationship for Cepheids, now known as "Leavitt's law", made the stars the first "standard candle" in astronomy, allowing scientists to compute the distances to stars too remote for stellar parallax observations to be useful. One year after Leavitt reported her results, Ejnar Hertzsprung determined the distance of several Cepheids in the Milky Way; with this calibration, the distance to any Cepheid could be determined accurately.
Cepheids were soon detected in other galaxies, such as Andromeda (notably by Edwin Hubble in 1923–24), and they became an important part of the evidence that "spiral nebulae" are independent galaxies located far outside of the Milky Way. Thus, Leavitt's discovery would forever change humanity's picture of the universe, as it prompted Harlow Shapley to move the Sun from the center of the galaxy in the "Great Debate" and Edwin Hubble to move the Milky Way galaxy from the center of the universe.
Leavitt's discovery of an accurate way to measure distances on an inter-galactic scale, paved the way for modern astronomy's understanding of the structure and scale of the universe. The accomplishments of Edwin Hubble, the American astronomer who established that the universe is expanding, also were made possible by Leavitt's groundbreaking research.
Hubble often said that Leavitt deserved the Nobel Prize for her work. Mathematician Gösta Mittag-Leffler, a member of the Swedish Academy of Sciences, tried to nominate her for that prize in 1925, only to learn that she had died of cancer three years earlier.: 118 (The Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously.)
Cepheid variables allow astronomers to measure distances up to about 60 million light years. Even greater distances can now be measured by using the theoretical maximum mass of white dwarfs calculated by Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.
Illness and death
The Leavitt family monument in Cambridge Cemetery
Leavitt's scientific work at Harvard was frequently interrupted by illness and family obligations. Her early death at the age of 53, from stomach cancer, was seen as a tragedy by her colleagues for reasons that went beyond her scientific achievements. Her colleague Solon I. Bailey wrote in his obituary for Leavitt that "she had the happy, joyful, faculty of appreciating all that was worthy and lovable in others, and was possessed of a nature so full of sunshine that, to her, all of life became beautiful and full of meaning.": 28
She was buried in the Leavitt family plot at Cambridge Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts."Sitting at the top of a gentle hill", writes George Johnson in his biography of Leavitt, "the spot is marked by a tall hexagonal monument, on top of which sits a globe cradled on a draped marble pedestal. Her uncle Erasmus Darwin Leavitt and his family also are buried there, along with other Leavitts." A plaque memorializing Henrietta and her two siblings, Mira and Roswell, is mounted on one side of the monument. Nearby are the graves of Henry and William James.: 90
Posthumous honors
The asteroid 5383 Leavitt and the crater Leavitt on the Moon are named after her to honor deaf men and women who have worked as astronomers.
One of the ASAS-SN telescopes, located in the McDonald Observatory in Texas, is named in her honor.
In popular culture
George Johnson wrote a 2005 biography, Miss Leavitt's Stars, which showcases the triumphs of women's progress in science through the story of Leavitt.
Robert Burleigh wrote the 2013 biography Look Up!: Henrietta Leavitt, Pioneering Woman Astronomer for a younger audience. It is written for four- to eight-year-olds.
Lauren Gunderson wrote a 2015 play, Silent Sky, which followed Leavitt's journey from her acceptance at Harvard to her death.
Theo Strassell wrote a play, The Troubling Things We Do, an absurdist piece that details the life of Henrietta Leavitt, among other scientists from her era.
Dava Sobel's book The Glass Universe chronicles the work of the women analyzing images taken of the stars at the Harvard College Observatory.
The BBC included Leavitt in their Missed Genius series designed to celebrate individuals from diverse backgrounds who have had a profound effect on our world.
Central Square Theater commissioned a play, The Women Who Mapped The Stars, by Joyce Van Dyke, as part of the Brit D'Arbeloff Women in Science Production Series, staged by the Nora Theatre Company. The play features Leavitt's story, among others.
See also
List of female scientists
List of deaf people
Women in science
Timeline of women in science
Human computer
Cepheids
References
^ a b Johnson, Kirk (March 27, 2024). "Overlooked No More: Henrietta Leavitt, Who Unraveled Mysteries of the Stars - The portrait that emerged from her discovery, called Leavitt's Law, showed that the universe was hundreds of times bigger than astronomers had imagined". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 27, 2024. Retrieved March 28, 2024.
^ "Henrietta Swan Leavitt – Biography". Maths History. August 2017. Retrieved December 10, 2022.
^ a b c d "1912: Henrietta Leavitt Discovers the Distance Key." Everyday Cosmology. N.p., n.d. Web. October 20, 2014. "1912: Henrietta Leavitt Discovers the Distance Key". Everyday Cosmology. Archived from the original on November 11, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ a b c Singh, Simon (2005). Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe. Harper Perennial. Bibcode:2004biba.book.....S. ISBN 978-0-00-715252-0.
^ a b c d e f g Johnson, George (2005). Miss Leavitt's Stars: The Untold Story of the Woman Who Discovered How To Measure the Universe (1st ed.). New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-05128-5.
^ a b Leavitt, Henrietta S. (1908). "1777 variables in the Magellanic Clouds". Annals of Harvard College Observatory. 60: 87–108. Bibcode:1908AnHar..60...87L.
^ a b c d e Leavitt, Henrietta S.; Pickering, Edward C. (March 1912). "Periods of 25 Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud". Harvard College Observatory Circular. 173: 1–3. Bibcode:1912HarCi.173....1L.
^ a b c Fernie, J.D. (December 1969). "The Period–Luminosity Relation: A Historical Review". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 81 (483): 707. Bibcode:1969PASP...81..707F. doi:10.1086/128847.
^ Lamb, Gregory M. (July 5, 2005). "Before computers, there were these humans..." Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Byers, Nina, ed. (2006). Out of the Shadows: Contributions of Twentieth-century Women to Physics (Reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-521-82197-1.
^ Alan Lightman (October 22, 2010). The Discoveries: Great Breakthroughs in 20th-Century Science. Knopf Canada. pp. 175–. ISBN 978-0-307-36986-4.
^ "Henrietta Swan Leavitt | Biography & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved May 2, 2023.
^ a b McNeill, Leila. "The 'star-fiend' who unlocked the Universe". www.bbc.com. Retrieved December 27, 2022.
^ Gross, Liza. "Super Novas: Looking at the Sky Through a Glass Ceiling: Women in Astronomy". Origins: Hubble Telescope: A View To The Edge Of Space. Exploratorium. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Kidwell, Peggy Aldrich (2000). "Leavitt, Henrietta Swan". American National Biography Online. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1300973.
^ Hockey, Thomas (2007). Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-35133-9.
^ a b Hamblin, Jacob Darwin (2005). Science in the Early Twentieth Century. ABC-CLIO. pp. 181–184. ISBN 978-1-85109-665-7.
^ Sobel, Dava (2016). The Glass Universe. Viking. p. 113. ISBN 9780698148697.
^ Malatesta, Kerri (April 13, 2010). "Delta Cephei". American Association of Variable Star Observers. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Madore, Barry F.; Rigby, Jane; Freedman, Wendy L.; Persson, S. E.; Sturch, Laura; Mager, Violet (2009). "The Cepheid Period–Luminosity Relation (The Leavitt Law) at Mid-Infrared Wavelengths. III. Cepheids in NGC 6822". The Astrophysical Journal. 693 (1): 936–939. arXiv:0812.0186. Bibcode:2009ApJ...693..936M. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/693/1/936. S2CID 6028335.
^ "Henrietta Leavitt". SheIsAnAstronomer.org. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Leavitt, Henrietta S.; Pickering, Edward C. (May 1913). "25 New Variable Stars, Principally in Harvard Maps 39 and 45". Harvard College Observatory Circular. 179: 1–4. Bibcode:1913HarCi.179....1L.
^ Bernstein, Jeremy (July 17, 2005). "Book review: George Johnson's Miss Leavitt's Stars". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Ventrudo, Brian (November 19, 2009). "Mile Markers to the Galaxies". One-Minute Astronomer. Archived from the original on November 9, 2010. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Expandierende Raumzeit und Dunkle Energie, de:Josef M. Gaßner, about Henrietta Leavitt, March 15, 2016.
^ Expandierende Raumzeit und Dunkle Energie, de:Josef M. Gaßner, about Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, March 15, 2016.
^ "Henrietta Swan Leavitt". Famous Scientists. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Schmadel, Lutz (2003). Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Volume 1. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 461. ISBN 9783540002383.
^ "Moon Nomenclature". NASA. Archived from the original on February 23, 2013. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ @superasassn (September 21, 2017). "Our new "Henrietta Leavitt" telescope now being deployed at @LCO_Global site @mcdonaldobs. HET big dome in the background. @MooreFound" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
^ "Measuring the Universe in 'Miss Leavitt's Stars'". NPR. July 10, 2015. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Burleigh, Robert (2013). Look Up!. Simon & Schuster/Paula Wiseman Books. ISBN 9781416958192.
^ Jones, Kenneth (December 28, 2010). "Silent Sky, About a Female Astronomer's Discovery, Will Premiere at South Coast Rep". Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ strassell, theo (2021). The Troubling Things We Do.
^ Davis, Nicola (January 8, 2017). "The Glass Universe by Dava Sobel - review". the Guardian. Retrieved October 7, 2022.
^ Greenham, David (May 4, 2018). "Theater Review: The Women Who Mapped the Stars — Heroines of the Creative Mind". Retrieved January 6, 2023.
Further reading
Lang, Harry G. (1994). Silence of the Spheres. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey. ISBN 978-0-89789-368-8.
Sources
Johnson, George (2005). Miss Leavitt's Stars: The Untold Story of the Woman Who Discovered How to Measure the Universe. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-05128-5.
Korneck, Helena (October 1982). "Frauen in der Astronomie". Sterne und Weltraum (in German). No. 10. pp. 412–414. ISSN 0039-1263.
Lorenzen, Michael (1997). "Henrietta Swan Leavitt". In Shearer, Barbara; Shearer, Benjamin (eds.). Notable Women in the Physical Sciences: A Biographical Dictionary. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. pp. 233–237. ISBN 0-313-29303-1.
Johnson, Kirk (March 27, 2024). "Overlooked No More: Henrietta Leavitt, Who Unraveled Mysteries of the Stars". The New York Times. Retrieved May 5, 2024.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to Henrietta Swan Leavitt.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Henrietta Swan Leavitt.
Women in Astronomy Bibliography from the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
Periods of 25 Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud. Edward C. Pickering, March 3, 1912; credits Leavitt.
Henrietta Swan Leavitt: a Star of the Brightest Magnitude ACS/Women Chemists Committee's biography with several links
Henrietta Swan Leavitt, Tim Hunter (astronomer), The Grasslands Observatory
Henrietta Swan Leavitt's genealogy
Henrietta Swan Leavitt – Lady of Luminosity from the Woman Astronomer website
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Henrietta Swan Leavitt", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
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This work led her to discover the relation between the luminosity and the period of Cepheid variables. Leavitt's discovery provided astronomers with the first standard candle with which to measure the distance to other galaxies.[6][7]Before Leavitt discovered the period-luminosity relationship for Cepheid variables (sometimes referred to as Leavitt's Law), the only techniques available to astronomers for measuring the distance to a star were based on stellar parallax. Such techniques can only be used for measuring distances out to several hundred light years. Leavitt's great insight was that while no one knew the distance to the Small Magellanic Cloud, all its stars must be roughly the same distance from Earth. Therefore, a relationship she discovered in it, between the period of certain variable stars (Cepheids) and their apparent brightness, reflected a relationship in their absolute brightness. Once calibrated by measuring the distance to a nearby star of the same type via parallax, her discovery became a measuring stick with vastly greater reach.[8]After Leavitt's death, Edwin Hubble found Cepheids in several nebulae, including the Andromeda Nebula, and, using Leavitt's Law, calculated that their distance was far too great to be part of the Milky Way and were separate galaxies in their own right. This settled astronomy's Great Debate over the size of the universe. Hubble later used Leavitt's Law, together with galactic redshifts, to establish that the universe is expanding (see Hubble's law).","title":"Henrietta Swan Leavitt"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Harvard-Observatory-1899.jpg"},{"link_name":"observatory at Harvard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_College_Observatory"},{"link_name":"Lancaster, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancaster,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Congregational church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregational_church"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CSMonitor-9"},{"link_name":"John Leavitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Leavitt"},{"link_name":"Puritan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puritan"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Bay Colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Byers-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lightman2010-11"},{"link_name":"Oberlin College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberlin_College"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_Collegiate_Instruction_of_Women"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Singh-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-carnegiescience-3"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Johnson-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg"},{"link_name":"Annie Jump Cannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Jump_Cannon"},{"link_name":"Williamina Fleming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williamina_Fleming"},{"link_name":"Antonia Maury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonia_Maury"},{"link_name":"\"computers\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Computers"},{"link_name":"Harvard College Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_College_Observatory"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Edward Charles Pickering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Charles_Pickering"},{"link_name":"photographic plate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_plate"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcneill-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Exploratorium-14"},{"link_name":"dubious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement"},{"link_name":"discuss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Henrietta_Swan_Leavitt#quote:_women_were_not_allowed_to_operate_telescopes"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kidwell-15"},{"link_name":"Beloit College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beloit_College"},{"link_name":"hearing loss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_loss"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hockey-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hamblin-17"}],"text":"The observatory at Harvard where Henrietta Swan Leavitt workedHenrietta Swan Leavitt was born in Lancaster, Massachusetts, the daughter of Henrietta Swan Kendrick and Congregational church minister George Roswell Leavitt.[9] She was a descendant of Deacon John Leavitt, an English Puritan tailor, who settled in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the early seventeenth century.[10] (In the early Massachusetts records the family name was spelled \"Levett\".) Henrietta Leavitt remained deeply religious and committed to her church throughout her life.[11]Leavitt attended Oberlin College for two years before transferring to Harvard University's Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women (later Radcliffe College), where she received a bachelor degree in 1892.[4] At Oberlin and Harvard, Leavitt studied a broad curriculum that included Latin and classical Greek, fine arts, philosophy, analytic geometry, and calculus.[3][failed verification] It wasn't until her fourth year of college that Leavitt took a course in astronomy, in which she earned an A−.[5]: 27Henrietta Leavitt (third from left) is shown working among \"The Harvard Computers\" who assisted astronomer Edward Charles Pickering at the Harvard College Observatory. The assistants also included Annie Jump Cannon, Williamina Fleming, and Antonia Maury.Leavitt also began working as volunteer assistant, one of the \"computers\" at the Harvard College Observatory.[12] In 1902, she was hired by the director of the observatory, Edward Charles Pickering, to measure and catalog the brightness of stars as they appeared in the observatory's photographic plate collection. (In the early 1900s, women were not allowed to operate telescopes,[13] but the scientific data were on the photographic plates.)[14][dubious – discuss]In 1893, Leavitt obtained credits toward a graduate degree in astronomy for her work at the Harvard College Observatory, but due to chronic illness, she never completed that degree.[15] In 1898, she became a member of the Harvard staff. Leavitt left the observatory to make two trips to Europe and completed a stint as an art assistant at Beloit College in Wisconsin. At this time, she contracted an illness that led to progressive hearing loss.[16][17]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leavitt_henrietta_b1.jpg"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hamblin-17"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Johnson-5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-carnegiescience-3"},{"link_name":"Annie Jump Cannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Jump_Cannon"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sobel-18"},{"link_name":"variable stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_star"},{"link_name":"Small","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloud"},{"link_name":"Large Magellanic Clouds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloud"},{"link_name":"Boyden Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyden_Station"},{"link_name":"Arequipa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arequipa"},{"link_name":"Peru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1777Variables-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HSLeavittHSCr13Fig2_1912.jpg"},{"link_name":"magnitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnitude_(astronomy)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VariableStars-7"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Small Magellanic Cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloud"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VariableStars-7"},{"link_name":"Cepheid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cepheid"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VariableStars-7"},{"link_name":"intrinsic brightness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_brightness"},{"link_name":"apparent brightness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent_brightness"},{"link_name":"parallaxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax_in_astronomy"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PLhistory-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VariableStars-7"},{"link_name":"logarithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithm"},{"link_name":"period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency"},{"link_name":"luminosity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminosity"},{"link_name":"visible spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_spectrum"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Delta Cepheus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Cephei"},{"link_name":"standard candle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminosity"},{"link_name":"cepheid variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cepheid_variable"},{"link_name":"Magellanic cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magellanic_Clouds"},{"link_name":"inverse-square law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse-square_law"},{"link_name":"International Committee of Photographic Magnitudes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Committee_of_Photographic_Magnitudes&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"T Pyxidis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_Pyxidis"},{"link_name":"recurrent nova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova#Recurrent_novae"},{"link_name":"Pyxis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyxis"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Phi Beta Kappa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Beta_Kappa_Society"},{"link_name":"American Association of University Women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Association_of_University_Women"},{"link_name":"American Astronomical and Astrophysical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Astronomical_Society"},{"link_name":"American Association for the Advancement of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science"},{"link_name":"American Association of Variable Star Observers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Association_of_Variable_Star_Observers"},{"link_name":"Harlow Shapley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlow_Shapley"},{"link_name":"photometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometry_(astronomy)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Johnson-5"}],"text":"Leavitt working at her desk in the Harvard College Observatory [17]Leavitt returned to the Harvard College Observatory in 1903. Because Leavitt was financially independent, Pickering initially did not have to pay her. Later, she received $0.30 (equivalent to $10.17 in 2023) an hour for her work,[5]: 32 and only $10.50 (equivalent to $356.07 in 2023) per week. She was reportedly \"hard-working, serious-minded …, little given to frivolous pursuits and selflessly devoted to her family, her church, and her career.\"[3] At the Harvard Observatory, Leavitt worked alongside Annie Jump Cannon, who also was deaf.[18]Pickering assigned Leavitt to study variable stars of the Small and Large Magellanic Clouds, as recorded on photographic plates taken with the Bruce Astrograph of the Boyden Station of the Harvard Observatory in Arequipa, Peru. She identified 1,777 variable stars. In 1908, Leavitt published the results of her studies in the Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College, noting that the brighter variables had the longer period.[6]Plot from a paper prepared by Leavitt in 1912 - The horizontal axis is the logarithm of the period of the corresponding Cepheid, and the vertical axis is its magnitude. The lines drawn connect points corresponding respectively to the stars' minimum and maximum brightness.[7][19]In a 1912 paper, Leavitt examined the relationship between the periods and the brightness of a sample of 25 of the Cepheids variables in the Small Magellanic Cloud. The paper was communicated and signed by Edward Pickering, but the first sentence indicates that it was \"prepared by Miss Leavitt\".[7] Leavitt made a graph of magnitude versus logarithm of period and determined that, in her own words,A straight line can be readily drawn among each of the two series of points corresponding to maxima and minima, thus showing that there is a simple relation between the brightness of the Cepheid variables and their periods.[7]Leavitt then used the simplifying assumption that all of the Cepheids within the Small Magellanic Cloud were at approximately the same distance, so that their intrinsic brightness could be deduced from their apparent brightness as registered in the photographic plates, up to a scale factor, since the distance to the Magellanic Clouds were as yet unknown. She expressed the hope that parallaxes to some Cepheids would be measured. This soon occurred,[8] allowing her period-luminosity scale to be calibrated.[7] This reasoning allowed Leavitt to establish that the logarithm of the period is linearly related to the logarithm of the star's average intrinsic optical luminosity (the amount of power radiated by the star in the visible spectrum).[20]Henrietta found that Delta Cepheus was the \"standard candle\" that had long been sought by astronomers. A similar five-day cepheid variable in the Small Magellanic cloud she found to be about one ten-thousandth as bright as our five-day Delta Cepheus. Using the inverse-square law, she calculated that the Small Magellanic cloud was 100 times as far away as Delta Cepheus, thus having discovered a way to calculate the distance to another galaxy.Leavitt also developed, and continued to refine, the Harvard Standard for photographic measurements, a logarithmic scale that orders stars by brightness greater than 17 magnitudes. She initially analyzed 299 plates from 13 telescopes to construct her scale, which was accepted by the International Committee of Photographic Magnitudes in 1913.[21]In 1913, Leavitt discovered T Pyxidis, a recurrent nova in the constellation Pyxis, and one of the most frequent recurrent novae in the sky, with eruptions observed in 1890, 1902, 1920, 1944, 1967, and 2011.[22]Leavitt was a member of Phi Beta Kappa, the American Association of University Women, the American Astronomical and Astrophysical Society, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and an honorary member of the American Association of Variable Star Observers. In 1921, when Harlow Shapley took over as director of the observatory, Leavitt was made head of stellar photometry. By the end of that year she had died from cancer.[5]: 89","title":"Astronomical career"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Henrietta_Swan_Leavitt_1921.png"},{"link_name":"Jeremy Bernstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Bernstein"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"standard candle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_candle"},{"link_name":"distances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_distance_ladder"},{"link_name":"stellar parallax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_parallax"},{"link_name":"Ejnar Hertzsprung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejnar_Hertzsprung"},{"link_name":"Milky Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PLhistory-8"},{"link_name":"Andromeda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy"},{"link_name":"spiral nebulae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral_galaxy"},{"link_name":"Milky Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way"},{"link_name":"Harlow Shapley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlow_Shapley"},{"link_name":"Great Debate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Debate_(astronomy)"},{"link_name":"Edwin Hubble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Hubble"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-carnegiescience-3"},{"link_name":"Edwin Hubble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Hubble"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Gösta Mittag-Leffler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6sta_Mittag-Leffler"},{"link_name":"Swedish Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Singh-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Johnson-5"},{"link_name":"white dwarfs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_dwarf"},{"link_name":"Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"Leavitt making measurements in 1921According to science writer Jeremy Bernstein, \"variable stars had been of interest for years, but when she was studying those plates, I doubt Pickering thought she would make a significant discovery—one that would eventually change astronomy.\"[23] The period–luminosity relationship for Cepheids, now known as \"Leavitt's law\", made the stars the first \"standard candle\" in astronomy, allowing scientists to compute the distances to stars too remote for stellar parallax observations to be useful. One year after Leavitt reported her results, Ejnar Hertzsprung determined the distance of several Cepheids in the Milky Way; with this calibration, the distance to any Cepheid could be determined accurately.[8]Cepheids were soon detected in other galaxies, such as Andromeda (notably by Edwin Hubble in 1923–24), and they became an important part of the evidence that \"spiral nebulae\" are independent galaxies located far outside of the Milky Way. Thus, Leavitt's discovery would forever change humanity's picture of the universe, as it prompted Harlow Shapley to move the Sun from the center of the galaxy in the \"Great Debate\" and Edwin Hubble to move the Milky Way galaxy from the center of the universe.Leavitt's discovery of an accurate way to measure distances on an inter-galactic scale, paved the way for modern astronomy's understanding of the structure and scale of the universe.[3] The accomplishments of Edwin Hubble, the American astronomer who established that the universe is expanding, also were made possible by Leavitt's groundbreaking research.Hubble often said that Leavitt deserved the Nobel Prize for her work.[24] Mathematician Gösta Mittag-Leffler, a member of the Swedish Academy of Sciences, tried to nominate her for that prize in 1925, only to learn that she had died of cancer three years earlier.[4][5]: 118 (The Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously.)Cepheid variables allow astronomers to measure distances up to about 60 million light years. Even greater distances can now be measured by using the theoretical maximum mass of white dwarfs calculated by Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.[25][26]","title":"Scientific impact"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Henrietta_Swan_Leavitt_marker.agr.jpg"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Solon I. Bailey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solon_I._Bailey"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Johnson-5"},{"link_name":"Cambridge Cemetery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cambridge_Cemetery&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cambridge, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Erasmus Darwin Leavitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus_Darwin_Leavitt,_Jr."},{"link_name":"Henry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_James"},{"link_name":"William James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Johnson-5"}],"text":"The Leavitt family monument in Cambridge CemeteryLeavitt's scientific work at Harvard was frequently interrupted by illness and family obligations. Her early death at the age of 53, from stomach cancer,[27] was seen as a tragedy by her colleagues for reasons that went beyond her scientific achievements. Her colleague Solon I. Bailey wrote in his obituary for Leavitt that \"she had the happy, joyful, faculty of appreciating all that was worthy and lovable in others, and was possessed of a nature so full of sunshine that, to her, all of life became beautiful and full of meaning.\"[5]: 28She was buried in the Leavitt family plot at Cambridge Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.\"Sitting at the top of a gentle hill\", writes George Johnson in his biography of Leavitt, \"the spot is marked by a tall hexagonal monument, on top of which sits a globe cradled on a draped marble pedestal. Her uncle Erasmus Darwin Leavitt and his family also are buried there, along with other Leavitts.\" A plaque memorializing Henrietta and her two siblings, Mira and Roswell, is mounted on one side of the monument. Nearby are the graves of Henry and William James.[5]: 90","title":"Illness and death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"asteroid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid"},{"link_name":"5383 Leavitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5383_Leavitt"},{"link_name":"Leavitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leavitt_(crater)"},{"link_name":"Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"ASAS-SN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASAS-SN"},{"link_name":"McDonald Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonald_Observatory"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"text":"The asteroid 5383 Leavitt and the crater Leavitt on the Moon are named after her to honor deaf men and women who have worked as astronomers.[28][29]\nOne of the ASAS-SN telescopes, located in the McDonald Observatory in Texas, is named in her honor.[30]","title":"Posthumous honors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Johnson_(writer)"},{"link_name":"Miss Leavitt's Stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miss_Leavitt%27s_Stars&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Lauren Gunderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauren_Gunderson"},{"link_name":"Silent Sky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silent_Sky&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"The Troubling Things We Do","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Troubling_Things_We_Do&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"absurdist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absurdist_fiction"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Dava Sobel's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dava_Sobel"},{"link_name":"The Glass Universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Glass_Universe&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Missed Genius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Missed_Genius&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcneill-13"},{"link_name":"Central Square Theater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Square_Theater"},{"link_name":"The Women Who Mapped The Stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Women_Who_Mapped_The_Stars&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Joyce Van Dyke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joyce_Van_Dyke&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"text":"George Johnson wrote a 2005 biography, Miss Leavitt's Stars, which showcases the triumphs of women's progress in science through the story of Leavitt.[31]Robert Burleigh wrote the 2013 biography Look Up!: Henrietta Leavitt, Pioneering Woman Astronomer for a younger audience. It is written for four- to eight-year-olds.[32]Lauren Gunderson wrote a 2015 play, Silent Sky, which followed Leavitt's journey from her acceptance at Harvard to her death.[33]Theo Strassell wrote a play, The Troubling Things We Do, an absurdist piece that details the life of Henrietta Leavitt, among other scientists from her era.[34]Dava Sobel's book The Glass Universe chronicles the work of the women analyzing images taken of the stars at the Harvard College Observatory.[35]The BBC included Leavitt in their Missed Genius series designed to celebrate individuals from diverse backgrounds who have had a profound effect on our world.[13]Central Square Theater commissioned a play, The Women Who Mapped The Stars, by Joyce Van Dyke, as part of the Brit D'Arbeloff Women in Science Production Series, staged by the Nora Theatre Company. The play features Leavitt's story, among others.[36]","title":"In popular culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-89789-368-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89789-368-8"}],"text":"Lang, Harry G. (1994). Silence of the Spheres. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey. ISBN 978-0-89789-368-8.","title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Johnson, George","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Johnson_(writer)"},{"link_name":"Miss Leavitt's Stars: The Untold Story of the Woman Who Discovered How to Measure the Universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/missleavittsstar00john"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-393-05128-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05128-5"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0039-1263","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0039-1263"},{"link_name":"Notable Women in the Physical Sciences: A Biographical Dictionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/isbn_9780313293030/page/233"},{"link_name":"233–237","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/isbn_9780313293030/page/233"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-313-29303-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-29303-1"},{"link_name":"\"Overlooked No More: Henrietta Leavitt, Who Unraveled Mysteries of the Stars\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nytimes.com/2024/03/27/obituaries/henrietta-leavitt-overlooked.html"}],"text":"Johnson, George (2005). Miss Leavitt's Stars: The Untold Story of the Woman Who Discovered How to Measure the Universe. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-05128-5.\nKorneck, Helena (October 1982). \"Frauen in der Astronomie\". Sterne und Weltraum (in German). No. 10. pp. 412–414. ISSN 0039-1263.\nLorenzen, Michael (1997). \"Henrietta Swan Leavitt\". In Shearer, Barbara; Shearer, Benjamin (eds.). Notable Women in the Physical Sciences: A Biographical Dictionary. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. pp. 233–237. ISBN 0-313-29303-1.\nJohnson, Kirk (March 27, 2024). \"Overlooked No More: Henrietta Leavitt, Who Unraveled Mysteries of the Stars\". The New York Times. Retrieved May 5, 2024.","title":"Sources"}]
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[{"image_text":"The observatory at Harvard where Henrietta Swan Leavitt worked","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Harvard-Observatory-1899.jpg/220px-Harvard-Observatory-1899.jpg"},{"image_text":"Henrietta Leavitt (third from left) is shown working among \"The Harvard Computers\" who assisted astronomer Edward Charles Pickering at the Harvard College Observatory. The assistants also included Annie Jump Cannon, Williamina Fleming, and Antonia Maury.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg/220px-Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg"},{"image_text":"Leavitt working at her desk in the Harvard College Observatory [17]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Leavitt_henrietta_b1.jpg/270px-Leavitt_henrietta_b1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Plot from a paper prepared by Leavitt in 1912 - The horizontal axis is the logarithm of the period of the corresponding Cepheid, and the vertical axis is its magnitude. The lines drawn connect points corresponding respectively to the stars' minimum and maximum brightness.[7][19]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/HSLeavittHSCr13Fig2_1912.jpg/250px-HSLeavittHSCr13Fig2_1912.jpg"},{"image_text":"Leavitt making measurements in 1921","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Henrietta_Swan_Leavitt_1921.png"},{"image_text":"The Leavitt family monument in Cambridge Cemetery","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Henrietta_Swan_Leavitt_marker.agr.jpg/200px-Henrietta_Swan_Leavitt_marker.agr.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"List of female scientists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_female_scientists"},{"title":"List of deaf people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deaf_people"},{"title":"Women in science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"},{"title":"Timeline of women in science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science"},{"title":"Human computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_computer"},{"title":"Cepheids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cepheid_variable"}]
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[{"reference":"Johnson, Kirk (March 27, 2024). \"Overlooked No More: Henrietta Leavitt, Who Unraveled Mysteries of the Stars - The portrait that emerged from her discovery, called Leavitt's Law, showed that the universe was hundreds of times bigger than astronomers had imagined\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 27, 2024. Retrieved March 28, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/27/obituaries/henrietta-leavitt-overlooked.html","url_text":"\"Overlooked No More: Henrietta Leavitt, Who Unraveled Mysteries of the Stars - The portrait that emerged from her discovery, called Leavitt's Law, showed that the universe was hundreds of times bigger than astronomers had imagined\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"},{"url":"https://archive.today/20240327232341/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/27/obituaries/henrietta-leavitt-overlooked.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Henrietta Swan Leavitt – Biography\". Maths History. August 2017. Retrieved December 10, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Leavitt/","url_text":"\"Henrietta Swan Leavitt – Biography\""}]},{"reference":"\"1912: Henrietta Leavitt Discovers the Distance Key\". Everyday Cosmology. Archived from the original on November 11, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201111225447/https://cosmology.carnegiescience.edu/timeline/1912","url_text":"\"1912: Henrietta Leavitt Discovers the Distance Key\""},{"url":"https://cosmology.carnegiescience.edu/timeline/1912","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Singh, Simon (2005). Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe. Harper Perennial. Bibcode:2004biba.book.....S. ISBN 978-0-00-715252-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Singh","url_text":"Singh, Simon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004biba.book.....S","url_text":"2004biba.book.....S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-715252-0","url_text":"978-0-00-715252-0"}]},{"reference":"Johnson, George (2005). Miss Leavitt's Stars: The Untold Story of the Woman Who Discovered How To Measure the Universe (1st ed.). New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-05128-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/missleavittsstar00john","url_text":"Miss Leavitt's Stars: The Untold Story of the Woman Who Discovered How To Measure the Universe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05128-5","url_text":"978-0-393-05128-5"}]},{"reference":"Leavitt, Henrietta S. (1908). \"1777 variables in the Magellanic Clouds\". Annals of Harvard College Observatory. 60: 87–108. Bibcode:1908AnHar..60...87L.","urls":[{"url":"https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1908AnHar..60...87L","url_text":"\"1777 variables in the Magellanic Clouds\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1908AnHar..60...87L","url_text":"1908AnHar..60...87L"}]},{"reference":"Leavitt, Henrietta S.; Pickering, Edward C. (March 1912). \"Periods of 25 Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud\". Harvard College Observatory Circular. 173: 1–3. Bibcode:1912HarCi.173....1L.","urls":[{"url":"http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1912HarCi.173....1L/0000003.000.html","url_text":"\"Periods of 25 Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1912HarCi.173....1L","url_text":"1912HarCi.173....1L"}]},{"reference":"Fernie, J.D. (December 1969). \"The Period–Luminosity Relation: A Historical Review\". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 81 (483): 707. Bibcode:1969PASP...81..707F. doi:10.1086/128847.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F128847","url_text":"\"The Period–Luminosity Relation: A Historical Review\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969PASP...81..707F","url_text":"1969PASP...81..707F"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F128847","url_text":"10.1086/128847"}]},{"reference":"Lamb, Gregory M. (July 5, 2005). \"Before computers, there were these humans...\" Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved January 1, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0705/p15s01-bogn.html","url_text":"\"Before computers, there were these humans...\""}]},{"reference":"Byers, Nina, ed. (2006). Out of the Shadows: Contributions of Twentieth-century Women to Physics (Reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-521-82197-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/outofshadowscont0000unse/page/62","url_text":"Out of the Shadows: Contributions of Twentieth-century Women to Physics"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/outofshadowscont0000unse/page/62","url_text":"62"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82197-1","url_text":"978-0-521-82197-1"}]},{"reference":"Alan Lightman (October 22, 2010). The Discoveries: Great Breakthroughs in 20th-Century Science. Knopf Canada. pp. 175–. 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(May 1913). \"25 New Variable Stars, Principally in Harvard Maps 39 and 45\". Harvard College Observatory Circular. 179: 1–4. Bibcode:1913HarCi.179....1L.","urls":[{"url":"https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1913HarCi.179....1L/0000001.000.html","url_text":"\"25 New Variable Stars, Principally in Harvard Maps 39 and 45\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1913HarCi.179....1L","url_text":"1913HarCi.179....1L"}]},{"reference":"Bernstein, Jeremy (July 17, 2005). \"Book review: George Johnson's Miss Leavitt's Stars\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 1, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/books/la-bk-johnson071705-story.html","url_text":"\"Book review: George Johnson's Miss Leavitt's Stars\""}]},{"reference":"Ventrudo, Brian (November 19, 2009). \"Mile Markers to the Galaxies\". One-Minute Astronomer. Archived from the original on November 9, 2010. 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ISSN 0039-1263.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0039-1263","url_text":"0039-1263"}]},{"reference":"Lorenzen, Michael (1997). \"Henrietta Swan Leavitt\". In Shearer, Barbara; Shearer, Benjamin (eds.). Notable Women in the Physical Sciences: A Biographical Dictionary. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. pp. 233–237. ISBN 0-313-29303-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780313293030/page/233","url_text":"Notable Women in the Physical Sciences: A Biographical Dictionary"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780313293030/page/233","url_text":"233–237"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-29303-1","url_text":"0-313-29303-1"}]},{"reference":"Johnson, Kirk (March 27, 2024). \"Overlooked No More: Henrietta Leavitt, Who Unraveled Mysteries of the Stars\". The New York Times. 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iverson_bracket
|
Iverson bracket
|
["1 Properties","2 Examples","2.1 Double-counting rule","2.2 Summation interchange","2.3 Counting","2.4 Simplification of special cases","2.5 Common functions","3 Formulation in terms of usual functions","4 Notational variations","5 See also","6 References"]
|
Mathematical notation
In mathematics, the Iverson bracket, named after Kenneth E. Iverson, is a notation that generalises the Kronecker delta, which is the Iverson bracket of the statement x = y. It maps any statement to a function of the free variables in that statement. This function is defined to take the value 1 for the values of the variables for which the statement is true, and takes the value 0 otherwise. It is generally denoted by putting the statement inside square brackets:
[
P
]
=
{
1
if
P
is true;
0
otherwise.
{\displaystyle ={\begin{cases}1&{\text{if }}P{\text{ is true;}}\\0&{\text{otherwise.}}\end{cases}}}
In other words, the Iverson bracket of a statement is the indicator function of the set of values for which the statement is true.
The Iverson bracket allows using capital-sigma notation without restriction on the summation index. That is, for any property
P
(
k
)
{\displaystyle P(k)}
of the integer
k
{\displaystyle k}
, one can rewrite the restricted sum
∑
k
:
P
(
k
)
f
(
k
)
{\displaystyle \sum _{k:P(k)}f(k)}
in the unrestricted form
∑
k
f
(
k
)
⋅
[
P
(
k
)
]
{\displaystyle \sum _{k}f(k)\cdot }
. With this convention,
f
(
k
)
{\displaystyle f(k)}
does not need to be defined for the values of k for which the Iverson bracket equals 0; that is, a summand
f
(
k
)
[
false
]
{\displaystyle f(k)}
must evaluate to 0 regardless of whether
f
(
k
)
{\displaystyle f(k)}
is defined.
The notation was originally introduced by Kenneth E. Iverson in his programming language APL, though restricted to single relational operators enclosed in parentheses, while the generalisation to arbitrary statements, notational restriction to square brackets, and applications to summation, was advocated by Donald Knuth to avoid ambiguity in parenthesized logical expressions.
Properties
There is a direct correspondence between arithmetic on Iverson brackets, logic, and set operations. For instance, let A and B be sets and
P
(
k
1
,
…
)
{\displaystyle P(k_{1},\dots )}
any property of integers; then we have
[
P
∧
Q
]
=
[
P
]
[
Q
]
;
[
P
∨
Q
]
=
[
P
]
+
[
Q
]
−
[
P
]
[
Q
]
;
[
¬
P
]
=
1
−
[
P
]
;
[
P
XOR
Q
]
=
|
[
P
]
−
[
Q
]
|
;
[
k
∈
A
]
+
[
k
∈
B
]
=
[
k
∈
A
∪
B
]
+
[
k
∈
A
∩
B
]
;
[
x
∈
A
∩
B
]
=
[
x
∈
A
]
[
x
∈
B
]
;
[
∀
m
:
P
(
k
,
m
)
]
=
∏
m
[
P
(
k
,
m
)
]
;
[
∃
m
:
P
(
k
,
m
)
]
=
min
{
1
,
∑
m
[
P
(
k
,
m
)
]
}
=
1
−
∏
m
[
¬
P
(
k
,
m
)
]
;
#
{
m
|
P
(
k
,
m
)
}
=
∑
m
[
P
(
k
,
m
)
]
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}~&=~\,~~;\\~&=~\;+\;\;-\;\,~~;\\~&=~1-~~;\\~&=~{\Bigl |}\,\;-\;\,{\Bigr |}~~;\\\;+\;~&=~\;+\;~~;\\~&=~\,~~;\\~&=~\prod _{m}\,~~;\\~&=~\min {\Bigl \{}\;1\,,\,\sum _{m}\,\;{\Bigr \}}=1\;-\;\prod _{m}\,~~;\\\#{\Bigl \{}\;m\,{\Big |}\,P(k,m)\;{\Bigr \}}~&=~\sum _{m}\,~~.\end{aligned}}}
Examples
The notation allows moving boundary conditions of summations (or integrals) as a separate factor into the summand, freeing up space around the summation operator, but more importantly allowing it to be manipulated algebraically.
Double-counting rule
We mechanically derive a well-known sum manipulation rule using Iverson brackets:
∑
k
∈
A
f
(
k
)
+
∑
k
∈
B
f
(
k
)
=
∑
k
f
(
k
)
[
k
∈
A
]
+
∑
k
f
(
k
)
[
k
∈
B
]
=
∑
k
f
(
k
)
(
[
k
∈
A
]
+
[
k
∈
B
]
)
=
∑
k
f
(
k
)
(
[
k
∈
A
∪
B
]
+
[
k
∈
A
∩
B
]
)
=
∑
k
∈
A
∪
B
f
(
k
)
+
∑
k
∈
A
∩
B
f
(
k
)
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sum _{k\in A}f(k)+\sum _{k\in B}f(k)&=\sum _{k}f(k)\,+\sum _{k}f(k)\,\\&=\sum _{k}f(k)\,(+)\\&=\sum _{k}f(k)\,(+)\\&=\sum _{k\in A\cup B}f(k)\ +\sum _{k\in A\cap B}f(k).\end{aligned}}}
Summation interchange
The well-known rule
∑
j
=
1
n
∑
k
=
1
j
f
(
j
,
k
)
=
∑
k
=
1
n
∑
j
=
k
n
f
(
j
,
k
)
{\textstyle \sum _{j=1}^{n}\sum _{k=1}^{j}f(j,k)=\sum _{k=1}^{n}\sum _{j=k}^{n}f(j,k)}
is likewise easily derived:
∑
j
=
1
n
∑
k
=
1
j
f
(
j
,
k
)
=
∑
j
,
k
f
(
j
,
k
)
[
1
≤
j
≤
n
]
[
1
≤
k
≤
j
]
=
∑
j
,
k
f
(
j
,
k
)
[
1
≤
k
≤
j
≤
n
]
=
∑
j
,
k
f
(
j
,
k
)
[
1
≤
k
≤
n
]
[
k
≤
j
≤
n
]
=
∑
k
=
1
n
∑
j
=
k
n
f
(
j
,
k
)
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sum _{j=1}^{n}\,\sum _{k=1}^{j}f(j,k)&=\sum _{j,k}f(j,k)\,\,\\&=\sum _{j,k}f(j,k)\,\\&=\sum _{j,k}f(j,k)\,\,\\&=\sum _{k=1}^{n}\,\sum _{j=k}^{n}f(j,k).\end{aligned}}}
Counting
For instance, Euler's totient function that counts the number of positive integers up to n which are coprime to n can be expressed by
φ
(
n
)
=
∑
i
=
1
n
[
gcd
(
i
,
n
)
=
1
]
,
for
n
∈
N
+
.
{\displaystyle \varphi (n)=\sum _{i=1}^{n},\qquad {\text{for }}n\in \mathbb {N} ^{+}.}
Simplification of special cases
Another use of the Iverson bracket is to simplify equations with special cases. For example, the formula
∑
1
≤
k
≤
n
gcd
(
k
,
n
)
=
1
k
=
1
2
n
φ
(
n
)
{\displaystyle \sum _{1\leq k\leq n \atop \gcd(k,n)=1}\!\!k={\frac {1}{2}}n\varphi (n)}
is valid for n > 1 but is off by 1/2 for n = 1. To get an identity valid for all positive integers n (i.e., all values for which
ϕ
(
n
)
{\displaystyle \phi (n)}
is defined), a correction term involving the Iverson bracket may be added:
∑
1
≤
k
≤
n
gcd
(
k
,
n
)
=
1
k
=
1
2
n
(
φ
(
n
)
+
[
n
=
1
]
)
{\displaystyle \sum _{1\leq k\leq n \atop \gcd(k,n)=1}\!\!k={\frac {1}{2}}n{\Big (}\varphi (n)+{\Big )}}
Common functions
Many common functions, especially those with a natural piecewise definition, may be expressed in terms of the Iverson bracket. The Kronecker delta notation is a specific case of Iverson notation when the condition is equality. That is,
δ
i
j
=
[
i
=
j
]
.
{\displaystyle \delta _{ij}=.}
The indicator function, often denoted
1
A
(
x
)
{\displaystyle \mathbf {1} _{A}(x)}
,
I
A
(
x
)
{\displaystyle \mathbf {I} _{A}(x)}
or
χ
A
(
x
)
{\displaystyle \chi _{A}(x)}
, is an Iverson bracket with set membership as its condition:
I
A
(
x
)
=
[
x
∈
A
]
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {I} _{A}(x)=.}
The Heaviside step function, sign function, and absolute value function are also easily expressed in this notation:
H
(
x
)
=
[
x
>
0
]
,
sgn
(
x
)
=
[
x
>
0
]
−
[
x
<
0
]
,
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}H(x)&=,\\\operatorname {sgn}(x)&=-,\end{aligned}}}
and
|
x
|
=
x
[
x
>
0
]
−
x
[
x
<
0
]
=
x
(
[
x
>
0
]
−
[
x
<
0
]
)
=
x
⋅
sgn
(
x
)
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}|x|&=x-x\\&=x(-)\\&=x\cdot \operatorname {sgn}(x).\end{aligned}}}
The comparison functions max and min (returning the larger or smaller of two arguments) may be written as
max
(
x
,
y
)
=
x
[
x
>
y
]
+
y
[
x
≤
y
]
{\displaystyle \max(x,y)=x+y}
and
min
(
x
,
y
)
=
x
[
x
≤
y
]
+
y
[
x
>
y
]
.
{\displaystyle \min(x,y)=x+y.}
The floor and ceiling functions can be expressed as
⌊
x
⌋
=
∑
n
n
⋅
[
n
≤
x
<
n
+
1
]
{\displaystyle \lfloor x\rfloor =\sum _{n}n\cdot }
and
⌈
x
⌉
=
∑
n
n
⋅
[
n
−
1
<
x
≤
n
]
,
{\displaystyle \lceil x\rceil =\sum _{n}n\cdot ,}
where the index
n
{\displaystyle n}
of summation is understood to range over all the integers.
The ramp function can be expressed
R
(
x
)
=
x
⋅
[
x
≥
0
]
.
{\displaystyle R(x)=x\cdot .}
The trichotomy of the reals is equivalent to the following identity:
[
a
<
b
]
+
[
a
=
b
]
+
[
a
>
b
]
=
1.
{\displaystyle ++=1.}
The Möbius function has the property (and can be defined by recurrence as)
∑
d
|
n
μ
(
d
)
=
[
n
=
1
]
.
{\displaystyle \sum _{d|n}\mu (d)\ =\ .}
Formulation in terms of usual functions
In the 1830s, Guglielmo dalla Sommaja used the expression
0
0
x
{\displaystyle 0^{0^{x}}}
to represent what now would be written
[
x
>
0
]
{\displaystyle }
; he also used variants, such as
(
1
−
0
0
−
x
)
(
1
−
0
0
x
−
a
)
{\displaystyle \left(1-0^{0^{-x}}\right)\left(1-0^{0^{x-a}}\right)}
for
[
0
≤
x
≤
a
]
{\displaystyle }
.
Following one common convention, those quantities are equal where defined:
0
0
x
{\displaystyle 0^{0^{x}}}
is 1 if x > 0, is 0 if x = 0, and is undefined otherwise.
Notational variations
In addition to the now-standard square brackets , and the original parentheses ( · ) , blackboard bold brackets have also been used, e.g. ⟦ · ⟧ , as well as other unusual forms of bracketing marks available in the publisher's typeface, accompanied by a marginal note.
See also
Boolean function
Type conversion in computer programming: many languages allow numeric or pointer quantities to be used as boolean quantities
Indicator function
References
^ a b Kenneth E. Iverson (1962). A Programming Language. Wiley. p. 11. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
^ Ronald Graham, Donald Knuth, and Oren Patashnik. Concrete Mathematics, Section 2.1: Notation.
^ a b Donald Knuth, "Two Notes on Notation", American Mathematical Monthly, Volume 99, Number 5, May 1992, pp. 403–422. (TeX, arXiv:math/9205211).
^ Ronald Graham, Donald Knuth, and Oren Patashnik. Concrete Mathematics, Section 4.9: Phi and Mu.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"Kenneth E. Iverson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_E._Iverson"},{"link_name":"Kronecker delta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kronecker_delta"},{"link_name":"statement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statement_(logic)"},{"link_name":"function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"free variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_variable"},{"link_name":"capital-sigma notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital-sigma_notation"},{"link_name":"Kenneth E. Iverson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_E._Iverson"},{"link_name":"APL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APL_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-APL-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Donald Knuth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Knuth"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TNN-3"}],"text":"In mathematics, the Iverson bracket, named after Kenneth E. Iverson, is a notation that generalises the Kronecker delta, which is the Iverson bracket of the statement x = y. It maps any statement to a function of the free variables in that statement. This function is defined to take the value 1 for the values of the variables for which the statement is true, and takes the value 0 otherwise. It is generally denoted by putting the statement inside square brackets:[\n P\n ]\n =\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n if \n \n P\n \n is true;\n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n otherwise.\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle [P]={\\begin{cases}1&{\\text{if }}P{\\text{ is true;}}\\\\0&{\\text{otherwise.}}\\end{cases}}}indicator functionThe Iverson bracket allows using capital-sigma notation without restriction on the summation index. That is, for any property \n \n \n \n P\n (\n k\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P(k)}\n \n of the integer \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n, one can rewrite the restricted sum \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n k\n :\n P\n (\n k\n )\n \n \n f\n (\n k\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sum _{k:P(k)}f(k)}\n \n in the unrestricted form \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n k\n \n \n f\n (\n k\n )\n ⋅\n [\n P\n (\n k\n )\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sum _{k}f(k)\\cdot [P(k)]}\n \n. With this convention, \n \n \n \n f\n (\n k\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(k)}\n \n does not need to be defined for the values of k for which the Iverson bracket equals 0; that is, a summand \n \n \n \n f\n (\n k\n )\n [\n \n \n false\n \n \n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(k)[{\\textbf {false}}]}\n \n must evaluate to 0 regardless of whether \n \n \n \n f\n (\n k\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(k)}\n \n is defined.The notation was originally introduced by Kenneth E. Iverson in his programming language APL,[1][2] though restricted to single relational operators enclosed in parentheses, while the generalisation to arbitrary statements, notational restriction to square brackets, and applications to summation, was advocated by Donald Knuth to avoid ambiguity in parenthesized logical expressions.[3]","title":"Iverson bracket"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"There is a direct correspondence between arithmetic on Iverson brackets, logic, and set operations. For instance, let A and B be sets and \n \n \n \n P\n (\n \n k\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P(k_{1},\\dots )}\n \n any property of integers; then we have[\n \n P\n ∧\n Q\n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n [\n \n P\n \n ]\n \n [\n \n Q\n \n ]\n \n \n ;\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n P\n ∨\n Q\n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n [\n \n P\n \n ]\n \n +\n \n [\n \n Q\n \n ]\n \n −\n \n [\n \n P\n \n ]\n \n [\n \n Q\n \n ]\n \n \n ;\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n ¬\n \n P\n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n 1\n −\n [\n \n P\n \n ]\n \n \n ;\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n P\n \n \n \n \n XOR \n \n \n \n \n Q\n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n [\n \n P\n \n ]\n \n −\n \n [\n \n Q\n \n ]\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n ;\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n k\n ∈\n A\n \n ]\n \n +\n \n [\n \n k\n ∈\n B\n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n [\n \n k\n ∈\n A\n ∪\n B\n \n ]\n \n +\n \n [\n \n k\n ∈\n A\n ∩\n B\n \n ]\n \n \n ;\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n x\n ∈\n A\n ∩\n B\n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n [\n \n x\n ∈\n A\n \n ]\n \n [\n \n x\n ∈\n B\n \n ]\n \n \n ;\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n ∀\n \n m\n \n :\n \n P\n (\n k\n ,\n m\n )\n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n ∏\n \n m\n \n \n \n [\n \n P\n (\n k\n ,\n m\n )\n \n ]\n \n \n ;\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n ∃\n \n m\n \n :\n \n P\n (\n k\n ,\n m\n )\n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n min\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n 1\n \n ,\n \n \n ∑\n \n m\n \n \n \n [\n \n P\n (\n k\n ,\n m\n )\n \n ]\n \n \n \n }\n \n \n =\n 1\n \n −\n \n \n ∏\n \n m\n \n \n \n [\n \n ¬\n \n P\n (\n k\n ,\n m\n )\n \n ]\n \n \n ;\n \n \n \n \n #\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n m\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n P\n (\n k\n ,\n m\n )\n \n \n \n }\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n ∑\n \n m\n \n \n \n [\n \n P\n (\n k\n ,\n m\n )\n \n ]\n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}[][\\,P\\land Q\\,]~&=~[\\,P\\,]\\,[\\,Q\\,]~~;\\\\[1em][\\,P\\lor Q\\,]~&=~[\\,P\\,]\\;+\\;[\\,Q\\,]\\;-\\;[\\,P\\,]\\,[\\,Q\\,]~~;\\\\[1em][\\,\\neg \\,P\\,]~&=~1-[\\,P\\,]~~;\\\\[1em][\\,P{\\scriptstyle {\\mathsf {\\text{ XOR }}}}Q\\,]~&=~{\\Bigl |}\\,[\\,P\\,]\\;-\\;[\\,Q\\,]\\,{\\Bigr |}~~;\\\\[1em][\\,k\\in A\\,]\\;+\\;[\\,k\\in B\\,]~&=~[\\,k\\in A\\cup B\\,]\\;+\\;[\\,k\\in A\\cap B\\,]~~;\\\\[1em][\\,x\\in A\\cap B\\,]~&=~[\\,x\\in A\\,]\\,[\\,x\\in B\\,]~~;\\\\[1em][\\,\\forall \\,m\\ :\\,P(k,m)\\,]~&=~\\prod _{m}\\,[\\,P(k,m)\\,]~~;\\\\[1em][\\,\\exists \\,m\\ :\\,P(k,m)\\,]~&=~\\min {\\Bigl \\{}\\;1\\,,\\,\\sum _{m}\\,[\\,P(k,m)\\,]\\;{\\Bigr \\}}=1\\;-\\;\\prod _{m}\\,[\\,\\neg \\,P(k,m)\\,]~~;\\\\[1em]\\#{\\Bigl \\{}\\;m\\,{\\Big |}\\,P(k,m)\\;{\\Bigr \\}}~&=~\\sum _{m}\\,[\\,P(k,m)\\,]~~.\\end{aligned}}}","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The notation allows moving boundary conditions of summations (or integrals) as a separate factor into the summand, freeing up space around the summation operator, but more importantly allowing it to be manipulated algebraically.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Double-counting rule","text":"We mechanically derive a well-known sum manipulation rule using Iverson brackets:∑\n \n k\n ∈\n A\n \n \n f\n (\n k\n )\n +\n \n ∑\n \n k\n ∈\n B\n \n \n f\n (\n k\n )\n \n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n \n \n f\n (\n k\n )\n \n [\n k\n ∈\n A\n ]\n +\n \n ∑\n \n k\n \n \n f\n (\n k\n )\n \n [\n k\n ∈\n B\n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n \n \n f\n (\n k\n )\n \n (\n [\n k\n ∈\n A\n ]\n +\n [\n k\n ∈\n B\n ]\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n \n \n f\n (\n k\n )\n \n (\n [\n k\n ∈\n A\n ∪\n B\n ]\n +\n [\n k\n ∈\n A\n ∩\n B\n ]\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n ∈\n A\n ∪\n B\n \n \n f\n (\n k\n )\n \n +\n \n ∑\n \n k\n ∈\n A\n ∩\n B\n \n \n f\n (\n k\n )\n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\sum _{k\\in A}f(k)+\\sum _{k\\in B}f(k)&=\\sum _{k}f(k)\\,[k\\in A]+\\sum _{k}f(k)\\,[k\\in B]\\\\&=\\sum _{k}f(k)\\,([k\\in A]+[k\\in B])\\\\&=\\sum _{k}f(k)\\,([k\\in A\\cup B]+[k\\in A\\cap B])\\\\&=\\sum _{k\\in A\\cup B}f(k)\\ +\\sum _{k\\in A\\cap B}f(k).\\end{aligned}}}","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Summation interchange","text":"The well-known rule \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n j\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n ∑\n \n k\n =\n 1\n \n \n j\n \n \n f\n (\n j\n ,\n k\n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n ∑\n \n j\n =\n k\n \n \n n\n \n \n f\n (\n j\n ,\n k\n )\n \n \n {\\textstyle \\sum _{j=1}^{n}\\sum _{k=1}^{j}f(j,k)=\\sum _{k=1}^{n}\\sum _{j=k}^{n}f(j,k)}\n \n is likewise easily derived:∑\n \n j\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n k\n =\n 1\n \n \n j\n \n \n f\n (\n j\n ,\n k\n )\n \n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n j\n ,\n k\n \n \n f\n (\n j\n ,\n k\n )\n \n [\n 1\n ≤\n j\n ≤\n n\n ]\n \n [\n 1\n ≤\n k\n ≤\n j\n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n j\n ,\n k\n \n \n f\n (\n j\n ,\n k\n )\n \n [\n 1\n ≤\n k\n ≤\n j\n ≤\n n\n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n j\n ,\n k\n \n \n f\n (\n j\n ,\n k\n )\n \n [\n 1\n ≤\n k\n ≤\n n\n ]\n \n [\n k\n ≤\n j\n ≤\n n\n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n j\n =\n k\n \n \n n\n \n \n f\n (\n j\n ,\n k\n )\n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\sum _{j=1}^{n}\\,\\sum _{k=1}^{j}f(j,k)&=\\sum _{j,k}f(j,k)\\,[1\\leq j\\leq n]\\,[1\\leq k\\leq j]\\\\&=\\sum _{j,k}f(j,k)\\,[1\\leq k\\leq j\\leq n]\\\\&=\\sum _{j,k}f(j,k)\\,[1\\leq k\\leq n]\\,[k\\leq j\\leq n]\\\\&=\\sum _{k=1}^{n}\\,\\sum _{j=k}^{n}f(j,k).\\end{aligned}}}","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Euler's totient function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%27s_totient_function"},{"link_name":"coprime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprime"}],"sub_title":"Counting","text":"For instance, Euler's totient function that counts the number of positive integers up to n which are coprime to n can be expressed byφ\n (\n n\n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n [\n gcd\n (\n i\n ,\n n\n )\n =\n 1\n ]\n ,\n \n \n for \n \n n\n ∈\n \n \n N\n \n \n +\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi (n)=\\sum _{i=1}^{n}[\\gcd(i,n)=1],\\qquad {\\text{for }}n\\in \\mathbb {N} ^{+}.}","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Simplification of special cases","text":"Another use of the Iverson bracket is to simplify equations with special cases. For example, the formula∑\n \n \n \n 1\n ≤\n k\n ≤\n n\n \n \n gcd\n (\n k\n ,\n n\n )\n =\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n k\n =\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n n\n φ\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sum _{1\\leq k\\leq n \\atop \\gcd(k,n)=1}\\!\\!k={\\frac {1}{2}}n\\varphi (n)}is valid for n > 1 but is off by 1/2 for n = 1. To get an identity valid for all positive integers n (i.e., all values for which \n \n \n \n ϕ\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi (n)}\n \n is defined), a correction term involving the Iverson bracket may be added:∑\n \n \n \n 1\n ≤\n k\n ≤\n n\n \n \n gcd\n (\n k\n ,\n n\n )\n =\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n k\n =\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n n\n \n \n (\n \n \n φ\n (\n n\n )\n +\n [\n n\n =\n 1\n ]\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sum _{1\\leq k\\leq n \\atop \\gcd(k,n)=1}\\!\\!k={\\frac {1}{2}}n{\\Big (}\\varphi (n)+[n=1]{\\Big )}}","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kronecker delta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kronecker_delta"},{"link_name":"indicator function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indicator_function"},{"link_name":"Heaviside step function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaviside_step_function"},{"link_name":"sign function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_function"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-APL-1"},{"link_name":"floor and ceiling functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floor_and_ceiling_functions"},{"link_name":"ramp function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramp_function"},{"link_name":"trichotomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichotomy_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Möbius function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B6bius_function"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Common functions","text":"Many common functions, especially those with a natural piecewise definition, may be expressed in terms of the Iverson bracket. The Kronecker delta notation is a specific case of Iverson notation when the condition is equality. That is,δ\n \n i\n j\n \n \n =\n [\n i\n =\n j\n ]\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\delta _{ij}=[i=j].}The indicator function, often denoted \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n A\n \n \n (\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {1} _{A}(x)}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n \n I\n \n \n A\n \n \n (\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {I} _{A}(x)}\n \n or \n \n \n \n \n χ\n \n A\n \n \n (\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\chi _{A}(x)}\n \n, is an Iverson bracket with set membership as its condition:I\n \n \n A\n \n \n (\n x\n )\n =\n [\n x\n ∈\n A\n ]\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {I} _{A}(x)=[x\\in A].}The Heaviside step function, sign function,[1] and absolute value function are also easily expressed in this notation:H\n (\n x\n )\n \n \n \n =\n [\n x\n >\n 0\n ]\n ,\n \n \n \n \n sgn\n \n (\n x\n )\n \n \n \n =\n [\n x\n >\n 0\n ]\n −\n [\n x\n <\n 0\n ]\n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}H(x)&=[x>0],\\\\\\operatorname {sgn}(x)&=[x>0]-[x<0],\\end{aligned}}}and|\n \n x\n \n |\n \n \n \n \n =\n x\n [\n x\n >\n 0\n ]\n −\n x\n [\n x\n <\n 0\n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n x\n (\n [\n x\n >\n 0\n ]\n −\n [\n x\n <\n 0\n ]\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n x\n ⋅\n sgn\n \n (\n x\n )\n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}|x|&=x[x>0]-x[x<0]\\\\&=x([x>0]-[x<0])\\\\&=x\\cdot \\operatorname {sgn}(x).\\end{aligned}}}The comparison functions max and min (returning the larger or smaller of two arguments) may be written asmax\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n =\n x\n [\n x\n >\n y\n ]\n +\n y\n [\n x\n ≤\n y\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\max(x,y)=x[x>y]+y[x\\leq y]}min\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n =\n x\n [\n x\n ≤\n y\n ]\n +\n y\n [\n x\n >\n y\n ]\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\min(x,y)=x[x\\leq y]+y[x>y].}The floor and ceiling functions can be expressed as⌊\n x\n ⌋\n =\n \n ∑\n \n n\n \n \n n\n ⋅\n [\n n\n ≤\n x\n <\n n\n +\n 1\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lfloor x\\rfloor =\\sum _{n}n\\cdot [n\\leq x<n+1]}⌈\n x\n ⌉\n =\n \n ∑\n \n n\n \n \n n\n ⋅\n [\n n\n −\n 1\n <\n x\n ≤\n n\n ]\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lceil x\\rceil =\\sum _{n}n\\cdot [n-1<x\\leq n],}n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}The ramp function can be expressedR\n (\n x\n )\n =\n x\n ⋅\n [\n x\n ≥\n 0\n ]\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R(x)=x\\cdot [x\\geq 0].}The trichotomy of the reals is equivalent to the following identity:[\n a\n <\n b\n ]\n +\n [\n a\n =\n b\n ]\n +\n [\n a\n >\n b\n ]\n =\n 1.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle [a<b]+[a=b]+[a>b]=1.}The Möbius function has the property (and can be defined by recurrence as[4])∑\n \n d\n \n |\n \n n\n \n \n μ\n (\n d\n )\n \n =\n \n [\n n\n =\n 1\n ]\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sum _{d|n}\\mu (d)\\ =\\ [n=1].}","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Guglielmo dalla Sommaja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Libri_Carucci_dalla_Sommaja"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TNN-3"},{"link_name":"common convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_to_the_power_of_zero"}],"text":"In the 1830s, Guglielmo dalla Sommaja used the expression \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n x\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0^{0^{x}}}\n \n to represent what now would be written \n \n \n \n [\n x\n >\n 0\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle [x>0]}\n \n; he also used variants, such as \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n 1\n −\n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n −\n x\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n (\n \n 1\n −\n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n x\n −\n a\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(1-0^{0^{-x}}\\right)\\left(1-0^{0^{x-a}}\\right)}\n \n for \n \n \n \n [\n 0\n ≤\n x\n ≤\n a\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle [0\\leq x\\leq a]}\n \n.[3]\nFollowing one common convention, those quantities are equal where defined: \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n x\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0^{0^{x}}}\n \n is 1 if x > 0, is 0 if x = 0, and is undefined otherwise.","title":"Formulation in terms of usual functions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"blackboard bold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackboard_bold"}],"text":"In addition to the now-standard square brackets [ · ] , and the original parentheses ( · ) , blackboard bold brackets have also been used, e.g. ⟦ · ⟧ , as well as other unusual forms of bracketing marks available in the publisher's typeface, accompanied by a marginal note.","title":"Notational variations"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Boolean function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_function"},{"title":"Type conversion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_conversion"},{"title":"languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"title":"pointer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointer_(computer_programming)"},{"title":"boolean quantities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_data_type"},{"title":"Indicator function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indicator_function"}]
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[{"reference":"Kenneth E. Iverson (1962). A Programming Language. Wiley. p. 11. Retrieved 7 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.jsoftware.com/papers/APL.htm","url_text":"A Programming Language"}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://www.jsoftware.com/papers/APL.htm","external_links_name":"A Programming Language"},{"Link":"http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/papers/tnn.tex.gz","external_links_name":"TeX"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/math/9205211","external_links_name":"math/9205211"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_O._Hebb
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Donald O. Hebb
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["1 Early life","2 Career","3 Honors and awards","4 Work","4.1 The Organization of Behavior (1949)","5 Theories of education","5.1 Hebb as an educator","5.2 Controversial research","6 Notable students","7 Selected publications","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"]
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Canadian neuropsychologist
Donald Olding HebbBorn(1904-07-22)July 22, 1904Chester, Nova Scotia, CanadaDiedAugust 20, 1985(1985-08-20) (aged 81)Chester, Nova Scotia, CanadaNationalityCanadianAlma materDalhousie University (BA, 1925), McGill University (MA, 1932), Harvard University (PhD, 1936)Known forCell assembly theoryAwardsFellow of the Royal SocietyScientific careerFieldsPsychologyInstitutionsMontreal Neurological Institute,Queen's University,Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology,McGill UniversityThesisThe innate organization of visual perception in the rat (1936)Doctoral advisorKarl Spencer LashleyDoctoral studentsBrenda Milner
Neuropsychology
Topics
Brain regions
Clinical neuropsychology
Cognitive neuropsychology
Cognitive neuroscience
Dementia
Human brain
Neuroanatomy
Neurophysiology
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Traumatic brain injury
Brain functions
Arousal
Attention
Consciousness
Decision making
Executive functions
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Learning
Memory
Motor coordination
Perception
Planning
Problem solving
Thought
People
Alan Baddeley
Arthur L. Benton
David Bohm
Antonio Damasio
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Donald O. Hebb
Kenneth Heilman
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Benjamin Libet
Rodolfo Llinás
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Brenda Milner
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Pasko Rakic
Oliver Sacks
Mark Rosenzweig
Roger W. Sperry
Hans-Lukas Teuber
Henry Molaison ("H.M.", patient)
K.C. (patient)
Tests
Benton Visual Retention Test
Continuous Performance Task
Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery
Hayling and Brixton tests
Lexical Decision Task
Luria-Nebraska neuropsychological battery
Mini–mental state examination
Rey–Osterrieth complex figure
Stroop Test
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
Wechsler Memory Scale
Wisconsin Card Sorting Task
Psychology portal
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vte
Donald Olding Hebb FRS (July 22, 1904 – August 20, 1985) was a Canadian psychologist who was influential in the area of neuropsychology, where he sought to understand how the function of neurons contributed to psychological processes such as learning. He is best known for his theory of Hebbian learning, which he introduced in his classic 1949 work The Organization of Behavior. He has been described as the father of neuropsychology and neural networks. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Hebb as the 19th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. His views on learning described behavior and thought in terms of brain function, explaining cognitive processes in terms of connections between neuron assemblies.
Early life
Donald Hebb was born in Chester, Nova Scotia, the oldest of four children of Arthur M. and M. Clara (Olding) Hebb, and lived there until the age of 16, when his parents moved to Dartmouth, Nova Scotia.
Hebb's parents were both medical doctors. Donald's mother was heavily influenced by the ideas of Maria Montessori, and she home-schooled him until the age of 8. He performed so well in elementary school that he was promoted to the 7th grade at 10 years of age but, as a result of failing and then repeating the 11th grade in Chester, he graduated from the 12th grade at 16 years of age from Halifax County Academy. (Many or most of the single class of grade 9, 10 and 11 students at the Chester school failed the provincial examinations. Those in 9th and 10th grades were permitted to advance despite their failure but there was no 12th grade in Chester.) He entered Dalhousie University aiming to become a novelist. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1925. Afterward, he became a teacher, teaching at his old school in Chester. Later, he worked on a farm in Alberta and then traveled around, working as a laborer in Quebec.
Career
In 1928, he became a graduate student at McGill University. But, at the same time, he was appointed headmaster of Verdun High School in the suburbs of Montreal. He worked with two colleagues from the university, Kellogg and Clarke, to improve the situation. He took a more innovative approach to education—for example, assigning more interesting schoolwork and sending anyone misbehaving outside (making schoolwork a privilege). He completed his master's degree in psychology at McGill in 1932 under the direction of the eminent psychologist Boris Babkin. Hebb's master's thesis, entitled Conditioned and Unconditioned Reflexes and Inhibition, tried to show that skeletal reflexes were due to cellular learning.
By the beginning of 1934, Hebb's life was in a slump. His wife had died, following a car accident, on his twenty-ninth birthday (July 22, 1933). His work at the Montreal school was going badly. In his words, it was "defeated by the rigidity of the curriculum in Quebec's protestant schools." The focus of study at McGill was more in the direction of education and intelligence, and Hebb was now more interested in physiological psychology and was critical of the methodology of the experiments there.
He decided to leave Montreal and wrote to Robert Yerkes at Yale, where he was offered a position to study for a PhD. Babkin, however, convinced Hebb to study instead with Karl Lashley at the University of Chicago.
In July 1934, Hebb was accepted to study under Karl Lashley at the University of Chicago. His thesis was titled "The problem of spatial orientation and place learning". Hebb, along with two other students, followed Lashley to Harvard University in September 1935. Here, he had to change his thesis. At Harvard, he did his thesis research on the effects of early visual deprivation upon size and brightness perception in a rat. That is, he raised rats in the dark and some in the light and compared their brains. In 1936, he received his PhD from Harvard. The following year he worked as a research assistant to Lashley and as a teaching assistant in introductory psychology for Edwin G. Boring at Radcliffe College. His Harvard thesis was soon published, and he finished the thesis he started at University of Chicago.
In 1937, Hebb married his second wife, Elizabeth Nichols Donovan. That same year, on a tip from his sister Catherine (herself a PhD student with Babkin at McGill University), he applied to work with Wilder Penfield at the Montreal Neurological Institute. Here he researched the effect of brain surgery and injury on human brain function. He saw that the brain of a child could regain partial or full function when a portion of it is removed but that similar damage in an adult could be far more damaging, even catastrophic. From this, he deduced the prominent role that external stimulation played in the thought processes of adults. In fact, the lack of this stimulation, he showed, caused diminished function and sometimes hallucinations.
He also became critical of the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler intelligence tests for use with brain surgery patients. These tests were designed to measure overall intelligence, whereas Hebb believed tests should be designed to measure more specific effects that surgery could have had on the patient. Together with N.W. Morton, he created the Adult Comprehension Test and the Picture Anomaly Test.
Putting the Picture Anomaly Test to use, he provided the first indication that the right temporal lobe was involved in visual recognition. He also showed that removal of large parts of the frontal lobe had little effect on intelligence. In fact, in one adult patient, who had a large portion of his frontal lobes removed in order to treat his epilepsy, he noted "a striking post-operative improvement in personality and intellectual capacity." From these sorts of results, he started to believe that the frontal lobes were instrumental in learning only early in life.
In 1939, he was appointed to a teaching position at Queen's University. In order to test his theory of the changing role of the frontal lobes with age, he designed a variable path maze for rats with Kenneth Williams called the Hebb-Williams maze, a method for testing animal intelligence later used in countless studies. He used the maze to test the intelligence of rats blinded at different developmental stages, showing that "there is a lasting effect of infant experience on the problem-solving ability of the adult rat." This became one of the main principles of developmental psychology, later helping those arguing the importance of the proposed Head Start programs for preschool children in economically poor neighborhoods.
In 1942, he moved to Orange Park, Florida to once again work with Karl Lashley who had replaced Yerkes as the Director of the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center. Here, studying primate behavior, Hebb developed emotional tests for chimpanzees. The experiments were somewhat unsuccessful, however because chimpanzees turned out to be hard to teach. During the course of the work there, Hebb wrote The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory, his groundbreaking book that set forth the theory that the only way to explain behavior was in terms of brain function.
Afterward, he returned to McGill University to become a professor of psychology in 1947 and was made chairman of the department in 1948. Here he once again worked with Penfield, but this time through his students, which included Mortimer Mishkin, Haldor Enger Rosvold, and Brenda Milner, all of whom extended his earlier work with Penfield on the human brain.
His wife Elizabeth died in 1962. In 1966, Hebb married his third wife, Margaret Doreen Wright (née Williamson), a widow.
Hebb remained at McGill until retirement in 1972. He remained at McGill after retirement for a few years, in the Department of Psychology as an emeritus professor, conducting a seminar course required of all department graduate students.
In 1977 Hebb retired to his birthplace in Nova Scotia, where he completed his last book, Essay on Mind. He was appointed an honorary professor of psychology at his alma mater, Dalhousie, and regularly participated in colloquia there until his death at 81, in 1985. He was survived by two daughters (both by his second marriage), Mary Ellen Hebb and Jane Hebb Paul.
Honors and awards
Hebb was a member of both the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) and the American Psychological Association (APA). He was elected President of the CPA in 1953 and of the APA in 1960. He won the APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award in 1961.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in March 1966.
He received an honorary doctorate from 15 universities, including in 1961 from University of Chicago, in 1965 from Dalhousie University and in 1975 from Concordia University.
The Donald O. Hebb Award, named in his honor, is awarded by the Canadian Psychological Association to distinguished Canadian psychologists. The award is presented yearly to a person who has made a significant contribution to promoting the discipline of psychology as a science by conducting research, by teaching and leadership, or as a spokesperson. The inaugural award was presented to Hebb in 1980.
In 2011 he was posthumously inducted into the Halifax, Nova Scotia, Discovery Centre's Hall of Fame. At a 2011 meeting of the executive council of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI), Hebb was selected for inclusion in CSI's Pantheon of Skeptics, an award given to deceased fellows of CSI.
His archives, including records relating to research and teaching activities, are held by the McGill University Archives, McGill University, in Montreal.
Work
The Organization of Behavior (1949)
Main article: The Organization of Behavior
The Organization of Behavior is considered Hebb's most significant contribution to the field of neuroscience. A combination of his years of work in brain surgery mixed with his study of human behavior, it finally brought together the two realms of human perception that for a long time could not be connected properly, that is, it connected the biological function of the brain as an organ together with the higher function of the mind.
In 1929, Hans Berger discovered that the brain exhibits continuous electrical activity and cast doubt on the Pavlovian model of perception and response because, now, there appeared to be something going on in the brain even without much stimulus.
At the same time, there were many mysteries. For example, if there was a method for the brain to recognize a circle, how does it recognize circles of various sizes or imperfect roundness? To accommodate every single possible circle that could exist, the brain would need a far greater capacity than it has.
Another theory, the Gestalt theory, stated that signals to the brain established a sort of field. The form of this field depended only on the pattern of the inputs, but it still could not explain how this field was understood by the mind.
The behaviorist theories at the time did well at explaining how the processing of patterns happened. However, they could not account for how these patterns made it into the mind.
Hebb combined up-to-date data about behavior and the brain into a single theory. And, while the understanding of the anatomy of the brain did not advance much since the development of the older theories on the operation of the brain, he was still able to piece together a theory that got a lot of the important functions of the brain right.
Hebb's theory became known as Hebbian theory and the models which follow this theory are said to exhibit "Hebbian learning." He proposed a neurophysiological account of learning and memory based in a simple principle:
When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased.
This is often paraphrased as "Neurons that fire together wire together." It is commonly referred to as Hebb's Law.
The combination of neurons which could be grouped together as one processing unit, Hebb referred to as "cell-assemblies". And their combination of connections made up the ever-changing algorithm which dictated the brain's response to stimuli.
Not only did Hebb's model for the working of the mind influence how psychologists understood the processing of stimuli within the mind but also it opened up the way for the creation of computational machines that mimicked the biological processes of a living nervous system. And while the dominant form of synaptic transmission in the nervous system was later found to be chemical, modern artificial neural networks are still based on the transmission of signals via electrical impulses that Hebbian theory was first designed around.
Theories of education
Hebb was instrumental in defining psychology as a biological science by identifying thought as the integrated activity of the brain. His views on learning described behavior and thought in terms of brain function, explaining cognitive processes in terms of connections between neuron assemblies. These ideas played a large part in his views on education and learning.
Hebb viewed motivation and learning as related properties. He believed that everything in the brain was interrelated and worked together. His theory was that everything we experience in our environment fires a set of neurons called a cell assembly. This cell assembly is the brain's thoughts or ideas. These cell assemblies then work together to form phase sequences, which are streams of thoughts. Once these cell assemblies and phase sequences are formed, they can be activated by stimulation from the environment. Therefore, the more stimulating and rich the environment, the more the cell assemblies grow and learn. This theory played into his beliefs in education. Hebb believed that the environment was very important to learning in children. Children learn by building up these cell assemblies and phase sequences. An enriched environment with varied opportunities for sensory and motor experiences contribute to children developing the cell assemblies and phase sequences necessary for continued learning in adulthood. To attempt to prove this, Hebb and his daughters raised pet rats at home. By raising them in an enriched environment, the rats showed improved maze learning in adulthood. This research into environmental enrichment contributed to the development of the Head Start Program used today.
Head Start is a program for preschool children in low-income families. The aim of the program is to prepare children for success in school through an early learning program providing cognitively stimulating educational activities. According to the findings in a study on Head Start participation and school readiness, full-time Head Start participation was associated with higher academic skills in children of less-educated parents.
Another long-term study by Hart and Risley tracked 42 children and their families over two years. The study focused on early language acquisition and the role of the home and family in the growth of word learning and language development. The results of their study showed that two of the most important aspects in language acquisition are the economic advantages of the children's homes and the frequency of language experiences. The study demonstrated that children of lower socioeconomic status homes, with fewer economic resources, learn fewer words and acquire vocabulary more slowly than children of professional parents with a higher socioeconomic status with access to more varied and enriched vocabulary experiences.
Hebb believed that providing an enriched environment for childhood learning would benefit adult learning as well, since a second type of learning occurs as adults. This second type of learning is a more rapid and insightful learning because the cell assemblies and phase sequences have already been created and now can be rearranged in any number of ways. The Hebbian theory of learning implies that every experience a person encounters becomes set into the network of brain cells. Then, each time a certain action or thought is repeated, the connection between neurons is strengthened, changing the brain and strengthening the learning. An individual is, in essence, training their brain. The more challenging new experiences a person has and practices, the more new connections are created in their brain.
Hebb as an educator
Throughout his life Hebb enjoyed teaching and was very successful as a teacher. Both in his early years as a teacher and a headmaster in a Montreal school and in his later years at McGill University, he proved to be a very effective educator and a great influence on the scientific thinking of his students.
As a professor at McGill, he believed that one could not teach motivation, but rather create the conditions necessary for students under which to do their study and research. One could train them to write, help them choose a problem to study, and even help keep them from being distracted, but the motivation and passion for research and study had to come from the students themselves. He believed that students should be evaluated on their ability to think and create rather than their ability to memorize and reprocess older ideas.
Hebb believed in a very objective study of the human mind, more as a study of a biological science. This attitude toward psychology and the way it is taught made McGill University a prominent center of psychological study.
Hebb also came up with the A/S ratio, a value that measures the brain complexity of an organism.
Controversial research
Hebb's name has often been invoked in discussions of the involvement of psychological researchers in interrogation techniques, including the use of sensory deprivation, because of his research into this field. Speaking at a Harvard symposium on sensory deprivation in June 1958, Hebb is quoted as remarking:
The work that we have done at McGill University began, actually, with the problem of brainwashing. We were not permitted to say so in the first publishing.... The chief impetus, of course, was the dismay at the kind of "confessions" being produced at the Russian Communist trials. "Brainwashing" was a term that came a little later, applied to Chinese procedures. We did not know what the Russian procedures were, but it seemed that they were producing some peculiar changes of attitude. How?
One possible factor was perceptual isolation and we concentrated on that.
Recent research has argued that Hebb's sensory deprivation research was funded by and coordinated with the CIA (with the CIA intending to use the research to develop new interrogation and torture techniques). Some of this research was done in secret, and the results were initially shared only with United States authorities. Some of this research involved volunteers who spent hours in sensory deprivation conditions that some argue should be considered torture, although the subjects in his studies were university student volunteers, not patients, and were free to quit the experiment at any time.
Notable students
Michael C. Corballis
Leo Goldberger
Stevan Harnad
Doreen Kimura
Ronald Melzack
Brenda Milner
Mortimer Mishkin
Lynn Nadel
James Olds
Michael Posner
Case Vanderwolf
Selected publications
The Organization of Behaviour. 1949. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-36727-7
Essay on Mind. 1980. Lawrence Erlbaum. ISBN 978-0-89859-017-3.
The Conceptual Nervous System. 1982. Pergamon Press. ISBN 008-027418-8: a collection of 21 papers by Hebb, with a complete list of his publications, edited by Henry A. Buchtel.
Textbook of Psychology, Textbook of Psychology Students' Handbook (with Don C. Donderi). 1995. Kendall Hunt Pub Co. ISBN 978-0-7872-1103-5 archive.org
References
^ a b c Milner, P. M.; Milner, B. (1996). "Donald Olding Hebb. 22 July 1904-20 August 1985". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 42: 192–204. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1996.0012. PMID 11619332. S2CID 20555128.
^ Biographies of Donald Olding Hebb Archived November 25, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
^ a b c d Hebb, D. O. (1949). The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory. New York: Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-36727-7.
^ Jean-Pierre Didier, Emmanuel Bigand. Rethinking Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine: New Technologies Induce New Learning Strategies. Springer, 2010. ISBN 978-2-8178-0033-2. He was also part of the now revealed secret agency that tested volunteered solitary confinement prisoners, Putting them through tests that can cause madness and delusion that makes humans love inanimate objects and imagining fake objects/scenarios.
^ Haggbloom, Steven J.; Warnick, Renee; Warnick, Jason E.; Jones, Vinessa K.; Yarbrough, Gary L.; Russell, Tenea M.; Borecky, Chris M.; McGahhey, Reagan; et al. (2002). "The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century". Review of General Psychology. 6 (2): 139–152. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.586.1913. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139. S2CID 145668721.
^ Milner, Peter M. (August 1986). "Donald Oldlng Hebb (1904-1985)" (PDF). Trends in Neurosciences. 9: 347–351. doi:10.1016/0166-2236(86)90107-4. S2CID 53204563. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
^ "Theses from Notable Alumni, 1931-1960". Highlights from McGill Theses and Dissertations. McGill University Library. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
^ a b "Donald Olding Hebb Fonds, MG1045". McGill Archival Collections Catalogue. McGill University Archives. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
^ Milner, Peter (January 1993). "Scientific American". The Mind and Donald O. Hebb. 268 (1): 124–129. JSTOR 24941344.
^ "Library and Archive Catalogue". Royal Society. Archived from the original on 2011-04-29. Retrieved 17 November 2010.
^ "About D.O. Hebb". McGill University. Retrieved 28 August 2020.
^ "Past Honorary Degree Recipients | Convocation | the University of Chicago".
^ https://www.dal.ca/academics/convocation/history_traditions/honorary_degree_recipients/hon_degree_1892_1999.html Archived 2019-04-01 at the Wayback Machine (Dalhousie University website)
^ "Honorary Degree Citation - Donald Olding Hebb* | Concordia University Archives". archives.concordia.ca. Archived from the original on 2015-10-02. Retrieved 2016-04-07.
^ "Canadian Psychological Association > CPA Award Descriptions and Past Recipients - www.cpa.ca". www.cpa.ca. Retrieved 2015-06-24.
^ http://thediscoverycentre.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Discovery-Awards-Backgrounder-2018.pdf (Discovery Centre website)
^ "The Pantheon of Skeptics". CSI. Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Archived from the original on 31 January 2017. Retrieved 30 April 2017.
^ Keysers, Christian; Gazzola, Valeria (June 5, 2014). "Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences". Hebbian Learning and Predictive Mirror Neurons for Actions, Sensations and Emotions. 369 (1644): 1–11. JSTOR 24500757.
^ Shackleton-Jones, Nick (2019-05-03). How people learn: designing effective training to improve employee performance. London, United Kingdom. ISBN 978-0-7494-8471-2. OCLC 1098213554.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Brown, R.M.; Milner, P.M. (2003). "The Legacy of Donald O. Hebb: More than the Hebb Synapse". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 4 (12): 1013–1019. doi:10.1038/nrn1257. PMID 14682362. S2CID 205499831.
^ Hebb, D.O. (1949). The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
^ Brown, R.E. (2006). "The Life and Work of Donald Olding Hebb". Acta Neuroligica Taiwanica. 15 (2): 127–142. PMID 16871901.
^ RaeHyuck, L.; Fuhua, Z. (2014). "Head Start Participation and School Readiness: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort". Developmental Psychology. 50 (1): 202–215. doi:10.1037/a0032280. PMC 4050643. PMID 23527496.
^ Hart, B.; Risley, T.R. (1995). Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing Co.
^ Olson, H.H.; Hergenhahn, B.R. (2013). An Introduction to Theories of Learning. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
^ Solomon, P., Kubzansky, Philip E., Leiderman, P. Herbert, Mendelson, Jack H., Trumbull, Richard, & Wexler, Donald, Eds. (1961). Sensory Deprivation: A Symposium Held at Harvard Medical School. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.
^ a b McCoy, Alfred W. (2006). A question of torture: CIA interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror (First Holt paperback ed.). New York. ISBN 0-8050-8248-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Engelhardt, Tom (8 June 2009). "Pioneers of Torture". antiwar.com.
^ Heron, W. (1957). "The Pathology of Boredom". Scientific American. 196 (1): 52–56. Bibcode:1957SciAm.196a..52H. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0157-52.
Further reading
Library resources about Donald O. Hebb
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
By Donald O. Hebb
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Klein, R. M. (1999). "The Hebb legacy". Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. 53: 1–3. doi:10.1037/h0087295. S2CID 145251164.
"Hebb, Donald O. (1904-1985)". Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology (2 ed.). 2001.
"Donald Hebb Biography". Great Canadian Psychology Website. Retrieved 2006-03-09.
"Did he or didn't he? The Canadian accused of inventing CIA torture". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 2016-01-08.
Richard E. Brown; Peter M. Milner (December 2003). "The Legacy Of Donald O. Hebb: More Than The Hebb Synapse". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 4 (12): 1013–1019. doi:10.1038/nrn1257. PMID 14682362. S2CID 205499831.
"Donald Hebb (1904 - 1985)". Harnad E-Print Archive and Psycoloquy and BBS Journal Archives. Retrieved 2006-03-18.
Alfred W. McCoy (2007). "Science in Dachau's Shadow: Hebb, Beecher, and the Development of CIA Psychological Torture and Modern Medical Ethics". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 43 (4): 401–417. doi:10.1002/jhbs.20271. PMID 17912716.
External links
Works by or about Donald O. Hebb at Internet Archive
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FRS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-frs-1"},{"link_name":"psychologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist"},{"link_name":"neuropsychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychology"},{"link_name":"neurons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron"},{"link_name":"learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning"},{"link_name":"Hebbian learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory"},{"link_name":"The Organization of Behavior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Organization_of_Behavior"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hebb_1949-3"},{"link_name":"neural networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_network"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Review of General Psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review_of_General_Psychology"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"neuron assemblies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron_assemblies"}],"text":"Donald Olding Hebb FRS[1] (July 22, 1904 – August 20, 1985) was a Canadian psychologist who was influential in the area of neuropsychology, where he sought to understand how the function of neurons contributed to psychological processes such as learning. He is best known for his theory of Hebbian learning, which he introduced in his classic 1949 work The Organization of Behavior.[3] He has been described as the father of neuropsychology and neural networks.[4] A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Hebb as the 19th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.[5] His views on learning described behavior and thought in terms of brain function, explaining cognitive processes in terms of connections between neuron assemblies.","title":"Donald O. Hebb"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester,_Nova_Scotia"},{"link_name":"Nova Scotia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_Scotia"},{"link_name":"Dartmouth, Nova Scotia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartmouth,_Nova_Scotia"},{"link_name":"Maria Montessori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Montessori"},{"link_name":"Dalhousie University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalhousie_University"},{"link_name":"Bachelor of Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts"},{"link_name":"Alberta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta"},{"link_name":"Quebec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec"}],"text":"Donald Hebb was born in Chester, Nova Scotia, the oldest of four children of Arthur M. and M. Clara (Olding) Hebb, and lived there until the age of 16, when his parents moved to Dartmouth, Nova Scotia.Hebb's parents were both medical doctors. Donald's mother was heavily influenced by the ideas of Maria Montessori, and she home-schooled him until the age of 8. He performed so well in elementary school that he was promoted to the 7th grade at 10 years of age but, as a result of failing and then repeating the 11th grade in Chester, he graduated from the 12th grade at 16 years of age from Halifax County Academy. (Many or most of the single class of grade 9, 10 and 11 students at the Chester school failed the provincial examinations. Those in 9th and 10th grades were permitted to advance despite their failure but there was no 12th grade in Chester.) He entered Dalhousie University aiming to become a novelist. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1925. Afterward, he became a teacher, teaching at his old school in Chester. Later, he worked on a farm in Alberta and then traveled around, working as a laborer in Quebec.","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"McGill University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGill_University"},{"link_name":"Montreal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"McGill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGill_University"},{"link_name":"Boris Babkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Babkin"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Robert Yerkes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Yerkes"},{"link_name":"PhD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhD"},{"link_name":"Karl Lashley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Lashley"},{"link_name":"University of Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago"},{"link_name":"University of Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-8"},{"link_name":"Edwin G. Boring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_G._Boring"},{"link_name":"Radcliffe College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radcliffe_College"},{"link_name":"Wilder Penfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilder_Penfield"},{"link_name":"Montreal Neurological Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal_Neurological_Institute"},{"link_name":"hallucinations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucination"},{"link_name":"Stanford-Binet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford-Binet_IQ_test"},{"link_name":"Wechsler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wechsler_Adult_Intelligence_Scale"},{"link_name":"Adult Comprehension Test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adult_Comprehension_Test&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Picture Anomaly Test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGill_Picture_Anomaly_Test"},{"link_name":"epilepsy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsy"},{"link_name":"Queen's University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_University_at_Kingston"},{"link_name":"Hebb-Williams maze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebb-Williams_maze"},{"link_name":"developmental psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology"},{"link_name":"Head Start","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_Start_Program"},{"link_name":"Orange Park, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_Park,_Florida"},{"link_name":"Yerkes National Primate Research Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerkes_National_Primate_Research_Center"},{"link_name":"chimpanzees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_chimpanzee"},{"link_name":"The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Organization_of_Behavior"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hebb_1949-3"},{"link_name":"McGill University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGill_University"},{"link_name":"Mortimer Mishkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortimer_Mishkin"},{"link_name":"Haldor Enger Rosvold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haldor_Enger_Rosvold&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Brenda Milner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenda_Milner"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"In 1928, he became a graduate student at McGill University. But, at the same time, he was appointed headmaster of Verdun High School in the suburbs of Montreal.[6] He worked with two colleagues from the university, Kellogg and Clarke, to improve the situation. He took a more innovative approach to education—for example, assigning more interesting schoolwork and sending anyone misbehaving outside (making schoolwork a privilege). He completed his master's degree in psychology at McGill in 1932 under the direction of the eminent psychologist Boris Babkin. Hebb's master's thesis, entitled Conditioned and Unconditioned Reflexes and Inhibition, tried to show that skeletal reflexes were due to cellular learning.[7]By the beginning of 1934, Hebb's life was in a slump. His wife had died, following a car accident, on his twenty-ninth birthday (July 22, 1933). His work at the Montreal school was going badly. In his words, it was \"defeated by the rigidity of the curriculum in Quebec's protestant schools.\" The focus of study at McGill was more in the direction of education and intelligence, and Hebb was now more interested in physiological psychology and was critical of the methodology of the experiments there.He decided to leave Montreal and wrote to Robert Yerkes at Yale, where he was offered a position to study for a PhD. Babkin, however, convinced Hebb to study instead with Karl Lashley at the University of Chicago.In July 1934, Hebb was accepted to study under Karl Lashley at the University of Chicago. His thesis was titled \"The problem of spatial orientation and place learning\". Hebb, along with two other students, followed Lashley to Harvard University in September 1935. Here, he had to change his thesis. At Harvard, he did his thesis research on the effects of early visual deprivation upon size and brightness perception in a rat. That is, he raised rats in the dark and some in the light and compared their brains. In 1936, he received his PhD from Harvard.[8] The following year he worked as a research assistant to Lashley and as a teaching assistant in introductory psychology for Edwin G. Boring at Radcliffe College. His Harvard thesis was soon published, and he finished the thesis he started at University of Chicago.In 1937, Hebb married his second wife, Elizabeth Nichols Donovan. That same year, on a tip from his sister Catherine (herself a PhD student with Babkin at McGill University), he applied to work with Wilder Penfield at the Montreal Neurological Institute. Here he researched the effect of brain surgery and injury on human brain function. He saw that the brain of a child could regain partial or full function when a portion of it is removed but that similar damage in an adult could be far more damaging, even catastrophic. From this, he deduced the prominent role that external stimulation played in the thought processes of adults. In fact, the lack of this stimulation, he showed, caused diminished function and sometimes hallucinations.He also became critical of the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler intelligence tests for use with brain surgery patients. These tests were designed to measure overall intelligence, whereas Hebb believed tests should be designed to measure more specific effects that surgery could have had on the patient. Together with N.W. Morton, he created the Adult Comprehension Test and the Picture Anomaly Test.Putting the Picture Anomaly Test to use, he provided the first indication that the right temporal lobe was involved in visual recognition. He also showed that removal of large parts of the frontal lobe had little effect on intelligence. In fact, in one adult patient, who had a large portion of his frontal lobes removed in order to treat his epilepsy, he noted \"a striking post-operative improvement in personality and intellectual capacity.\" From these sorts of results, he started to believe that the frontal lobes were instrumental in learning only early in life.In 1939, he was appointed to a teaching position at Queen's University. In order to test his theory of the changing role of the frontal lobes with age, he designed a variable path maze for rats with Kenneth Williams called the Hebb-Williams maze, a method for testing animal intelligence later used in countless studies. He used the maze to test the intelligence of rats blinded at different developmental stages, showing that \"there is a lasting effect of infant experience on the problem-solving ability of the adult rat.\" This became one of the main principles of developmental psychology, later helping those arguing the importance of the proposed Head Start programs for preschool children in economically poor neighborhoods.In 1942, he moved to Orange Park, Florida to once again work with Karl Lashley who had replaced Yerkes as the Director of the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center. Here, studying primate behavior, Hebb developed emotional tests for chimpanzees. The experiments were somewhat unsuccessful, however because chimpanzees turned out to be hard to teach. During the course of the work there, Hebb wrote The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory,[3] his groundbreaking book that set forth the theory that the only way to explain behavior was in terms of brain function.Afterward, he returned to McGill University to become a professor of psychology in 1947 and was made chairman of the department in 1948. Here he once again worked with Penfield, but this time through his students, which included Mortimer Mishkin, Haldor Enger Rosvold, and Brenda Milner, all of whom extended his earlier work with Penfield on the human brain.His wife Elizabeth died in 1962. In 1966, Hebb married his third wife, Margaret Doreen Wright (née Williamson), a widow.Hebb remained at McGill until retirement in 1972. He remained at McGill after retirement for a few years, in the Department of Psychology as an emeritus professor, conducting a seminar course required of all department graduate students.In 1977 Hebb retired to his birthplace in Nova Scotia, where he completed his last book, Essay on Mind. He was appointed an honorary professor of psychology at his alma mater, Dalhousie, and regularly participated in colloquia there until his death at 81, in 1985.[9] He was survived by two daughters (both by his second marriage), Mary Ellen Hebb and Jane Hebb Paul.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Canadian Psychological Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Psychological_Association"},{"link_name":"American Psychological Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychological_Association"},{"link_name":"Royal Society of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Fellow of the Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1966"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-frs-1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"University of Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Dalhousie University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalhousie_University"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Concordia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concordia_University"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Donald O. Hebb Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPA_Donald_O._Hebb_Award_for_Distinguished_Contributions_to_Psychology_as_a_Science"},{"link_name":"Canadian Psychological Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Psychological_Association"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Discovery Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_Centre"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Committee for Skeptical Inquiry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry"},{"link_name":"Pantheon of Skeptics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry#The_Pantheon_of_Skeptics"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"McGill University Archives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGill_University_Archives"},{"link_name":"McGill University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGill_University"},{"link_name":"Montreal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-8"}],"text":"Hebb was a member of both the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) and the American Psychological Association (APA). He was elected President of the CPA in 1953 and of the APA in 1960. He won the APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award in 1961.He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in March 1966.[1][10][11]He received an honorary doctorate from 15 universities, including in 1961 from University of Chicago,[12] in 1965 from Dalhousie University[13] and in 1975 from Concordia University.[14]The Donald O. Hebb Award, named in his honor, is awarded by the Canadian Psychological Association to distinguished Canadian psychologists. The award is presented yearly to a person who has made a significant contribution to promoting the discipline of psychology as a science by conducting research, by teaching and leadership, or as a spokesperson. The inaugural award was presented to Hebb in 1980.[15]In 2011 he was posthumously inducted into the Halifax, Nova Scotia, Discovery Centre's Hall of Fame.[16] At a 2011 meeting of the executive council of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI), Hebb was selected for inclusion in CSI's Pantheon of Skeptics, an award given to deceased fellows of CSI.[17]His archives, including records relating to research and teaching activities, are held by the McGill University Archives, McGill University, in Montreal.[8]","title":"Honors and awards"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hebb_1949-3"},{"link_name":"Hans Berger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Berger"},{"link_name":"Pavlovian model of perception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov"},{"link_name":"Gestalt theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology"},{"link_name":"Hebbian theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hebb_1949-3"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"artificial neural networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network"}],"sub_title":"The Organization of Behavior (1949)","text":"The Organization of Behavior is considered Hebb's most significant contribution to the field of neuroscience. A combination of his years of work in brain surgery mixed with his study of human behavior, it finally brought together the two realms of human perception that for a long time could not be connected properly, that is, it connected the biological function of the brain as an organ together with the higher function of the mind.[3]In 1929, Hans Berger discovered that the brain exhibits continuous electrical activity and cast doubt on the Pavlovian model of perception and response because, now, there appeared to be something going on in the brain even without much stimulus.At the same time, there were many mysteries. For example, if there was a method for the brain to recognize a circle, how does it recognize circles of various sizes or imperfect roundness? To accommodate every single possible circle that could exist, the brain would need a far greater capacity than it has.Another theory, the Gestalt theory, stated that signals to the brain established a sort of field. The form of this field depended only on the pattern of the inputs, but it still could not explain how this field was understood by the mind.The behaviorist theories at the time did well at explaining how the processing of patterns happened. However, they could not account for how these patterns made it into the mind.Hebb combined up-to-date data about behavior and the brain into a single theory. And, while the understanding of the anatomy of the brain did not advance much since the development of the older theories on the operation of the brain, he was still able to piece together a theory that got a lot of the important functions of the brain right.Hebb's theory became known as Hebbian theory and the models which follow this theory are said to exhibit \"Hebbian learning.\" He proposed a neurophysiological account of learning and memory based in a simple principle:[18]When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased.[3]This is often paraphrased as \"Neurons that fire together wire together.\"[19] It is commonly referred to as Hebb's Law.The combination of neurons which could be grouped together as one processing unit, Hebb referred to as \"cell-assemblies\". And their combination of connections made up the ever-changing algorithm which dictated the brain's response to stimuli.Not only did Hebb's model for the working of the mind influence how psychologists understood the processing of stimuli within the mind but also it opened up the way for the creation of computational machines that mimicked the biological processes of a living nervous system. And while the dominant form of synaptic transmission in the nervous system was later found to be chemical, modern artificial neural networks are still based on the transmission of signals via electrical impulses that Hebbian theory was first designed around.","title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Hebbian theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory"}],"text":"Hebb was instrumental in defining psychology as a biological science by identifying thought as the integrated activity of the brain.[20] His views on learning described behavior and thought in terms of brain function, explaining cognitive processes in terms of connections between neuron assemblies. These ideas played a large part in his views on education and learning.Hebb viewed motivation and learning as related properties. He believed that everything in the brain was interrelated and worked together. His theory was that everything we experience in our environment fires a set of neurons called a cell assembly. This cell assembly is the brain's thoughts or ideas. These cell assemblies then work together to form phase sequences, which are streams of thoughts.[21] Once these cell assemblies and phase sequences are formed, they can be activated by stimulation from the environment. Therefore, the more stimulating and rich the environment, the more the cell assemblies grow and learn. This theory played into his beliefs in education. Hebb believed that the environment was very important to learning in children. Children learn by building up these cell assemblies and phase sequences. An enriched environment with varied opportunities for sensory and motor experiences contribute to children developing the cell assemblies and phase sequences necessary for continued learning in adulthood. To attempt to prove this, Hebb and his daughters raised pet rats at home. By raising them in an enriched environment, the rats showed improved maze learning in adulthood.[22] This research into environmental enrichment contributed to the development of the Head Start Program used today.Head Start is a program for preschool children in low-income families. The aim of the program is to prepare children for success in school through an early learning program providing cognitively stimulating educational activities. According to the findings in a study on Head Start participation and school readiness, full-time Head Start participation was associated with higher academic skills in children of less-educated parents.[23]Another long-term study by Hart and Risley tracked 42 children and their families over two years. The study focused on early language acquisition and the role of the home and family in the growth of word learning and language development. The results of their study showed that two of the most important aspects in language acquisition are the economic advantages of the children's homes and the frequency of language experiences. The study demonstrated that children of lower socioeconomic status homes, with fewer economic resources, learn fewer words and acquire vocabulary more slowly than children of professional parents with a higher socioeconomic status with access to more varied and enriched vocabulary experiences.[24]Hebb believed that providing an enriched environment for childhood learning would benefit adult learning as well, since a second type of learning occurs as adults. This second type of learning is a more rapid and insightful learning because the cell assemblies and phase sequences have already been created and now can be rearranged in any number of ways.[25] The Hebbian theory of learning implies that every experience a person encounters becomes set into the network of brain cells. Then, each time a certain action or thought is repeated, the connection between neurons is strengthened, changing the brain and strengthening the learning. An individual is, in essence, training their brain. The more challenging new experiences a person has and practices, the more new connections are created in their brain.","title":"Theories of education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A/S ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A/S_ratio"}],"sub_title":"Hebb as an educator","text":"Throughout his life Hebb enjoyed teaching and was very successful as a teacher. Both in his early years as a teacher and a headmaster in a Montreal school and in his later years at McGill University, he proved to be a very effective educator and a great influence on the scientific thinking of his students.As a professor at McGill, he believed that one could not teach motivation, but rather create the conditions necessary for students under which to do their study and research. One could train them to write, help them choose a problem to study, and even help keep them from being distracted, but the motivation and passion for research and study had to come from the students themselves. He believed that students should be evaluated on their ability to think and create rather than their ability to memorize and reprocess older ideas.Hebb believed in a very objective study of the human mind, more as a study of a biological science. This attitude toward psychology and the way it is taught made McGill University a prominent center of psychological study.Hebb also came up with the A/S ratio, a value that measures the brain complexity of an organism.","title":"Theories of education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"interrogation techniques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrogation_techniques"},{"link_name":"sensory deprivation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_deprivation"},{"link_name":"brainwashing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainwashing"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"CIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCoy-27"},{"link_name":"torture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torture"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCoy-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"Controversial research","text":"Hebb's name has often been invoked in discussions of the involvement of psychological researchers in interrogation techniques, including the use of sensory deprivation, because of his research into this field. Speaking at a Harvard symposium on sensory deprivation in June 1958, Hebb is quoted as remarking:The work that we have done at McGill University began, actually, with the problem of brainwashing. We were not permitted to say so in the first publishing.... The chief impetus, of course, was the dismay at the kind of \"confessions\" being produced at the Russian Communist trials. \"Brainwashing\" was a term that came a little later, applied to Chinese procedures. We did not know what the Russian procedures were, but it seemed that they were producing some peculiar changes of attitude. How?\nOne possible factor was perceptual isolation and we concentrated on that.[26]Recent research has argued that Hebb's sensory deprivation research was funded by and coordinated with the CIA (with the CIA intending to use the research to develop new interrogation and torture techniques).[27] Some of this research was done in secret, and the results were initially shared only with United States authorities. Some of this research involved volunteers who spent hours in sensory deprivation conditions that some argue should be considered torture,[27][28] although the subjects in his studies were university student volunteers,[29] not patients, and were free to quit the experiment at any time.","title":"Theories of education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Michael C. Corballis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_C._Corballis"},{"link_name":"Leo Goldberger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Goldberger"},{"link_name":"Stevan Harnad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevan_Harnad"},{"link_name":"Doreen Kimura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doreen_Kimura"},{"link_name":"Ronald Melzack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Melzack"},{"link_name":"Brenda Milner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenda_Milner"},{"link_name":"Mortimer Mishkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortimer_Mishkin"},{"link_name":"Lynn Nadel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Nadel"},{"link_name":"James Olds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Olds"},{"link_name":"Michael Posner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Posner_(psychologist)"},{"link_name":"Case Vanderwolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Vanderwolf"}],"text":"Michael C. Corballis\nLeo Goldberger\nStevan Harnad\nDoreen Kimura\nRonald Melzack\nBrenda Milner\nMortimer Mishkin\nLynn Nadel\nJames Olds\nMichael Posner\nCase Vanderwolf","title":"Notable students"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-471-36727-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-36727-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-89859-017-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89859-017-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"008-027418-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/008-027418-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7872-1103-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7872-1103-5"},{"link_name":"archive.org","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/textbookofpsycho00hebb"}],"text":"The Organization of Behaviour. 1949. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-36727-7\nEssay on Mind. 1980. Lawrence Erlbaum. ISBN 978-0-89859-017-3.\nThe Conceptual Nervous System. 1982. Pergamon Press. ISBN 008-027418-8: a collection of 21 papers by Hebb, with a complete list of his publications, edited by Henry A. Buchtel.\nTextbook of Psychology, Textbook of Psychology Students' Handbook (with Don C. Donderi). 1995. Kendall Hunt Pub Co. ISBN 978-0-7872-1103-5 archive.org","title":"Selected publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Library resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library"},{"link_name":"Resources in your library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Donald+Hebb"},{"link_name":"Resources in other libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Donald+Hebb&library=0CHOOSE0"},{"link_name":"Resources in your library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Donald+Hebb"},{"link_name":"Resources in other libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Donald+Hebb&library=0CHOOSE0"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1037/h0087295","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0087295"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"145251164","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145251164"},{"link_name":"\"Donald Hebb Biography\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.psych.ualberta.ca/~gcpws/Hebb/Hebb.html"},{"link_name":"\"Did he or didn't he? The Canadian accused of inventing CIA torture\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.theglobeandmail.com/incoming/did-he-or-didnt-he-the-canadian-accused-of-inventing-cia-torture/article698026/"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1038/nrn1257","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn1257"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"14682362","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14682362"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"205499831","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205499831"},{"link_name":"\"Donald Hebb (1904 - 1985)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~harnad/Archive/hebb.html"},{"link_name":"\"Science in Dachau's Shadow: Hebb, Beecher, and the Development of CIA Psychological Torture and Modern Medical Ethics\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1002%2Fjhbs.20271"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1002/jhbs.20271","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1002%2Fjhbs.20271"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"17912716","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17912716"}],"text":"Library resources about Donald O. Hebb \n\nResources in your library\nResources in other libraries\n\nBy Donald O. Hebb\n\nResources in your library\nResources in other librariesKlein, R. M. (1999). \"The Hebb legacy\". Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. 53: 1–3. doi:10.1037/h0087295. S2CID 145251164.\n\"Hebb, Donald O. (1904-1985)\". Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology (2 ed.). 2001.\n\"Donald Hebb Biography\". Great Canadian Psychology Website. Retrieved 2006-03-09.\n\"Did he or didn't he? The Canadian accused of inventing CIA torture\". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 2016-01-08.\nRichard E. Brown; Peter M. Milner (December 2003). \"The Legacy Of Donald O. Hebb: More Than The Hebb Synapse\". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 4 (12): 1013–1019. doi:10.1038/nrn1257. PMID 14682362. S2CID 205499831.\n\"Donald Hebb (1904 - 1985)\". Harnad E-Print Archive and Psycoloquy and BBS Journal Archives. Retrieved 2006-03-18.\nAlfred W. McCoy (2007). \"Science in Dachau's Shadow: Hebb, Beecher, and the Development of CIA Psychological Torture and Modern Medical Ethics\". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 43 (4): 401–417. doi:10.1002/jhbs.20271. PMID 17912716.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"reference":"Milner, P. M.; Milner, B. (1996). \"Donald Olding Hebb. 22 July 1904-20 August 1985\". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 42: 192–204. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1996.0012. PMID 11619332. S2CID 20555128.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenda_Milner","url_text":"Milner, B."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biographical_Memoirs_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society","url_text":"Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1996.0012","url_text":"10.1098/rsbm.1996.0012"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11619332","url_text":"11619332"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20555128","url_text":"20555128"}]},{"reference":"Hebb, D. O. (1949). The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory. New York: Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-36727-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.226341","url_text":"The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-36727-7","url_text":"978-0-471-36727-7"}]},{"reference":"Haggbloom, Steven J.; Warnick, Renee; Warnick, Jason E.; Jones, Vinessa K.; Yarbrough, Gary L.; Russell, Tenea M.; Borecky, Chris M.; McGahhey, Reagan; et al. (2002). \"The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century\". Review of General Psychology. 6 (2): 139–152. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.586.1913. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139. S2CID 145668721.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug02/eminent.aspx","url_text":"\"The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.586.1913","url_text":"10.1.1.586.1913"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1089-2680.6.2.139","url_text":"10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145668721","url_text":"145668721"}]},{"reference":"Milner, Peter M. (August 1986). \"Donald Oldlng Hebb (1904-1985)\" (PDF). Trends in Neurosciences. 9: 347–351. doi:10.1016/0166-2236(86)90107-4. S2CID 53204563. Retrieved 23 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cell.com/trends/neurosciences/pdf/0166-2236(86)90107-4.pdf","url_text":"\"Donald Oldlng Hebb (1904-1985)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0166-2236%2886%2990107-4","url_text":"10.1016/0166-2236(86)90107-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53204563","url_text":"53204563"}]},{"reference":"\"Theses from Notable Alumni, 1931-1960\". Highlights from McGill Theses and Dissertations. McGill University Library. Retrieved 17 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mcgill.ca/library-theses/notable-alumni/1931-1960","url_text":"\"Theses from Notable Alumni, 1931-1960\""}]},{"reference":"\"Donald Olding Hebb Fonds, MG1045\". McGill Archival Collections Catalogue. McGill University Archives. Retrieved 17 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://archivalcollections.library.mcgill.ca/index.php/donald-olding-hebb-fonds","url_text":"\"Donald Olding Hebb Fonds, MG1045\""}]},{"reference":"Milner, Peter (January 1993). \"Scientific American\". The Mind and Donald O. Hebb. 268 (1): 124–129. JSTOR 24941344.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/24941344","url_text":"24941344"}]},{"reference":"\"Library and Archive Catalogue\". Royal Society. Archived from the original on 2011-04-29. Retrieved 17 November 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110429213914/http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=0&dsqSearch=%28Surname%3D%27hebb%27%29","url_text":"\"Library and Archive Catalogue\""},{"url":"http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=0&dsqSearch=%28Surname%3D%27hebb%27%29","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"About D.O. Hebb\". McGill University. Retrieved 28 August 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mcgill.ca/psychology/events-colloquia-0/hebb-lecture-series/about-do-hebb","url_text":"\"About D.O. Hebb\""}]},{"reference":"\"Past Honorary Degree Recipients | Convocation | the University of Chicago\".","urls":[{"url":"https://convocation.uchicago.edu/traditions/honorary-degree-recipients/past-honorary-degree-recipients/","url_text":"\"Past Honorary Degree Recipients | Convocation | the University of Chicago\""}]},{"reference":"\"Honorary Degree Citation - Donald Olding Hebb* | Concordia University Archives\". archives.concordia.ca. Archived from the original on 2015-10-02. Retrieved 2016-04-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151002180140/http://archives.concordia.ca/hebb","url_text":"\"Honorary Degree Citation - Donald Olding Hebb* | Concordia University Archives\""},{"url":"http://archives.concordia.ca/hebb","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Canadian Psychological Association > CPA Award Descriptions and Past Recipients - www.cpa.ca\". www.cpa.ca. Retrieved 2015-06-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cpa.ca/aboutcpa/cpaawards/awarddescriptions","url_text":"\"Canadian Psychological Association > CPA Award Descriptions and Past Recipients - www.cpa.ca\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Pantheon of Skeptics\". CSI. Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Archived from the original on 31 January 2017. Retrieved 30 April 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.csicop.org/about/the_pantheon_of_skeptics","url_text":"\"The Pantheon of Skeptics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry","url_text":"Committee for Skeptical Inquiry"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170131054129/http://www.csicop.org/about/the_pantheon_of_skeptics","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Keysers, Christian; Gazzola, Valeria (June 5, 2014). \"Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences\". Hebbian Learning and Predictive Mirror Neurons for Actions, Sensations and Emotions. 369 (1644): 1–11. JSTOR 24500757.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/24500757","url_text":"24500757"}]},{"reference":"Shackleton-Jones, Nick (2019-05-03). How people learn: designing effective training to improve employee performance. London, United Kingdom. ISBN 978-0-7494-8471-2. OCLC 1098213554.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7494-8471-2","url_text":"978-0-7494-8471-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1098213554","url_text":"1098213554"}]},{"reference":"Brown, R.M.; Milner, P.M. (2003). \"The Legacy of Donald O. Hebb: More than the Hebb Synapse\". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 4 (12): 1013–1019. doi:10.1038/nrn1257. PMID 14682362. S2CID 205499831.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn1257","url_text":"10.1038/nrn1257"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14682362","url_text":"14682362"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205499831","url_text":"205499831"}]},{"reference":"Hebb, D.O. (1949). The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Brown, R.E. (2006). \"The Life and Work of Donald Olding Hebb\". Acta Neuroligica Taiwanica. 15 (2): 127–142. PMID 16871901.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16871901","url_text":"16871901"}]},{"reference":"RaeHyuck, L.; Fuhua, Z. (2014). \"Head Start Participation and School Readiness: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort\". Developmental Psychology. 50 (1): 202–215. doi:10.1037/a0032280. PMC 4050643. PMID 23527496.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4050643","url_text":"\"Head Start Participation and School Readiness: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0032280","url_text":"10.1037/a0032280"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4050643","url_text":"4050643"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23527496","url_text":"23527496"}]},{"reference":"Hart, B.; Risley, T.R. (1995). Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing Co.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Olson, H.H.; Hergenhahn, B.R. (2013). An Introduction to Theories of Learning. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.","urls":[]},{"reference":"McCoy, Alfred W. (2006). A question of torture: CIA interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror (First Holt paperback ed.). New York. ISBN 0-8050-8248-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8050-8248-4","url_text":"0-8050-8248-4"}]},{"reference":"Engelhardt, Tom (8 June 2009). \"Pioneers of Torture\". antiwar.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://original.antiwar.com/engelhardt/2009/06/07/pioneers-of-torture/","url_text":"\"Pioneers of Torture\""}]},{"reference":"Heron, W. (1957). \"The Pathology of Boredom\". Scientific American. 196 (1): 52–56. Bibcode:1957SciAm.196a..52H. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0157-52.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957SciAm.196a..52H","url_text":"1957SciAm.196a..52H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0157-52","url_text":"10.1038/scientificamerican0157-52"}]},{"reference":"Klein, R. M. (1999). \"The Hebb legacy\". Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. 53: 1–3. doi:10.1037/h0087295. S2CID 145251164.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0087295","url_text":"10.1037/h0087295"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145251164","url_text":"145251164"}]},{"reference":"\"Hebb, Donald O. (1904-1985)\". Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology (2 ed.). 2001.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Donald Hebb Biography\". Great Canadian Psychology Website. Retrieved 2006-03-09.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.psych.ualberta.ca/~gcpws/Hebb/Hebb.html","url_text":"\"Donald Hebb Biography\""}]},{"reference":"\"Did he or didn't he? The Canadian accused of inventing CIA torture\". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 2016-01-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theglobeandmail.com/incoming/did-he-or-didnt-he-the-canadian-accused-of-inventing-cia-torture/article698026/","url_text":"\"Did he or didn't he? The Canadian accused of inventing CIA torture\""}]},{"reference":"Richard E. Brown; Peter M. Milner (December 2003). \"The Legacy Of Donald O. Hebb: More Than The Hebb Synapse\". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 4 (12): 1013–1019. doi:10.1038/nrn1257. PMID 14682362. S2CID 205499831.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn1257","url_text":"10.1038/nrn1257"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14682362","url_text":"14682362"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205499831","url_text":"205499831"}]},{"reference":"\"Donald Hebb (1904 - 1985)\". Harnad E-Print Archive and Psycoloquy and BBS Journal Archives. Retrieved 2006-03-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~harnad/Archive/hebb.html","url_text":"\"Donald Hebb (1904 - 1985)\""}]},{"reference":"Alfred W. McCoy (2007). \"Science in Dachau's Shadow: Hebb, Beecher, and the Development of CIA Psychological Torture and Modern Medical Ethics\". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 43 (4): 401–417. doi:10.1002/jhbs.20271. PMID 17912716.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjhbs.20271","url_text":"\"Science in Dachau's Shadow: Hebb, Beecher, and the Development of CIA Psychological Torture and Modern Medical Ethics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjhbs.20271","url_text":"10.1002/jhbs.20271"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17912716","url_text":"17912716"}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPECpower
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SPECpower
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["1 See also","2 References"]
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Type of computer benchmarking tool
SPECpower_ssj2008 is the first industry-standard benchmark that evaluates the power and performance characteristics of volume server class computers. It is available from the Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation (SPEC). SPECpower_ssj2008 is SPEC's first attempt at defining server power measurement standards. It was introduced in December, 2007.
Several SPEC member companies contributed to the development of the new power-performance measurement standard, including AMD, Dell, Fujitsu Siemens Computers, HP, Intel, IBM, and Sun Microsystems.
See also
Average CPU power
EEMBC EnergyBench
IT energy management
Performance per watt
References
^ Official SPECpower website
^ a b SPEC Press Release
Official SPEC website
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Performance_Evaluation_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SPECPress-2"},{"link_name":"AMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD"},{"link_name":"Dell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell"},{"link_name":"Fujitsu Siemens Computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujitsu_Siemens_Computers"},{"link_name":"HP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"Sun Microsystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Microsystems"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SPECPress-2"}],"text":"SPECpower_ssj2008 is the first industry-standard benchmark that evaluates the power and performance characteristics of volume server class computers. It is available from the Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation (SPEC). SPECpower_ssj2008 is SPEC's first attempt at defining server power measurement standards.[1] It was introduced in December, 2007.[2]Several SPEC member companies contributed to the development of the new power-performance measurement standard, including AMD, Dell, Fujitsu Siemens Computers, HP, Intel, IBM, and Sun Microsystems.[2]","title":"SPECpower"}]
|
[]
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[{"title":"Average CPU power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Average_CPU_power"},{"title":"EEMBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EEMBC"},{"title":"IT energy management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IT_energy_management"},{"title":"Performance per watt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_per_watt"}]
|
[]
|
[{"Link":"http://www.spec.org/power_ssj2008/","external_links_name":"Official SPECpower website"},{"Link":"http://www.spec.org/power_ssj2008/press/release.html","external_links_name":"SPEC Press Release"},{"Link":"http://www.spec.org/","external_links_name":"Official SPEC website"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(disambiguation)
|
Java (disambiguation)
|
["1 Computing","2 Food and drink","3 Geography","3.1 United States","3.2 Other places","4 Entertainment","5 Music and dance","6 Transportation","7 Other uses","8 See also"]
|
Look up Java or java in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Java is an island of Indonesia.
Java may also refer to:
Computing
Java (programming language), an object-oriented high-level programming language
Java (software platform), software and specifications developed by Sun, acquired by Oracle
Java virtual machine (JVM), an abstract computing machine enabling a computer to run a Java program
Food and drink
Java (drink), American slang term for coffee
Java chicken, a breed of chicken originating in the United States
Java coffee, a variety of coffee grown on the island of Java
Geography
United States
Java, Alabama
Java, Montana
Java, New York
Java, Ohio
Java, South Dakota
Java, Virginia
Other places
Java, Mull, a hamlet on the Isle of Mull, Argyll and Bute, Scotland
Java-eiland, a neighborhood in Amsterdam
Java, South Ossetia (or Dzau), a town in Georgia/South Ossetia
Java Municipality, Georgia, a municipality with Java as its capital
Dzau District also known as Java District, district including Java Municipality in Georgia
Java, São Tomé and Príncipe
Jave la Grande or Java Maior, a phantom island south of Java
Entertainment
Java (board game), a board game set on the island of Java
Java (comics), a villain appearing in the DC Comics series Metamorpho
Java the Caveman, one of the main characters in the French-Canadian animated series Martin Mystery
Music and dance
Java (band), a French band
Java (dance), a Parisian Bal-musette dance
"Java" (instrumental), a 1958 song by Allen Toussaint
"Java", a 1956 song by Lucienne Delyle
"Java", a song by Augustus Pablo
"Java Jive", a song by The Ink Spots
Transportation
Avian Java, a British hang glider
HMS Java, three ships of the British Royal Navy
Java (1811 ship), a British merchant and migrant ship, then coal hulk until 1939
USS Java (1815), a 44-gun frigate in the United States Navy
SS Java (1865), a British and French ocean liner built in 1865
Java-class cruiser, a class of Dutch World War II light cruisers
Bentley Java, a 1994 concept car
Chrysler Java, a 1999 concept car
Other uses
Javanese script (ISO 15924 code: Java)
Java (cigarette), a brand of Russian cigarettes
See also
Java Man, one of the first specimens of Homo erectus to be discovered
JavaScript, an interpreted programming language
Javan (disambiguation)
Javanese (disambiguation)
Jawa (disambiguation)
Jaffa (disambiguation)
Topics referred to by the same term
This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Java.If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
|
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|
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_corporations_by_market_capitalization
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List of public corporations by market capitalization
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["1 Trillion-dollar companies","2 Publicly traded companies","2.1 2024","2.2 2023","2.3 2022","2.4 2021","2.5 2020","2.6 2019","2.7 2018","2.8 2017","2.9 2016","2.10 2015","2.11 2014","2.12 2013","2.13 2012","2.14 2011","2.15 2010","2.16 2009","2.17 2008","2.18 2007","2.19 2006","2.20 2005","2.21 2004","2.22 2003","2.23 2002","2.24 2001","2.25 2000","2.26 1999","2.27 1998","2.28 1997","2.29 1996","3 See also","4 Notes","5 References"]
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The following is a list of publicly traded companies having the greatest market capitalization. In the global business media, they are described as being the world's most valuable companies as a reference to their market value.
Market capitalization is calculated from the share price (as recorded on selected day) multiplied by the number of outstanding shares. Figures are converted into USD millions (using rate from selected day) to allow for comparison.
Trillion-dollar companies
The table below lists all companies which have, at any point, had a market capitalization in excess of $1 trillion, the date on which their market cap first exceeded $1 trillion and their record market cap.
.:
Company
Country
When first passed
Record value date
Record value (in billions USD)
Notes
$1 trillion
$2 trillion
$3 trillion
Nominal
Inflation-adjusted
Nvidia
30 May 2023
23 February 2024
5 June 2024
18 June 2024
3,350
3,350
Microsoft
25 April 2019
22 June 2021
24 January 2024
17 June 2024
3,332
3,332
Apple
2 August 2018
19 August 2020
3 January 2022
12 June 2024
3,331
3,331
Saudi Aramco
11 December 2019
12 December 2019
—
10 May 2022
2,463
2,564
Alphabet
16 January 2020
8 November 2021
—
26 April 2024
2,150
2,150
Amazon
4 September 2018
—
—
11 April 2024
1,970
1,970
Meta
28 June 2021
—
—
2 February 2024
1,220
1,220
Tesla
25 October 2021
—
—
1 November 2021
1,210
1,361
Publicly traded companies
All market capitalization figures are in USD millions. Only companies with free float of at least 15% are included; the value of unlisted stock classes is excluded. Investment companies are not included in the list.
2024
This list is up to date as of 31 March 2024. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
Microsoft3,126,000
2
Apple2,648,000
3
Nvidia2,259,000
4
Alphabet1,893,000
5
Amazon1,874,000
6
Meta1,238,000
7
Berkshire Hathaway912,130
8
Eli Lilly 739,660
9
TSMC705,690
10
Broadcom 614,220
2023
This list is up to date as of 31 December 2023. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
Apple2,609,000
Apple3,050,000
Apple2,677,000
Apple2,994,000
2
Microsoft2,146,000
Microsoft2,532,000
Microsoft2,346,000
Microsoft2,795,000
3
Alphabet1,332,000
Alphabet1,530,000
Alphabet1,662,000
Alphabet1,764,000
4
Amazon1,058,000
Amazon1,337,000
Amazon1,312,000
Amazon1,570,000
5
Nvidia686,090
Nvidia1,044,000
Nvidia1,074,000
Nvidia1,223,000
6
Berkshire Hathaway677,770
Tesla829,670
Tesla794,200
Meta909,000
7
Tesla656,420
Berkshire Hathaway745,010
Meta772,490
Tesla789,930
8
Meta549,480
Meta735,450
Berkshire Hathaway769,260
Berkshire Hathaway783,550
9
TSMC482,410
TSMC523,410
Eli Lilly 509,890
Eli Lilly 553,370
10
Visa 473,870
Visa 497,370
Visa 480,990
TSMC 539,390
2022
This list is as of 31 December 2022. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
Apple2,850,000
Apple2,212,000
Apple2,221,000
Apple
2,066,000
2
Microsoft2,311,000
Microsoft1,920,000
Microsoft1,737,000
Microsoft
1,787,000
3
Alphabet1,846,000
Alphabet1,435,000
Alphabet1,254,000
Alphabet
1,145,000
4
Amazon1,659,000
Amazon1,080,000
Amazon1,151,000
Amazon
856,940
5
Tesla1,114,000
Tesla697,660
Tesla831,150
Berkshire Hathaway
681,770
6
Berkshire Hathaway779,150
Berkshire Hathaway602,450
Berkshire Hathaway596,410
UnitedHealth
495,370
7
Nvidia684,880
UnitedHealth481,870
UnitedHealth472,410
Johnson & Johnson
461,840
8
Meta605,250
Johnson & Johnson467,090
Johnson & Johnson429,500
ExxonMobil
454,240
9
TSMC540,670
Tencent445,990
Visa 374,380
Visa
439,950
10
UnitedHealth479,830
Meta436,390
Meta364,650
Tencent
405,090
2021
This list is up to date as of December 31, 2021. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
Apple 2,050,000
Apple 2,286,000
Apple 2,339,000
Apple 2,913,000
2
Microsoft 1,778,000
Microsoft 2,040,000
Microsoft 2,119,000
Microsoft 2,525,000
3
Amazon 1,558,000
Amazon 1,735,000
Alphabet 1,777,000
Alphabet 1,922,000
4
Alphabet 1,395,000
Alphabet 1,680,000
Amazon 1,664,000
Amazon 1,691,000
5
Meta 838,720
Meta 985,920
Meta 956,890
Tesla 1,061,000
6
Tencent 766,970
Tencent 721,460
Tesla 776,850
Meta 935,640
7
Tesla 641,110
Tesla 654,780
Berkshire Hathaway 619,950
Nvidia 732,920
8
Alibaba Group 615,010
Berkshire Hathaway 637,280
TSMC 579,030
Berkshire Hathaway 668,630
9
TSMC 613,410
TSMC 623,160
Tencent 574,460
TSMC 623,930
10
Berkshire Hathaway 590,050
Alibaba Group 615,140
Nvidia 517,900
Tencent 559,900
2020
This Financial Times–based list is up to data as of December 31, 2020. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
Microsoft 1,200,000
Apple 1,576,000
Apple 1,981,000
Apple 2,254,000
2
Apple 1,113,000
Microsoft 1,551,000
Microsoft 1,592,000
Microsoft 1,682,000
3
Amazon 970,590
Amazon 1,432,590
Amazon 1,577,000
Amazon 1,634,000
4
Alphabet 799,180
Alphabet 979,700
Alphabet 999,570
Alphabet 1,185,000
5
Alibaba Group 521,740
Facebook 675,690
Alibaba Group 795,400
Facebook 776,590
6
Facebook 475,460
Tencent 620,920
Facebook 746,100
Tencent 683,470
7
Tencent 471,660
Alibaba Group 579,740
Tencent 646,790
Tesla 668,080
8
Berkshire Hathaway 440,830
Berkshire Hathaway 432,570
Berkshire Hathaway 509,470
Alibaba Group 628,650
9
Visa 357,020
Visa 412,710
Visa 425,510
TSMC 565,280
10
Johnson & Johnson 345,700
Johnson & Johnson 370,590
TSMC 420,440
Berkshire Hathaway 544,780
2019
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of December 31, 2019. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
Microsoft 904,860
Microsoft 1,028,000
Microsoft 1,062,000
Apple 1,305,000
2
Apple 835,670
Amazon 928,540
Apple 1,012,000
Microsoft 1,203,000
3
Amazon 874,710
Apple 911,240
Amazon 858,680
Alphabet 922,130
4
Alphabet 818,160
Alphabet 751,170
Alphabet 838,020
Amazon 916,150
5
Berkshire Hathaway 493,750
Facebook 551,490
Berkshire Hathaway 508,530
Facebook 585,320
6
Facebook 475,730
Berkshire Hathaway 521,100
Facebook 508,050
Alibaba Group 569,010
7
Alibaba Group 472,940
Alibaba Group 439,150
Alibaba Group 435,400
Berkshire Hathaway 553,530
8
Tencent 440,980
Tencent 432,080
Tencent 398,840
Tencent 461,370
9
Johnson & Johnson 372,230
Visa 379,271
Visa 385,370
JPMorgan Chase 437,230
10
Visa 353,710
Johnson & Johnson 370,300
JPMorgan Chase 376,310
Visa 416,790
2018
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of December 31, 2018. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
Apple 851,317
Apple 909,840
Apple 1,091,000
Microsoft 780,520
2
Alphabet 715,404
Amazon 824,790
Amazon 976,650
Apple 748,680
3
Microsoft 702,760
Alphabet 774,840
Microsoft 877,400
Amazon 735,900
4
Amazon 700,672
Microsoft 757,640
Alphabet 839,740
Alphabet 728,360
5
Tencent 507,990
Facebook 562,480
Berkshire Hathaway 523,520
Berkshire Hathaway 499,590
6
Berkshire Hathaway 492,019
Tencent 478,580
Facebook 473,850
Facebook 375,890
7
Alibaba Group 470,930
Alibaba Group 476,040
Alibaba Group 423,600
Tencent 375,110
8
Facebook 464,189
Berkshire Hathaway 463,980
Tencent 388,080
Alibaba Group 355,130
9
JPMorgan Chase 377,410
JPMorgan Chase 354,780
JPMorgan Chase 379,440
Johnson & Johnson 346,110
10
Johnson & Johnson 343,780
ExxonMobil 350,270
Johnson & Johnson 370,650
JPMorgan Chase 324,660
2017
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of December 31, 2017. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
Apple 753,718
Apple 749,124
Apple 791,726
Apple 868,880
2
Alphabet 573,570
Alphabet 628,610
Alphabet 664,550
Alphabet 727,040
3
Microsoft 508,935
Microsoft 528,778
Microsoft 568,965
Microsoft 659,910
4
Amazon 423,031
Amazon 466,471
Amazon 459,435
Amazon 563,540
5
Berkshire Hathaway 410,880
Berkshire Hathaway 418,880
Berkshire Hathaway 451,840
Facebook 512,760
6
ExxonMobil 339,897
Johnson & Johnson 357,310
Alibaba Group 436,850
Tencent 493,340
7
Johnson & Johnson 337,947
Facebook 357,176
Tencent 405,007
Berkshire Hathaway 489,490
8
Facebook 334,552
Alibaba Group 356,390
Facebook 399,946
Alibaba Group 440,712
9
JPMorgan Chase 313,761
Tencent 344,879
ExxonMobil 348,248
Johnson & Johnson 375,360
10
Wells Fargo 278,516
ExxonMobil 341,947
Johnson & Johnson 347,497
JPMorgan Chase 371,050
2016
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of December 31, 2016. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
Apple 607,465
Apple 517,069
Apple 604,475
Apple 617,588.49
2
Alphabet 535,660
Alphabet 475,320
Alphabet 535,660
Alphabet 531,970
3
Microsoft 439,734
Microsoft 397,268
Microsoft 447,290
Microsoft 483,160.28
4
ExxonMobil 350,991
ExxonMobil 383,396
Amazon 393,030
Berkshire Hathaway 404,390
5
Berkshire Hathaway 349,740
Berkshire Hathaway 345,860
ExxonMobil 358,519
ExxonMobil 374,280
6
Johnson & Johnson 300,604
Amazon 337,641
Berkshire Hathaway 358,300
Amazon 356,313.12
7
General Electric 295,546
Johnson & Johnson 328,234
Johnson & Johnson 320,836
Johnson & Johnson 313,432.46
8
Amazon 281,888
General Electric 280,927
Facebook 297,548
JPMorgan Chase 308,768.42
9
Facebook 259,192
Facebook 263,930
Tencent 265,603
General Electric 279,545.92
10
Wells Fargo 246,035
AT&T 261,035
General Electric 261,876
Wells Fargo 276,779.12
2015
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of December 31, 2015. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
Apple 724,773.1
Apple 722,576.9
Apple 621,939
Apple 598,344
2
ExxonMobil 356,548.7
Microsoft 357,154.4
Google 407,870
Alphabet 534,090
3
Berkshire Hathaway 356,510.7
ExxonMobil 347,868.1
Microsoft 347,432
Microsoft 449,799
4
Google 345,849.2
Google336,014.5
Berkshire Hathaway 318,180
Berkshire Hathaway 323,750
5
Microsoft 333,524.8
Berkshire Hathaway 336,014.5
ExxonMobil 304,245
ExxonMobil 325,167
6
Petro China 329,715.1
Petro China 319,391.6
Johnson & Johnson 257,637
Amazon 323,009
7
Wells Fargo 279,919.7
ICBC 298,531.5
General Electric 248,069
General Electric 313,892
8
Johnson & Johnson 279,723.9
Wells Fargo 289,591.3
China Mobile 243,186
Johnson & Johnson 287,153
9
ICBC 275,389.1
Johnson & Johnson 270,260.8
Novartis 240,373
Wells Fargo 281,770
10
Novartis 267,897.0
General Electric 267,717.4
Nestlé 233,361
JPMorgan Chase 245,126
2014
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of December 31, 2014. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
Apple 478,766.1
Apple 560,337.4
Apple 603,277.4
Apple 647,361.0
2
ExxonMobil 422,098.3
ExxonMobil 432,357.3
ExxonMobil 401,094.1
ExxonMobil 391,481.9
3
Microsoft 340,216.8
Google 358,347.3
Microsoft 381,959.7
Microsoft 382,880.3
4
Google 313,003.9
Microsoft 344,458.8
Google 361,998.4
Berkshire Hathaway 370,652.6
5
Berkshire Hathaway 308,090.6
Berkshire Hathaway 312,216.7
Berkshire Hathaway 340,055.0
Google 329,768.5
6
Johnson & Johnson 277,826.2
Johnson & Johnson 295,980.1
Johnson & Johnson 300,614.2
PetroChina 305,536.1
7
Wells Fargo 261,217.5
Wells Fargo 276,837
Wells Fargo 270,782.4
Johnson & Johnson 292,702.8
8
General Electric 259,547.3
Royal Dutch Shell 269,563.4
General Electric 257,068.4
Wells Fargo 284,385.6
9
Hoffmann-La Roche 258,542.1
General Electric 263,529.6
Novartis 255,326.4
Walmart 276,807.4
10
Walmart 246,805.7
Hoffmann-La Roche 256,322.8
Hoffmann-La Roche 254,543.8
ICBC 271,146.1
2013
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 31 December 2013. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
Apple 415,683.3
ExxonMobil 401,729.8
Apple 433,099.6
Apple 504,770.8
2
ExxonMobil 403,733.1
Apple 372,202.3
ExxonMobil 378,716.2
ExxonMobil 442,142.8
3
Berkshire Hathaway 256,801.8
Microsoft 288,488.8
Berkshire Hathaway 280,001.5
Microsoft 312,297.3
4
PetroChina 254,618.7
Berkshire Hathaway 276,548.5
Microsoft 277,220.9
Google 310,079.1
5
Walmart 246,373.3
Walmart 244,079.4
Johnson & Johnson 244,298.5
Berkshire Hathaway 292,396.0
6
General Electric 239,775.6
Johnson & Johnson 241,170.9
General Electric 243,290.4
General Electric 283,589.8
7
Microsoft 239,602.3
General Electric 239,787.2
Walmart 240,773.3
Johnson & Johnson 258,415.4
8
IBM 237,724.7
Google 238,688.6
Google 237,479.4
Walmart 254,622.8
9
Nestlé 233,792.1
Chevron Corporation 229,402.6
Chevron Corporation 234,740.8
Hoffmann-La Roche 241,368.0
10
Chevron Corporation 230,831.2
ICBC 226,879.8
Hoffmann-La Roche 232,495.2
Chevron Corporation 240,223.4
2012
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 31 December 2012. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
Apple 559,002.1
Apple 546,076.1
Apple 625,348.1
Apple 500,610.7
2
ExxonMobil 408,777.4
ExxonMobil 400,139.1
ExxonMobil 422,127.5
ExxonMobil 394,610.9
3
PetroChina 278,968.4
PetroChina 257,685.8
PetroChina 253,853.3
PetroChina 264,833.4
4
Microsoft 270,644.1
Microsoft 256,982.4
Microsoft 249,489.8
BHP Billiton 247,409.0
5
IBM 241,754.6
Walmart 235,900.3
Walmart 248,074.4
ICBC 236,457.9
6
ICBC 236,335.4
IBM 225,598.5
General Electric 239,791.2
China Mobile 234,040.2
7
Royal Dutch Shell 222,425.1
General Electric 220,806.3
IBM 237,068.4
Walmart 228,245.4
8
China Mobile 220,978.9
China Mobile 219,481.3
Chevron Corporation 228,707.1
Samsung Electronics 227,581.8
9
General Electric 212,317.7
Royal Dutch Shell 217,048.2
China Mobile 222,817.8
Microsoft 224,801.0
10
Chevron Corporation 211,950.6
ICBC 211,196.0
Royal Dutch Shell 222,669.6
Royal Dutch Shell 222,669.6
2011
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 31 December 2011. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
ExxonMobil 417,166.7
ExxonMobil 400,884.5
Apple 353,518.1
ExxonMobil 406,272.1
2
PetroChina 326,199.2
Apple 310,412.3
ExxonMobil 353,135.2
Apple 376,410.6
3
Apple 321,072.1
PetroChina 303,649.9
PetroChina 276,473.9
PetroChina 276,844.9
4
ICBC 251,078.1
ICBC 246,850.5
IBM 208,843.5
Royal Dutch Shell 236,677.0
5
Petrobras 247,417.6
BHP Billiton 233,626.5
Microsoft 208,534.9
ICBC 228,168.1
6
BHP Billiton 247,079.5
Royal Dutch Shell 225,122.8
ICBC 206,021.4
Microsoft 218,380.1
7
China Construction Bank 232,608.6
Microsoft 219,251.9
China Mobile 198,778.7
IBM 216,724.4
8
Royal Dutch Shell 226,128.7
Nestlé 215,017.5
Royal Dutch Shell 197,061.1
Chevron Corporation 211,893.9
9
Chevron Corporation 215,780.6
Petrobras 210,111.4
Nestlé 191,115.6
Walmart 204,659.8
10
Microsoft 213,336.4
IBM 207,781.4
Chevron Corporation 185,456.1
China Mobile 196,148.4
2010
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 31 December 2010. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
PetroChina 329,259.7
ExxonMobil 291,789.1
ExxonMobil 314,622.5
ExxonMobil 368,711.5
2
ExxonMobil 316,230.8
PetroChina 268,504.8
PetroChina 270,889.9
PetroChina 303,273.6
3
Microsoft 256,864.7
Apple 228,876.8
Apple 259,223.4
Apple 295,886.3
4
ICBC 246,419.8
ICBC 211,258.7
Petrobras 220,616.5
BHP Billiton 243,540.3
5
Apple 213,096.7
Microsoft 201,655.8
ICBC 213,364.1
Microsoft 238,784.5
6
BHP Billiton 209,935.1
China Mobile 201,471.2
Microsoft 210,676.4
ICBC 233,369.1
7
Walmart 209,000.7
Berkshire Hathaway 197,356.8
China Mobile 205,339.6
Petrobras 229,066.6
8
Berkshire Hathaway 200,620.5
China Construction Bank 189,170.7
Berkshire Hathaway 204,792.0
China Construction Bank 222,245.1
9
General Electric 194,246.2
Walmart 178,322.7
China Construction Bank 202,998.4
Royal Dutch Shell 208,593.7
10
China Mobile 192,998.6
Procter & Gamble 172,736.5
BHP Billiton 196,866.0
Nestlé 203,534.3
2009
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 31 December 2009. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
ExxonMobil 336,527
PetroChina 366,662.9
ExxonMobil 329,725
PetroChina 353,140.1
2
PetroChina 287,185
ExxonMobil 341,140.3
PetroChina 325,097.5
ExxonMobil 323,717.1
3
Walmart 204,365
ICBC 257,004.4
ICBC 237,951.5
Microsoft 270,635.4
4
ICBC 187,885
Microsoft 211,546.2
Microsoft 229,630.7
ICBC 268,956.2
5
China Mobile 174,673
China Mobile 200,832.4
HSBC 198,561.1
Walmart 203,653.6
6
Microsoft 163,320
Walmart 188,752.0
China Mobile 195,680.4
China Construction Bank 201,436.1
7
AT&T 148,511
China Construction Bank 182,186.7
Walmart 189,331.6
BHP Billiton 201,248
8
Johnson & Johnson 145,481
Petrobras 165,056.9
Petrobras 189,027.7
HSBC 199,254.9
9
Royal Dutch Shell 138,999
Johnson & Johnson156,515.9
China Construction Bank 186,816.7
Petrobras 199,107.9
10
Procter & Gamble 138,013
Royal Dutch Shell156,386.7
Royal Dutch Shell175,986.1
Apple 189,801.7
2008
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 31 December 2008. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
ExxonMobil 452,505
ExxonMobil 465,652
ExxonMobil 403,366
ExxonMobil 406,067
2
PetroChina 423,996
PetroChina 341,140.3
PetroChina 325,097.5
PetroChina 259,836
3
General Electric 369,569
ICBC 257,004.4
ICBC 237,951.5
Walmart 219,898
4
Gazprom 299,764
Microsoft 211,546.2
Microsoft 229,630.7
China Mobile 201,291
5
China Mobile 298,093
China Mobile 200,832.4
HSBC 198,561.1
Procter & Gamble 184,576
6
ICBC 277,236
Walmart 188,752.0
China Mobile 195,680.4
ICBC 173,930
7
Microsoft 264,132
China Construction Bank 182,186.7
Walmart 189,331.6
Microsoft 172,929
8
AT&T 231,168
Petrobras 165,056.9
Petrobras 189,027.7
AT&T 167,950
9
Royal Dutch Shell 220,110
Johnson & Johnson156,515.9
China Construction Bank 186,816.7
Johnson & Johnson 166,002
10
Procter & Gamble 215,640
Royal Dutch Shell156,386.7
Royal Dutch Shell175,986.1
General Electric 161,278
2007
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 31 December 2007. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
ExxonMobil 429,567
ExxonMobil 472,519
ExxonMobil 513,362
Petrochina 723,952
2
General Electric 363,611
General Electric 393,831
General Electric424,191
ExxonMobil 511,887
3
Microsoft 272,912
Microsoft 281,934
China Mobile 327,937
General Electric 374,637
4
Citigroup 252,857
Royal Dutch Shell266,141
ICBC 279,269
China Mobile 354,120
5
AT&T 246,206
AT&T 255,871
Microsoft 276,202
ICBC 338,989
6
Gazprom 245,911
Citigroup 253,703
Royal Dutch Shell 264,397
Microsoft 333,054
7
Toyota 230,832
Gazprom 245,757
Gazprom 260,249
Gazprom 329,591
8
Bank of America 228,177
BP 231,491
AT&T 258,047
Royal Dutch Shell 269,544
9
ICBC 224,788
Toyota 228,009
Citigroup 232,162
AT&T 252,051
10
Royal Dutch Shell 214,018
Bank of America 216,963
Bank of America 223,066
Sinopec 249,645
2006
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of December 2006. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.
Rank
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1
ExxonMobil 371,631
ExxonMobil 371,187
ExxonMobil 398,906
ExxonMobil 446,943
2
General Electric 362,527
General Electric 342,731
General Electric 364,414
General Electric 383,564
3
Microsoft 281,171
Gazprom 246,341
Microsoft 272,679.0
Microsoft 293,537
4
Citigroup 238,935
Citigroup 239,862
Gazprom 254,634.3
Citigroup 273,691
5
BP 233,260
Microsoft 237,688
Citigroup 246,727
Gazprom 271,482
6
Bank of America 211,706
BP 233,151
Bank of America 242,451
ICBC 254,592
7
Royal Dutch Shell 211,280
Royal Dutch Shell 224,925
Royal Dutch Shell 216,368
Toyota 241,161
8
Walmart 196,860
Bank of America 219,504
BP 215,623
Bank of America 239,758
9
Toyota 196,731
HSBC 201,854
HSBC 209,774
Royal Dutch Shell 225,781
10
Gazprom 196,339
Walmart 200,762
Pfizer 206,785
BP 218,643
2005
This Financial Times–This list is up to date as of 31 March 2005.
Rank
Name
Country
Primary industry
Market value(USD million)
1
General Electric
United States
Conglomerate
382,233
2
ExxonMobil
United States
Oil and gas
380,567
3
Microsoft
United States
Software industry
262,975
4
Citigroup
United States
Banking
234,437
5
BP
United Kingdom
Oil and gas
221,365
6
Walmart
United States
Retail
212,209
7
Royal Dutch Shell
Netherlands
United Kingdom
Oil and gas
210,630
8
Johnson & Johnson
United States
Health care
199,711
9
Pfizer
United States
Health care
195,945
10
Bank of America
United States
Banking
178,765
2004
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as 31 March 2004.
Rank
Name
Country
Primary industry
Market value (USD million)
1
General Electric
United States
Conglomerate
299,336
2
Microsoft
United States
Software industry
271,911
3
ExxonMobil
United States
Oil and gas
263,940
4
Pfizer
United States
Health care
261,616
5
Citigroup
United States
Banking
259,191
6
Walmart
United States
Retail
258,888
7
American International Group
United States
Insurance
183,696
8
Intel Corporation
United States
Computer hardware
179,996
9
BP
United Kingdom
Oil and gas
174,648
10
HSBC
United Kingdom
Banking
163,574
2003
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as December 2003.
Rank
Name
Country
Primary industry
Market value (USD million)
1
Microsoft
United States
Software industry
264,003
2
General Electric
United States
Conglomerate
259,647
3
ExxonMobil
United States
Oil and gas
241,037
4
Walmart
United States
Retail
234,399
5
Pfizer
United States
Health care
195,948
6
Citigroup
United States
Banking
183,887
7
Johnson & Johnson
United States
Health care
170,417
8
Royal Dutch Shell
Netherlands
United Kingdom
Oil and gas
149,034
9
BP
United Kingdom
Oil and gas
144,381
10
IBM
United States
Computer software, computer hardware
139,272
2002
This Financial Times–based list is up to date December 2002.
Rank
Name
Country
Primary industry
Market value (USD million)
1
General Electric
United States
Conglomerate
372,089
2
Microsoft
United States
Software industry
326,639
3
ExxonMobil
United States
Oil and gas
299,820
4
Walmart
United States
Retail
273,220
5
Citigroup
United States
Banking
255,299
6
Pfizer
United States
Health care
249,021
7
Intel Corporation
United States
Computer hardware
203,838
8
BP
United Kingdom
Oil and gas
200,794
9
Johnson & Johnson
United States
Health care
197,912
10
Royal Dutch Shell
Netherlands
United Kingdom
Oil and gas
189,913
2001
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as 31 March 2001.
Rank
Name
Country
Primary industry
Market value (USD million)
1
General Electric
United States
Conglomerate
477,406
2
Cisco Systems
United States
Networking hardware
304,699
3
ExxonMobil
United States
Oil and gas
286,367
4
Pfizer
United States
Health care
263,996
5
Microsoft
United States
Software industry
258,436
6
Walmart
United States
Retail
250,955
7
Citigroup
United States
Banking
250,143
8
Vodafone
United Kingdom
Telecommunications
227,175
9
Intel
United States
Computer hardware
227,048
10
Royal Dutch Shell
Netherlands
United Kingdom
Oil and gas
206,340
2000
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as 31 March 2000.
Rank
Name
Country
Primary industry
Market value (USD million)
1
Microsoft
United States
Software industry
586,197
2
General Electric
United States
Conglomerate
474,956
3
NTT Docomo
Japan
Telecommunications
366,204
4
Cisco Systems
United States
Networking hardware
348,965
5
Walmart
United States
Retail
286,153
6
Intel
United States
Computer hardware
277,096
7
Nippon Telegraph & Telephone
Japan
Telecommunications
274,905
8
ExxonMobil
United States
Oil and gas
265,894
9
Lucent
United States
Telecommunications
237,668
10
Deutsche Telekom
Germany
Telecommunications
209,628
1999
The 10 largest companies in the world by market capitalization in 1999
Rank
Name
Country
Industry
Market value (USD million)
1
Microsoft
United States
Software industry
602,430
2
General Electric
United States
Conglomerate
507,220
3
Cisco Systems
United States
Computer hardware
357,110
4
Wal-Mart
United States
Retail
307,520
5
ExxonMobil
United States
Oil and gas
278,870
6
Intel
United States
Computer hardware
275,010
7
Nippon Telegraph & Telephone
Japan
Telecommunications
272,050
8
Lucent
United States
Telecommunications
227,990
9
Nokia
Finland
Telecommunications
218,990
10
Deutsche Telekom
Germany
Telecommunications
216,070
1998
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 30 September 1998.
Rank
Name
Country
Primary industry
Market value(USD million)
1
Microsoft
United States
Software
271,854
2
General Electric
United States
Conglomerate
258,871
3
ExxonMobil
United States
Oil and gas
172,213
4
Royal Dutch Shell
Netherlands
United Kingdom
Oil and gas
164,157
5
Merck
United States
Health care
154,753
6
Pfizer
United States
Health care
148,074
7
Intel
United States
Computer hardware
144,060
8
The Coca-Cola Company
United States
Beverage
142,164
9
Walmart
United States
Retail
123,062
10
IBM
United States
Software, computer hardware
121,184
1997
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 30 September 1997.
Rank
Name
Country
Primary industry
Market value (USD million)
1
General Electric
United States
Conglomerate
222,748
2
Royal Dutch Shell
Netherlands
United Kingdom
Oil and gas
191,002
3
Microsoft
United States
Software industry
159,660
4
ExxonMobil
United States
Oil and gas
157,970
5
The Coca-Cola Company
United States
Beverage
151,288
6
Intel
United States
Computer hardware
150,838
7
Nippon Telegraph & Telephone
Japan
Telecommunications
146,139
8
Merck
United States
Health care
120,757
9
Toyota
Japan
Automotive
116,585
10
Novartis
Switzerland
Health care
104,468
1996
This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 30 September 1996.
Rank
Name
Country
Primary industry
Market value (USD million)
1
General Electric
United States
Conglomerate
136,515
2
Royal Dutch Shell
Netherlands
United Kingdom
Oil and gas
128,206
3
The Coca-Cola Company
United States
Beverage
117,258
4
Nippon Telegraph & Telephone
Japan
Telecommunications
113,609
5
ExxonMobil
United States
Oil and gas
102,161
See also
List of countries by stock market capitalization
List of largest companies by revenue
List of largest employers
List of largest corporate profits and losses
List of wealthiest religious organizations
Corporate capitalism
World Economic Forum
Fortune Global 500
Notes
^ Meta was formerly Facebook Inc. and traded as Facebook, Inc. at the time it first reached a $1tn capitalization
^ a b c d e f g h i In case some companies with multiple classes of stock only one class is considered.
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by country
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"share","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Share_(finance)"},{"link_name":"price","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Share_price"},{"link_name":"outstanding shares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shares_outstanding"},{"link_name":"USD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollar"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-2"}],"text":"Market capitalization is calculated from the share price (as recorded on selected day) multiplied by the number of outstanding shares. Figures are converted into USD millions (using rate from selected day) to allow for comparison.[2]","title":"List of public corporations by market capitalization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The table below lists all companies which have, at any point, had a market capitalization in excess of $1 trillion, the date on which their market cap first exceeded $1 trillion and their record market cap.[3]\n[4].:","title":"Trillion-dollar companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"USD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USD"},{"link_name":"free float","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_float"},{"link_name":"Investment companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment_company"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-2"}],"text":"All market capitalization figures are in USD millions. Only companies with free float of at least 15% are included; the value of unlisted stock classes is excluded. Investment companies are not included in the list.[2]","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_public_corporations_by_market_capitalization&action=edit"}],"sub_title":"2024","text":"This list is up to date as of 31 March 2024[update]. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"2023","text":"This list is up to date as of 31 December 2023. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"2022","text":"This list is as of 31 December 2022. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_public_corporations_by_market_capitalization&action=edit"}],"sub_title":"2021","text":"This list is up to date as of December 31, 2021[update]. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_public_corporations_by_market_capitalization&action=edit"}],"sub_title":"2020","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to data as of December 31, 2020[update]. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_public_corporations_by_market_capitalization&action=edit"}],"sub_title":"2019","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of December 31, 2019[update]. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_public_corporations_by_market_capitalization&action=edit"}],"sub_title":"2018","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of December 31, 2018[update]. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_public_corporations_by_market_capitalization&action=edit"}],"sub_title":"2017","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of December 31, 2017[update]. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_public_corporations_by_market_capitalization&action=edit"}],"sub_title":"2016","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of December 31, 2016[update]. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_public_corporations_by_market_capitalization&action=edit"}],"sub_title":"2015","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of December 31, 2015[update]. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_public_corporations_by_market_capitalization&action=edit"}],"sub_title":"2014","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of December 31, 2014[update]. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"}],"sub_title":"2013","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 31 December 2013. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"}],"sub_title":"2012","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 31 December 2012. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"}],"sub_title":"2011","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 31 December 2011. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"}],"sub_title":"2010","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 31 December 2010. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"}],"sub_title":"2009","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 31 December 2009. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"}],"sub_title":"2008","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 31 December 2008. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"}],"sub_title":"2007","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 31 December 2007. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"}],"sub_title":"2006","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of December 2006. Indicated changes in market value are relative to the previous quarter.","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"}],"sub_title":"2005","text":"This Financial Times–This list is up to date as of 31 March 2005.[103]","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"}],"sub_title":"2004","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as 31 March 2004.[104]","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"}],"sub_title":"2003","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as December 2003.[105]","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"}],"sub_title":"2002","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date December 2002.[106]","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"}],"sub_title":"2001","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as 31 March 2001.[107]","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"}],"sub_title":"2000","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as 31 March 2000.[108]","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"}],"sub_title":"1999","text":"The 10 largest companies in the world by market capitalization in 1999[109]","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"}],"sub_title":"1998","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 30 September 1998.[110]","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"}],"sub_title":"1997","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 30 September 1997.[111]","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"}],"sub_title":"1996","text":"This Financial Times–based list is up to date as of 30 September 1996.[112]","title":"Publicly traded companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-27"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-mc_56-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-mc_56-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-mc_56-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-mc_56-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-mc_56-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-mc_56-5"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-mc_56-6"},{"link_name":"h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-mc_56-7"},{"link_name":"i","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-mc_56-8"}],"text":"^ Meta was formerly Facebook Inc. and traded as Facebook, Inc. at the time it first reached a $1tn capitalization\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i In case some companies with multiple classes of stock only one class is considered.","title":"Notes"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"List of countries by stock market capitalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_stock_market_capitalization"},{"title":"List of largest companies by revenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_companies_by_revenue"},{"title":"List of largest employers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_employers"},{"title":"List of largest corporate profits and losses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_corporate_profits_and_losses"},{"title":"List of wealthiest religious organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_wealthiest_religious_organizations"},{"title":"Corporate capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_capitalism"},{"title":"World Economic Forum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Economic_Forum"},{"title":"Fortune Global 500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_Global_500"}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel
|
Carbon-based fuel
|
["1 References","2 External links"]
|
Carbon-based fuel is any fuel principally from the oxidation or burning of carbon. Carbon-based fuels are of two main kinds, biofuels and fossil fuels. Whereas biofuels are derived from recent-growth organic matter and are typically harvested, as with logging of forests and cutting of corn, fossil fuels are of prehistoric origin and are extracted from the ground, the principal fossil fuels being oil, coal, and natural gas.
From an economic policy perspective, an important distinction between biofuels and fossil fuels is that only the former is sustainable or renewable.
Whereas we can continue to obtain energy from biofuels indefinitely in principle, the Earth's reserves of fossil fuels was determined millions of years ago and is therefore fixed as far as our foreseeable future is concerned. The great variability in the ease of extraction of fossil fuels however makes its endgame scenario one of increasing prices over one or more centuries rather than of abrupt exhaustion.
From the perspective of climate and ecology, biofuels and fossil fuels have in common that they contribute to the production of atmospheric carbon dioxide, which has emerged in recent decades as the fastest-changing greenhouse gas, whose principal impacts are global warming and ocean acidification. However biofuels actively participate in the carbon cycle today by photosynthesizing carbon dioxide, unlike fossil fuels whose participation was long ago, and can therefore in principle bring atmospheric CO2 into an equilibrium not possible with the continued use of fossil fuel. But in practice photosynthesis is a slow process, and the additional fuel produced by artificial methods of accelerating it such as application of fertilizer tends to be offset by the energy consumed by the accelerating processes, to a degree currently under active debate. In contrast the speed of photosynthesis is immaterial for fossil fuels because they had millions of years in which to accumulate. Burning of both fossil fuels and biofuels usually also produces carbon monoxide, which is toxic and can kill a person after mixing with the haemoglobin of the blood, increasing its concentration in the body. Biofuels and fossil fuels may also produce many other air pollutants depending on the contents of the fuel.
References
^ Demirbas, A. . (2009). "Political, economic and environmental impacts of biofuels: A review". Applied Energy. 86: S108–S117. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.04.036.
^ Paul Mann, Lisa Gahagan, and Mark B. Gordon, "Tectonic setting of the world's giant oil and gas fields," in Michel T. Halbouty (ed.) Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade, 1990-1999, Tulsa, Okla.: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p.50, accessed 22 June 2009.
^ Dr. Irene Novaczek. "Canada's Fossil Fuel Dependency". Elements.nb.ca. Archived from the original on 2019-09-04. Retrieved 2007-01-18.
^ "Microsoft Word - NETL Final Report, 2-05.doc" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-12-15. Retrieved 2009-11-28.
^ Pimentel-Patzek report Archived 2007-08-09 at the Wayback Machine
^ National Biodiesel Board response to Pimentel Archived May 18, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
External links
The Report of the National Advisory Panel on Sustainable Energy Science and Technology, Chapter 5, Carbon-Based Fuels
"The Coming Energy Crisis?" Archived 2020-11-27 at the Wayback Machine - essay by James L. Williams of WTRG Economics and A. F. Alhajji of Ohio Northern University
"Powering the Future" - Michael Parfit (National Geographic)
"Federal Fossil Fuel Subsidies and Greenhouse Gas Emissions"
Fossil Fuel Subsidies in Europe
Biofuels at Curlie
Alternative Fueling Station Locator (EERE).
BioenergyWiki Archived 2007-01-29 at the Wayback Machine - a wiki on biofuels and related subjects, including bioenergy sustainability.
How Much Water Does It Take to Make Electricity? -- Natural gas requires the least water to produce energy, some biofuels the most, according to a new study.
International Conference on Biofuels Standards - European Union Biofuels Standardization
International Energy Agency: Biofuels for Transport - An International Perspective
|
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|
[]
| null |
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_track
|
Hidden track
|
["1 Techniques","2 Reasoning","3 Notable hidden tracks","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
|
Music not detectable by casual listeners
For the film, see Hidden Track (film). For the EP by Jay Chou, see Hidden Track (EP).
This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (December 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
In the field of recorded music, a hidden track (sometimes called a ghost track, secret track or unlisted track) is a song or a piece of audio that has been placed on a CD, audio cassette, LP record, or other recorded medium, in such a way as to avoid detection by the casual listener. In some cases, the piece of music may simply have been left off the track listing, while in other cases, more elaborate methods are used. In rare cases, a 'hidden track' is actually the result of an error that occurred during the mastering stage production of the recorded media. However, since the rise of digital and streaming services such as iTunes and Spotify in the late 2000s and early 2010s, the inclusion of hidden tracks has declined on studio albums.
It is occasionally unclear whether a piece of music is 'hidden.' For example, "Her Majesty," which is preceded by fourteen seconds of silence, was originally unlisted on The Beatles' Abbey Road but is listed on current versions of the album. That song and others push the definition of the term, causing a lack of consensus on what is considered a hidden track. Alternatively, such things are instead labeled as vague audio experiments, errors, or simply an integral part of an adjacent song on the record.
Techniques
A vinyl record may be double-grooved, with the second groove containing the hidden tracks. Examples of double-grooving include Monty Python's 'three-sided' Matching Tie and Handkerchief, Tool's Opiate EP, and Mr. Bungle's Disco Volante.
With the invention of digital media and compact discs, alternative methods for hiding unlisted tracks were conceived. With a similar aim of concealment, unlisted tracks are sometimes given their own separate index point on digital media. Songs can be placed in the pregap of the first track of certain CD formats, so that the CD must first be cued to the track, and then manually back-scanned. These are often referred to as Track 0 or Hidden Track One Audio (HTOA). A CD player will not play these tracks without manual intervention, and some models (including many computer operating systems) are unable to read such content. On Super Furry Animals' Guerrilla, "The Citizens Band" is found in the pre-gap approximately five minutes before the beginning of track one. A glossary of terms used in the song's lyrics is printed on the interior of the cardboard outer sleeve of the CD. This essentially renders them inaccessible without taking the sleeve apart, hiding the glossary in a parallel way to the song itself.
A less concealed method is to place the song at the end of another track, typically the last track on the album, following a period of silence. For example, Nirvana's song "Endless, Nameless" was included as a hidden track in this way on their 1991 CD Nevermind, after 10 minutes of complete silence within the track listed as the final song. Although it was not the first hidden song to use this technique, it gained significant attention. Similarly, short tracks of silence can be layered before the hidden track plays. On Lazlo Bane's debut album, 11 Transistor, the eleventh song is followed by 57 silent tracks, each four seconds in duration, with "Prada Wallet" (sometimes referred to as "The Birthday Song") being the 69th track on the album. The total length of silence between the two songs is 3:48.
It is possible for a track to be playable only through a computer, such as the '15th' track on Marilyn Manson's Mechanical Animals album, which can only be accessed through an Enhanced CD executable.
There are yet-deeper ways a track can be hidden. A "ghost" track can be subtly mixed to play concurrently with other, dominant audio, or heavily distorted in a way which must be undone to be played. For example, on a DVD included with the deluxe and 'ultra-deluxe' editions of Nine Inch Nails' Ghosts I–IV, two hidden bonus tracks ("37 Ghosts" and "38 Ghosts") are included as digital multitrack files, from which the songs may be reconstructed.
Reasoning
Aaliyah's self-titled album Aaliyah features the hidden song "Messed Up" on track 15. During the stages of the album creation, Aaliyah had no desire to put this song on the album, but after numerous inquiries from different labels and colleagues, she settled on making it a hidden track.
In some rare cases, it is used to avoid legal issues. An example is Ramones' Loco Live American version, which has the song "Carbona Not Glue" hidden after Pet Sematary on track 17. It was originally recorded on their album Leave Home, but the makers of the spot remover Carbona, a registered trademark, objected. Therefore, reference to the song was removed from the album and cover.
"Freedom" by Paul McCartney was a hidden track on the original release of Driving Rain. It was later added as a track on the re-release. The track was not meant to be hidden; it was a tribute to 9/11 victims, and McCartney wanted it on the album. The artwork was already finalised, so there was no choice but to make it a hidden track.
"Train in Vain" by The Clash, which appears at the end of London Calling, was left out of the vinyl's track listing simply because it was a last-minute addition to the album, when the sleeves were already printed. It is thus not a real hidden track. It was originally intended as a promotional giveaway for NME. The later CD versions list the track on the sleeve.
Green Day's "All By Myself" (by drummer Tré Cool) was added as a secret song to Dookie due to the low sound quality of the original live recording.
"Weird Al" Yankovic's "Bite Me" from the album Off the Deep End was put on after ten minutes of silence to scare listeners who had forgotten to turn off the CD player. It was also a loose parody of "Endless, Nameless" by Nirvana. The cover of Off the Deep End is also a parody of the album containing that track, Nevermind, and its first track is a parody of that album's first track, "Smells Like Teen Spirit".
The X-Files: The Album features a hidden track at 10 minutes and 13 seconds into the final track. The track consists of series creator Chris Carter explaining the series mythology and meaning behind the alien conspiracy. The hidden track even includes spoilers and minute details about the show's overall plot that had not yet been resolved on the show itself when the album was released. This track was included as both a surprise to devoted fans who would seek out answers in cross-promotional merchandise, and as a mystery to new fans who would need to watch the show more closely to better understand the track.
Eugene Mirman's album The Absurd Night Club Comedy of Eugene Mirman includes a hidden track making fun of hidden tracks, and telling the listener that they have a very bizarre mission.
The Jam's All Mod Cons does not list the song "English Rose" and its lyrics on original vinyl copies because Paul Weller believed the title and song would lose meaning without accompanying music. They have been added to re-releases of the album.
Skip Spence's "Land of the Sun" was included as a hidden track by producer Bill Bentley to specifically close a tribute album to Spence, More Oar: A Tribute to the Skip Spence Album.
Oasis' compilation album Time Flies features the single "Sunday Morning Call" as a hidden track. The album was an anthology of all of the band's singles, but principal songwriter Noel Gallagher openly detests the song, so chose to have it hidden.
311's Transistor album contains an instrumental intro track that was performed on their 1996 tour, often referred to as the “Transistor Intro.”
Notable hidden tracks
Some hidden tracks are historically significant, have become well known and even occasionally received radio airplay and climbed the charts.
The Beatles' track "Her Majesty" from their 1969 album Abbey Road is considered a hidden track. It was originally a part of the medley on side two of the album, before Paul McCartney requested that it be removed; the engineer who edited it out of the rough mix placed it after the medley to preserve it, and when the Beatles heard it there, they decided to place it there on the album. The original pressings of Abbey Road did not list "Her Majesty" on the back cover song title listing, nor the record label; subsequent LP pressings and then CD issues were issued revealing the track. However, two years prior, in 1967, on the UK version of the Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album, there was the "inner groove" that appeared after "A Day in the Life" at the end of side two. It was an unexpected, untitled, and un-credited Beatles recording; so this might be deemed a precursor to the hidden track. A potential hidden track on yet another Beatles album is on The Beatles (also known popularly as The White Album) 1968 double album. The hidden track is a snippet of a song called "Can You Take Me Back", serving as an "outro" to "Cry Baby Cry".
Nirvana put the hidden song "Endless, Nameless" 10 minutes after the last listed track on their 1991 album Nevermind. It was the first prominent hidden track in the CD era and inspired a slew of hidden tracks on albums in the following years. Lead singer Kurt Cobain said he got the idea from when he would make mix tapes for his friends and then add a secret song after a long silent gap at the end, to startle them. Interestingly, some of the initial pressings of the album accidentally omitted the secret track because the person pressing the album thought it was not meant to be there. This was quickly corrected in subsequent pressings after the band let the label know.
Janet Jackson's track "Whoops Now", a hidden track from her album janet., was released as a single, and reached number nine in UK Singles Charts, and number one in New Zealand Singles Chart.
The Rembrandts had a sudden radio hit in 1995 with "I'll Be There for You", the theme song to Friends, so it was added at the last minute to their third album LP. As a result, the song was a hidden track on the early printing, since the CD packaging had already been completed by the time the song was added. However, a sticker was added to the outer shrink wrap advising the song's inclusion.
Eels' album Daisies of the Galaxy contains a hidden track, "Mr. E's Beautiful Blues", which was released as a single, and received radio airplay, although it was not featured on the sleeve notes. The song was, in fact, released as the first single from the album, and peaked at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart.
Cracker's "Euro-Trash Girl", an original, was one of their biggest radio hits, despite being a hidden track on Kerosene Hat.
"Skin (Sarabeth)" by Rascal Flatts, a hidden track from their 2004 album Feels Like Today, received enough airplay to chart in the Top 40 on the country charts, peaking at number 2 in late 2005. In mid-2005, the album was re-issued, with the song officially listed as a track, coinciding with the song's release as a single.
Of the two hidden tracks on Lauryn Hill's The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill, one of them, the cover of "Can't Take My Eyes Off You" was nominated for a Grammy in 1999 in the category of 'Best Female Pop Vocal Performance'. It was the first time a hidden track was nominated for a Grammy.
One of the hidden tracks on P!nk's fourth album, "I Have Seen the Rain", gained significant attention by P!nk fans, as her father, James T. Moore, was featured on the song.
Peter, Paul and Mary's 2003 album, In These Times, revealed that after 25 seconds of silence from "Oh, Had I a Golden Thread", there was a hidden live track of a Spanish folk song "Mi Caballo Blanco", although it was listed in the box set Carry It On. The track was later officially listed on their 2014 album Discovered: Live in Concert
Tally Hall's 2005 album Marvin's Marvelous Mechanical Museum had a hidden track, aptly titled "Hidden in the Sand", that would prove to be the band's most successful song, gaining over 35 million plays on YouTube and over 216 million on Spotify.
My Chemical Romance put the hidden track "Blood" after the final song on their 2006 rock opera The Black Parade, though it would be omitted on Japanese editions of the album.
Coldplay's song "O", from their 2014 album Ghost Stories, is composed mainly of a hidden track, called "Fly On". This track made it into charts in the UK, France, and the US, peaking at #9 on the US Rock Digital Song Sales. "Fly On" appeared on their 2014 live album, with "O" being replaced by its reprise.
Fall Out Boy placed a hidden track titled "Lullabye" right before the start of their 2008 album Folie à Deux. It is an acoustic ballad influenced by Bob Dylan, written with the intention of helping Pete Wentz' son, Bronx Mowgli, fall asleep. The track is only accessible by placing a CD version of the album into a media player and pressing the previous track button before "Disloyal Order of Water Buffaloes" begins.
Deftones's 1997 album, Around the Fur, has two hidden tracks. "Bong Hit" starts after 19:31 minutes of the last track "MX". After 12:41 minutes of silence (after "Bong Hit"), "Damone" starts.
Incubus's second album, S.C.I.E.N.C.E., has a mix of sounds and music called "Segue 1", which starts after 30 seconds of the track "Calgone".
On early copies of Better than Ezra's 1996 album Friction, Baby, the track "Mejor de Ezra" is contained in the pregap, meaning listeners must start the first track, "King of New Orleans", then rewind the CD to hear the hidden song. Later copies of the album tack this secret track onto the end of the album.
Robbie Williams has had a hidden track on many of his albums. On his first studio album, Life thru a Lens, the standard edition included one hidden track. His second album, I've Been Expecting You, includes two. By doing this, Williams' regular listeners would have likely expected a hidden track of sorts on the third album, Sing When You're Winning. To play on this, instead of a hidden track appearing on the album, a recording of Williams' saying "No, I'm not doing one on this album" plays after 24 minutes of silence.
See also
Music portal
Easter egg (media)
B-side
List of albums containing a hidden track
List of albums with tracks hidden in the pregap
Backmasking
Bonus track
Sampling (music)
Surprise album
References
^ Rogers, Jude (25 January 2015). "Manna for fans: the history of the hidden track in music". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
^ "Hidden Songs: The Beatles, "Her Majesty"". Archived from the original on 2007-04-22. Retrieved 2007-03-07.
^ "Hidden Songs: The Beatles, "Untitled"". Archived from the original on 2007-04-27. Retrieved 2007-03-07.
^ "The Tool FAQ". Archived from the original on 2007-03-04. Retrieved 2007-03-07.
^ a b Katz, Bob; Katz, Robert A. (2002). Mastering Audio: The Art and the Science. Focal Press. p. 93. ISBN 0-240-80545-3.
^ "HTOA - Hidden Track One Audio". Archived from the original on 2009-09-05.
^ Cross, Charles R.; Berkenstadt, Jim (2004). Nevermind. Music Sales Group. p. 103. ISBN 0-8256-7286-4.
^ "Endless, Nameless". Archived from the original on 2006-07-20. Retrieved 2007-03-08.
^ Thompson, Dave (2002). The Music Lover's Guide to Record Collecting. Backbeat Books. pp. 50–51. ISBN 0-87930-713-7.
^ "11 Transistor - Lazlo Bane". AllMusic. Archived from the original on 2015-09-26.
^ "Rare Gem: Aaliyah 'Messed Up' (early version)". YouKnowIGotSoul.com. 16 October 2012. Retrieved 19 December 2018.
^ "LOCO LIVE (American version)". Archived from the original on 2008-12-22.
^ Wawzenek, Bryan. "How Paul McCartney began building his next era on 'Driving Rain'". UltimateClassicRock.com. Retrieved 19 December 2018.
^ "The Greatest Songs Ever! 'Train in Vain (Stand by Me)'". Archived from the original on 2009-02-21. Retrieved 2007-03-07.
^ "Midnight Star "Ask Al" Q&As for January/February 1998". 2001-06-26. Retrieved 2021-08-28.
^ staff. "X-Files knowledge". Archived from the original on 2012-10-05.
^ Mirman, Eugene. "Absurd Nightclub Comedy of Eugene Mirman: Eugene Mirman: Music". Amazon. Retrieved 2011-07-27.
^ Moser, Margaret (December 17, 1999). "Back Door Man: The Man Behind More Oar, Bill Bentley". Austin Chronicle. Archived from the original on April 12, 2007.
^ ac2006 (30 January 2014). "Noel Gallagher's Oasis DVD commentary highlights". Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 4 May 2018 – via YouTube.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ Lewisohn, Mark (2004). The Complete Beatles Recording Sessions (2004 ed.). London: EMI/Hamlyn. p. 183. ISBN 0-681-03189-1.
^ Hampp, Andrew (18 May 2013). "Janet Jackson, 'janet.': classic track-by-track review". Billboard.com. Retrieved 19 December 2018.
^ Naldrett, Peter (March 2000). "The Most Beautiful of Freaks". MusicCritic.com. Archived from the original on 20 August 2008. Retrieved 8 January 2009.
^ "'Kerosene Hat' is hot". Archived from the original on 2007-10-17. Retrieved 2007-03-07.
^ "Piano Sheet Music - Rascal Flatts - Skin". Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-03-07.
^ Kot, Greg. "10 nominations put Lauryn Hill atop Grammy heap". ChicagoTribune.com. Retrieved 19 December 2018.
^ "I Have Seen The Rain (feat. James T. Moore) by P!nk on Apple Music". Apple Music. April 2006. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
^ "Mi Caballo Blanco".
^ "Carry It on - Peter, Paul and Mary | Songs, Reviews, Credits | AllMusic". AllMusic.
^ "Now Available: Peter, Paul & Mary, Discovered: Live in Concert | Rhino".
^ "Tally Hall - Hidden in the Sand (Music Video)". youtube.com. Retrieved December 10, 2022.
^ Becker, Sarah (April 13, 2024). "Revisiting Tally Hall's surprise hit "Hidden in the Sand"". AudioPhix. Retrieved April 16, 2024.
^ Bresnark, Robin. "Review: Robbie Williams – Life Thru A Lens, Chrysalis". Melody Maker (4 October 1997): 51.
^ "I've Been Expecting You". Robbie Williams. Retrieved 2024-02-28.
^ "BBC Staffordshire - Robbie Williams - Sing When You're Winning". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2024-02-28.
External links
Hidden Songs — a user-submitted database of hidden song listings
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For the EP by Jay Chou, see Hidden Track (EP).In the field of recorded music, a hidden track (sometimes called a ghost track, secret track or unlisted track) is a song or a piece of audio that has been placed on a CD, audio cassette, LP record, or other recorded medium, in such a way as to avoid detection by the casual listener. In some cases, the piece of music may simply have been left off the track listing, while in other cases, more elaborate methods are used. In rare cases, a 'hidden track' is actually the result of an error that occurred during the mastering stage production of the recorded media.[1] However, since the rise of digital and streaming services such as iTunes and Spotify in the late 2000s and early 2010s, the inclusion of hidden tracks has declined on studio albums.It is occasionally unclear whether a piece of music is 'hidden.' For example, \"Her Majesty,\" which is preceded by fourteen seconds of silence, was originally unlisted on The Beatles' Abbey Road but is listed on current versions of the album.[2] That song and others push the definition of the term, causing a lack of consensus on what is considered a hidden track. Alternatively, such things are instead labeled as vague audio experiments, errors, or simply an integral part of an adjacent song on the record.[3]","title":"Hidden track"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"vinyl record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinyl_record"},{"link_name":"double-grooved","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multisided_record"},{"link_name":"Monty Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python"},{"link_name":"Matching Tie and Handkerchief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Monty_Python_Matching_Tie_and_Handkerchief"},{"link_name":"Tool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tool_(band)"},{"link_name":"Opiate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opiate_(album)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Mr. Bungle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr._Bungle"},{"link_name":"Disco Volante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disco_Volante_(Mr._Bungle_album)"},{"link_name":"compact discs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc"},{"link_name":"tracks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_(CD)"},{"link_name":"pregap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregap"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Katz-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"CD player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD_player"},{"link_name":"Super Furry Animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Furry_Animals"},{"link_name":"Guerrilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerrilla_(album)"},{"link_name":"silence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silence"},{"link_name":"Nirvana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana_(band)"},{"link_name":"Endless, Nameless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endless,_Nameless_(song)"},{"link_name":"Nevermind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevermind"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thompson-9"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Katz-5"},{"link_name":"Lazlo Bane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazlo_Bane"},{"link_name":"11 Transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11_Transistor"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Marilyn Manson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marilyn_Manson"},{"link_name":"Mechanical Animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_Animals"},{"link_name":"Enhanced CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhanced_CD"},{"link_name":"DVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD"},{"link_name":"Nine Inch Nails","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_Inch_Nails"},{"link_name":"Ghosts I–IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_I%E2%80%93IV"},{"link_name":"multitrack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multitrack_recording"}],"text":"A vinyl record may be double-grooved, with the second groove containing the hidden tracks. Examples of double-grooving include Monty Python's 'three-sided' Matching Tie and Handkerchief, Tool's Opiate EP,[4] and Mr. Bungle's Disco Volante.With the invention of digital media and compact discs, alternative methods for hiding unlisted tracks were conceived. With a similar aim of concealment, unlisted tracks are sometimes given their own separate index point on digital media. Songs can be placed in the pregap of the first track of certain CD formats, so that the CD must first be cued to the track, and then manually back-scanned. These are often referred to as Track 0[5] or Hidden Track One Audio (HTOA).[6] A CD player will not play these tracks without manual intervention, and some models (including many computer operating systems) are unable to read such content. On Super Furry Animals' Guerrilla, \"The Citizens Band\" is found in the pre-gap approximately five minutes before the beginning of track one. A glossary of terms used in the song's lyrics is printed on the interior of the cardboard outer sleeve of the CD. This essentially renders them inaccessible without taking the sleeve apart, hiding the glossary in a parallel way to the song itself.A less concealed method is to place the song at the end of another track, typically the last track on the album, following a period of silence. For example, Nirvana's song \"Endless, Nameless\" was included as a hidden track in this way on their 1991 CD Nevermind, after 10 minutes of complete silence within the track listed as the final song.[7][8] Although it was not the first hidden song to use this technique, it gained significant attention.[9] Similarly, short tracks of silence can be layered before the hidden track plays.[5] On Lazlo Bane's debut album, 11 Transistor, the eleventh song is followed by 57 silent tracks, each four seconds in duration, with \"Prada Wallet\" (sometimes referred to as \"The Birthday Song\") being the 69th track on the album. The total length of silence between the two songs is 3:48.[10]It is possible for a track to be playable only through a computer, such as the '15th' track on Marilyn Manson's Mechanical Animals album, which can only be accessed through an Enhanced CD executable.There are yet-deeper ways a track can be hidden. A \"ghost\" track can be subtly mixed to play concurrently with other, dominant audio, or heavily distorted in a way which must be undone to be played. For example, on a DVD included with the deluxe and 'ultra-deluxe' editions of Nine Inch Nails' Ghosts I–IV, two hidden bonus tracks (\"37 Ghosts\" and \"38 Ghosts\") are included as digital multitrack files, from which the songs may be reconstructed.","title":"Techniques"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aaliyah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaliyah"},{"link_name":"Aaliyah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaliyah_(album)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Ramones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramones"},{"link_name":"Loco Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loco_Live"},{"link_name":"Carbona Not Glue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbona_Not_Glue"},{"link_name":"Leave Home","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave_Home"},{"link_name":"Carbona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Carbona_L.P."},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_(Paul_McCartney_song)"},{"link_name":"Paul McCartney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_McCartney"},{"link_name":"Driving Rain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driving_Rain"},{"link_name":"9/11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9/11"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Train in Vain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Train_in_Vain"},{"link_name":"The Clash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Clash"},{"link_name":"London Calling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Calling"},{"link_name":"NME","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NME"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blender-14"},{"link_name":"Green Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Day"},{"link_name":"Tré Cool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C3%A9_Cool"},{"link_name":"Dookie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dookie"},{"link_name":"\"Weird Al\" Yankovic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%22Weird_Al%22_Yankovic"},{"link_name":"Off the Deep End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Off_the_Deep_End"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Nirvana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana_(band)"},{"link_name":"Nevermind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevermind"},{"link_name":"Smells Like Teen Spirit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smells_Like_Teen_Spirit"},{"link_name":"The X-Files: The Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_X-Files:_The_Album"},{"link_name":"Chris Carter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Carter_(screenwriter)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Eugene Mirman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Mirman"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"The Jam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jam"},{"link_name":"All Mod Cons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Mod_Cons"},{"link_name":"Skip Spence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skip_Spence"},{"link_name":"Land of the Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_of_the_Sun_(song)"},{"link_name":"tribute album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribute_album"},{"link_name":"More Oar: A Tribute to the Skip Spence Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/More_Oar:_A_Tribute_to_the_Skip_Spence_Album"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Oasis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oasis_(band)"},{"link_name":"Time Flies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Flies..._1994%E2%80%932009"},{"link_name":"Sunday Morning Call","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_Morning_Call"},{"link_name":"Noel Gallagher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noel_Gallagher"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"311","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/311_(band)"},{"link_name":"Transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_(311_album)"}],"text":"Aaliyah's self-titled album Aaliyah features the hidden song \"Messed Up\" on track 15. During the stages of the album creation, Aaliyah had no desire to put this song on the album, but after numerous inquiries from different labels and colleagues, she settled on making it a hidden track.[11]\nIn some rare cases, it is used to avoid legal issues. An example is Ramones' Loco Live American version, which has the song \"Carbona Not Glue\" hidden after Pet Sematary on track 17. It was originally recorded on their album Leave Home, but the makers of the spot remover Carbona, a registered trademark, objected. Therefore, reference to the song was removed from the album and cover.[12]\n\"Freedom\" by Paul McCartney was a hidden track on the original release of Driving Rain. It was later added as a track on the re-release. The track was not meant to be hidden; it was a tribute to 9/11 victims, and McCartney wanted it on the album. The artwork was already finalised, so there was no choice but to make it a hidden track.[13]\n\"Train in Vain\" by The Clash, which appears at the end of London Calling, was left out of the vinyl's track listing simply because it was a last-minute addition to the album, when the sleeves were already printed. It is thus not a real hidden track. It was originally intended as a promotional giveaway for NME. The later CD versions list the track on the sleeve.[14]\nGreen Day's \"All By Myself\" (by drummer Tré Cool) was added as a secret song to Dookie due to the low sound quality of the original live recording.\n\"Weird Al\" Yankovic's \"Bite Me\" from the album Off the Deep End was put on after ten minutes of silence to scare listeners who had forgotten to turn off the CD player.[15] It was also a loose parody of \"Endless, Nameless\" by Nirvana. The cover of Off the Deep End is also a parody of the album containing that track, Nevermind, and its first track is a parody of that album's first track, \"Smells Like Teen Spirit\".\nThe X-Files: The Album features a hidden track at 10 minutes and 13 seconds into the final track. The track consists of series creator Chris Carter explaining the series mythology and meaning behind the alien conspiracy. The hidden track even includes spoilers and minute details about the show's overall plot that had not yet been resolved on the show itself when the album was released. This track was included as both a surprise to devoted fans who would seek out answers in cross-promotional merchandise, and as a mystery to new fans who would need to watch the show more closely to better understand the track.[16]\nEugene Mirman's album The Absurd Night Club Comedy of Eugene Mirman includes a hidden track making fun of hidden tracks, and telling the listener that they have a very bizarre mission.[17]\nThe Jam's All Mod Cons does not list the song \"English Rose\" and its lyrics on original vinyl copies because Paul Weller believed the title and song would lose meaning without accompanying music. They have been added to re-releases of the album.\nSkip Spence's \"Land of the Sun\" was included as a hidden track by producer Bill Bentley to specifically close a tribute album to Spence, More Oar: A Tribute to the Skip Spence Album.[18]\nOasis' compilation album Time Flies features the single \"Sunday Morning Call\" as a hidden track. The album was an anthology of all of the band's singles, but principal songwriter Noel Gallagher openly detests the song,[19] so chose to have it hidden.\n311's Transistor album contains an instrumental intro track that was performed on their 1996 tour, often referred to as the “Transistor Intro.”","title":"Reasoning"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Beatles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles"},{"link_name":"Her Majesty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Her_Majesty_(song)"},{"link_name":"Abbey Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_Road"},{"link_name":"Paul McCartney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_McCartney"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sgt._Pepper%27s_Lonely_Hearts_Club_Band"},{"link_name":"inner groove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sgt._Pepper%27s_Lonely_Hearts_Club_Band#Inner_groove"},{"link_name":"The Beatles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles_(album)"},{"link_name":"Can You Take Me Back","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can_You_Take_Me_Back"},{"link_name":"Cry Baby Cry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cry_Baby_Cry_(song)"},{"link_name":"Nirvana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana_(band)"},{"link_name":"Endless, Nameless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endless,_Nameless_(song)"},{"link_name":"Nevermind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevermind"},{"link_name":"mix tapes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mix_tape"},{"link_name":"Janet Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_Jackson"},{"link_name":"Whoops Now","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whoops_Now"},{"link_name":"janet.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet."},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"UK Singles Charts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Singles_Charts"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"The Rembrandts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rembrandts"},{"link_name":"I'll Be There for You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27ll_Be_There_for_You_(The_Rembrandts_song)"},{"link_name":"Friends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends"},{"link_name":"LP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LP_(The_Rembrandts_album)"},{"link_name":"Eels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eels_(band)"},{"link_name":"Daisies of the Galaxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daisies_of_the_Galaxy"},{"link_name":"Mr. E's Beautiful Blues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr._E%27s_Beautiful_Blues"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"UK Singles Chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart"},{"link_name":"Cracker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cracker_(band)"},{"link_name":"Euro-Trash Girl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro-Trash_Girl"},{"link_name":"Kerosene Hat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosene_Hat"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kerosene_hat-23"},{"link_name":"Skin (Sarabeth)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_(Sarabeth)"},{"link_name":"Rascal Flatts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rascal_Flatts"},{"link_name":"Feels Like Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feels_Like_Today"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Lauryn Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauryn_Hill"},{"link_name":"The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Miseducation_of_Lauryn_Hill"},{"link_name":"Can't Take My Eyes Off You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can%27t_Take_My_Eyes_Off_You"},{"link_name":"Grammy in 1999","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/41st_Annual_Grammy_Awards"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"P!nk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P!nk"},{"link_name":"fourth album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27m_Not_Dead"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Peter, Paul and Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter,_Paul_and_Mary"},{"link_name":"In These Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_These_Times_(Peter,_Paul,_and_Mary_album)"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Tally Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tally_Hall"},{"link_name":"Marvin's Marvelous Mechanical Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvin%27s_Marvelous_Mechanical_Museum_(album)"},{"link_name":"Hidden in the Sand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_in_the_Sand"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"My Chemical Romance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Chemical_Romance"},{"link_name":"rock opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_opera"},{"link_name":"The Black Parade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Black_Parade"},{"link_name":"Coldplay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coldplay"},{"link_name":"O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O_(Coldplay_song)"},{"link_name":"Ghost Stories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_Stories_(Coldplay_album)"},{"link_name":"their 2014 live album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_Stories_Live_2014"},{"link_name":"its reprise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Sky_Full_of_Stars"},{"link_name":"Fall Out Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_Out_Boy"},{"link_name":"Folie à Deux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folie_%C3%A0_Deux_(album)"},{"link_name":"Bob Dylan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Dylan"},{"link_name":"Pete Wentz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Wentz"},{"link_name":"Deftones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deftones"},{"link_name":"Around the Fur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Around_the_Fur"},{"link_name":"Incubus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incubus_(band)"},{"link_name":"S.C.I.E.N.C.E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S.C.I.E.N.C.E."},{"link_name":"Better than Ezra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Better_than_Ezra"},{"link_name":"Friction, Baby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction,_Baby"},{"link_name":"pregap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregap"},{"link_name":"King of New Orleans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_New_Orleans"},{"link_name":"Robbie Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbie_Williams"},{"link_name":"Life thru a Lens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_thru_a_Lens"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"I've Been Expecting You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27ve_Been_Expecting_You"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Sing When You're Winning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sing_When_You%27re_Winning"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"Some hidden tracks are historically significant, have become well known and even occasionally received radio airplay and climbed the charts.The Beatles' track \"Her Majesty\" from their 1969 album Abbey Road is considered a hidden track. It was originally a part of the medley on side two of the album, before Paul McCartney requested that it be removed; the engineer who edited it out of the rough mix placed it after the medley to preserve it, and when the Beatles heard it there, they decided to place it there on the album.[20] The original pressings of Abbey Road did not list \"Her Majesty\" on the back cover song title listing, nor the record label; subsequent LP pressings and then CD issues were issued revealing the track. However, two years prior, in 1967, on the UK version of the Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album, there was the \"inner groove\" that appeared after \"A Day in the Life\" at the end of side two. It was an unexpected, untitled, and un-credited Beatles recording; so this might be deemed a precursor to the hidden track. A potential hidden track on yet another Beatles album is on The Beatles (also known popularly as The White Album) 1968 double album. The hidden track is a snippet of a song called \"Can You Take Me Back\", serving as an \"outro\" to \"Cry Baby Cry\".\nNirvana put the hidden song \"Endless, Nameless\" 10 minutes after the last listed track on their 1991 album Nevermind. It was the first prominent hidden track in the CD era and inspired a slew of hidden tracks on albums in the following years. Lead singer Kurt Cobain said he got the idea from when he would make mix tapes for his friends and then add a secret song after a long silent gap at the end, to startle them. Interestingly, some of the initial pressings of the album accidentally omitted the secret track because the person pressing the album thought it was not meant to be there. This was quickly corrected in subsequent pressings after the band let the label know.\nJanet Jackson's track \"Whoops Now\", a hidden track from her album janet.,[21] was released as a single, and reached number nine in UK Singles Charts, and number one in New Zealand Singles Chart.\nThe Rembrandts had a sudden radio hit in 1995 with \"I'll Be There for You\", the theme song to Friends, so it was added at the last minute to their third album LP. As a result, the song was a hidden track on the early printing, since the CD packaging had already been completed by the time the song was added. However, a sticker was added to the outer shrink wrap advising the song's inclusion.\nEels' album Daisies of the Galaxy contains a hidden track, \"Mr. E's Beautiful Blues\", which was released as a single, and received radio airplay, although it was not featured on the sleeve notes.[22] The song was, in fact, released as the first single from the album, and peaked at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart.\nCracker's \"Euro-Trash Girl\", an original, was one of their biggest radio hits, despite being a hidden track on Kerosene Hat.[23]\n\"Skin (Sarabeth)\" by Rascal Flatts, a hidden track from their 2004 album Feels Like Today, received enough airplay to chart in the Top 40 on the country charts, peaking at number 2 in late 2005. In mid-2005, the album was re-issued, with the song officially listed as a track, coinciding with the song's release as a single.[24]\nOf the two hidden tracks on Lauryn Hill's The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill, one of them, the cover of \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\" was nominated for a Grammy in 1999 in the category of 'Best Female Pop Vocal Performance'. It was the first time a hidden track was nominated for a Grammy.[25]\nOne of the hidden tracks on P!nk's fourth album, \"I Have Seen the Rain\", gained significant attention by P!nk fans, as her father, James T. Moore, was featured on the song.[26]\nPeter, Paul and Mary's 2003 album, In These Times, revealed that after 25 seconds of silence from \"Oh, Had I a Golden Thread\", there was a hidden live track of a Spanish folk song \"Mi Caballo Blanco\",[27] although it was listed in the box set Carry It On.[28] The track was later officially listed on their 2014 album Discovered: Live in Concert[29]\nTally Hall's 2005 album Marvin's Marvelous Mechanical Museum had a hidden track, aptly titled \"Hidden in the Sand\", that would prove to be the band's most successful song, gaining over 35 million plays on YouTube[30] and over 216 million on Spotify.[31]\nMy Chemical Romance put the hidden track \"Blood\" after the final song on their 2006 rock opera The Black Parade, though it would be omitted on Japanese editions of the album.\nColdplay's song \"O\", from their 2014 album Ghost Stories, is composed mainly of a hidden track, called \"Fly On\". This track made it into charts in the UK, France, and the US, peaking at #9 on the US Rock Digital Song Sales. \"Fly On\" appeared on their 2014 live album, with \"O\" being replaced by its reprise.\nFall Out Boy placed a hidden track titled \"Lullabye\" right before the start of their 2008 album Folie à Deux. It is an acoustic ballad influenced by Bob Dylan, written with the intention of helping Pete Wentz' son, Bronx Mowgli, fall asleep. The track is only accessible by placing a CD version of the album into a media player and pressing the previous track button before \"Disloyal Order of Water Buffaloes\" begins.\nDeftones's 1997 album, Around the Fur, has two hidden tracks. \"Bong Hit\" starts after 19:31 minutes of the last track \"MX\". After 12:41 minutes of silence (after \"Bong Hit\"), \"Damone\" starts.\nIncubus's second album, S.C.I.E.N.C.E., has a mix of sounds and music called \"Segue 1\", which starts after 30 seconds of the track \"Calgone\".\nOn early copies of Better than Ezra's 1996 album Friction, Baby, the track \"Mejor de Ezra\" is contained in the pregap, meaning listeners must start the first track, \"King of New Orleans\", then rewind the CD to hear the hidden song. Later copies of the album tack this secret track onto the end of the album.\nRobbie Williams has had a hidden track on many of his albums. On his first studio album, Life thru a Lens, the standard edition included one hidden track.[32] His second album, I've Been Expecting You, includes two.[33] By doing this, Williams' regular listeners would have likely expected a hidden track of sorts on the third album, Sing When You're Winning. To play on this, instead of a hidden track appearing on the album, a recording of Williams' saying \"No, I'm not doing one on this album\" plays after 24 minutes of silence.[34]","title":"Notable hidden tracks"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Music portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Music"},{"title":"Easter egg (media)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_egg_(media)"},{"title":"B-side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-side_and_B-side"},{"title":"List of albums containing a hidden track","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_albums_containing_a_hidden_track"},{"title":"List of albums with tracks hidden in the pregap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_albums_with_tracks_hidden_in_the_pregap"},{"title":"Backmasking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backmasking"},{"title":"Bonus track","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonus_track"},{"title":"Sampling (music)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(music)"},{"title":"Surprise album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surprise_album"}]
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[{"reference":"Rogers, Jude (25 January 2015). \"Manna for fans: the history of the hidden track in music\". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/music/2015/jan/25/history-hidden-tracks-musicians-albums","url_text":"\"Manna for fans: the history of the hidden track in music\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hidden Songs: The Beatles, \"Her Majesty\"\". Archived from the original on 2007-04-22. Retrieved 2007-03-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hiddensongs.com/songs/abbeyroad.html","url_text":"\"Hidden Songs: The Beatles, \"Her Majesty\"\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070422235856/http://hiddensongs.com/songs/abbeyroad.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Hidden Songs: The Beatles, \"Untitled\"\". Archived from the original on 2007-04-27. Retrieved 2007-03-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hiddensongs.com/songs/sgtpepper.html","url_text":"\"Hidden Songs: The Beatles, \"Untitled\"\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070427055038/http://hiddensongs.com/songs/sgtpepper.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Tool FAQ\". Archived from the original on 2007-03-04. Retrieved 2007-03-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://toolshed.down.net/faq/faq.html","url_text":"\"The Tool FAQ\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070304132245/http://toolshed.down.net/faq/faq.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Katz, Bob; Katz, Robert A. (2002). Mastering Audio: The Art and the Science. Focal Press. p. 93. ISBN 0-240-80545-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-240-80545-3","url_text":"0-240-80545-3"}]},{"reference":"\"HTOA - Hidden Track One Audio\". Archived from the original on 2009-09-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090905083000/http://www.daefeatures.co.uk/htoa.php","url_text":"\"HTOA - Hidden Track One Audio\""},{"url":"http://www.daefeatures.co.uk/htoa.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Cross, Charles R.; Berkenstadt, Jim (2004). Nevermind. Music Sales Group. p. 103. ISBN 0-8256-7286-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8256-7286-4","url_text":"0-8256-7286-4"}]},{"reference":"\"Endless, Nameless\". Archived from the original on 2006-07-20. Retrieved 2007-03-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060720155708/http://livenirvana.com/songguide/body0ff0.html?songid=31","url_text":"\"Endless, Nameless\""},{"url":"http://www.livenirvana.com/songguide/body0ff0.html?songid=31","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Thompson, Dave (2002). The Music Lover's Guide to Record Collecting. Backbeat Books. pp. 50–51. ISBN 0-87930-713-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87930-713-7","url_text":"0-87930-713-7"}]},{"reference":"\"11 Transistor - Lazlo Bane\". AllMusic. Archived from the original on 2015-09-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.allmusic.com/album/11-transistor-mw0000615852","url_text":"\"11 Transistor - Lazlo Bane\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150926185341/http://www.allmusic.com/album/11-transistor-mw0000615852","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Rare Gem: Aaliyah 'Messed Up' (early version)\". YouKnowIGotSoul.com. 16 October 2012. Retrieved 19 December 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://youknowigotsoul.com/aaliyah-messed-up-early-version","url_text":"\"Rare Gem: Aaliyah 'Messed Up' (early version)\""}]},{"reference":"\"LOCO LIVE (American version)\". 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Retrieved 2011-07-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0002VEU1C","url_text":"\"Absurd Nightclub Comedy of Eugene Mirman: Eugene Mirman: Music\""}]},{"reference":"Moser, Margaret (December 17, 1999). \"Back Door Man: The Man Behind More Oar, Bill Bentley\". Austin Chronicle. Archived from the original on April 12, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070412081144/http://www.austinchronicle.com/gyrobase/Issue/story?oid=oid%3A75120","url_text":"\"Back Door Man: The Man Behind More Oar, Bill Bentley\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin_Chronicle","url_text":"Austin Chronicle"},{"url":"http://www.austinchronicle.com/gyrobase/Issue/story?oid=oid:75120","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"ac2006 (30 January 2014). \"Noel Gallagher's Oasis DVD commentary highlights\". Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. 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Retrieved 19 December 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/the-juice/1562833/janet-jackson-janet-classic-track-by-track-review","url_text":"\"Janet Jackson, 'janet.': classic track-by-track review\""}]},{"reference":"Naldrett, Peter (March 2000). \"The Most Beautiful of Freaks\". MusicCritic.com. Archived from the original on 20 August 2008. Retrieved 8 January 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.music-critic.com/rock/eels_daisiesofgalaxy.htm","url_text":"\"The Most Beautiful of Freaks\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080820085323/http://www.music-critic.com/rock/eels_daisiesofgalaxy.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"'Kerosene Hat' is hot\". Archived from the original on 2007-10-17. Retrieved 2007-03-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071017000850/http://www.epinions.com/content_32102190724","url_text":"\"'Kerosene Hat' is hot\""},{"url":"http://www.epinions.com/content_32102190724","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Piano Sheet Music - Rascal Flatts - Skin\". Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-03-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070928110014/http://www.encoremusic.com/piano/1704836.html","url_text":"\"Piano Sheet Music - Rascal Flatts - Skin\""},{"url":"http://www.encoremusic.com/piano/1704836.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kot, Greg. \"10 nominations put Lauryn Hill atop Grammy heap\". ChicagoTribune.com. Retrieved 19 December 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1999-01-06-9901060056-story.html","url_text":"\"10 nominations put Lauryn Hill atop Grammy heap\""}]},{"reference":"\"I Have Seen The Rain (feat. James T. Moore) by P!nk on Apple Music\". 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AllMusic.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.allmusic.com/album/carry-it-on-bonus-dvd-mw0000694199","url_text":"\"Carry It on [Bonus DVD] - Peter, Paul and Mary | Songs, Reviews, Credits | AllMusic\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllMusic","url_text":"AllMusic"}]},{"reference":"\"Now Available: Peter, Paul & Mary, Discovered: Live in Concert | Rhino\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhino.com/article/now-available-peter-paul-mary-discovered-live-in-concert","url_text":"\"Now Available: Peter, Paul & Mary, Discovered: Live in Concert | Rhino\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tally Hall - Hidden in the Sand (Music Video)\". youtube.com. Retrieved December 10, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EOFA9kPQ_uU","url_text":"\"Tally Hall - Hidden in the Sand (Music Video)\""}]},{"reference":"Becker, Sarah (April 13, 2024). \"Revisiting Tally Hall's surprise hit \"Hidden in the Sand\"\". AudioPhix. Retrieved April 16, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://audiophix.com/posts/revisiting-tally-hall-surprise-hit-01hv3p66bfaa","url_text":"\"Revisiting Tally Hall's surprise hit \"Hidden in the Sand\"\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FanSided","url_text":"AudioPhix"}]},{"reference":"\"I've Been Expecting You\". Robbie Williams. Retrieved 2024-02-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://robbiewilliams.com/pages/timeline/entry-album-ive-been-expecting-you","url_text":"\"I've Been Expecting You\""}]},{"reference":"\"BBC Staffordshire - Robbie Williams - Sing When You're Winning\". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2024-02-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/stoke/robbie/discography/sing_when_youre_winning.shtml","url_text":"\"BBC Staffordshire - Robbie Williams - Sing When You're Winning\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffalo_buffalo_Buffalo_buffalo_buffalo_buffalo_Buffalo_buffalo
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Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo
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["1 Sentence construction","1.1 Usage","2 Origin","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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Sentence composed of homonyms
Simplified parse tree S = sentence NP = noun phrase RC = relative clause VP = verb phrase PN = proper noun N = noun V = verb
City of Buffalo, New York
American bison, colloquially referred to as buffalo
"Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo" is a grammatically correct sentence in English that is often presented as an example of how homonyms and homophones can be used to create complicated linguistic constructs through lexical ambiguity. It has been discussed in literature in various forms since 1967, when it appeared in Dmitri Borgmann's Beyond Language: Adventures in Word and Thought.
The sentence employs three distinct meanings of the word buffalo:
As an attributive noun (acting as an adjective) to refer to a specific place named Buffalo, such as the city of Buffalo, New York;
As the verb to buffalo, meaning (in American English) "to bully, harass, or intimidate" or "to baffle"; and
As a noun to refer to the animal (either the true buffalo or the bison). The plural is also buffalo.
A semantically equivalent form preserving the original word order is: "Buffalonian bison that other Buffalonian bison bully also bully Buffalonian bison."
Sentence construction
Reed–Kellogg diagram of the sentence
The sentence is unpunctuated and uses three different readings of the word "buffalo". In order of their first use, these are:
a. a city named Buffalo. This is used as a noun adjunct in the sentence;
n. the noun buffalo, an animal, in the plural (equivalent to "buffaloes" or "buffalos"), in order to avoid articles.
v. the verb "buffalo" meaning to outwit, confuse, deceive, intimidate, or baffle.
The sentence is syntactically ambiguous; one possible parse (marking each "buffalo" with its part of speech as shown above) is as follows:
Buffaloa buffalon Buffaloa buffalon buffalov buffalov Buffaloa buffalon.
When grouped syntactically, this is equivalent to: intimidate (Buffalonian bison).
Because the sentence has a restrictive clause, there can be no commas. The relative pronouns "which" or "that" could appear between the second and third words of the sentence, as in Buffalo buffalo that Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo; when this pronoun is omitted, the relative clause becomes a reduced relative clause.
An expanded form of the sentence that preserves the original word order is:
"Buffalo bison that other Buffalo bison bully also bully Buffalo bison."
Thus, the parsed sentence claims that bison who are intimidated or bullied by bison do themselves intimidate or bully bison (at least in the city of Buffalo – implicitly, Buffalo, New York):
Buffalo buffalo (animals called "buffalo" from the city of Buffalo) Buffalo buffalo buffalo (that the same kind of animals from the city bully) buffalo Buffalo buffalo (bully these animals from that city).
buffalo(es) from Buffalo buffalo(es) from Buffalo intimidate buffalo(es) from Buffalo.
Bison from Buffalo, New York, who are intimidated by other bison in their community in turn intimidate other bison in their community.
The buffalo from Buffalo who are buffaloed by buffalo from Buffalo buffalo (verb) other buffalo from Buffalo.
Buffalo buffalo (main clause subject) Buffalo buffalo (subordinate clause subject) buffalo (subordinate clause verb) in turn buffalo (main clause verb) Buffalo buffalo (main clause direct object).
Buffalo from Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo.
A diagram explaining the sentence
Diagram using a comparison to explain the buffalo sentence
Usage
Thomas Tymoczko has pointed out that there is nothing special about eight "buffalos"; any sentence consisting solely of the word "buffalo" repeated any number of times is grammatically correct. The shortest is "Buffalo!", which can be taken as a verbal imperative instruction to bully someone (" buffalo!") with the implied subject "you" removed,: 99–100, 104 or, as a noun exclamation, expressing e.g. that a buffalo has been sighted, or as an adjectival exclamation, e.g. as a response to the question, "where are you from?" Tymoczko uses the sentence as an example illustrating rewrite rules in linguistics.: 104–105
Origin
The idea that one can construct a grammatically correct sentence consisting of nothing but repetitions of "buffalo" was independently discovered several times in the 20th century. The earliest known written example, "Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo", appears in the original manuscript for Dmitri Borgmann's 1965 book Language on Vacation, though the chapter containing it was omitted from the published version. Borgmann recycled some of the material from this chapter, including the "buffalo" sentence, in his 1967 book, Beyond Language: Adventures in Word and Thought.: 290 In 1972, William J. Rapaport, then a graduate student at Indiana University, came up with versions containing five and ten instances of "buffalo". He later used both versions in his teaching, and in 1992 posted them to the LINGUIST List. A sentence with eight consecutive buffalos is featured in Steven Pinker's 1994 book The Language Instinct as an example of a sentence that is "seemingly nonsensical" but grammatical. Pinker names his student, Annie Senghas, as the inventor of the sentence.: 210
Neither Rapaport, Pinker, nor Senghas were initially aware of the earlier coinages. Pinker learned of Rapaport's earlier example only in 1994, and Rapaport was not informed of Borgmann's sentence until 2006.
Versions of this linguistic oddity can be constructed with other words which similarly simultaneously serve as collective noun, adjective, and verb, some of which need no capitalization (such as "police").
See also
General:
Antanaclasis
Eats, Shoots & Leaves
List of linguistic example sentences
Polyptoton
Semantic satiation
Other linguistically complex sentences:
James while John had had had had had had had had had had had a better effect on the teacher
Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den (a Classical Chinese poem in which every syllable is pronounced as shi, though with varying tones).
That that is is that that is not is not is that it it is
Neko no ko koneko, shishi no ko kojishi (a Japanese sentence which can be written using the same character 12 times).
References
^ "buffalo (verb) in American English". Macmillan Dictionary. Retrieved 29 May 2021.
^ Oxford University Press. "Definition of buffalo". Lexico. Archived from the original on 2 June 2021. Retrieved 29 May 2021.
^ Henle, James; Garfield, Jay; Tymoczko, Thomas (2011). Sweet Reason: A Field Guide to Modern Logic. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1118078631.
^ a b Thomas Tymoczko; James M. Henle (2000). Sweet reason: a field guide to modern logic (2 ed.). Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-0-387-98930-3. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
^ Eckler, A. Ross Jr. (November 2005). "The Borgmann Apocrypha". Word Ways: The Journal of Recreational Linguistics. 38 (4): 258–260. Archived from the original on 1 November 2014. Retrieved 9 December 2014.
^ Borgmann, Dmitri A. (1967). Beyond Language: Adventures in Word and Thought. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. OCLC 655067975.
^ a b c d Rapaport, William J. (5 October 2012). "A History of the Sentence 'Buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo.'". University at Buffalo Computer Science and Engineering. Archived from the original on 21 June 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
^ Rapaport, William J. (19 February 1992). "Message 1: Re: 3.154 Parsing Challenges". LINGUIST List. Archived from the original on 19 October 2009. Retrieved 14 September 2006.
^ Pinker, Steven (1994). The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc.
^ Gärtner, Hans-Martin (2002). Generalized Transformations and Beyond. Berlin: Akademie Verlag. p. 58. ISBN 978-3050032467.
External links
Listen to this article (5 minutes)
This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 9 December 2006 (2006-12-09), and does not reflect subsequent edits.(Audio help · More spoken articles)
Look up buffalo in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Buffaloing buffalo at Language Log, 20 January 2005
Easdown, David. "Teaching mathematics: The gulf between semantics (meaning) and syntax (form)" (PDF). (273 KB)
William J. Rapaport, A History of the Sentence "Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo."
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Buffalo8.ogg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Buffalo_sentence_1_parse_tree.svg"},{"link_name":"parse tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parse_tree"},{"link_name":"sentence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"noun phrase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noun_phrase"},{"link_name":"relative clause","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_clause"},{"link_name":"verb phrase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb_phrase"},{"link_name":"proper noun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noun#Proper_nouns_and_common_nouns"},{"link_name":"noun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noun"},{"link_name":"verb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Buffalo_(5617485389).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bison_bison_DSC03293.jpg"},{"link_name":"grammatically correct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammaticality"},{"link_name":"sentence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Language"},{"link_name":"homonyms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homonym"},{"link_name":"homophones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophone"},{"link_name":"lexical ambiguity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_ambiguity"},{"link_name":"Dmitri Borgmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Borgmann"},{"link_name":"Beyond Language: Adventures in Word and Thought","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Language:_Adventures_in_Word_and_Thought"},{"link_name":"attributive noun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noun_adjunct"},{"link_name":"Buffalo, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York"},{"link_name":"verb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb"},{"link_name":"American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"noun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noun"},{"link_name":"true buffalo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubalina"},{"link_name":"bison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bison"}],"text":"Sentence composed of homonymsSimplified parse tree S = sentence NP = noun phrase RC = relative clause VP = verb phrase PN = proper noun N = noun V = verbCity of Buffalo, New YorkAmerican bison, colloquially referred to as buffalo\"Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo\" is a grammatically correct sentence in English that is often presented as an example of how homonyms and homophones can be used to create complicated linguistic constructs through lexical ambiguity. It has been discussed in literature in various forms since 1967, when it appeared in Dmitri Borgmann's Beyond Language: Adventures in Word and Thought.The sentence employs three distinct meanings of the word buffalo:As an attributive noun (acting as an adjective) to refer to a specific place named Buffalo, such as the city of Buffalo, New York;\nAs the verb to buffalo, meaning (in American English[1][2]) \"to bully, harass, or intimidate\" or \"to baffle\"; and\nAs a noun to refer to the animal (either the true buffalo or the bison). The plural is also buffalo.A semantically equivalent form preserving the original word order is: \"Buffalonian bison that other Buffalonian bison bully also bully Buffalonian bison.\"","title":"Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Buffalo_sentence_diagram.svg"},{"link_name":"Reed–Kellogg diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Kellogg_diagram"},{"link_name":"noun adjunct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noun_adjunct"},{"link_name":"noun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noun"},{"link_name":"articles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(grammar)"},{"link_name":"verb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb"},{"link_name":"buffalo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/buffalo#Verb"},{"link_name":"syntactically ambiguous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_ambiguity"},{"link_name":"restrictive clause","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictive_clause"},{"link_name":"reduced relative clause","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduced_relative_clause"},{"link_name":"parsed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing"},{"link_name":"subordinate clause","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subordinate_clause"},{"link_name":"main clause","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_clause"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Buffalo_buffalo_Buffalo_buffalo_buffalo_buffalo_Buffalo_buffalo_sentence_diagram.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Buffalo-comparison_sentence.png"}],"text":"Reed–Kellogg diagram of the sentenceThe sentence is unpunctuated and uses three different readings of the word \"buffalo\". In order of their first use, these are:a. a city named Buffalo. This is used as a noun adjunct in the sentence;\nn. the noun buffalo, an animal, in the plural (equivalent to \"buffaloes\" or \"buffalos\"), in order to avoid articles.\nv. the verb \"buffalo\" meaning to outwit, confuse, deceive, intimidate, or baffle.The sentence is syntactically ambiguous; one possible parse (marking each \"buffalo\" with its part of speech as shown above) is as follows:Buffaloa buffalon Buffaloa buffalon buffalov buffalov Buffaloa buffalon.When grouped syntactically, this is equivalent to: [(Buffalonian bison) (Buffalonian bison intimidate)] intimidate (Buffalonian bison).Because the sentence has a restrictive clause, there can be no commas. The relative pronouns \"which\" or \"that\" could appear between the second and third words of the sentence, as in Buffalo buffalo that Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo; when this pronoun is omitted, the relative clause becomes a reduced relative clause.An expanded form of the sentence that preserves the original word order is:\n\"Buffalo bison that other Buffalo bison bully also bully Buffalo bison.\"Thus, the parsed sentence claims that bison who are intimidated or bullied by bison do themselves intimidate or bully bison (at least in the city of Buffalo – implicitly, Buffalo, New York):Buffalo buffalo (animals called \"buffalo\" from the city of Buffalo) [that] Buffalo buffalo buffalo (that the same kind of animals from the city bully) buffalo Buffalo buffalo (bully these animals from that city).\n[Those] buffalo(es) from Buffalo [that are intimidated by] buffalo(es) from Buffalo intimidate buffalo(es) from Buffalo.\nBison from Buffalo, New York, who are intimidated by other bison in their community in turn intimidate other bison in their community.\nThe buffalo from Buffalo who are buffaloed by buffalo from Buffalo buffalo (verb) other buffalo from Buffalo.\nBuffalo buffalo (main clause subject) [that] Buffalo buffalo (subordinate clause subject) buffalo (subordinate clause verb) in turn buffalo (main clause verb) Buffalo buffalo (main clause direct object).\nBuffalo from Buffalo [that] buffalo [from] Buffalo buffalo [in turn] buffalo buffalo [from] Buffalo.A diagram explaining the sentenceDiagram using a comparison to explain the buffalo sentence","title":"Sentence construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thomas Tymoczko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Tymoczko"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"imperative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperative_mood"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sweet-4"},{"link_name":"rewrite rules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rewrite_rule"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sweet-4"}],"sub_title":"Usage","text":"Thomas Tymoczko has pointed out that there is nothing special about eight \"buffalos\";[3] any sentence consisting solely of the word \"buffalo\" repeated any number of times is grammatically correct. The shortest is \"Buffalo!\", which can be taken as a verbal imperative instruction to bully someone (\"[You,] buffalo!\") with the implied subject \"you\" removed,[4]: 99–100, 104 or, as a noun exclamation, expressing e.g. that a buffalo has been sighted, or as an adjectival exclamation, e.g. as a response to the question, \"where are you from?\" Tymoczko uses the sentence as an example illustrating rewrite rules in linguistics.[4]: 104–105","title":"Sentence construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"independently discovered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_discovery"},{"link_name":"Dmitri Borgmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Borgmann"},{"link_name":"Language on Vacation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_on_Vacation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-apocrypha-5"},{"link_name":"Beyond Language: Adventures in Word and Thought","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Language:_Adventures_in_Word_and_Thought"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-borgmann-6"},{"link_name":"William J. Rapaport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_J._Rapaport"},{"link_name":"Indiana University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_University"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-7"},{"link_name":"LINGUIST List","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LINGUIST_List"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Linguistlist-8"},{"link_name":"Steven Pinker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Pinker"},{"link_name":"The Language Instinct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Language_Instinct"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pinker-9"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-7"},{"link_name":"collective noun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_noun"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaertner-10"}],"text":"The idea that one can construct a grammatically correct sentence consisting of nothing but repetitions of \"buffalo\" was independently discovered several times in the 20th century. The earliest known written example, \"Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo\", appears in the original manuscript for Dmitri Borgmann's 1965 book Language on Vacation, though the chapter containing it was omitted from the published version.[5] Borgmann recycled some of the material from this chapter, including the \"buffalo\" sentence, in his 1967 book, Beyond Language: Adventures in Word and Thought.[6]: 290 In 1972, William J. Rapaport, then a graduate student at Indiana University, came up with versions containing five and ten instances of \"buffalo\".[7] He later used both versions in his teaching, and in 1992 posted them to the LINGUIST List.[7][8] A sentence with eight consecutive buffalos is featured in Steven Pinker's 1994 book The Language Instinct as an example of a sentence that is \"seemingly nonsensical\" but grammatical. Pinker names his student, Annie Senghas, as the inventor of the sentence.[9]: 210Neither Rapaport, Pinker, nor Senghas were initially aware of the earlier coinages.[7] Pinker learned of Rapaport's earlier example only in 1994, and Rapaport was not informed of Borgmann's sentence until 2006.[7]Versions of this linguistic oddity can be constructed with other words which similarly simultaneously serve as collective noun, adjective, and verb, some of which need no capitalization (such as \"police\").[10]","title":"Origin"}]
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[{"image_text":"Simplified parse tree S = sentence NP = noun phrase RC = relative clause VP = verb phrase PN = proper noun N = noun V = verb","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Buffalo_sentence_1_parse_tree.svg/320px-Buffalo_sentence_1_parse_tree.svg.png"},{"image_text":"City of Buffalo, New York","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Buffalo_%285617485389%29.jpg/220px-Buffalo_%285617485389%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"American bison, colloquially referred to as buffalo","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Bison_bison_DSC03293.jpg/220px-Bison_bison_DSC03293.jpg"},{"image_text":"Reed–Kellogg diagram of the sentence","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Buffalo_sentence_diagram.svg/220px-Buffalo_sentence_diagram.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A diagram explaining the sentence","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Buffalo_buffalo_Buffalo_buffalo_buffalo_buffalo_Buffalo_buffalo_sentence_diagram.jpg/220px-Buffalo_buffalo_Buffalo_buffalo_buffalo_buffalo_Buffalo_buffalo_sentence_diagram.jpg"},{"image_text":"Diagram using a comparison to explain the buffalo sentence","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Buffalo-comparison_sentence.png/220px-Buffalo-comparison_sentence.png"},{}]
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[{"title":"Antanaclasis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antanaclasis"},{"title":"Eats, Shoots & Leaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eats,_Shoots_%26_Leaves"},{"title":"List of linguistic example sentences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences"},{"title":"Polyptoton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyptoton"},{"title":"Semantic satiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_satiation"},{"title":"James while John had had had had had had had had had had had a better effect on the teacher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_while_John_had_had_had_had_had_had_had_had_had_had_had_a_better_effect_on_the_teacher"},{"title":"Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lion-Eating_Poet_in_the_Stone_Den"},{"title":"That that is is that that is not is not is that it it is","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/That_that_is_is_that_that_is_not_is_not_is_that_it_it_is"},{"title":"Neko no ko koneko, shishi no ko kojishi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neko_no_ko_koneko,_shishi_no_ko_kojishi"}]
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[{"reference":"\"buffalo (verb) in American English\". Macmillan Dictionary. Retrieved 29 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/american/buffalo_2","url_text":"\"buffalo (verb) in American English\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macmillan_Dictionary","url_text":"Macmillan Dictionary"}]},{"reference":"Oxford University Press. \"Definition of buffalo\". Lexico. Archived from the original on 2 June 2021. Retrieved 29 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210602212757/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/buffalo","url_text":"\"Definition of buffalo\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexico","url_text":"Lexico"},{"url":"https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/buffalo","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Henle, James; Garfield, Jay; Tymoczko, Thomas (2011). Sweet Reason: A Field Guide to Modern Logic. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1118078631.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1118078631","url_text":"978-1118078631"}]},{"reference":"Thomas Tymoczko; James M. Henle (2000). Sweet reason: a field guide to modern logic (2 ed.). Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-0-387-98930-3. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 23 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=LQnsSuvP9dAC&pg=PA99","url_text":"Sweet reason: a field guide to modern logic"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-98930-3","url_text":"978-0-387-98930-3"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200422112819/https://books.google.com/books?id=LQnsSuvP9dAC&pg=PA99","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Eckler, A. Ross Jr. (November 2005). \"The Borgmann Apocrypha\". Word Ways: The Journal of Recreational Linguistics. 38 (4): 258–260. Archived from the original on 1 November 2014. Retrieved 9 December 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._Ross_Eckler,_Jr.","url_text":"Eckler, A. Ross Jr."},{"url":"http://digitalcommons.butler.edu/wordways/vol38/iss4/4/","url_text":"\"The Borgmann Apocrypha\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_Ways:_The_Journal_of_Recreational_Linguistics","url_text":"Word Ways: The Journal of Recreational Linguistics"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141101221036/http://digitalcommons.butler.edu/wordways/vol38/iss4/4/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Borgmann, Dmitri A. (1967). Beyond Language: Adventures in Word and Thought. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. OCLC 655067975.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Borgmann","url_text":"Borgmann, Dmitri A."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Language:_Adventures_in_Word_and_Thought","url_text":"Beyond Language: Adventures in Word and Thought"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons","url_text":"Charles Scribner's Sons"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/655067975","url_text":"655067975"}]},{"reference":"Rapaport, William J. (5 October 2012). \"A History of the Sentence 'Buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo.'\". University at Buffalo Computer Science and Engineering. Archived from the original on 21 June 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_J._Rapaport","url_text":"Rapaport, William J."},{"url":"http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/buffalobuffalo.html","url_text":"\"A History of the Sentence 'Buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo.'\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080621162601/http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/buffalobuffalo.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Rapaport, William J. (19 February 1992). \"Message 1: Re: 3.154 Parsing Challenges\". LINGUIST List. Archived from the original on 19 October 2009. Retrieved 14 September 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_J._Rapaport","url_text":"Rapaport, William J."},{"url":"https://linguistlist.org/issues/3/3-175/","url_text":"\"Message 1: Re: 3.154 Parsing Challenges\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LINGUIST_List","url_text":"LINGUIST List"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091019180523/http://linguistlist.org/issues/3/3-175.html#1","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Pinker, Steven (1994). The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Pinker","url_text":"Pinker, Steven"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Language_Instinct:_How_the_Mind_Creates_Language","url_text":"The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language"}]},{"reference":"Gärtner, Hans-Martin (2002). Generalized Transformations and Beyond. Berlin: Akademie Verlag. p. 58. ISBN 978-3050032467.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akademie_Verlag","url_text":"Akademie Verlag"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3050032467","url_text":"978-3050032467"}]},{"reference":"\"Teaching mathematics: The gulf between semantics (meaning) and syntax (form)\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.maths.usyd.edu.au/u/pubs/publist/preprints/2006/easdown-13.pdf","url_text":"\"Teaching mathematics: The gulf between semantics (meaning) and syntax (form)\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexus
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Hexus
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["1 History","2 HEXUS.trust","3 care@HEXUS","4 See also","5 References"]
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The topic of this article may not meet Wikipedia's notability guidelines for companies and organizations. Please help to demonstrate the notability of the topic by citing reliable secondary sources that are independent of the topic and provide significant coverage of it beyond a mere trivial mention. If notability cannot be shown, the article is likely to be merged, redirected, or deleted.Find sources: "Hexus" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
HEXUS.netType of siteonline magazineOwnerThe Media Team LtdCreated byDavid RossURLwww.hexus.netCommercialYesRegistrationNoLaunched24 July 2000; 23 years ago (2000-07-24)Current statusonline
HEXUS is a UK-based technology reporting and reviews website founded by David Ross in 2000 and owned by The Media Team. The site later became an incorporated entity in 2005.
History
The HEXUS domain name was registered on 14 July 2000.
Longstanding features of the site include Hexus.gaming and Hexus.lifestyle. The content published on Hexus.net includes news, reviews, guides, interviews and industry tradeshow coverage. In August 2006, Hexus.tv (a video section) was added to the site, streaming interviews as well as trailers for upcoming hardware and games. In January 2008, Hexus.channel was created, providing readers with more business orientated news, such as stocks/shares analysis. In February 2011, Hexus launched a spin-off site www.mobile-device.biz dedicated to news and reports for the mobile industry. In October 2011, Hexus launched a redesigned front-end, combining the Hexus.gaming, Hexus.lifestyle, Hexus.trust, Hexus.tv, Hexus.channel and www.mobile-device.biz websites into the single www.HEXUS.net domain. Hexus also launched a new mobile site.
The site is now split into categories for Tech, Gaming, Business, Consumer, Mobile, Hexus.tv and Trust along with a user forum section.
Quote from HEXUS founder David Ross:
"I set up HEXUS when I was 16 – I was studying at Aylesbury Grammar School – it was originally a Gaming Blog – and I then branched in to Hardware very quickly.
I wanted to have a site to have content on it and talk about tech/gaming etc. HEXUS has been around 11 years now. HEXUS launched HEXUS.tv in August 2006 we have pioneered technology coverage. Our base is in Elstree, Borehamwood. Traffic has doubled year on year."
HEXUS moved to a custom built facility in October 2013 in St Albans.
On 1 November 2021, Hexus published a story detailing that the website would no longer be updated, but the forums would remain active.
HEXUS.trust
To help users make more informed decisions about purchasing computer equipment online, Hexus.trust employs a 5 star rating system for retailers. Registered users can rate and discuss their experience with companies, the details of which are stored for anyone to view.
care@HEXUS
Through the care@HEXUS forum section, Hexus enable a single source for after-sales support from various manufacturers and suppliers.
See also
Bit-Tech
References
^ "HEXUS.net BBC Report on forum security". BBC News. 22 July 2010. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
^ "HEXUS.net Whois Information". Retrieved 16 October 2011.
^ "Marketing UK report regarding Hexus Founder". Retrieved 16 October 2011.
^ "Companies House WebCheck Company Number 05368054". Retrieved 16 October 2011.
^ "Antec Review". Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
^ "Hexus review on nVidia website". Archived from the original on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
^ "Corsair Interview". Retrieved 16 October 2011.
^ "Mobile-device-biz.net launch report". Retrieved 16 October 2011.
^ "HEXUS.net New Site". 5 October 2011. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
^ "Old design on WaybackMachine July 2011". Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
^ m.HEXUS.net
^ "Cheer up! It's not the end of the world…". November 2021.
^ "Scan.co.uk HEXUS.net Awards". Retrieved 16 October 2011.
^ "Thecus Join Hexus Care - Press Release". Retrieved 16 October 2011.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology"},{"link_name":"reporting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Report"},{"link_name":"reviews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review"},{"link_name":"website","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Website"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"HEXUS is a UK-based technology reporting and reviews website founded by David Ross in 2000 and owned by The Media Team.[1][2][3] The site later became an incorporated entity in 2005.[4]","title":"Hexus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"The HEXUS domain name was registered on 14 July 2000.Longstanding features of the site include Hexus.gaming and Hexus.lifestyle. The content published on Hexus.net includes news, reviews,[5][6] guides, interviews[7] and industry tradeshow coverage. In August 2006, Hexus.tv (a video section) was added to the site, streaming interviews as well as trailers for upcoming hardware and games. In January 2008, Hexus.channel was created, providing readers with more business orientated news, such as stocks/shares analysis. In February 2011, Hexus launched a spin-off site www.mobile-device.biz dedicated to news and reports for the mobile industry.[8] In October 2011, Hexus launched a redesigned front-end, combining the Hexus.gaming, Hexus.lifestyle, Hexus.trust, Hexus.tv, Hexus.channel and www.mobile-device.biz websites into the single www.HEXUS.net domain.[9][10] Hexus also launched a new mobile site.[11]The site is now split into categories for Tech, Gaming, Business, Consumer, Mobile, Hexus.tv and Trust along with a user forum section.Quote from HEXUS founder David Ross:\n\"I set up HEXUS when I was 16 – I was studying at Aylesbury Grammar School – it was originally a Gaming Blog – and I then branched in to Hardware very quickly.\nI wanted to have a site to have content on it and talk about tech/gaming etc. HEXUS has been around 11 years now. HEXUS launched HEXUS.tv in August 2006 we have pioneered technology coverage. Our base is in Elstree, Borehamwood. Traffic has doubled year on year.\"[citation needed]HEXUS moved to a custom built facility in October 2013 in St Albans.On 1 November 2021, Hexus published a story detailing that the website would no longer be updated, but the forums would remain active. [12]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hexus.trust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.hexus.net/trust/"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"To help users make more informed decisions about purchasing computer equipment online, Hexus.trust employs a 5 star rating system for retailers.[13] Registered users can rate and discuss their experience with companies, the details of which are stored for anyone to view.","title":"HEXUS.trust"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"care@HEXUS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20111016210623/http://forums.hexus.net/care-hexus/"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Through the care@HEXUS forum section, Hexus enable a single source for after-sales support from various manufacturers and suppliers.[14]","title":"care@HEXUS"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"Bit-Tech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit-Tech"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"HEXUS.net BBC Report on forum security\". BBC News. 22 July 2010. Retrieved 16 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-10714192","url_text":"\"HEXUS.net BBC Report on forum security\""}]},{"reference":"\"HEXUS.net Whois Information\". Retrieved 16 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://whois.domaintools.com/hexus.net","url_text":"\"HEXUS.net Whois Information\""}]},{"reference":"\"Marketing UK report regarding Hexus Founder\". Retrieved 16 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.marketinguk.co.uk/Company-Information%20/Hexus-Founder-Launches-Video-Agency-BOXFX.asp","url_text":"\"Marketing UK report regarding Hexus Founder\""}]},{"reference":"\"Companies House WebCheck Company Number 05368054\". Retrieved 16 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://wck2.companieshouse.gov.uk/","url_text":"\"Companies House WebCheck Company Number 05368054\""}]},{"reference":"\"Antec Review\". Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 16 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130511125258/http://www.asetek.com/press-room/reviews/269-hexusnet-gives-the-antec-kuehler-h2o-920-their-qperformanceq-award.html","url_text":"\"Antec Review\""},{"url":"http://www.asetek.com/press-room/reviews/269-hexusnet-gives-the-antec-kuehler-h2o-920-their-qperformanceq-award.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Hexus review on nVidia website\". Archived from the original on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 16 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111122041000/http://www.nvidia.in/page/reviews.html","url_text":"\"Hexus review on nVidia website\""},{"url":"http://www.nvidia.in/page/reviews.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Corsair Interview\". Retrieved 16 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.corsair.com/blog/dylan-and-hexus-discuss-hs1/","url_text":"\"Corsair Interview\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mobile-device-biz.net launch report\". Retrieved 16 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://adrenalinsolutions.co.uk/2011/02/hexus-launches-new-website-mobile-device-biz/","url_text":"\"Mobile-device-biz.net launch report\""}]},{"reference":"\"HEXUS.net New Site\". 5 October 2011. Retrieved 16 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://hexus.net/tech/features/industry/32043-new-hexus-live/","url_text":"\"HEXUS.net New Site\""}]},{"reference":"\"Old design on WaybackMachine July 2011\". Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 16 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110720143806/http://www.hexus.net/","url_text":"\"Old design on WaybackMachine July 2011\""},{"url":"http://www.hexus.net/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Cheer up! It's not the end of the world…\". November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://hexus.net/tech/news/industry/148580-cheer-up-its-end-world/","url_text":"\"Cheer up! It's not the end of the world…\""}]},{"reference":"\"Scan.co.uk HEXUS.net Awards\". Retrieved 16 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.scan.co.uk/info/awards","url_text":"\"Scan.co.uk HEXUS.net Awards\""}]},{"reference":"\"Thecus Join Hexus Care - Press Release\". Retrieved 16 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thecus.com/media_news_page.php?NEWS_ID=319","url_text":"\"Thecus Join Hexus Care - Press Release\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury
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United States Department of the Treasury
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["1 History","1.1 Revolutionary period","1.2 Creation of the Treasury","1.3 2003 reorganization","1.4 2020 data breach","2 Responsibilities","2.1 Basic functions","3 Organization","3.1 Structure","3.2 Bureaus","3.3 Budget and staffing","4 Freedom of Information Act processing performance","5 See also","6 Notes and references","7 External links"]
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Coordinates: 38°53′51.2″N 77°2′3.4″W / 38.897556°N 77.034278°W / 38.897556; -77.034278United States federal executive department
United States Department of the TreasurySeal of the DepartmentFlag of the DepartmentTreasury BuildingAgency overviewFormedSeptember 2, 1789; 234 years ago (1789-09-02)Preceding agencyBoard of TreasuryTypeExecutive departmentJurisdictionU.S. federal governmentHeadquartersTreasury Building1500 Pennsylvania Avenue, NWWashington, D.C., U.S38°53′51.2″N 77°2′3.4″W / 38.897556°N 77.034278°W / 38.897556; -77.034278Employees87,336 (2019)Annual budget$20 billion (2019)Agency executivesJanet Yellen, SecretaryWally Adeyemo, Deputy SecretaryMarilynn Malerba, TreasurerChild agenciesInternal Revenue ServiceUnited States MintBureau of Engraving and PrintingSeveral othersWebsitetreasury.gov
The Department of the Treasury (USDT) is the national treasury and finance department of the federal government of the United States, where it serves as an executive department. The department oversees the Bureau of Engraving and Printing and the U.S. Mint. These two agencies are responsible for printing all paper currency and minting coins, while the treasury executes currency circulation in the domestic fiscal system. The USDT collects all federal taxes through the Internal Revenue Service; manages U.S. government debt instruments; licenses and supervises banks and thrift institutions; and advises the legislative and executive branches on matters of fiscal policy. The department is administered by the secretary of the treasury, who is a member of the Cabinet. The treasurer of the United States has limited statutory duties, but advises the Secretary on various matters such as coinage and currency production. Signatures of both officials appear on all Federal Reserve notes.
The department was established by an Act of Congress in 1789 to manage government revenue. The first secretary of the treasury was Alexander Hamilton, who was sworn into office on September 11, 1789. Hamilton was appointed by President George Washington on the recommendation of Robert Morris, Washington's first choice for the position, who had declined the appointment. Hamilton established the nation's early financial system and for several years was a major presence in Washington's administration. The department is customarily referred to as "Treasury", solely, without any preceding article, as a remnant of the country's transition from British to American English during the late 18th century. Hamilton's portrait appears on the obverse of the ten-dollar bill, while the Treasury Department building is depicted on the reverse.
History
Revolutionary period
The history of the Department of the Treasury began in the turmoil of the American Revolution, when the Continental Congress at Philadelphia deliberated the crucial issue of financing a war of independence against Great Britain. The Congress had no power to levy and collect taxes, nor was there a tangible basis for securing funds from foreign investors or governments. The delegates resolved to issue paper money in the form of bills of credit, promising redemption in coin on faith in the revolutionary cause. On June 22, 1775, only a few days after the Battle of Bunker Hill, the Continental Congress issued $2 million in bills; on July 25, 28 citizens of Philadelphia were employed by Congress to sign and number the currency.
On July 29, 1775, the Second Continental Congress assigned the responsibility for the administration of the revolutionary government's finances to joint Continental treasurers George Clymer and Michael Hillegas. Congress stipulated that each of the colonies contribute to the Continental government's funds. To ensure proper and efficient handling of the growing national debt in the face of weak economic and political ties between the colonies, the Congress, on February 17, 1776, designated a committee of five to superintend the treasury, settle accounts, and report periodically to the Congress. On April 1, a Treasury Office of Accounts, consisting of an auditor general and clerks, was established to facilitate the settlement of claims and to keep the public accounts for the government of the United Colonies. With the signing of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, the newborn republic as a sovereign nation was able to secure loans from abroad.
Despite the infusion of foreign and domestic loans, the united colonies were unable to establish a well-organized agency for financial administration. Michael Hillegas was first called Treasurer of the United States on May 14, 1777. The Treasury Office was reorganized three times between 1778 and 1781. The $241.5 million in paper Continental bills devalued rapidly. By May 1781, the dollar collapsed at a rate of from 500 to 1000 to 1 against hard currency. Protests against the worthless money swept the colonies, giving rise to the expression "not worth a Continental". The office has, since the late 18th century, been customarily referred to as the singular "Treasury", without any preceding article, as a remnant of the country's transition from British to American English. For example, the department notes its guiding purpose as "Treasury's mission" instead of "the Treasury's mission."
Robert Morris was designated Superintendent of Finance in 1781 and restored stability to the nation's finances. Morris, a wealthy colonial merchant, was nicknamed "the financier" because of his reputation for procuring funds or goods on a moment's notice. His staff included a comptroller, a treasurer, a register, and auditors, who managed the country's finances through 1784, when Morris resigned because of ill health. The treasury board, consisting of three commissioners, continued to oversee the finances of the confederation of former colonies until September 1789.
Creation of the Treasury
Original seal, dating from before 1968
The First United States Congress convened in New York City on March 4, 1789, marking the beginning of government under the U.S. Constitution. On September 2, 1789, Congress created a permanent institution for the management of government finances:Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That there shall be a Department of Treasury, in which shall be the following officers, namely: a Secretary of the Treasury, to be deemed head of the department; a Comptroller, an Auditor, a Treasurer, a Register, and an Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury, which assistant shall be appointed by the said Secretary.Alexander Hamilton took the oath of office as the first secretary of the treasury on September 11, 1789. Hamilton had served as George Washington's aide-de-camp during the American Revolutionary War and was influential in the ratification of the Constitution. Hamilton's financial and managerial acumen made him a logical choice for addressing the problem of the new nation's heavy war debt. His first official act as secretary was to submit a report to Congress in which he laid the foundation for the nation's financial health.
To the surprise of many legislators, he insisted upon federal assumption and dollar-for-dollar repayment of the country's $75 million debt in order to revitalize the public credit: "he debt of the United States was the price of liberty. The faith of America has been repeatedly pledged for it, and with solemnities that give peculiar force to the obligation." Hamilton foresaw the development of industry and trade in the United States, suggesting that government revenues be based upon customs duties. His sound financial policies also inspired investment in the Bank of the United States, which acted as the government's fiscal agent.
The Department of Treasury believes their seal was created by Francis Hopkinson, the treasurer of loans. He submitted bills to Congress in 1780 that authorized the design of department seals, including a seal for the Board of Treasury. While it is not certain that Hopkinson designed the seal, it closely resembles others he created.
2003 reorganization
The Treasury Building at 1500 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW in Washington, D.C.
The U.S. Congress transferred several agencies that had previously been under the aegis of the Treasury Department to other departments as a consequence of the September 11 attacks. Effective January 24, 2003, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF), which had been a bureau of the department since 1972, was extensively reorganized under the provisions of the Homeland Security Act of 2002. The law enforcement functions of ATF, including the regulation of legitimate traffic in firearms and explosives, were transferred to the Department of Justice as the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (BATFE). The regulatory and tax collection functions of ATF related to legitimate traffic in alcohol and tobacco remained with the treasury at its new Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB).
Effective March 1, 2003, the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center, the United States Customs Service, and the United States Secret Service were transferred to the newly created Department of Homeland Security ("DHS").
2020 data breach
In 2020, the Treasury suffered a data breach following a cyberattack likely conducted by a nation state adversary, possibly Russia. This was in fact the first detected case of the much wider 2020 United States federal government data breach, which involved at least eight federal departments.
Responsibilities
A Treasury Department official surrounded by packages of newly minted currency, counting and wrapping dollar bills in Washington, D.C. in 1907
The organizational structure of the U.S. Department of the Treasury
The Office of Foreign Assets Control, the Treasury Library, and the main branch of the Treasury Department Federal Credit Union in the Freedman's Bank Building in Washington, D.C.
Basic functions
The basic functions of the Department of the Treasury mainly include:
Producing all currency and coinage of the U.S.;
Collecting taxes, duties and money paid to and due to the U.S.;
Paying all bills of the U.S.;
Managing the federal finances;
Managing government accounts (including the Treasury General Account) and the United States public debt;
Supervising national banks and thrift institutions;
Advising on domestic and international financial, monetary, economic, trade and tax policy (fiscal policy being the sum of these);
Enforcing federal finance and tax laws;
Investigating and prosecuting tax evaders;
Publishing statistical reports.
With respect to the estimation of revenues for the executive branch, Treasury serves a purpose parallel to that of the Office of Management and Budget for the estimation of spending for the executive branch, the Joint Committee on Taxation for the estimation of revenues for Congress, and the Congressional Budget Office for the estimation of spending for Congress.
From 1830 until 1901, responsibility for overseeing weights and measures was carried out by the Office of Standard Weights and Measures under the auspices of the Treasury Department. After 1901, that responsibility was assigned to the agency that subsequently became known as the National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Organization
The Department of the Treasury is organized into two major components: the departmental offices and the operating bureaus. The departmental offices are primarily responsible for the formulation of policy and management of the department as a whole, while the operating bureaus carry out the specific operations assigned to the department.
Structure
Seal on United States Department of the Treasury on the Building
Secretary of the Treasury
Deputy Secretary of the Treasury
Treasurer of the United States
Bureau of Engraving and Printing
Bureau of Engraving and Printing Police
United States Mint
United States Mint Police
Under Secretary for Domestic Finance
Assistant Secretary for Financial Institutions
Office of Financial Institutions
Assistant Secretary for Financial Markets
Office of Financial Markets
Fiscal Assistant Secretary
Office of Fiscal Service
Bureau of the Fiscal Service
Under Secretary for International Affairs
Assistant Secretary for International Markets and Development
Assistant Secretary for International Finance
Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Investment Security
Office of Environment and Energy
Under Secretary for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence (Office of Terrorism and Financial Intelligence)
Assistant Secretary for Terrorist Financing
Office of Terrorist Financing and Financial Crimes
Assistant Secretary for Intelligence and Analysis
Office of Intelligence and Analysis
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network
Office of Foreign Assets Control
Treasury Executive Office for Asset Forfeiture
Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Management / Chief Financial Officer / Performance Improvement Officer
Office of Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization
Chief Information Officer
Assistant Secretary for Economic Policy
Assistant Secretary for Legislative Affairs
Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs
Assistant Secretary for Tax Policy
Climate Counselor
Commissioner of Internal Revenue
Internal Revenue Service
Office of the Comptroller of the Currency
Office of Financial Research
Office of the General Counsel
Office of the Inspector General
Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration (TIGTA)
Chief Risk Officer
Bureaus
Bureau
Description
The Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB)
The Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) is responsible for enforcing and administering laws covering the production, use, and distribution of alcohol and tobacco products. TTB also collects excise taxes for firearms and ammunition.
The Bureau of Engraving & Printing (BEP)
The Bureau of Engraving & Printing (BEP) designs and manufactures U.S. currency, securities, and other official certificates and awards.
The Bureau of the Fiscal Service
The Bureau of the Fiscal Service was formed from the consolidation of the Financial Management Service and the Bureau of the Public Debt. Its mission is to promote the financial integrity and operational efficiency of the U.S. government through exceptional accounting, financing, collections, payments, and shared services.
The Community Development Financial Institution (CDFI) Fund
The Community Development Financial Institution (CDFI) Fund was created to expand the availability of credit, investment capital, and financial services in distressed urban and rural communities.
The Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN)
The Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) supports law enforcement investigative efforts and fosters interagency and global cooperation against domestic and international financial crimes. It also provides U.S. policymakers with strategic analyses of domestic and worldwide trends and patterns.
The Inspector General
The Inspector General conducts independent audits, investigations and reviews to help the Treasury Department accomplish its mission; improve its programs and operations; promote economy, efficiency and effectiveness; and prevent and detect fraud and abuse.
The Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration (TIGTA)
The Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration (TIGTA) provides leadership and coordination and recommends policy for activities designed to promote economy, efficiency, and effectiveness in the administration of the internal revenue laws. TIGTA also recommends policies to prevent and detect fraud and abuse in the programs and operations of the IRS and related entities.
The Internal Revenue Service
The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) is the largest of Treasury's bureaus. It is responsible for determining, assessing, and collecting internal revenue in the United States.
The Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC)
The Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) charters, regulates, and supervises national banks to ensure a safe, sound, and competitive banking system that supports the citizens, communities, and economy of the United States.
The U.S. Mint
The U.S. Mint designs and manufactures domestic, bullion and foreign coins as well as commemorative medals and other numismatic items. The Mint also distributes U.S. coins to the Federal Reserve banks as well as maintains physical custody and protection of the nation's silver and gold assets.
Budget and staffing
The Treasury Department has authorized a budget for Fiscal Year 2015 of $22.6 billion. The budget authorization is broken down as follows:
Program
Funding (in millions)
Employees (in FTEs)
Management and Finance
Department Administration
$311
1,320
Office of the Inspector General
$35
213
Inspector General for Tax Administration
$157
837
Special Inspector General for TARP (Troubled Asset Relief Program)
$34
192
Community Development Financial Institutions Fund
$225
73
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network
$108
346
Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau
$101
517
Bureau of the Fiscal Services
$348
2,350
Tax Administration
Internal Revenue Service
$12,476
92,009
International Programs
International Programs
$2,610
0
Non-Appropriated Bureaus
Office of Fiscal Stability
$184
86
Small Business Lending Programs
$17
25
State Small Business Credit Initiative
$7
12
Financial Stability Oversight Council
$20
26
Office of Financial Research
$92
249
Bureau of Engraving and Printing
$749
1,944
United States Mint
$3,571
1,874
Office of the Comptroller of the Currency
$1,104
3,997
TOTAL
$22,583
106,080
Freedom of Information Act processing performance
In the latest Center for Effective Government analysis of the fifteen federal agencies that receive the most Freedom of Information Act FOIA requests, published in 2015 (using 2012 and 2013 data, the most recent years available), the treasury failed to earn a satisfactory overall grade.
See also
United States portal
Federal Reserve System
MicroLoan Program
Title 12 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Title 17 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Title 19 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Title 31 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Treasury Enterprise Architecture Framework
Treasury Information System Architecture Framework
United States Coast Guard History and Heritage Sites
Notes and references
^ "Department of Treasury – List of Federal Departments". federalpay.org. Archived from the original on January 28, 2019. Retrieved January 28, 2019.
^ Donald A. Torres (1985). Handbook of Federal Police and Investigative Agencies. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 275. ISBN 0313245789.
^ "An Act to Establish the Treasury Department". September 2, 1789. Archived from the original on September 14, 2018. Retrieved October 11, 2018.
^ "The Treasurer". U.S. Department of the Treasury. Archived from the original on April 4, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.
^ Crutsinger, Martin (November 15, 2017). "New money: Mnuchin and Carranza signatures now on the dollar bill". USA Today. Gannett Satellite Information Network, LLC. The Associated Press. Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.
^ a b "Image 1 of An act to establish the Treasury department .... 1789, July 2. New-York. Printed by Thomas Greenleaf.]". The Library of Congress. January 1, 1970. Archived from the original on December 1, 2022. Retrieved December 1, 2022.
^ "Appointment as Secretary of the Treasury". founders.archives.gov. Archived from the original on March 4, 2017. Retrieved March 4, 2017.
^ Adams, Jonathan. "Department of the Treasury". George Washington Digital Encyclopedia. Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.
^ Scanlan, Laura Wolff (2006). "Alexander Hamilton: the man who modernized money". Humanities: The Magazine of the National Endowment for the Humanities. 27 (1). Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.
^ "$10". U.S. Currency Education Program. Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.
^ Hammond, Bray (1957). Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
^ Hamilton, Alexander (1851). Reports of the secretary of the Treasury of the United States: prepared in obedience to the act of May 10, 1800. Printed by Blair & Rives. Archived from the original on December 13, 2023. Retrieved April 27, 2020.
^ Dewey, Davis Rich (1922). Financial History of the United States. Longmans, Green and Company. Archived from the original on December 13, 2023. Retrieved November 22, 2020.
^ "Role of the Treasury | U.S. Department of the Treasury". home.treasury.gov. Archived from the original on April 29, 2020. Retrieved April 27, 2020. Treasury's mission highlights its role as the steward of U.S. economic and financial systems, and as an influential participant in the world economy.
^ "Chapter 12, 1 Statue. 65" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 19, 2017.
^ a b Syrett, Harold C., ed. (1962). The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, vol. 6. New York City: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231089050. Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.
^ Friedberg, Albert L. (2017). Paper money of the US 21st Edition. Clifton, New Jersey: Coin & Currency Institute. pp. 6–7. ISBN 9780871840219.
^ "Move to Justice Dept. Brings ATF New Focus". Washington Post. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2023.
^ "History". TTBGov. November 18, 2015. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2023.
^ "Who Joined DHS". Department of Homeland Security. July 27, 2012. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 10, 2023.
^ Nakashima, Ellen (December 13, 2020). "Russian government spies are behind a broad hacking campaign that has breached U.S. agencies and a top cyber firm". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 13, 2020. Retrieved December 14, 2020.
^ Bing, Christopher (December 14, 2020). "Suspected Russian hackers spied on U.S. Treasury emails – sources". Reuters. Archived from the original on December 14, 2020. Retrieved December 14, 2020.
^ Office, U. S. Government Accountability (March 21, 2024). "SolarWinds Cyberattack Demands Significant Federal and Private-Sector Response (infographic) | U.S. GAO". www.gao.gov. Retrieved April 10, 2024.
^ US Treasury website Organization Archived October 11, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
^ Records of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Archived October 19, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, National Archives website, (Record Group 167), 1830–1987.
^ Treasury Order 101-05 Archived March 19, 2021, at the Wayback Machine, U.S. Dept. of the Treasury. January 10, 2011. Updated April 26, 2011. Accessed November 11, 2012.
^ DF Org Chart Archived January 16, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, "The Office of Domestic Finance". U.S. Dept. of the Treasury. October 2011. Accessed November 11, 2012.
^ International Affairs Archived June 22, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, "About International Affairs". U.S. Dept. of the Treasury. February 14, 2012. Accessed November 11, 2012.
^ "Officials | U.S. Department of the Treasury". home.treasury.gov. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved April 20, 2021.
^ "Environment and Energy". www.treasury.gov. Archived from the original on November 7, 2017. Retrieved October 30, 2017.
^ Terrorism and Financial Intelligence Archived September 5, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, "About Terrorism and Financial Intelligence". U.S. Dept. of the Treasury. July 2, 2012. Accessed November 11, 2012.
^ "Treasury Announces Coordinated Climate Policy Strategy with New Treasury Climate Hub and Climate Counselor | U.S. Department of the Treasury". home.treasury.gov. Archived from the original on April 20, 2021. Retrieved April 20, 2021.
^ 2015 Department of the Treasury Budget in Brief Archived July 14, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, pg 9, United States Department of the Treasury, Accessed July 6, 2015
^ Making the Grade: Access to Information Scorecard 2015 Archived August 11, 2019, at the Wayback Machine, March 2015, 80 pages, Center for Effective Government, retrieved March 21, 2016
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-isbn0313245789-pp275-2"},{"link_name":"national treasury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury"},{"link_name":"federal government of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"executive department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Bureau of Engraving and Printing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Engraving_and_Printing"},{"link_name":"U.S. Mint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Mint"},{"link_name":"paper currency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_currency"},{"link_name":"coins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_coinage"},{"link_name":"currency circulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulation_(currency)"},{"link_name":"collects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax_collector"},{"link_name":"federal taxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Internal Revenue Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service"},{"link_name":"U.S. government debt instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Treasury_security"},{"link_name":"licenses and supervises banks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_regulation#Licensing_and_supervision"},{"link_name":"thrift institutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savings_and_loan_association"},{"link_name":"legislative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States#Legislative_branch"},{"link_name":"executive branches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States#Executive_branch"},{"link_name":"fiscal policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiscal_policy"},{"link_name":"secretary of the treasury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury"},{"link_name":"Cabinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Cabinet"},{"link_name":"treasurer of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasurer_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ustreasurydepttreasurer2018-4"},{"link_name":"Federal Reserve notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve_note"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-crutsinger2017-5"},{"link_name":"Act of Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Congress"},{"link_name":"revenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revenue"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Act-to-establish-6"},{"link_name":"Alexander Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"George Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington"},{"link_name":"Robert Morris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-adams2018-8"},{"link_name":"Washington's administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wolffscanlan2006-9"},{"link_name":"preceding article","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(grammar)"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English"},{"link_name":"American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English"},{"link_name":"obverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obverse_and_reverse"},{"link_name":"ten-dollar bill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_ten-dollar_bill"},{"link_name":"Treasury Department building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_Building_(Washington,_D.C.)"},{"link_name":"reverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obverse_and_reverse"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uscep2018$10-10"}],"text":"United States federal executive departmentThe Department of the Treasury (USDT)[2] is the national treasury and finance department of the federal government of the United States, where it serves as an executive department.[3] The department oversees the Bureau of Engraving and Printing and the U.S. Mint. These two agencies are responsible for printing all paper currency and minting coins, while the treasury executes currency circulation in the domestic fiscal system. The USDT collects all federal taxes through the Internal Revenue Service; manages U.S. government debt instruments; licenses and supervises banks and thrift institutions; and advises the legislative and executive branches on matters of fiscal policy. The department is administered by the secretary of the treasury, who is a member of the Cabinet. The treasurer of the United States has limited statutory duties, but advises the Secretary on various matters such as coinage and currency production.[4] Signatures of both officials appear on all Federal Reserve notes.[5]The department was established by an Act of Congress in 1789 to manage government revenue.[6] The first secretary of the treasury was Alexander Hamilton, who was sworn into office on September 11, 1789.[7] Hamilton was appointed by President George Washington on the recommendation of Robert Morris, Washington's first choice for the position, who had declined the appointment.[8] Hamilton established the nation's early financial system and for several years was a major presence in Washington's administration.[9] The department is customarily referred to as \"Treasury\", solely, without any preceding article, as a remnant of the country's transition from British to American English during the late 18th century. Hamilton's portrait appears on the obverse of the ten-dollar bill, while the Treasury Department building is depicted on the reverse.[10]","title":"United States Department of the Treasury"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Continental Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Congress"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia"},{"link_name":"Great Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"levy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax_levies"},{"link_name":"collect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax_collector"},{"link_name":"bills of credit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bills_of_credit"},{"link_name":"redemption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_money"},{"link_name":"coin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coin"},{"link_name":"Battle of Bunker Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bunker_Hill"},{"link_name":"Second Continental Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress"},{"link_name":"George Clymer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Clymer"},{"link_name":"Michael Hillegas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Hillegas"},{"link_name":"national debt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_debt"},{"link_name":"settle accounts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Settlement_(finance)"},{"link_name":"clerks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clerk"},{"link_name":"Declaration of Independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence"},{"link_name":"sovereign nation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_nation"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"united colonies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies"},{"link_name":"devalued","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devaluation"},{"link_name":"collapsed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperinflation"},{"link_name":"hard currency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_currency"},{"link_name":"not worth a Continental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_American_currency#Continental_currency"},{"link_name":"customarily referred","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English"},{"link_name":"preceding article","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(grammar)"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English"},{"link_name":"American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Robert Morris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)"},{"link_name":"merchant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merchant"},{"link_name":"comptroller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comptroller"},{"link_name":"treasurer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasurer"},{"link_name":"register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Register_of_the_Treasury"},{"link_name":"auditors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditor"}],"sub_title":"Revolutionary period","text":"The history of the Department of the Treasury began in the turmoil of the American Revolution, when the Continental Congress at Philadelphia deliberated the crucial issue of financing a war of independence against Great Britain. The Congress had no power to levy and collect taxes, nor was there a tangible basis for securing funds from foreign investors or governments. The delegates resolved to issue paper money in the form of bills of credit, promising redemption in coin on faith in the revolutionary cause. On June 22, 1775, only a few days after the Battle of Bunker Hill, the Continental Congress issued $2 million in bills; on July 25, 28 citizens of Philadelphia were employed by Congress to sign and number the currency.On July 29, 1775, the Second Continental Congress assigned the responsibility for the administration of the revolutionary government's finances to joint Continental treasurers George Clymer and Michael Hillegas. Congress stipulated that each of the colonies contribute to the Continental government's funds. To ensure proper and efficient handling of the growing national debt in the face of weak economic and political ties between the colonies, the Congress, on February 17, 1776, designated a committee of five to superintend the treasury, settle accounts, and report periodically to the Congress. On April 1, a Treasury Office of Accounts, consisting of an auditor general and clerks, was established to facilitate the settlement of claims and to keep the public accounts for the government of the United Colonies. With the signing of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, the newborn republic as a sovereign nation was able to secure loans from abroad.[11]Despite the infusion of foreign and domestic loans, the united colonies were unable to establish a well-organized agency for financial administration. Michael Hillegas was first called Treasurer of the United States on May 14, 1777. The Treasury Office was reorganized three times between 1778 and 1781. The $241.5 million in paper Continental bills devalued rapidly. By May 1781, the dollar collapsed at a rate of from 500 to 1000 to 1 against hard currency. Protests against the worthless money swept the colonies, giving rise to the expression \"not worth a Continental\". The office has, since the late 18th century, been customarily referred to as the singular \"Treasury\", without any preceding article, as a remnant of the country's transition from British to American English.[12][13] For example, the department notes its guiding purpose as \"Treasury's mission\" instead of \"the Treasury's mission.\"[14]Robert Morris was designated Superintendent of Finance in 1781 and restored stability to the nation's finances. Morris, a wealthy colonial merchant, was nicknamed \"the financier\" because of his reputation for procuring funds or goods on a moment's notice. His staff included a comptroller, a treasurer, a register, and auditors, who managed the country's finances through 1784, when Morris resigned because of ill health. The treasury board, consisting of three commissioners, continued to oversee the finances of the confederation of former colonies until September 1789.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury_(1789-1968).png"},{"link_name":"First United States Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"U.S. Constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Treasury"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Act-to-establish-6"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Alexander Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton"},{"link_name":"secretary of the treasury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury"},{"link_name":"George Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington"},{"link_name":"aide-de-camp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aide-de-camp"},{"link_name":"American Revolutionary War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War"},{"link_name":"ratification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Constitution#1788_ratification"},{"link_name":"financial and managerial acumen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_acumen"},{"link_name":"war debt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_debt"},{"link_name":"federal assumption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debt_Assumption"},{"link_name":"public credit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_credit"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-syrett1962vol6-16"},{"link_name":"customs duties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customs_duties"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-syrett1962vol6-16"},{"link_name":"financial policies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiscal_policy"},{"link_name":"Bank of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Bank_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"fiscal agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiscal_agent"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Francis Hopkinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Hopkinson#Great_Seal_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"Creation of the Treasury","text":"Original seal, dating from before 1968The First United States Congress convened in New York City on March 4, 1789, marking the beginning of government under the U.S. Constitution. On September 2, 1789, Congress created a permanent institution for the management of government finances:Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That there shall be a Department of Treasury, in which shall be the following officers, namely: a Secretary of the Treasury, to be deemed head of the department; a Comptroller, an Auditor, a Treasurer, a Register, and an Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury, which assistant shall be appointed by the said Secretary.[6][15]Alexander Hamilton took the oath of office as the first secretary of the treasury on September 11, 1789. Hamilton had served as George Washington's aide-de-camp during the American Revolutionary War and was influential in the ratification of the Constitution. Hamilton's financial and managerial acumen made him a logical choice for addressing the problem of the new nation's heavy war debt. His first official act as secretary was to submit a report to Congress in which he laid the foundation for the nation's financial health.To the surprise of many legislators, he insisted upon federal assumption and dollar-for-dollar repayment of the country's $75 million debt in order to revitalize the public credit: \"[T]he debt of the United States was the price of liberty. The faith of America has been repeatedly pledged for it, and with solemnities that give peculiar force to the obligation.\"[16] Hamilton foresaw the development of industry and trade in the United States, suggesting that government revenues be based upon customs duties.[16] His sound financial policies also inspired investment in the Bank of the United States, which acted as the government's fiscal agent.[citation needed]The Department of Treasury believes their seal was created by Francis Hopkinson, the treasurer of loans. He submitted bills to Congress in 1780 that authorized the design of department seals, including a seal for the Board of Treasury. While it is not certain that Hopkinson designed the seal, it closely resembles others he created.[17]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Treasury_departement.jpg"},{"link_name":"Treasury Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_Building_(Washington,_D.C.)"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_Avenue"},{"link_name":"NW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest,_Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"U.S. Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"September 11 attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11_attacks"},{"link_name":"Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco_and_Firearms"},{"link_name":"Homeland Security Act of 2002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeland_Security_Act"},{"link_name":"law enforcement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement_agency"},{"link_name":"firearms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearms"},{"link_name":"explosives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosives"},{"link_name":"Department of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Washington_Post_2003-18"},{"link_name":"Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_and_Tobacco_Tax_and_Trade_Bureau"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TTBGov_2015-19"},{"link_name":"Federal Law Enforcement Training Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Law_Enforcement_Training_Center"},{"link_name":"United States Customs Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Customs_Service"},{"link_name":"United States Secret Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service"},{"link_name":"Department of Homeland Security (\"DHS\")","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"2003 reorganization","text":"The Treasury Building at 1500 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW in Washington, D.C.The U.S. Congress transferred several agencies that had previously been under the aegis of the Treasury Department to other departments as a consequence of the September 11 attacks. Effective January 24, 2003, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF), which had been a bureau of the department since 1972, was extensively reorganized under the provisions of the Homeland Security Act of 2002. The law enforcement functions of ATF, including the regulation of legitimate traffic in firearms and explosives, were transferred to the Department of Justice as the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (BATFE).[18] The regulatory and tax collection functions of ATF related to legitimate traffic in alcohol and tobacco remained with the treasury at its new Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB).[19]Effective March 1, 2003, the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center, the United States Customs Service, and the United States Secret Service were transferred to the newly created Department of Homeland Security (\"DHS\").[20]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"suffered a data breach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_States_Treasury_and_Department_of_Commerce_data_breach"},{"link_name":"cyberattack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberattack"},{"link_name":"nation state adversary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_persistent_threat"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wapo-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reuters-22"},{"link_name":"2020 United States federal government data breach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_States_federal_government_data_breach"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"2020 data breach","text":"In 2020, the Treasury suffered a data breach following a cyberattack likely conducted by a nation state adversary, possibly Russia.[21][22] This was in fact the first detected case of the much wider 2020 United States federal government data breach, which involved at least eight federal departments.[23]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Treasury_department_official_1907.jpg"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Organization_of_US_Dept_of_the_Treasury.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Treasury_Annex.JPG"},{"link_name":"Office of Foreign Assets Control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Foreign_Assets_Control"},{"link_name":"Treasury Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_Library"},{"link_name":"Treasury Department Federal Credit Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_Department_Federal_Credit_Union"},{"link_name":"Freedman's Bank Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedman%27s_Bank_Building"}],"text":"A Treasury Department official surrounded by packages of newly minted currency, counting and wrapping dollar bills in Washington, D.C. in 1907The organizational structure of the U.S. Department of the TreasuryThe Office of Foreign Assets Control, the Treasury Library, and the main branch of the Treasury Department Federal Credit Union in the Freedman's Bank Building in Washington, D.C.","title":"Responsibilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"taxes, duties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax,_tariff_and_trade"},{"link_name":"Treasury General Account","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_General_Account"},{"link_name":"United States public debt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_public_debt"},{"link_name":"thrift institutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperative_banking"},{"link_name":"monetary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetary_policy"},{"link_name":"economic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_policy"},{"link_name":"trade and tax policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_policy"},{"link_name":"fiscal policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiscal_policy"},{"link_name":"tax evaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax_evasion"},{"link_name":"executive branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_(government)"},{"link_name":"Office of Management and Budget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget"},{"link_name":"Joint Committee on Taxation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress_Joint_Committee_on_Taxation"},{"link_name":"Congressional Budget Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office"},{"link_name":"weights and measures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weights_and_measures"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-archives-25"},{"link_name":"National Institute of Standards and Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology"}],"sub_title":"Basic functions","text":"The basic functions of the Department of the Treasury mainly include:[24]Producing all currency and coinage of the U.S.;\nCollecting taxes, duties and money paid to and due to the U.S.;\nPaying all bills of the U.S.;\nManaging the federal finances;\nManaging government accounts (including the Treasury General Account) and the United States public debt;\nSupervising national banks and thrift institutions;\nAdvising on domestic and international financial, monetary, economic, trade and tax policy (fiscal policy being the sum of these);\nEnforcing federal finance and tax laws;\nInvestigating and prosecuting tax evaders;\nPublishing statistical reports.With respect to the estimation of revenues for the executive branch, Treasury serves a purpose parallel to that of the Office of Management and Budget for the estimation of spending for the executive branch, the Joint Committee on Taxation for the estimation of revenues for Congress, and the Congressional Budget Office for the estimation of spending for Congress.From 1830 until 1901, responsibility for overseeing weights and measures was carried out by the Office of Standard Weights and Measures under the auspices of the Treasury Department.[25] After 1901, that responsibility was assigned to the agency that subsequently became known as the National Institute of Standards and Technology.","title":"Responsibilities"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The Department of the Treasury is organized into two major components: the departmental offices and the operating bureaus. The departmental offices are primarily responsible for the formulation of policy and management of the department as a whole, while the operating bureaus carry out the specific operations assigned to the department.","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Seal_on_United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury_on_the_Building.JPG"},{"link_name":"Secretary of the Treasury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_the_Treasury"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101-05-26"},{"link_name":"Deputy Secretary of the Treasury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Deputy_Secretary_of_the_Treasury"},{"link_name":"Treasurer of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasurer_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Bureau of Engraving and Printing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Engraving_and_Printing"},{"link_name":"Bureau of Engraving and Printing Police","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Engraving_and_Printing#BEP_Police"},{"link_name":"United States Mint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Mint"},{"link_name":"United States Mint Police","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Mint_Police"},{"link_name":"Under Secretary for Domestic Finance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under_Secretary_of_the_Treasury_for_Domestic_Finance"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DF_org_chart-27"},{"link_name":"Assistant Secretary for Financial Institutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Treasury_for_Financial_Institutions"},{"link_name":"Office of Financial Institutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Financial_Institutions"},{"link_name":"Assistant Secretary for Financial Markets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_for_Financial_Markets"},{"link_name":"Office of Financial Markets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Financial_Markets_(U.S.)"},{"link_name":"Fiscal Assistant Secretary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiscal_Assistant_Secretary"},{"link_name":"Office of Fiscal Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Fiscal_Service"},{"link_name":"Bureau of the Fiscal Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_the_Fiscal_Service"},{"link_name":"Under Secretary for International Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under_Secretary_of_the_Treasury_for_International_Affairs"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-International_Affairs-28"},{"link_name":"Assistant Secretary for International Markets and Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Treasury_for_International_Markets"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Under Secretary for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under_Secretary_of_the_Treasury_for_Terrorism_and_Financial_Intelligence"},{"link_name":"Office of Terrorism and Financial Intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Terrorism_and_Financial_Intelligence"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OTFI-31"},{"link_name":"Assistant Secretary for Terrorist Financing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_for_Terrorist_Financing"},{"link_name":"Office of Terrorist Financing and Financial Crimes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Terrorist_Financing_and_Financial_Crimes"},{"link_name":"Office of Intelligence and Analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Intelligence_and_Analysis_(Treasury_Department)"},{"link_name":"Financial Crimes Enforcement Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Crimes_Enforcement_Network"},{"link_name":"Office of Foreign Assets Control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Foreign_Assets_Control"},{"link_name":"Treasury Executive Office for Asset Forfeiture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_Executive_Office_for_Asset_Forfeiture"},{"link_name":"Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Treasury_for_Management"},{"link_name":"Assistant Secretary for Economic Policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Treasury_for_Economic_Policy"},{"link_name":"Assistant Secretary for Legislative Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Treasury_for_Legislative_Affairs"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Commissioner of Internal Revenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commissioner_of_Internal_Revenue"},{"link_name":"Internal Revenue Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service"},{"link_name":"Office of the Comptroller of the Currency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_Comptroller_of_the_Currency"},{"link_name":"Office of Financial Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Financial_Research"},{"link_name":"Office of the General Counsel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_General_Counsel_for_the_Department_of_the_Treasury"},{"link_name":"Office of the Inspector General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Department_of_the_Treasury,_Office_of_Inspector_General"},{"link_name":"Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_Inspector_General_for_Tax_Administration"}],"sub_title":"Structure","text":"Seal on United States Department of the Treasury on the BuildingSecretary of the Treasury[26]\nDeputy Secretary of the Treasury\nTreasurer of the United States\nBureau of Engraving and Printing\nBureau of Engraving and Printing Police\nUnited States Mint\nUnited States Mint Police\nUnder Secretary for Domestic Finance[27]\nAssistant Secretary for Financial Institutions\nOffice of Financial Institutions\nAssistant Secretary for Financial Markets\nOffice of Financial Markets\nFiscal Assistant Secretary\nOffice of Fiscal Service\nBureau of the Fiscal Service\nUnder Secretary for International Affairs[28]\nAssistant Secretary for International Markets and Development\nAssistant Secretary for International Finance\nAssistant Secretary of the Treasury for Investment Security[29]\nOffice of Environment and Energy[30]\nUnder Secretary for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence (Office of Terrorism and Financial Intelligence)[31]\nAssistant Secretary for Terrorist Financing\nOffice of Terrorist Financing and Financial Crimes\nAssistant Secretary for Intelligence and Analysis\nOffice of Intelligence and Analysis\nFinancial Crimes Enforcement Network\nOffice of Foreign Assets Control\nTreasury Executive Office for Asset Forfeiture\nAssistant Secretary of the Treasury for Management / Chief Financial Officer / Performance Improvement Officer\nOffice of Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization\nChief Information Officer\nAssistant Secretary for Economic Policy\nAssistant Secretary for Legislative Affairs\nAssistant Secretary for Public Affairs\nAssistant Secretary for Tax Policy\nClimate Counselor[32]\nCommissioner of Internal Revenue\nInternal Revenue Service\nOffice of the Comptroller of the Currency\nOffice of Financial Research\nOffice of the General Counsel\nOffice of the Inspector General\nTreasury Inspector General for Tax Administration (TIGTA)\nChief Risk Officer","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Bureaus","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fiscal Year 2015","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_United_States_federal_budget"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"Budget and staffing","text":"The Treasury Department has authorized a budget for Fiscal Year 2015 of $22.6 billion. The budget authorization is broken down as follows:[33]","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Center for Effective Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Effective_Government"},{"link_name":"Freedom of Information Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_Information_Act_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"In the latest Center for Effective Government analysis of the fifteen federal agencies that receive the most Freedom of Information Act FOIA requests, published in 2015 (using 2012 and 2013 data, the most recent years available), the treasury failed to earn a satisfactory overall grade.[34]","title":"Freedom of Information Act processing performance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Department of Treasury – List of Federal Departments\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.federalpay.org/departments/departmentoftreasury"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20190128083325/https://www.federalpay.org/departments/departmentoftreasury"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-isbn0313245789-pp275_2-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0313245789","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0313245789"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"An Act to Establish the Treasury Department\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/1121"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20180914022408/https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/1121"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ustreasurydepttreasurer2018_4-0"},{"link_name":"\"The Treasurer\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.treasury.gov/about/organizational-structure/offices/Pages/Office-of-the-Treasurer.aspx"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20180404163715/https://www.treasury.gov/about/organizational-structure/offices/Pages/Office-of-the-Treasurer.aspx"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-crutsinger2017_5-0"},{"link_name":"\"New money: Mnuchin and Carranza signatures now on the dollar bill\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.usatoday.com/story/money/economy/2017/11/15/new-money-mnuchin-and-carranza-signatures-now-dollar-bill/867032001/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20180507004727/https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/economy/2017/11/15/new-money-mnuchin-and-carranza-signatures-now-dollar-bill/867032001/"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Act-to-establish_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Act-to-establish_6-1"},{"link_name":"\"Image 1 of An act to establish the Treasury department .... [Dated] 1789, July 2. New-York. Printed by Thomas Greenleaf.]\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.loc.gov/resource/rbpe.1110160m/?st=text"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20221201172233/https://www.loc.gov/resource/rbpe.1110160m/?st=text"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"Appointment as Secretary of the Treasury\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-26-02-0002-0147"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170304114342/https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-26-02-0002-0147"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-adams2018_8-0"},{"link_name":"\"Department of the Treasury\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/department-of-the-treasury"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20180507085258/http://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/department-of-the-treasury"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-wolffscanlan2006_9-0"},{"link_name":"\"Alexander Hamilton: the man who modernized money\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.neh.gov/humanities/2006/januaryfebruary/feature/alexander-hamilton"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20180507085224/https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2006/januaryfebruary/feature/alexander-hamilton"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-uscep2018$10_10-0"},{"link_name":"\"$10\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.uscurrency.gov/denominations/10"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20180507003549/https://www.uscurrency.gov/denominations/10"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"Reports of the secretary of the Treasury of the United States: prepared in obedience to the act of May 10, 1800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=s3NUAAAAYAAJ"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20231213050157/https://books.google.com/books?id=s3NUAAAAYAAJ"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"Financial History of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=VSopAAAAYAAJ&q=history+of+the+united+states+treasury"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20231213050157/https://books.google.com/books?id=VSopAAAAYAAJ&q=history+of+the+united+states+treasury#v=snippet&q=history%20of%20the%20united%20states%20treasury&f=false"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"\"Role of the Treasury | U.S. Department of the Treasury\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//home.treasury.gov/about/general-information/role-of-the-treasury"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20200429220544/https://home.treasury.gov/about/general-information/role-of-the-treasury"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"\"Chapter 12, 1 Statue. 65\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20171019033202/http://legisworks.org/sal/1/stats/STATUTE-1-Pg65.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//legisworks.org/sal/1/stats/STATUTE-1-Pg65.pdf"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-syrett1962vol6_16-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-syrett1962vol6_16-1"},{"link_name":"The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, vol. 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.wwnorton.com/college/history/america7/content/multimedia/ch08/documents_02.htm"},{"link_name":"Columbia University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0231089050","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231089050"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20180507003521/http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/america7/content/multimedia/ch08/documents_02.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780871840219","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780871840219"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Washington_Post_2003_18-0"},{"link_name":"\"Move to Justice Dept. 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Treasury\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy0134"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210420022718/https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy0134"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-33"},{"link_name":"2015 Department of the Treasury Budget in Brief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.treasury.gov/about/budget-performance/budget-in-brief/Documents/Treasury_FY_2015_BIB.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140714175842/http://www.treasury.gov/about/budget-performance/budget-in-brief/Documents/Treasury_FY_2015_BIB.pdf"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-34"},{"link_name":"Making the Grade: Access to Information Scorecard 2015","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.foreffectivegov.org/access-to-information-scorecard-2015/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20190811044220/https://www.foreffectivegov.org/access-to-information-scorecard-2015"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"Center for Effective Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Effective_Government"}],"text":"^ \"Department of Treasury – List of Federal Departments\". federalpay.org. Archived from the original on January 28, 2019. Retrieved January 28, 2019.\n\n^ Donald A. Torres (1985). Handbook of Federal Police and Investigative Agencies. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 275. ISBN 0313245789.\n\n^ \"An Act to Establish the Treasury Department\". September 2, 1789. Archived from the original on September 14, 2018. Retrieved October 11, 2018.\n\n^ \"The Treasurer\". U.S. Department of the Treasury. Archived from the original on April 4, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.\n\n^ Crutsinger, Martin (November 15, 2017). \"New money: Mnuchin and Carranza signatures now on the dollar bill\". USA Today. Gannett Satellite Information Network, LLC. The Associated Press. Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.\n\n^ a b \"Image 1 of An act to establish the Treasury department .... [Dated] 1789, July 2. New-York. Printed by Thomas Greenleaf.]\". The Library of Congress. January 1, 1970. Archived from the original on December 1, 2022. Retrieved December 1, 2022.\n\n^ \"Appointment as Secretary of the Treasury\". founders.archives.gov. Archived from the original on March 4, 2017. Retrieved March 4, 2017.\n\n^ Adams, Jonathan. \"Department of the Treasury\". George Washington Digital Encyclopedia. Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.\n\n^ Scanlan, Laura Wolff (2006). \"Alexander Hamilton: the man who modernized money\". Humanities: The Magazine of the National Endowment for the Humanities. 27 (1). Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.\n\n^ \"$10\". U.S. Currency Education Program. Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.\n\n^ Hammond, Bray (1957). Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.\n\n^ Hamilton, Alexander (1851). Reports of the secretary of the Treasury of the United States: prepared in obedience to the act of May 10, 1800. Printed by Blair & Rives. Archived from the original on December 13, 2023. Retrieved April 27, 2020.\n\n^ Dewey, Davis Rich (1922). Financial History of the United States. Longmans, Green and Company. Archived from the original on December 13, 2023. Retrieved November 22, 2020.\n\n^ \"Role of the Treasury | U.S. Department of the Treasury\". home.treasury.gov. Archived from the original on April 29, 2020. Retrieved April 27, 2020. Treasury's mission highlights its role as the steward of U.S. economic and financial systems, and as an influential participant in the world economy.\n\n^ \"Chapter 12, 1 Statue. 65\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 19, 2017.\n\n^ a b Syrett, Harold C., ed. (1962). The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, vol. 6. New York City: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231089050. Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.\n\n^ Friedberg, Albert L. (2017). Paper money of the US 21st Edition. Clifton, New Jersey: Coin & Currency Institute. pp. 6–7. ISBN 9780871840219.\n\n^ \"Move to Justice Dept. Brings ATF New Focus\". Washington Post. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2023.\n\n^ \"History\". TTBGov. November 18, 2015. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2023.\n\n^ \"Who Joined DHS\". Department of Homeland Security. July 27, 2012. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 10, 2023.\n\n^ Nakashima, Ellen (December 13, 2020). \"Russian government spies are behind a broad hacking campaign that has breached U.S. agencies and a top cyber firm\". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 13, 2020. Retrieved December 14, 2020.\n\n^ Bing, Christopher (December 14, 2020). \"Suspected Russian hackers spied on U.S. Treasury emails – sources\". Reuters. Archived from the original on December 14, 2020. Retrieved December 14, 2020.\n\n^ Office, U. S. Government Accountability (March 21, 2024). \"SolarWinds Cyberattack Demands Significant Federal and Private-Sector Response (infographic) | U.S. GAO\". www.gao.gov. Retrieved April 10, 2024.\n\n^ US Treasury website Organization Archived October 11, 2011, at the Wayback Machine\n\n^ Records of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Archived October 19, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, National Archives website, (Record Group 167), 1830–1987.\n\n^ Treasury Order 101-05 Archived March 19, 2021, at the Wayback Machine, U.S. Dept. of the Treasury. January 10, 2011. Updated April 26, 2011. Accessed November 11, 2012.\n\n^ DF Org Chart Archived January 16, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, \"The Office of Domestic Finance\". U.S. Dept. of the Treasury. October 2011. Accessed November 11, 2012.\n\n^ International Affairs Archived June 22, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, \"About International Affairs\". U.S. Dept. of the Treasury. February 14, 2012. Accessed November 11, 2012.\n\n^ \"Officials | U.S. Department of the Treasury\". home.treasury.gov. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved April 20, 2021.\n\n^ \"Environment and Energy\". www.treasury.gov. Archived from the original on November 7, 2017. Retrieved October 30, 2017.\n\n^ Terrorism and Financial Intelligence Archived September 5, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, \"About Terrorism and Financial Intelligence\". U.S. Dept. of the Treasury. July 2, 2012. Accessed November 11, 2012.\n\n^ \"Treasury Announces Coordinated Climate Policy Strategy with New Treasury Climate Hub and Climate Counselor | U.S. Department of the Treasury\". home.treasury.gov. Archived from the original on April 20, 2021. Retrieved April 20, 2021.\n\n^ 2015 Department of the Treasury Budget in Brief Archived July 14, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, pg 9, United States Department of the Treasury, Accessed July 6, 2015\n\n^ Making the Grade: Access to Information Scorecard 2015 Archived August 11, 2019, at the Wayback Machine, March 2015, 80 pages, Center for Effective Government, retrieved March 21, 2016","title":"Notes and references"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Department of Treasury – List of Federal Departments\". federalpay.org. Archived from the original on January 28, 2019. Retrieved January 28, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.federalpay.org/departments/departmentoftreasury","url_text":"\"Department of Treasury – List of Federal Departments\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190128083325/https://www.federalpay.org/departments/departmentoftreasury","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Donald A. Torres (1985). Handbook of Federal Police and Investigative Agencies. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 275. ISBN 0313245789.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0313245789","url_text":"0313245789"}]},{"reference":"\"An Act to Establish the Treasury Department\". September 2, 1789. Archived from the original on September 14, 2018. 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Retrieved May 6, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/department-of-the-treasury","url_text":"\"Department of the Treasury\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180507085258/http://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/department-of-the-treasury","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Scanlan, Laura Wolff (2006). \"Alexander Hamilton: the man who modernized money\". Humanities: The Magazine of the National Endowment for the Humanities. 27 (1). Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2006/januaryfebruary/feature/alexander-hamilton","url_text":"\"Alexander Hamilton: the man who modernized money\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180507085224/https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2006/januaryfebruary/feature/alexander-hamilton","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"$10\". U.S. Currency Education Program. 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Retrieved April 27, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=s3NUAAAAYAAJ","url_text":"Reports of the secretary of the Treasury of the United States: prepared in obedience to the act of May 10, 1800"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231213050157/https://books.google.com/books?id=s3NUAAAAYAAJ","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Dewey, Davis Rich (1922). Financial History of the United States. Longmans, Green and Company. Archived from the original on December 13, 2023. 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Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/america7/content/multimedia/ch08/documents_02.htm","url_text":"The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, vol. 6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University_Press","url_text":"Columbia University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231089050","url_text":"978-0231089050"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180507003521/http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/america7/content/multimedia/ch08/documents_02.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Friedberg, Albert L. (2017). Paper money of the US 21st Edition. Clifton, New Jersey: Coin & Currency Institute. pp. 6–7. ISBN 9780871840219.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780871840219","url_text":"9780871840219"}]},{"reference":"\"Move to Justice Dept. Brings ATF New Focus\". Washington Post. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2003/01/23/move-to-justice-dept-brings-atf-new-focus/76f43384-a848-4dec-9490-29dd2a2ade6c/","url_text":"\"Move to Justice Dept. Brings ATF New Focus\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230311155436/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2003/01/23/move-to-justice-dept-brings-atf-new-focus/76f43384-a848-4dec-9490-29dd2a2ade6c/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"History\". TTBGov. November 18, 2015. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ttb.gov/about-ttb/history","url_text":"\"History\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230311160913/https://www.ttb.gov/about-ttb/history","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Who Joined DHS\". Department of Homeland Security. July 27, 2012. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 10, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dhs.gov/who-joined-dhs","url_text":"\"Who Joined DHS\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230311160243/https://www.dhs.gov/who-joined-dhs","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Nakashima, Ellen (December 13, 2020). \"Russian government spies are behind a broad hacking campaign that has breached U.S. agencies and a top cyber firm\". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 13, 2020. Retrieved December 14, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201213220635/https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/russian-government-spies-are-behind-a-broad-hacking-campaign-that-has-breached-us-agencies-and-a-top-cyber-firm/2020/12/13/d5a53b88-3d7d-11eb-9453-fc36ba051781_story.html","url_text":"\"Russian government spies are behind a broad hacking campaign that has breached U.S. agencies and a top cyber firm\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post","url_text":"The Washington Post"},{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/russian-government-spies-are-behind-a-broad-hacking-campaign-that-has-breached-us-agencies-and-a-top-cyber-firm/2020/12/13/d5a53b88-3d7d-11eb-9453-fc36ba051781_story.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Bing, Christopher (December 14, 2020). \"Suspected Russian hackers spied on U.S. Treasury emails – sources\". Reuters. Archived from the original on December 14, 2020. Retrieved December 14, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-cyber-treasury-exclsuive-idUSKBN28N0PG","url_text":"\"Suspected Russian hackers spied on U.S. Treasury emails – sources\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters","url_text":"Reuters"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201214025738/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-cyber-treasury-exclsuive-idUSKBN28N0PG","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Office, U. S. Government Accountability (March 21, 2024). \"SolarWinds Cyberattack Demands Significant Federal and Private-Sector Response (infographic) | U.S. GAO\". www.gao.gov. Retrieved April 10, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gao.gov/blog/solarwinds-cyberattack-demands-significant-federal-and-private-sector-response-infographic","url_text":"\"SolarWinds Cyberattack Demands Significant Federal and Private-Sector Response (infographic) | U.S. GAO\""}]},{"reference":"\"Officials | U.S. Department of the Treasury\". home.treasury.gov. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved April 20, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://home.treasury.gov/about/general-information/officials","url_text":"\"Officials | U.S. Department of the Treasury\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180922003643/https://home.treasury.gov/about/general-information/officials","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Environment and Energy\". www.treasury.gov. Archived from the original on November 7, 2017. Retrieved October 30, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.treasury.gov/about/organizational-structure/offices/Pages/Environment-and-Energy.aspx","url_text":"\"Environment and Energy\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171107020659/https://www.treasury.gov/about/organizational-structure/offices/Pages/Environment-and-Energy.aspx","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Treasury Announces Coordinated Climate Policy Strategy with New Treasury Climate Hub and Climate Counselor | U.S. Department of the Treasury\". home.treasury.gov. Archived from the original on April 20, 2021. Retrieved April 20, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy0134","url_text":"\"Treasury Announces Coordinated Climate Policy Strategy with New Treasury Climate Hub and Climate Counselor | U.S. Department of the Treasury\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210420022718/https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy0134","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
|
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[Dated] 1789, July 2. New-York. Printed by Thomas Greenleaf.]\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221201172233/https://www.loc.gov/resource/rbpe.1110160m/?st=text","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-26-02-0002-0147","external_links_name":"\"Appointment as Secretary of the Treasury\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170304114342/https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-26-02-0002-0147","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/department-of-the-treasury","external_links_name":"\"Department of the Treasury\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180507085258/http://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/department-of-the-treasury","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2006/januaryfebruary/feature/alexander-hamilton","external_links_name":"\"Alexander Hamilton: the man who modernized money\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180507085224/https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2006/januaryfebruary/feature/alexander-hamilton","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.uscurrency.gov/denominations/10","external_links_name":"\"$10\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180507003549/https://www.uscurrency.gov/denominations/10","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=s3NUAAAAYAAJ","external_links_name":"Reports of the secretary of the Treasury of the United States: prepared in obedience to the act of May 10, 1800"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231213050157/https://books.google.com/books?id=s3NUAAAAYAAJ","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=VSopAAAAYAAJ&q=history+of+the+united+states+treasury","external_links_name":"Financial History of the United States"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231213050157/https://books.google.com/books?id=VSopAAAAYAAJ&q=history+of+the+united+states+treasury#v=snippet&q=history%20of%20the%20united%20states%20treasury&f=false","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://home.treasury.gov/about/general-information/role-of-the-treasury","external_links_name":"\"Role of the Treasury | U.S. Department of the Treasury\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200429220544/https://home.treasury.gov/about/general-information/role-of-the-treasury","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171019033202/http://legisworks.org/sal/1/stats/STATUTE-1-Pg65.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Chapter 12, 1 Statue. 65\""},{"Link":"http://legisworks.org/sal/1/stats/STATUTE-1-Pg65.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/america7/content/multimedia/ch08/documents_02.htm","external_links_name":"The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, vol. 6"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180507003521/http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/america7/content/multimedia/ch08/documents_02.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2003/01/23/move-to-justice-dept-brings-atf-new-focus/76f43384-a848-4dec-9490-29dd2a2ade6c/","external_links_name":"\"Move to Justice Dept. 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DECpc
|
DECpc
|
["1 Line-up","1.1 Desktops","1.2 Laptops","1.3 Workstations and servers","2 See also","3 References"]
|
DECpc wordmark
DECpc was a wide-ranging family of desktop computers, laptops, servers, and workstations sold by Digital Equipment Corporation. The vast majority in the family are based on x86 processors, although the APX 150 uses DEC's own Alpha processor. The line was DEC's first big break into the IBM PC compatible market.
Some entries in the desktop DECpc range were built by Olivetti S.p.A. and Tandy Corporation.
Line-up
Close-up of a DECpc LPv 425sxDECpc 320PDECpc 425SE Color
Explanatory notes
† Upgradable with snap-in processor/cache daughtercard
‡ Advanced Power Management–compliant
Desktops
Model
Processor
Clock speed
Form factor
Drive bays
Bus architecture
Expansion slots
Date introduced
320sx LP
386SX
20
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA
April 1992
325sx LP
386SX
25
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA
April 1992
333sx LP
386SX
33
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA, VLB
November 1992
340dx LP
386DX†
40
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA, VLB
November 1992
425sx LP
486SX†
25
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA, VLB
November 1992
433dx LP
486DX†
33
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA, VLB
November 1992
450d2 LP
486DX2†
50
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA, VLB
November 1992
466d2 LP
486DX2†
66
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA, VLB
November 1992
LPv 425sx
486DX†
25
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA, VLB
August 1993
LPv 433dx
486DX
33
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA, VLB
3
1993
LPv 450d2
486DX2
50
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA, VLB
3
1993
LPx 433sx
486SX
33
Full desktop
3 × 5.25-in1 × 3.5-in
ISA, VLB
1993
LPx 433dx
486DX
33
Full desktop
3 × 5.25-in1 × 3.5-in
ISA, VLB
1993
LPx 450d2
486DX2
50
Full desktop
3 × 5.25-in1 × 3.5-in
ISA, VLB
1993
LPx 466d2
486DX2
66
Full desktop
3 × 5.25-in1 × 3.5-in
ISA, VLB
1993
MTE 433dx
486DX
33
Mini-tower
5 × 5.25-in1 × 3.5-in
EISA
5
1993
MTE 466d2
486DX2
66
Mini-tower
5 × 5.25-in1 × 3.5-in
EISA
5
1993
ST
Full tower
5 × 5.25-in1 × 3.5-in
EISA
8 (2 proprietary)
1993
LPv+ 425sx
486SX
25
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA, VLB‡
3
January 1994
LPv+ 433sx
486SX
33
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA, VLB‡
3
January 1994
LPv+ 433dx
486DX
33
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA, VLB‡
3
January 1994
LPv+ 450d2
486DX2
50
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA, VLB‡
3
January 1994
LPv+ 466d2
486DX2
66
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA, VLB‡
3
January 1994
LPv+ 4100
486DX4
100
Small-form-factor desktop
1 × 5.25-in3 × 3.5-in (2 internal)
ISA, VLB‡
3
May 1994
LPx+ 450d2
486DX2
50
Full desktop
3 × 5.25-in1 × 3.5-in
ISA, VLB‡
May 1994
LPx+ 4100
486DX4
100
Full desktop
3 × 5.25-in1 × 3.5-in
ISA, VLB‡
May 1994
Laptops
Model
Processor
Clock speed
Max. RAM (MB)
LCD technology and size (diagonal)
Manufacturer
Date introduced
320P
80386SX
20
8
Passive-matrix monochrome, 7 in
PTCC, Inc. (Tandy–Matsushita)
February 1992
325P
80386SL
25
Passive-matrix monochrome, 10 in
PTCC, Inc.
November 1992
325SL
80386SL
25
Passive-matrix monochrome, 10 in
AST Research
1993
325SLC
80386SL
25
Passive-matrix color, 9.5 in
AST Research
1993
425SL
80486SL
25
32
Passive-matrix monochrome, 10 in
AST Research
1993
425SLC
80486SL
25
32
Active-matrix color, 9.5 in
AST Research
1993
433SLC Premium
80486SL
33
32
Active-matrix color, 9.5 in
AST Research
January 1994
425SE
80486SL
25
20
Passive-matrix monochrome, 9.5 in
AST Research
January 1994
425SE Color
80486SL
25
20
Passive-matrix color, 9.5 in
AST Research
January 1994
433SE
80486SL
33
Passive-matrix monochrome, 9.5 in
AST Research
April 1994
433SE Color
80486SL
33
Passive-matrix color, 9.5 in
AST Research
April 1994
Workstations and servers
See also: DECpc AXP 150
Model
Processor
Clock speed
Form factor
Drive bays
Bus architecture
Expansion slots
Date introduced
XL Server 466
486DX2
66
Full tower
9
EISA, PCI
7 (4 EISA, 2 PCI, 1 proprietary, dual-use network bus)
March 1994
XL Server 560
Pentium
60
Full tower
9
EISA, PCI
7 (4 EISA, 2 PCI, 1 proprietary, dual-use network bus)
March 1994
XL Server 566
Pentium
66
Full tower
9
EISA, PCI
7 (4 EISA, 2 PCI, 1 proprietary, dual-use network bus)
March 1994
See also
Digital HiNote, the successor to the DECpc line of laptops
DECstation, concurrent line of workstations
References
^ a b Darrow, Barbara (May 27, 1991). "DEC Attempts to Crack PC Market". InfoWorld. 13 (21). IDG Publications: 23 – via Google Books.
^ a b c d e f g Torgan, Emerson Andrew (November 10, 1992). "DEC Dives into the Low-End PC Arena with DECpc LP Line". PC Magazine. 11 (19). Ziff-Davis: 62 – via Google Books.
^ a b c d e f g h i Quinlan, Tom (January 17, 1994). "Digital systems target desktop publishing". InfoWorld. 16 (3). IDG Publications: 29 – via Google Books.
^ a b "DECpc Advertisement". The Straits Times. 27 April 1992. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^ "DEC makes its own". The Canberra Times. 13 April 1992. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^ Stedman, Craig (August 30, 1993). "DEC PC push to take low-cost turn". Computerworld. 27 (35). CW Communications: 16 – via Google Books.
^ a b Rist, Oliver (December 7, 1993). "DECpc LPv". PC Magazine. 12 (21). Ziff-Davis: 200 – via Google Books.
^ a b c d Rist, Oliver (December 7, 1993). "DECpc LPx". PC Magazine. 12 (21). Ziff-Davis: 200 – via Google Books.
^ a b Rist, Oliver (December 7, 1993). "DECpc MTE". PC Magazine. 12 (21). Ziff-Davis: 200 – via Google Books.
^ Rist, Oliver (December 7, 1993). "DECpc ST". PC Magazine. 12 (21). Ziff-Davis: 202 – via Google Books.
^ a b c d e f g h Service Maintenance Manual: DECpc LPv/LPv+ PC (PDF). Digital Equipment Corporation. January 1996. p. 9.
^ a b c d DiCarlo, Lisa (May 23, 1994). "DEC unveils 6 PCs, upgrades others". PC Week. 11 (20). Ziff-Davis: 29 – via Gale OneFile.
^ Fisher, Susan E. (February 3, 1992). "DEC to offer direct-market notebook PC". PC Week. 9 (5). Ziff-Davis: 14 – via Gale OneFile.
^ Garretson, Rob (June 1992). "A Notebook to Notice". PC World. 10 (6). IDG Publications: 66 – via Gale OneFile.
^ Anothony, Robert; Julie Cohen (December 22, 1992). "DECpc 325P, GRiD 1660, GRiD 1755 486SLC". PC Magazine. 11 (22). Ziff-Davis: 222–223 – via Google Books.
^ Wilson, Jayne (November 9, 1992). "Notebook from DEC is a battery miser". InfoWorld. 14 (45). IDG Publications: 40 – via Google Books.
^ a b c Rist, Oliver (August 1993). "AST Research EL Color, AST Research 3/25SL, AST Research 4/25SL Color Plus, DECpc 325SL, DECpc 325SLC, DECpc 425SL". PC Magazine. Ziff-Davis: 148–157 – via Google Books.
^ Nash, Siobhan, ed. (March 22, 1993). "Color notebooks". InfoWorld. 15 (12). IDG Publications: 72–83 – via Google Books.
^ Potter, Steve (December 21, 1993). "DECpc 425SLC". PC Magazine. 12 (22). Ziff-Davis: 239–241 – via Google Books.
^ Flanagan, William P. (August 1994). "DECpc 433SLC Premium". PC Magazine. 13 (14). Ziff-Davis: 189, 203 – via Google Books.
^ a b Wynblatt, Jodi L. (August 1994). "DECpc SE, DECpc SE Color". PC Magazine. 13 (14). Ziff-Davis: 188, 203 – via Google Books.
^ a b Staff writer (April 14, 1994). "DEC Gets Serious About Notebooks with DECpc SE Mono and Colour". Computer Business Review. New Statesman Media Group. Archived from the original on March 1, 2022.
^ a b c Burns, Christine (March 14, 1994). "Digital and HP roll out servers". Network World. 11 (11). IDG Publications: 8 – via Google Books.
vteDigital Equipment Corporation computersPDP
18-bit
PDP-1
PDP-4
PDP-7
PDP-9
PDP-15
12-bit
LINC
LINC-8
PDP-5
PDP-8
PDP-8/e
PDP-12
DECmate
PDP-14
36-bit
PDP-6
PDP-10
DECSYSTEM-20
16-bit
PDP-11
DEC Professional
VAX
VAX-11
MicroVAX
VAX 8000
VAXstation
Firefly
VAXserver
VAX 6000
VAX 4000
VAX 9000
VAXft
VAX 7000 and VAX 10000
x86
Rainbow 100
VAXmate
DECpc
DECstation
Multia
Digital Personal Workstation
HiNote
MIPS
DECstation
DECsystem servers
Alpha
DEC 3000 AXP
DEC 4000 AXP
DEC 7000 AXP and DEC 10000 AXP
DECpc AXP 150
DEC 2000 AXP
Multia
AlphaServer
AlphaStation
Digital Personal Workstation
See also
Compaq Professional Workstation 1000 XP
Itsy Pocket Computer
Jupiter project
List of VAX computers
Category
Commons
|
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|
[]
|
[{"title":"Digital HiNote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_HiNote"},{"title":"DECstation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DECstation"}]
|
[{"reference":"Darrow, Barbara (May 27, 1991). \"DEC Attempts to Crack PC Market\". InfoWorld. 13 (21). IDG Publications: 23 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=YlAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA23","url_text":"\"DEC Attempts to Crack PC Market\""}]},{"reference":"Torgan, Emerson Andrew (November 10, 1992). \"DEC Dives into the Low-End PC Arena with DECpc LP Line\". PC Magazine. 11 (19). Ziff-Davis: 62 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=18wFKrkDdM0C&pg=PA62","url_text":"\"DEC Dives into the Low-End PC Arena with DECpc LP Line\""}]},{"reference":"Quinlan, Tom (January 17, 1994). \"Digital systems target desktop publishing\". InfoWorld. 16 (3). IDG Publications: 29 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-DoEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA27","url_text":"\"Digital systems target desktop publishing\""}]},{"reference":"\"DECpc Advertisement\". The Straits Times. 27 April 1992. Retrieved 28 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/page/straitstimes19920427-1.1.29","url_text":"\"DECpc Advertisement\""}]},{"reference":"\"DEC makes its own\". The Canberra Times. 13 April 1992. Retrieved 28 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/122409607","url_text":"\"DEC makes its own\""}]},{"reference":"Stedman, Craig (August 30, 1993). \"DEC PC push to take low-cost turn\". Computerworld. 27 (35). CW Communications: 16 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=KtLsj-XIYpAC&pg=PA16","url_text":"\"DEC PC push to take low-cost turn\""}]},{"reference":"Rist, Oliver (December 7, 1993). \"DECpc LPv\". PC Magazine. 12 (21). Ziff-Davis: 200 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7k7q-wS0t00C&pg=PA200","url_text":"\"DECpc LPv\""}]},{"reference":"Rist, Oliver (December 7, 1993). \"DECpc LPx\". PC Magazine. 12 (21). Ziff-Davis: 200 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7k7q-wS0t00C&pg=PA200","url_text":"\"DECpc LPx\""}]},{"reference":"Rist, Oliver (December 7, 1993). \"DECpc MTE\". PC Magazine. 12 (21). Ziff-Davis: 200 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7k7q-wS0t00C&pg=PA200","url_text":"\"DECpc MTE\""}]},{"reference":"Rist, Oliver (December 7, 1993). \"DECpc ST\". PC Magazine. 12 (21). Ziff-Davis: 202 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7k7q-wS0t00C&pg=PA200","url_text":"\"DECpc ST\""}]},{"reference":"Service Maintenance Manual: DECpc LPv/LPv+ PC (PDF). Digital Equipment Corporation. January 1996. p. 9.","urls":[{"url":"https://manx-docs.org/collections/mds-199909/cd2/pc/sd000018.pdf","url_text":"Service Maintenance Manual: DECpc LPv/LPv+ PC"}]},{"reference":"DiCarlo, Lisa (May 23, 1994). \"DEC unveils 6 PCs, upgrades others\". PC Week. 11 (20). Ziff-Davis: 29 – via Gale OneFile.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A15387788/GPS?sid=wikipedia","url_text":"\"DEC unveils 6 PCs, upgrades others\""}]},{"reference":"Fisher, Susan E. (February 3, 1992). \"DEC to offer direct-market notebook PC\". PC Week. 9 (5). Ziff-Davis: 14 – via Gale OneFile.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A11874409/GPS?sid=wikipedia","url_text":"\"DEC to offer direct-market notebook PC\""}]},{"reference":"Garretson, Rob (June 1992). \"A Notebook to Notice\". PC World. 10 (6). IDG Publications: 66 – via Gale OneFile.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A12175836/GPS?sid=wikipedia","url_text":"\"A Notebook to Notice\""}]},{"reference":"Anothony, Robert; Julie Cohen (December 22, 1992). \"DECpc 325P, GRiD 1660, GRiD 1755 486SLC\". PC Magazine. 11 (22). Ziff-Davis: 222–223 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=v9TVJ_G_sk8C&pg=PA222","url_text":"\"DECpc 325P, GRiD 1660, GRiD 1755 486SLC\""}]},{"reference":"Wilson, Jayne (November 9, 1992). \"Notebook from DEC is a battery miser\". InfoWorld. 14 (45). IDG Publications: 40 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=KlEEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA40","url_text":"\"Notebook from DEC is a battery miser\""}]},{"reference":"Rist, Oliver (August 1993). \"AST Research EL Color, AST Research 3/25SL, AST Research 4/25SL Color Plus, DECpc 325SL, DECpc 325SLC, DECpc 425SL\". PC Magazine. Ziff-Davis: 148–157 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=H53CIZnYLZwC&pg=PA148","url_text":"\"AST Research EL Color, AST Research 3/25SL, AST Research 4/25SL Color Plus, DECpc 325SL, DECpc 325SLC, DECpc 425SL\""}]},{"reference":"Nash, Siobhan, ed. (March 22, 1993). \"Color notebooks\". InfoWorld. 15 (12). IDG Publications: 72–83 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=TjwEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA73","url_text":"\"Color notebooks\""}]},{"reference":"Potter, Steve (December 21, 1993). \"DECpc 425SLC\". PC Magazine. 12 (22). Ziff-Davis: 239–241 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=x2Fa5SDi0G8C&pg=PA242","url_text":"\"DECpc 425SLC\""}]},{"reference":"Flanagan, William P. (August 1994). \"DECpc 433SLC Premium\". PC Magazine. 13 (14). Ziff-Davis: 189, 203 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=IfAR4gyw8RsC&pg=PA189","url_text":"\"DECpc 433SLC Premium\""}]},{"reference":"Wynblatt, Jodi L. (August 1994). \"DECpc SE, DECpc SE Color\". PC Magazine. 13 (14). Ziff-Davis: 188, 203 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=IfAR4gyw8RsC&pg=PA188","url_text":"\"DECpc SE, DECpc SE Color\""}]},{"reference":"Staff writer (April 14, 1994). \"DEC Gets Serious About Notebooks with DECpc SE Mono and Colour\". Computer Business Review. New Statesman Media Group. Archived from the original on March 1, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220301224654/https://techmonitor.ai/techonology/dec_gets_serious_about_notebooks_with_decpc_se_mono_and_colour","url_text":"\"DEC Gets Serious About Notebooks with DECpc SE Mono and Colour\""},{"url":"https://techmonitor.ai/techonology/dec_gets_serious_about_notebooks_with_decpc_se_mono_and_colour","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Burns, Christine (March 14, 1994). \"Digital and HP roll out servers\". Network World. 11 (11). IDG Publications: 8 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=iA0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA8","url_text":"\"Digital and HP roll out servers\""}]}]
|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutation
|
Nutation
|
["1 In a rigid body","2 Astronomy","2.1 Earth","3 In popular culture","4 See also","5 Notes","6 References"]
|
Wobble of the axis of rotation
This article is about the concept in physics. For the term in astronomy, see Astronomical nutation. For the term in mechanical engineering, see Nutation (engineering). For other uses, see Nutation (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with nunation.
Rotation Precession Nutationin obliquity of a planet
An animation showing nutation of a sphere
Nutation (from Latin nūtātiō 'nodding, swaying') is a rocking, swaying, or nodding motion in the axis of rotation of a largely axially symmetric object, such as a gyroscope, planet, or bullet in flight, or as an intended behaviour of a mechanism. In an appropriate reference frame it can be defined as a change in the second Euler angle. If it is not caused by forces external to the body, it is called free nutation or Euler nutation. A pure nutation is a movement of a rotational axis such that the first Euler angle is constant. Therefore it can be seen that the circular red arrow in the diagram indicates the combined effects of precession and nutation, while nutation in the absence of precession would only change the tilt from vertical (second Euler angle). However, in spacecraft dynamics, precession (a change in the first Euler angle) is sometimes referred to as nutation.
In a rigid body
Further information: Rigid body dynamics
If a top is set at a tilt on a horizontal surface and spun rapidly, its rotational axis starts precessing about the vertical. After a short interval, the top settles into a motion in which each point on its rotation axis follows a circular path. The vertical force of gravity produces a horizontal torque τ about the point of contact with the surface; the top rotates in the direction of this torque with an angular velocity Ω such that at any moment
τ
=
Ω
×
L
,
{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\tau }}=\mathbf {\Omega } \times \mathbf {L} ,}
(vector cross product)
where L is the instantaneous angular momentum of the top.
Initially, however, there is no precession, and the upper part of the top falls sideways and downward, thereby tilting. This gives rise to an imbalance in torques that starts the precession. In falling, the top overshoots the amount of tilt at which it would precess steadily and then oscillates about this level. This oscillation is called nutation. If the motion is damped, the oscillations will die down until the motion is a steady precession.
The physics of nutation in tops and gyroscopes can be explored using the model of a heavy symmetrical top with its tip fixed. (A symmetrical top is one with rotational symmetry, or more generally one in which two of the three principal moments of inertia are equal.) Initially, the effect of friction is ignored. The motion of the top can be described by three Euler angles: the tilt angle θ between the symmetry axis of the top and the vertical (second Euler angle); the azimuth φ of the top about the vertical (first Euler angle); and the rotation angle ψ of the top about its own axis (third Euler angle). Thus, precession is the change in φ and nutation is the change in θ.
If the top has mass M and its center of mass is at a distance l from the pivot point, its gravitational potential relative to the plane of the support is
V
=
M
g
l
cos
(
θ
)
.
{\displaystyle V=Mgl\cos(\theta ).}
In a coordinate system where the z axis is the axis of symmetry, the top has angular velocities ω1, ω2, ω3 and moments of inertia I1, I2, I3 about the x, y, and z axes. Since we are taking a symmetric top, we have I1=I2. The kinetic energy is
E
r
=
1
2
I
1
(
ω
1
2
+
ω
2
2
)
+
1
2
I
3
ω
3
2
.
{\displaystyle E_{\text{r}}={\frac {1}{2}}I_{1}\left(\omega _{1}^{2}+\omega _{2}^{2}\right)+{\frac {1}{2}}I_{3}\omega _{3}^{2}.}
In terms of the Euler angles, this is
E
r
=
1
2
I
1
(
θ
˙
2
+
ϕ
˙
2
sin
2
(
θ
)
)
+
1
2
I
3
(
ψ
˙
+
ϕ
˙
cos
(
θ
)
)
2
.
{\displaystyle E_{\text{r}}={\frac {1}{2}}I_{1}\left({\dot {\theta }}^{2}+{\dot {\phi }}^{2}\sin ^{2}(\theta )\right)+{\frac {1}{2}}I_{3}\left({\dot {\psi }}+{\dot {\phi }}\cos(\theta )\right)^{2}.}
If the Euler–Lagrange equations are solved for this system, it is found that the motion depends on two constants a and b (each related to a constant of motion). The rate of precession is related to the tilt by
ϕ
˙
=
b
−
a
cos
(
θ
)
sin
2
(
θ
)
.
{\displaystyle {\dot {\phi }}={\frac {b-a\cos(\theta )}{\sin ^{2}(\theta )}}.}
The tilt is determined by a differential equation for u = cos(θ) of the form
u
˙
2
=
f
(
u
)
{\displaystyle {\dot {u}}^{2}=f(u)}
where f is a cubic polynomial that depends on parameters a and b as well as constants that are related to the energy and the gravitational torque. The roots of f are cosines of the angles at which the rate of change of θ is zero. One of these is not related to a physical angle; the other two determine the upper and lower bounds on the tilt angle, between which the gyroscope oscillates.
Astronomy
Main articles: Astronomical nutation and Perturbation (astronomy)
The nutation of a planet occurs because the gravitational effects of other bodies cause the speed of its axial precession to vary over time, so that the speed is not constant. English astronomer James Bradley discovered the nutation of Earth's axis in 1728.
Earth
It has been suggested that this section be split out into another article titled Earth's nutation. (Discuss) (October 2020)
Further information: Geodynamics
Yearly changes in the location of the Tropic of Cancer near a highway in Mexico
Nutation subtly changes the axial tilt of Earth with respect to the ecliptic plane, shifting the major circles of latitude that are defined by the Earth's tilt (the tropical circles and the polar circles).
In the case of Earth, the principal sources of tidal force are the Sun and Moon, which continuously change location relative to each other and thus cause nutation in Earth's axis. The largest component of Earth's nutation has a period of 18.6 years, the same as that of the precession of the Moon's orbital nodes. However, there are other significant periodic terms that must be accounted for depending upon the desired accuracy of the result. A mathematical description (set of equations) that represents nutation is called a "theory of nutation". In the theory, parameters are adjusted in a more or less ad hoc method to obtain the best fit to data. Simple rigid body dynamics do not give the best theory; one has to account for deformations of the Earth, including mantle inelasticity and changes in the core–mantle boundary.
The principal term of nutation is due to the regression of the Moon's nodal line and has the same period of 6798 days (18.61 years). It reaches plus or minus 17″ in longitude and 9.2″ in obliquity. All other terms are much smaller; the next-largest, with a period of 183 days (0.5 year), has amplitudes 1.3″ and 0.6″ respectively. The periods of all terms larger than 0.0001″ (about as accurately as available technology can measure) lie between 5.5 and 6798 days; for some reason (as with ocean tidal periods) they seem to avoid the range from 34.8 to 91 days, so it is customary to split the nutation into long-period and short-period terms. The long-period terms are calculated and mentioned in the almanacs, while the additional correction due to the short-period terms is usually taken from a table. They can also be calculated from the Julian day according to IAU 2000B methodology.
In popular culture
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In the 1961 disaster film The Day the Earth Caught Fire, the near-simultaneous detonation of two super-hydrogen bombs near the poles causes a change in Earth's nutation, as well as an 11° shift in the axial tilt and a change in Earth's orbit around the Sun.
In Star Trek: The Next Generation, rapidly 'cycling' or 'changing' the 'shield nutation' is frequently mentioned as a means by which to delay the antagonist in their efforts to break through the defences and pillage the Enterprise or other spacecraft.
See also
Libration
Teetotum
Notes
^ a b Lowrie, William (2007). Fundamentals of Geophysics (2nd ed.). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–59. ISBN 9780521675963.
^ Kasdin, N. Jeremy; Paley, Derek A. (2010). Engineering dynamics : a comprehensive introduction. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. pp. 526–527. ISBN 9780691135373.
^ a b Feynman, Leighton & Sands 2011, pp. 20–7[, clarification needed], harvnb error: no target: CITEREFFeynmanLeightonSands2011 (help)
^ Goldstein 1980, p. 220
^ Goldstein 1980, p. 217
^ Goldstein 1980, pp. 213–217
^ "Resolution 83 on non-rigid Earth nutation theory". International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service. Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy. 2 April 2009. Retrieved 2012-08-06.
^ "Basics of Space Flight, Chapter 2". Jet Propulsion Laboratory/NASA. 28 August 2013. Retrieved 2015-03-26.
^ "NeoProgrammics - Science Computations".
References
The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. I Ch. 20: Rotation in space
Goldstein, Herbert (1980). Classical mechanics (2d ed.). Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. ISBN 0201029189.
Lambeck, Kurt (2005). The earth's variable rotation : geophysical causes and consequences (Digitally printed 1st pbk. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521673303.
Munk, Walter H.; MacDonald, Gordon J.F. (1975). The rotation of the earth : a geophysical discussion. Reprint. with corr. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521207782.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Astronomical nutation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_nutation"},{"link_name":"Nutation (engineering)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutation_(engineering)"},{"link_name":"Nutation (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutation_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"nunation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nunation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Praezession.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nutation.gif"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"nūtātiō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nutatio#Latin"},{"link_name":"axis of rotation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_of_rotation"},{"link_name":"gyroscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyroscope"},{"link_name":"planet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet"},{"link_name":"bullet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullet"},{"link_name":"in flight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_ballistics"},{"link_name":"reference frame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_of_reference"},{"link_name":"Euler angle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_angles#Euler_rotations"},{"link_name":"Euler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lowrie-1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"precession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precession"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"This article is about the concept in physics. For the term in astronomy, see Astronomical nutation. For the term in mechanical engineering, see Nutation (engineering). For other uses, see Nutation (disambiguation).Not to be confused with nunation.Rotation Precession Nutationin obliquity of a planetAn animation showing nutation of a sphereNutation (from Latin nūtātiō 'nodding, swaying') is a rocking, swaying, or nodding motion in the axis of rotation of a largely axially symmetric object, such as a gyroscope, planet, or bullet in flight, or as an intended behaviour of a mechanism. In an appropriate reference frame it can be defined as a change in the second Euler angle. If it is not caused by forces external to the body, it is called free nutation or Euler nutation.[1] A pure nutation is a movement of a rotational axis such that the first Euler angle is constant.[citation needed] Therefore it can be seen that the circular red arrow in the diagram indicates the combined effects of precession and nutation, while nutation in the absence of precession would only change the tilt from vertical (second Euler angle). However, in spacecraft dynamics, precession (a change in the first Euler angle) is sometimes referred to as nutation.[2]","title":"Nutation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rigid body dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigid_body_dynamics"},{"link_name":"top","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_top"},{"link_name":"cross product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_product"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Feynman-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Feynman-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Goldstein220-4"},{"link_name":"gyroscopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyroscope"},{"link_name":"symmetrical top","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetrical_top"},{"link_name":"Euler angles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_angles"},{"link_name":"azimuth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azimuth"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Goldstein217-5"},{"link_name":"center of mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_mass"},{"link_name":"gravitational potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_potential"},{"link_name":"angular velocities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_velocity"},{"link_name":"moments of inertia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moments_of_inertia"},{"link_name":"kinetic energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energy"},{"link_name":"Euler–Lagrange equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian_mechanics"},{"link_name":"constant of motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant_of_motion"},{"link_name":"cubic polynomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_function"},{"link_name":"cosines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosine"},{"link_name":"rate of change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_derivative"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Further information: Rigid body dynamicsIf a top is set at a tilt on a horizontal surface and spun rapidly, its rotational axis starts precessing about the vertical. After a short interval, the top settles into a motion in which each point on its rotation axis follows a circular path. The vertical force of gravity produces a horizontal torque τ about the point of contact with the surface; the top rotates in the direction of this torque with an angular velocity Ω such that at any momentτ\n \n =\n \n Ω\n \n ×\n \n L\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\boldsymbol {\\tau }}=\\mathbf {\\Omega } \\times \\mathbf {L} ,}\n \n (vector cross product)where L is the instantaneous angular momentum of the top.[3]Initially, however, there is no precession, and the upper part of the top falls sideways and downward, thereby tilting. This gives rise to an imbalance in torques that starts the precession. In falling, the top overshoots the amount of tilt at which it would precess steadily and then oscillates about this level. This oscillation is called nutation. If the motion is damped, the oscillations will die down until the motion is a steady precession.[3][4]The physics of nutation in tops and gyroscopes can be explored using the model of a heavy symmetrical top with its tip fixed. (A symmetrical top is one with rotational symmetry, or more generally one in which two of the three principal moments of inertia are equal.) Initially, the effect of friction is ignored. The motion of the top can be described by three Euler angles: the tilt angle θ between the symmetry axis of the top and the vertical (second Euler angle); the azimuth φ of the top about the vertical (first Euler angle); and the rotation angle ψ of the top about its own axis (third Euler angle). Thus, precession is the change in φ and nutation is the change in θ.[5]If the top has mass M and its center of mass is at a distance l from the pivot point, its gravitational potential relative to the plane of the support isV\n =\n M\n g\n l\n cos\n \n (\n θ\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V=Mgl\\cos(\\theta ).}In a coordinate system where the z axis is the axis of symmetry, the top has angular velocities ω1, ω2, ω3 and moments of inertia I1, I2, I3 about the x, y, and z axes. Since we are taking a symmetric top, we have I1=I2. The kinetic energy isE\n \n r\n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n I\n \n 1\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n ω\n \n 1\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n +\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n I\n \n 3\n \n \n \n ω\n \n 3\n \n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\text{r}}={\\frac {1}{2}}I_{1}\\left(\\omega _{1}^{2}+\\omega _{2}^{2}\\right)+{\\frac {1}{2}}I_{3}\\omega _{3}^{2}.}In terms of the Euler angles, this isE\n \n r\n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n I\n \n 1\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n \n θ\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n ϕ\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n sin\n \n 2\n \n \n \n (\n θ\n )\n \n )\n \n +\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n I\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n ψ\n ˙\n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n ϕ\n ˙\n \n \n \n cos\n \n (\n θ\n )\n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\text{r}}={\\frac {1}{2}}I_{1}\\left({\\dot {\\theta }}^{2}+{\\dot {\\phi }}^{2}\\sin ^{2}(\\theta )\\right)+{\\frac {1}{2}}I_{3}\\left({\\dot {\\psi }}+{\\dot {\\phi }}\\cos(\\theta )\\right)^{2}.}If the Euler–Lagrange equations are solved for this system, it is found that the motion depends on two constants a and b (each related to a constant of motion). The rate of precession is related to the tilt byϕ\n ˙\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n b\n −\n a\n cos\n \n (\n θ\n )\n \n \n \n sin\n \n 2\n \n \n \n (\n θ\n )\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {\\phi }}={\\frac {b-a\\cos(\\theta )}{\\sin ^{2}(\\theta )}}.}The tilt is determined by a differential equation for u = cos(θ) of the formu\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n f\n (\n u\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {u}}^{2}=f(u)}where f is a cubic polynomial that depends on parameters a and b as well as constants that are related to the energy and the gravitational torque. The roots of f are cosines of the angles at which the rate of change of θ is zero. One of these is not related to a physical angle; the other two determine the upper and lower bounds on the tilt angle, between which the gyroscope oscillates.[6]","title":"In a rigid body"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"axial precession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_precession"},{"link_name":"James Bradley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bradley"},{"link_name":"Earth's axis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation"}],"text":"The nutation of a planet occurs because the gravitational effects of other bodies cause the speed of its axial precession to vary over time, so that the speed is not constant. English astronomer James Bradley discovered the nutation of Earth's axis in 1728.","title":"Astronomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Geodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodynamics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tr%C3%B3pico_de_C%C3%A1ncer_en_M%C3%A9xico_-_Carretera_83_(V%C3%ADa_Corta)_Zaragoza-Victoria,_Km_27%2B800.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tropic of Cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropic_of_Cancer"},{"link_name":"axial tilt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_tilt"},{"link_name":"ecliptic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecliptic"},{"link_name":"major circles of latitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_latitude#Major_circles_of_latitude"},{"link_name":"tropical circles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_circle"},{"link_name":"polar circles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_circle"},{"link_name":"Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun"},{"link_name":"Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"Moon's orbital nodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_node"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lowrie-1"},{"link_name":"by whom?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"rigid body dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigid_body_dynamics"},{"link_name":"mantle inelasticity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asthenosphere"},{"link_name":"core–mantle boundary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core%E2%80%93mantle_boundary"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"nodal line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nodal_line"},{"link_name":"longitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitude"},{"link_name":"obliquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_tilt"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"according to whom?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"Julian day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_day"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Earth","text":"Further information: GeodynamicsYearly changes in the location of the Tropic of Cancer near a highway in MexicoNutation subtly changes the axial tilt of Earth with respect to the ecliptic plane, shifting the major circles of latitude that are defined by the Earth's tilt (the tropical circles and the polar circles).In the case of Earth, the principal sources of tidal force are the Sun and Moon, which continuously change location relative to each other and thus cause nutation in Earth's axis. The largest component of Earth's nutation has a period of 18.6 years, the same as that of the precession of the Moon's orbital nodes.[1] However, there are other significant periodic terms that must be accounted for depending upon the desired accuracy of the result. A mathematical description (set of equations) that represents nutation is called[by whom?] a \"theory of nutation\".[citation needed] In the theory, parameters are adjusted in a more or less ad hoc method to obtain the best fit to data. Simple rigid body dynamics do not give the best theory; one has to account for deformations of the Earth, including mantle inelasticity and changes in the core–mantle boundary.[7]The principal term of nutation is due to the regression of the Moon's nodal line and has the same period of 6798 days (18.61 years). It reaches plus or minus 17″ in longitude and 9.2″ in obliquity.[8] All other terms are much smaller; the next-largest, with a period of 183 days (0.5 year), has amplitudes 1.3″ and 0.6″ respectively. The periods of all terms larger than 0.0001″ (about as accurately as available technology can measure) lie between 5.5 and 6798 days; for some reason (as with ocean tidal periods) they seem to avoid the range from 34.8 to 91 days, so it is customary[according to whom?] to split the nutation into long-period and short-period terms. The long-period terms are calculated and mentioned in the almanacs, while the additional correction due to the short-period terms is usually taken from a table. They can also be calculated from the Julian day according to IAU 2000B methodology.[9]","title":"Astronomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Day the Earth Caught Fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Day_the_Earth_Caught_Fire"},{"link_name":"hydrogen bombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb"},{"link_name":"Star Trek: The Next Generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Trek:_The_Next_Generation"}],"text":"In the 1961 disaster film The Day the Earth Caught Fire, the near-simultaneous detonation of two super-hydrogen bombs near the poles causes a change in Earth's nutation, as well as an 11° shift in the axial tilt and a change in Earth's orbit around the Sun.In Star Trek: The Next Generation, rapidly 'cycling' or 'changing' the 'shield nutation' is frequently mentioned as a means by which to delay the antagonist in their efforts to break through the defences and pillage the Enterprise or other spacecraft.","title":"In popular culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Lowrie_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Lowrie_1-1"},{"link_name":"Fundamentals of Geophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/fundamentalsgeop00lowr"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press"},{"link_name":"58","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/fundamentalsgeop00lowr/page/n69"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780521675963","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521675963"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Princeton University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780691135373","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691135373"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Feynman_3-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Feynman_3-1"},{"link_name":"Feynman, Leighton & Sands 2011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFFeynmanLeightonSands2011"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Goldstein220_4-0"},{"link_name":"Goldstein 1980","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGoldstein1980"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Goldstein217_5-0"},{"link_name":"Goldstein 1980","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGoldstein1980"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Goldstein 1980","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGoldstein1980"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"Resolution 83 on non-rigid Earth nutation theory\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.iers.org/nn_10382/IERS/EN/Science/Recommendations/resolutionB3.html"},{"link_name":"International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Earth_Rotation_and_Reference_Systems_Service"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"Basics of Space Flight, Chapter 2\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf2-1.php#nutation"},{"link_name":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"\"NeoProgrammics - Science Computations\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.neoprogrammics.com/nutations/"}],"text":"^ a b Lowrie, William (2007). Fundamentals of Geophysics (2nd ed.). Cambridge [u.a.]: Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–59. ISBN 9780521675963.\n\n^ Kasdin, N. Jeremy; Paley, Derek A. (2010). Engineering dynamics : a comprehensive introduction. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. pp. 526–527. ISBN 9780691135373.\n\n^ a b Feynman, Leighton & Sands 2011, pp. 20–7[, clarification needed], harvnb error: no target: CITEREFFeynmanLeightonSands2011 (help)\n\n^ Goldstein 1980, p. 220\n\n^ Goldstein 1980, p. 217\n\n^ Goldstein 1980, pp. 213–217\n\n^ \"Resolution 83 on non-rigid Earth nutation theory\". International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service. Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy. 2 April 2009. Retrieved 2012-08-06.\n\n^ \"Basics of Space Flight, Chapter 2\". Jet Propulsion Laboratory/NASA. 28 August 2013. Retrieved 2015-03-26.\n\n^ \"NeoProgrammics - Science Computations\".","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":" Rotation Precession Nutationin obliquity of a planet","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Praezession.svg/220px-Praezession.svg.png"},{"image_text":"An animation showing nutation of a sphere","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Nutation.gif"},{"image_text":"Yearly changes in the location of the Tropic of Cancer near a highway in Mexico","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Tr%C3%B3pico_de_C%C3%A1ncer_en_M%C3%A9xico_-_Carretera_83_%28V%C3%ADa_Corta%29_Zaragoza-Victoria%2C_Km_27%2B800.jpg/240px-Tr%C3%B3pico_de_C%C3%A1ncer_en_M%C3%A9xico_-_Carretera_83_%28V%C3%ADa_Corta%29_Zaragoza-Victoria%2C_Km_27%2B800.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Libration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libration"},{"title":"Teetotum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teetotum"}]
|
[{"reference":"Lowrie, William (2007). Fundamentals of Geophysics (2nd ed.). Cambridge [u.a.]: Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–59. ISBN 9780521675963.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsgeop00lowr","url_text":"Fundamentals of Geophysics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsgeop00lowr/page/n69","url_text":"58"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521675963","url_text":"9780521675963"}]},{"reference":"Kasdin, N. Jeremy; Paley, Derek A. (2010). Engineering dynamics : a comprehensive introduction. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. pp. 526–527. ISBN 9780691135373.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University_Press","url_text":"Princeton University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691135373","url_text":"9780691135373"}]},{"reference":"\"Resolution 83 on non-rigid Earth nutation theory\". International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service. Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy. 2 April 2009. Retrieved 2012-08-06.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iers.org/nn_10382/IERS/EN/Science/Recommendations/resolutionB3.html","url_text":"\"Resolution 83 on non-rigid Earth nutation theory\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Earth_Rotation_and_Reference_Systems_Service","url_text":"International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service"}]},{"reference":"\"Basics of Space Flight, Chapter 2\". Jet Propulsion Laboratory/NASA. 28 August 2013. Retrieved 2015-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf2-1.php#nutation","url_text":"\"Basics of Space Flight, Chapter 2\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory","url_text":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory"}]},{"reference":"\"NeoProgrammics - Science Computations\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.neoprogrammics.com/nutations/","url_text":"\"NeoProgrammics - Science Computations\""}]},{"reference":"Goldstein, Herbert (1980). Classical mechanics (2d ed.). Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. ISBN 0201029189.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0201029189","url_text":"0201029189"}]},{"reference":"Lambeck, Kurt (2005). The earth's variable rotation : geophysical causes and consequences (Digitally printed 1st pbk. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521673303.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521673303","url_text":"9780521673303"}]},{"reference":"Munk, Walter H.; MacDonald, Gordon J.F. (1975). The rotation of the earth : a geophysical discussion. Reprint. with corr. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521207782.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/rotationofearthg0000munk","url_text":"The rotation of the earth : a geophysical discussion"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521207782","url_text":"9780521207782"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsgeop00lowr","external_links_name":"Fundamentals of Geophysics"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsgeop00lowr/page/n69","external_links_name":"58"},{"Link":"http://www.iers.org/nn_10382/IERS/EN/Science/Recommendations/resolutionB3.html","external_links_name":"\"Resolution 83 on non-rigid Earth nutation theory\""},{"Link":"http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf2-1.php#nutation","external_links_name":"\"Basics of Space Flight, Chapter 2\""},{"Link":"http://www.neoprogrammics.com/nutations/","external_links_name":"\"NeoProgrammics - Science Computations\""},{"Link":"https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_20.html","external_links_name":"The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. I Ch. 20: Rotation in space"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/rotationofearthg0000munk","external_links_name":"The rotation of the earth : a geophysical discussion"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_Imaging_Library
|
Python Imaging Library
|
["1 Capabilities","2 File formats","3 Programming examples","4 References","5 External links"]
|
Library for the Python programming language
Python Imaging LibraryOriginal author(s)Fredrik LundhDeveloper(s)Secret Labs ABInitial release1995; 29 years ago (1995)Stable release1.1.7
/ November 15, 2009; 14 years ago (2009-11-15)Preview release1.2a0
/ 2011; 13 years ago (2011)
Written inPython, CTypeLibrary for image processingLicenseHistorical Permission Notice and DisclaimerWebsitepython-pillow.org
PillowOriginal author(s)Jeffrey A. Clark (Alex)Initial release31 July 2010; 13 years ago (2010-07-31)Stable release10.1.0
/ October 15, 2023; 7 months ago (2023-10-15)
Written inPython, CTypeLibrary for image processingLicenseHistorical Permission Notice and DisclaimerWebsitepython-pillow.org
Python Imaging Library is a free and open-source additional library for the Python programming language that adds support for opening, manipulating, and saving many different image file formats. It is available for Windows, Mac OS X and Linux. The latest version of PIL is 1.1.7, was released in September 2009 and supports Python 1.5.2–2.7.
Development of the original project, known as PIL, was discontinued in 2011. Subsequently, a successor project named Pillow forked the PIL repository and added Python 3.x support. This fork has been adopted as a replacement for the original PIL in Linux distributions including Debian and Ubuntu (since 13.04).
Capabilities
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PIL offers several standard procedures for image manipulation. These include:
per-pixel manipulations,
masking and transparency handling,
image filtering, such as blurring, contouring, smoothing, or edge finding,
image enhancing, such as sharpening, adjusting brightness, contrast or color,
adding text
File formats
Supported file formats include PPM, PNG, JPEG, GIF, TIFF, and BMP.
PIL is extensible, allowing users to create custom decoders for any file format.
Programming examples
import os
from PIL import Image
def convert_jpegs_to_pngs(folder_path):
# Checks if the provided path is a folder
if not os.path.isdir(folder_path):
print(f"Error: {folder_path} is not a valid folder.")
return
# Iterates over all files in the folder
for filename in os.listdir(folder_path):
# Checks if the file has a .jpg or .jpeg extension
if filename.lower().endswith('.jpg') or filename.lower().endswith('.jpeg'):
# Full path of the file
jpeg_path = os.path.join(folder_path, filename)
# Path for the converted file
png_path = os.path.join(folder_path, os.path.splitext(filename) + '.png')
try:
# Opens the JPEG image
with Image.open(jpeg_path) as img:
# Converts and saves as PNG
img.save(png_path, 'PNG')
print(f"Converted {jpeg_path} to {png_path}")
except Exception as e:
print(f"Error converting {jpeg_path}: {e}")
References
^ a b c d "Software License". Secret Labs AB. Archived from the original on 20 July 2020. Retrieved December 8, 2013.
^ a b "effbot / pil-2009-raclette". Archived from the original on 15 March 2015. Retrieved December 8, 2013.
^ a b "Python Imaging Library". Secret Labs AB. Archived from the original on 21 November 2020. Retrieved December 8, 2013.
^ "Pillow: a modern fork of PIL". Retrieved December 8, 2013.
^ "Details of package python-imaging in sid". packages.debian.org. Software in the Public Interest. Retrieved December 8, 2013.
^ "Details of package python-imaging in raring". ubuntu.com. Canonical Ltd. Retrieved December 8, 2013.
^ "D. Writing Your Own File Decoder". Effbot.org. Retrieved 2014-01-28.
External links
Official website
PIL Library reference
Python Imaging Library at Wikibooks
Pillow (Successor project)
PIL Tutorial Examples
|
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|
[]
| null |
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne
|
Rhône
|
["1 Etymology","2 Navigation","3 Course","3.1 Tributaries","4 History","4.1 Postwar development","5 Along the Rhône","5.1 Switzerland","5.2 France","6 See also","7 References","8 Further reading","9 External links"]
|
Coordinates: 43°19′51″N 4°50′44″E / 43.33083°N 4.84556°E / 43.33083; 4.84556Major river in Switzerland and France
For other uses, see Rhône (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Rhine.
RhôneThe Rhône in LyonNative nameLe Rhône (French)Rotten (Walser)die Rhone (German)Ròse (Occitan)LocationCountriesSwitzerland and FrancePhysical characteristicsSourceRhône Glacier • locationObergoms, Valais, Switzerland • elevation2,208 m (7,244 ft)
MouthMediterranean Sea • locationFrance • coordinates43°19′51″N 4°50′44″E / 43.33083°N 4.84556°E / 43.33083; 4.84556 • elevation0 m (0 ft)Length813.69 km (505.60 mi)Basin size98,000 km2 (38,000 sq mi)Discharge • average1,710 m3/s (60,000 cu ft/s) • minimum360 m3/s (13,000 cu ft/s) • maximum13,000 m3/s (460,000 cu ft/s)
Basin featuresTributaries • leftIsère, Durance • rightAin, Saône
The Rhône (/roʊn/ ROHN, French: ⓘ) is a major river in France and Switzerland, rising in the Alps and flowing west and south through Lake Geneva and southeastern France before discharging into the Mediterranean Sea. At Arles, near its mouth, the river divides into the Great Rhône (French: le Grand Rhône) and the Little Rhône (le Petit Rhône). The resulting delta forms the Camargue region.
The river's source is the Rhône Glacier, at the east edge of the Swiss canton of Valais. The glacier is part of the Saint-Gotthard Massif, which gives rise to three other major rivers: the Reuss, Rhine and Ticino.
The Rhône is, with the Po and Nile, one of the three Mediterranean rivers with the largest water discharge.
Etymology
The name Rhône continues the Latin Rhodanus name (Greek Ῥοδανός Rhodanós) in Greco-Roman geography. The Gaulish name of the river was *Rodonos or *Rotonos (from a PIE root *ret- "to run, roll" frequently found in river names).
Names in other languages include German: Rhone ⓘ; Walser: Rotten ; Italian: Rodano ; Arpitan: Rôno ; Occitan: Ròse ; and Romansh: Rodan.
The Greco-Roman as well as the reconstructed Gaulish name is masculine, as is French le Rhône. This form survives in the Spanish/Portuguese and Italian namesakes, el/o Ródano and il Rodano, respectively. German has adopted the French name but given it the feminine gender, die Rhone. The original German adoption of the Latin name was also masculine, der Rotten; it survives only in the Upper Valais (dialectal Rottu).
In French, the adjective derived from the river is rhodanien, as in le sillon rhodanien (literally "the furrow of the Rhône"), which is the name of the long, straight Saône and Rhône river valleys, a deep cleft running due south to the Mediterranean and separating the Alps from the Massif Central.
Navigation
Before railroads and highways were developed, the Rhône was an important inland trade and transportation route, connecting the cities of Arles, Avignon, Valence, Vienne and Lyon to the Mediterranean ports of Fos-sur-Mer, Marseille and Sète. Travelling down the Rhône by barge would take three weeks. By motorized vessel, the trip now takes only three days. The Rhône is classified as a Class V waterway for the 325 km-long (202 mi) section from the mouth of the Saône at Lyon to the sea at Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rhône. Upstream from Lyon, a 149 km (93 mi) section of the Rhône was made navigable for small ships up to Seyssel. As of 2017, the part between Lyon and Sault-Brénaz is closed for navigation.
The Saône, which is also canalized, connects the Rhône ports to the cities of Villefranche-sur-Saône, Mâcon and Chalon-sur-Saône. Smaller vessels (up to CEMT class I) can travel further northwest, north and northeast via the Centre-Loire-Briare and Loing Canals to the Seine, via the Canal de la Marne à la Saône (recently often called the "Canal entre Champagne et Bourgogne") to the Marne, via the Canal des Vosges (formerly called the "Canal de l'Est – Branche Sud") to the Moselle and via the Canal du Rhône au Rhin to the Rhine.
The Rhône is infamous for its strong current when the river carries large quantities of water: current speeds up to 10 km/h (6.2 mph) are sometimes reached, particularly in the stretch below the last lock at Vallabrègues and in the relatively narrow first diversion canal south of Lyon. The 12 locks are operated daily from 5:00 a.m. until 9:00 p.m. All operation is centrally controlled from one control centre at Châteauneuf. Commercial barges may navigate during the night hours by authorisation.
Course
See also: Vallée du Rhône (France)
The source of the Rhône, at the foot of the Rhône Glacier, above Oberwald.
The Rhône flowing through the valleys of the Swiss Alps and arriving into Lake Geneva, in Switzerland.
The Rhône begins as the meltwater of the Rhône Glacier in Valais, in the Swiss Alps, at an altitude of approximately 2,208 metres (7,244 ft). From there it flows southwest through Gletsch and the Goms, the uppermost valley region of the Valais before Brig. In the Brig area, it receives the waters of the Massa from the Aletsch Glacier, the longest glacier of the Alps, and shortly after, it receives the waters of the Vispa, the longest affluent in Valais. After that, it flows onward through the valley which bears its name and runs initially in a westerly direction about thirty kilometers to Leuk, then southwest about fifty kilometers to Martigny.
Down as far as Brig, the Rhône is a torrent; it then becomes a great mountain river running southwest through a glacial valley. Between Brig and Martigny, it collects waters mostly from the valleys of the Pennine Alps to the south, whose rivers originate from the large glaciers of the massifs of Monte Rosa, Dom, and Grand Combin, but also from the steeper slopes of the Bernese Alps to the north, and the Mont Blanc massif to the west. As a result, the Rhône Valley experiences a drier climate than the rest of Switzerland, being sheltered by the three highest ranges of the Alps, making Valais the driest and largest wine region of the country.
At Martigny, where it receives the waters of the Drance on its left bank, the Rhône makes a sharp turn towards the north. Heading toward Lake Geneva (French: Le Léman), the valley narrows near Saint-Maurice, a feature that has long given the Rhône valley strategic importance for the control of the Alpine passes. The Rhône then marks the boundary between the cantons of Valais (left bank) and Vaud (right bank), separating two parts of the historical region of Chablais. It then enters Lake Geneva near Le Bouveret, where the water flows west.
On the left (south) bank of Lake Geneva, the river Morge joins at the village of Saint-Gingolph, and also marks the French-Swiss border. Westward, the Dranse (unrelated to the Drance) enters the lake with its preserved delta, and then the Hermance marks another French-Swiss border. Between the Morge and Hermance, the lake is divided by the two countries along its centreline, with the left bank in France. The remainder of the lake is Swiss, including the entire right (north) bank. Here, the tributaries are the Veveyse, the Venoge, the Aubonne, the Morges, among other smaller rivers.
Lake Geneva ends in the city of Geneva, where the lake level is controlled by the Le Seujet dam . The average discharge from Lake Geneva is 251 cubic metres per second (8,900 cu ft/s). Below the dam, the Rhône receives the waters of the Arve, fed by the Mont Blanc massif, with a visibly higher sediment load and much lower temperature.
After a total of 290 kilometres (180 mi) in Switzerland, the Rhône continues west, entering France and the southern Jura Mountains. It turns toward the south, past Lac de Bourget, which the Rhône drains via the Canal de Savières. Continuing generally westward, the Rhône then receives the waters of the Valserine, enters the reservoir created by the Génissiat Dam, and is then joined by the Ain.
Mouth of the Rhone
Reaching Lyon, the most populous city on its course, the Rhône receives its biggest tributary, the Saône, with an average flow of 473 m3/s (16,700 cu ft/s), compared to the Rhône's 600 m3/s (21,000 cu ft/s) at this point. From this confluence, the Rhône follows a southward course. Along the Rhône Valley, it is joined on the right (western) bank by the rivers Eyrieux, Ardèche, Cèze, and Gardon coming from the Cévennes mountains; and on the left bank by the rivers Isère, (with an average discharge of 333 m3/s (11,800 cu ft/s)), Drôme, Ouvèze, and Durance (188 m3/s (6,600 cu ft/s)) from the Alps.
From Lyon, the Rhône flows south, in its large valley between the Alps and the Massif Central. At Arles, the Rhône divides into two major arms forming the Camargue delta, both branches flowing into the Mediterranean Sea, the delta being termed the Rhône Fan. The larger arm is called the "Grand Rhône", the smaller the "Petit Rhône". The average annual discharge at Beaucaire is 1,700 m3/s (60,000 cu ft/s).
Tributaries
The main tributaries of the Rhône are, from source to mouth:
Massa (right)
Vispa (left)
Navizence (left)
Sionne (left)
Drance (left)
Trient (left)
Venoge (right, Lake Geneva)
Dranse (left, Lake Geneva)
Aubonne (right, Lake Geneva)
Hermance (left, Lake Geneva)
Versoix (right, Lake Geneva)
Arve (left)
Allondon (right)
Valserine (right)
Fier (left)
Guiers (left)
Bourbre (left)
Ain (right)
Saône (right)
Gier (right)
Gère (left)
Galaure (left)
Doux (right)
Isère (left)
Eyrieux (right)
Drôme (left)
Ardèche (right)
Cèze (right)
Aigues (left)
Ouvèze (left)
Durance (left)
Gardon (right)
History
The Rhône has been an important highway since the times of the Greeks and Romans. It was the main trade route from the Mediterranean to east-central Gaul. As such, it helped convey Greek cultural influences to the western Hallstatt and the later La Tène cultures. Celtic tribes living near the Rhône included the Seduni, Sequani, Segobriges, Allobroges, Segusiavi, Helvetii, Vocontii and Volcae Arecomici.
Navigation was difficult, as the river suffered from fierce currents, shallows, floods in spring and early summer when the ice was melting, and droughts in late summer. Until the 19th century, passengers travelled in coches d'eau (water coaches) drawn by men or horses, or under sail. Most travelled with a painted cross covered with religious symbols as protection against the hazards of the journey.
Trade on the upper river used barques du Rhône, sailing barges, 30 by 3.5 metres (98 by 11 ft), with a 75-tonne (165,000 lb) capacity. As many as 50 to 80 horses were employed to haul trains of five to seven craft upstream. Goods would be transshipped at Arles into 23-metre (75 ft) sailing barges called allèges d'Arles for the final run down to the Mediterranean.
The first experimental steam boat was built at Lyon by Jouffroy d'Abbans in 1783. Regular services were not started until 1829 and they continued until 1952. Steam passenger vessels 80 to 100 metres (260–330 ft) long made up to 20 km/h (11 kn) and could do the downstream run from Lyon to Arles in a day. Cargo was hauled in bateau-anguilles, boats 157 by 6.35 metres (515.1 by 20.8 ft) with paddle wheels amidships, and bateaux crabes, a huge toothed "claw"wheel 6.5 metres (21 ft) across to grip the river bed in the shallows to supplement the paddle wheels. In the 20th century, powerful motor barges propelled by diesel engines were introduced, carrying 1,500 tonnes (3,300,000 lb).
In 1933, the Compagnie Nationale du Rhône (CNR) was established to improve navigation and generate electricity, also to develop irrigated agriculture and to protect the riverside towns and land from flooding. Some progress was made in deepening the navigation channel and constructing scouring walls, but World War II brought such work to a halt. In 1942, following the collapse of Vichy France, Italian military forces occupied southeastern France up to the eastern banks of the Rhône, as part of the Italian Fascist regime's expansionist agenda.
Postwar development
In 1948, the French government started construction of a series of dams and diversion canals, with a navigation lock beside the hydroelectric power plant on each of these canals. The locks were up to 23 metres (75 ft) deep. After building the Génissiat dam on the Upper Rhône (with no lock) in 1948, designed to meet the electricity needs of Paris, twelve hydroelectric plants and locks were built between 1964 and 1980. With a total head of 162 m (531 ft), they produce 13 GWh of electricity annually, or 16% of the country's total hydroelectric production (20% if the Upper Rhône schemes are added). There have been significant benefits for agriculture throughout the Rhône valley.
With the Lower Rhône project completed, CNR turned its attention to the Haut-Rhône (Upper Rhône), and built four hydropower dams in the 1980s: Sault-Brénaz, Brégnier-Cordon, Belley-Brens and Chautagne. It also drew up plans for the high-capacity Rhine-Rhône Waterway, along the route of the existing Canal du Rhône au Rhin, but this project was abandoned in 1997. In the period from 2005 to 2010, navigation locks of small barge dimensions (40 by 6 m) were built to bypass the last two, forming a navigable waterway network with Lake Bourget, through the Canal de Savières.
Along the Rhône
Cities and towns along the Rhône include:
Switzerland
Pont du Mont-Blanc in Geneva, marking the outflow from Lake Geneva (right)
Oberwald (Valais)
Brig (Valais)
Visp (Valais)
Leuk (Valais)
Sierre (Valais)
Sion (Valais)
St. Maurice (Valais)
see Lake Geneva for a list of Swiss and French towns around the lake
Geneva (Geneva)
France
The Rhône in Lyon under the old Boucle's Bridge
The Rhône at Avignon
Lyon, (Rhône (département))
Vienne (Isère)
Tournon-sur-Rhône (Ardèche) opposite Tain-l'Hermitage (Drôme)
Valence (Drôme) opposite Saint-Péray and Guilherand-Granges (Ardèche)
Montélimar (Drôme) opposite Le Teil and Rochemaure (Ardèche)
Viviers (Ardèche)
Bourg-Saint-Andéol (Ardèche)
Pont-Saint-Esprit (Gard)
Roquemaure (Gard) opposite Châteauneuf-du-Pape (Vaucluse)
Avignon (Vaucluse) opposite Villeneuve-lès-Avignon (Gard)
Beaucaire (Gard) opposite Tarascon (Bouches-du-Rhône)
Vallabrègues (Gard)
Arles (Bouches-du-Rhône)
Almost all tributaries more than 36 km (22 mi) long. The portion of the Rhône above Brig-Glis is labelled by its native Walliser German name, Rotten
See also
List of rivers of Europe
List of rivers of France
List of rivers of Switzerland
Berges du Rhône
Rhône (département)
Rhône (wine region)
Witenwasserenstock (triple watershed: Rhône-Rhine-Po)
References
^ Walser: Rotten ; Arpitan: Rôno ; Occitan: Ròse
^ Margat, Jean F. (2004). Mediterranean Basin Water Atlas. UNESCO. p. 4. ISBN 9782951718159. There are few rivers with an abundant flow. Only three rivers have a mean discharge of more than 1000 m3/s: the Nile (at Aswan), the Rhône and the Po.
^ Fluviacarte, Rhône
^ Fluviacarte, Haut Rhône
^ Edwards-May, David (2010). Inland Waterways of France. St Ives, Cambs., UK: Imray. pp. 210–220. ISBN 978-1-846230-14-1.
^ "255 Sustenpass" (Map). Rhône source (online map) (2015 ed.). 1:50 000. National Map 1:50 000 – 78 sheets and 25 composites (in German). Cartography by Swiss Federal Office for Topography, swisstopo. Berne, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Office for Topography, swisstopo. 2013. ISBN 978-3-302-00255-2. Retrieved 2015-10-18.
^ Amazing Swiss wine regions to discover, swisswine.ch. ("Valais is Switzerland's largest wine producer. It is renowned for its sunny and dry microclimate. The vineyards line the north slopes of the Rhone valley, rising up narrow, steep terraces and overlooked by snow covered peaks.")
^ a b c d "Fiche rivière no 9 : Le Rhône". État de Genève, Département du territoire. March 2001.
^ Sandre. "Fiche cours d'eau - Le Rhône (V---0000)".
^ a b c Freeman, Philip. John T. Koch (ed.). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. Vol. I. ABC-CLIO. p. 901. ISBN 1-85109-440-7.
^ McKnight, Hugh (September 2005). Cruising French Waterways (4th ed.). Sheridan House. ISBN 978-1-57409-210-3.
^ Civil Engineering, Volume 43. Morgan-Grampian. 1948. p. 136. In 1933 a state-controlled company was formed in France with the object of undertaking the planning and execution of extensive development works on the Rhône. Of these Génissiat works, the Génissiat dam and Dam power station are the most important. Started in February 1937, the construction of the dam has now been completed and on January 15th, 1948, was commenced the operation of filling the dam with water, which extended over six days.
^ Far Eastern Economic Review Interactive Edition, Volume 25. Review Publishing Company Limited. 1958. p. 7. The Génissiat dam is a powerful structure, 360 feet high and 470 feet wide, which locks the Rhône near the town of Bellegarde and stores more than two billion cubic feet of water. With this water, 5 generators of 90,000 H.P. produce 1,700 million kWh. annually. The structure, which was started in 1937 and completed in 1948, was only the first phase of a gigantic project involving the ultimate
^ "Information about the 310km long river Rhône from Lyon to the Mediterranean, Summary". French Waterways. Retrieved June 10, 2020.
Further reading
Champion, Maurice (1858–1864), Les inondations en France depuis le VIe siècle jusqu'a nos jours (6 Volumes) (in French), Paris: V. Dalmont Scans: Volume 3 (1861) (Bassin du Rhône starts at page 185), Volume 4 (1862).
Coolidge, William Augustus Brevoort (1911). "Rhone (river)" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 271–272.
Pardé, Maurice (1925), "Le régime du Rhône", Revue de géographie alpine (in French), 13 (13–3): 459–547, doi:10.3406/rga.1925.4941.
Pritchard, Sara B. (2011), Confluence: The Nature of Technology and the Remaking of the Rhône, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-04965-9 A social, environmental, and technological history of the transformation of the river since 1945.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rhône River.
InfoRhône Navigation and river conditions
CNR Archived 2013-10-19 at the Wayback Machine The Rhône Authority
Rhône, Petit-Rhône, and Haut-Rhône guides, with maps, detailed plans and information on places, moorings and facilities by the author of Inland Waterways of France, Imray
Navigation details for 80 French rivers and canals (French waterways website section)
The Rhône-Mediterranean page of EauFrance
Waterways in France
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
Germany
Israel
United States
Japan
Czech Republic
Geographic
Pleiades
Other
Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
IdRef
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At Arles, near its mouth, the river divides into the Great Rhône (French: le Grand Rhône) and the Little Rhône (le Petit Rhône). The resulting delta forms the Camargue region.The river's source is the Rhône Glacier, at the east edge of the Swiss canton of Valais. The glacier is part of the Saint-Gotthard Massif, which gives rise to three other major rivers: the Reuss, Rhine and Ticino.The Rhône is, with the Po and Nile, one of the three Mediterranean rivers with the largest water discharge.[2]","title":"Rhône"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"Greco-Roman geography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Roman_geography"},{"link_name":"Gaulish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaulish"},{"link_name":"PIE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"[ˈroːnə]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4a/De-Rhone.ogg/De-Rhone.ogg.mp3"},{"link_name":"ⓘ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:De-Rhone.ogg"},{"link_name":"Walser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walser_language"},{"link_name":"[ˈrotən]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Alemannic_German"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"[ˈrɔːdano]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Italian"},{"link_name":"Arpitan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arpitan_language"},{"link_name":"[ˈʁono]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Franco-Proven%C3%A7al"},{"link_name":"Occitan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occitan_language"},{"link_name":"[ˈrɔze, ˈʀɔze]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Occitan"},{"link_name":"Romansh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romansh_language"},{"link_name":"Upper Valais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Valais"},{"link_name":"dialectal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highest_Alemannic"},{"link_name":"Saône","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%C3%B4ne"},{"link_name":"Mediterranean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea"},{"link_name":"Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alps"},{"link_name":"Massif Central","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massif_Central"}],"text":"The name Rhône continues the Latin Rhodanus name (Greek Ῥοδανός Rhodanós) in Greco-Roman geography. The Gaulish name of the river was *Rodonos or *Rotonos (from a PIE root *ret- \"to run, roll\" frequently found in river names).Names in other languages include German: Rhone [ˈroːnə] ⓘ; Walser: Rotten [ˈrotən]; Italian: Rodano [ˈrɔːdano]; Arpitan: Rôno [ˈʁono]; Occitan: Ròse [ˈrɔze, ˈʀɔze]; and Romansh: Rodan.The Greco-Roman as well as the reconstructed Gaulish name is masculine, as is French le Rhône. This form survives in the Spanish/Portuguese and Italian namesakes, el/o Ródano and il Rodano, respectively. German has adopted the French name but given it the feminine gender, die Rhone. The original German adoption of the Latin name was also masculine, der Rotten; it survives only in the Upper Valais (dialectal Rottu).In French, the adjective derived from the river is rhodanien, as in le sillon rhodanien (literally \"the furrow of the Rhône\"), which is the name of the long, straight Saône and Rhône river valleys, a deep cleft running due south to the Mediterranean and separating the Alps from the Massif Central.","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arles"},{"link_name":"Avignon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon"},{"link_name":"Valence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence,_Dr%C3%B4me"},{"link_name":"Vienne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienne,_Is%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Lyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyon"},{"link_name":"Fos-sur-Mer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fos-sur-Mer"},{"link_name":"Marseille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseille"},{"link_name":"Sète","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A8te"},{"link_name":"Class V waterway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_European_Inland_Waterways"},{"link_name":"Saône","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%C3%B4ne"},{"link_name":"Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rhône","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rh%C3%B4ne"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Seyssel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seyssel,_Ain"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rh%C3%B4ne&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Sault-Brénaz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sault-Br%C3%A9naz"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Villefranche-sur-Saône","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villefranche-sur-Sa%C3%B4ne"},{"link_name":"Mâcon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A2con"},{"link_name":"Chalon-sur-Saône","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalon-sur-Sa%C3%B4ne"},{"link_name":"CEMT class I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_European_Inland_Waterways"},{"link_name":"Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal_du_Centre_(France)"},{"link_name":"Seine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seine"},{"link_name":"Canal entre Champagne et Bourgogne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal_entre_Champagne_et_Bourgogne"},{"link_name":"Marne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marne_(river)"},{"link_name":"Canal des Vosges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal_des_Vosges"},{"link_name":"Moselle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moselle_(river)"},{"link_name":"Canal du Rhône au Rhin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne%E2%80%93Rhine_Canal"},{"link_name":"Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhine"},{"link_name":"Vallabrègues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vallabr%C3%A8gues"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Before railroads and highways were developed, the Rhône was an important inland trade and transportation route, connecting the cities of Arles, Avignon, Valence, Vienne and Lyon to the Mediterranean ports of Fos-sur-Mer, Marseille and Sète. Travelling down the Rhône by barge would take three weeks. By motorized vessel, the trip now takes only three days. The Rhône is classified as a Class V waterway for the 325 km-long (202 mi) section from the mouth of the Saône at Lyon to the sea at Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rhône.[3] Upstream from Lyon, a 149 km (93 mi) section of the Rhône was made navigable for small ships up to Seyssel. As of 2017[update], the part between Lyon and Sault-Brénaz is closed for navigation.[4]The Saône, which is also canalized, connects the Rhône ports to the cities of Villefranche-sur-Saône, Mâcon and Chalon-sur-Saône. Smaller vessels (up to CEMT class I) can travel further northwest, north and northeast via the Centre-Loire-Briare and Loing Canals to the Seine, via the Canal de la Marne à la Saône (recently often called the \"Canal entre Champagne et Bourgogne\") to the Marne, via the Canal des Vosges (formerly called the \"Canal de l'Est – Branche Sud\") to the Moselle and via the Canal du Rhône au Rhin to the Rhine.The Rhône is infamous for its strong current when the river carries large quantities of water: current speeds up to 10 km/h (6.2 mph) are sometimes reached, particularly in the stretch below the last lock at Vallabrègues and in the relatively narrow first diversion canal south of Lyon. The 12 locks are operated daily from 5:00 a.m. until 9:00 p.m. All operation is centrally controlled from one control centre at Châteauneuf. Commercial barges may navigate during the night hours by authorisation.[5]","title":"Navigation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vallée du Rhône (France)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vall%C3%A9e_du_Rh%C3%B4ne_(France)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rhonegletscher_by_Jan_Schick_(@janschickvlogs).jpg"},{"link_name":"source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_(river_or_stream)"},{"link_name":"Rhône Glacier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne_Glacier"},{"link_name":"Oberwald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberwald"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rh%C3%B4ne_sup%C3%A9rieur_bassin_1.svg"},{"link_name":"Swiss Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Alps"},{"link_name":"Lake Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Geneva"},{"link_name":"meltwater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meltwater"},{"link_name":"Rhône 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Bouveret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Bouveret"},{"link_name":"Saint-Gingolph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Gingolph"},{"link_name":"Dranse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dranse_(Haute-Savoie)"},{"link_name":"delta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_de_la_Dranse_National_Nature_Reserve"},{"link_name":"Hermance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermance_(river)"},{"link_name":"Veveyse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Veveyse_(river)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Venoge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venoge_(river)"},{"link_name":"Aubonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aubonne_(river)"},{"link_name":"Morges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morges_(river)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"city of Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva"},{"link_name":"Le Seujet dam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barrage_du_Seujet&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrage_du_Seujet"},{"link_name":"discharge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discharge_(hydrology)"},{"link_name":"cubic metres per second","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_metre_per_second"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fiche9-8"},{"link_name":"Arve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arve"},{"link_name":"Mont Blanc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mont_Blanc_massif"},{"link_name":"sediment load","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_load"},{"link_name":"Jura Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jura_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Lac de Bourget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lac_du_Bourget"},{"link_name":"Canal de Savières","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal_de_Savi%C3%A8res"},{"link_name":"Valserine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valserine"},{"link_name":"Génissiat Dam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9nissiat_Dam"},{"link_name":"Ain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain_(river)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rhone_River_SPOT_1296.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyon"},{"link_name":"Saône","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%C3%B4ne"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fiche9-8"},{"link_name":"Eyrieux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyrieux"},{"link_name":"Ardèche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ard%C3%A8che_(river)"},{"link_name":"Cèze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A8ze"},{"link_name":"Gardon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardon"},{"link_name":"Cévennes mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9vennes"},{"link_name":"Isère","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Is%C3%A8re_(river)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fiche9-8"},{"link_name":"Drôme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr%C3%B4me_(river)"},{"link_name":"Ouvèze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouv%C3%A8ze"},{"link_name":"Durance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durance"},{"link_name":"Massif Central","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massif_Central"},{"link_name":"Arles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arles"},{"link_name":"Camargue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camargue"},{"link_name":"delta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_delta"},{"link_name":"Beaucaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaucaire,_Gard"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fiche9-8"}],"text":"See also: Vallée du Rhône (France)The source of the Rhône, at the foot of the Rhône Glacier, above Oberwald.The Rhône flowing through the valleys of the Swiss Alps and arriving into Lake Geneva, in Switzerland.The Rhône begins as the meltwater of the Rhône Glacier in Valais, in the Swiss Alps, at an altitude of approximately 2,208 metres (7,244 ft).[6] From there it flows southwest through Gletsch and the Goms, the uppermost valley region of the Valais before Brig. In the Brig area, it receives the waters of the Massa from the Aletsch Glacier, the longest glacier of the Alps, and shortly after, it receives the waters of the Vispa, the longest affluent in Valais. After that, it flows onward through the valley which bears its name and runs initially in a westerly direction about thirty kilometers to Leuk, then southwest about fifty kilometers to Martigny.Down as far as Brig, the Rhône is a torrent; it then becomes a great mountain river running southwest through a glacial valley. Between Brig and Martigny, it collects waters mostly from the valleys of the Pennine Alps to the south, whose rivers originate from the large glaciers of the massifs of Monte Rosa, Dom, and Grand Combin, but also from the steeper slopes of the Bernese Alps to the north, and the Mont Blanc massif to the west. As a result, the Rhône Valley experiences a drier climate than the rest of Switzerland, being sheltered by the three highest ranges of the Alps, making Valais the driest and largest wine region of the country.[7]At Martigny, where it receives the waters of the Drance on its left bank, the Rhône makes a sharp turn towards the north. Heading toward Lake Geneva (French: Le Léman), the valley narrows near Saint-Maurice, a feature that has long given the Rhône valley strategic importance for the control of the Alpine passes. The Rhône then marks the boundary between the cantons of Valais (left bank) and Vaud (right bank), separating two parts of the historical region of Chablais. It then enters Lake Geneva near Le Bouveret, where the water flows west.On the left (south) bank of Lake Geneva, the river Morge joins at the village of Saint-Gingolph, and also marks the French-Swiss border. Westward, the Dranse (unrelated to the Drance) enters the lake with its preserved delta, and then the Hermance marks another French-Swiss border. Between the Morge and Hermance, the lake is divided by the two countries along its centreline, with the left bank in France. The remainder of the lake is Swiss, including the entire right (north) bank. Here, the tributaries are the Veveyse, the Venoge, the Aubonne, the Morges, among other smaller rivers.Lake Geneva ends in the city of Geneva, where the lake level is controlled by the Le Seujet dam [fr]. The average discharge from Lake Geneva is 251 cubic metres per second (8,900 cu ft/s).[8] Below the dam, the Rhône receives the waters of the Arve, fed by the Mont Blanc massif, with a visibly higher sediment load and much lower temperature.After a total of 290 kilometres (180 mi) in Switzerland, the Rhône continues west, entering France and the southern Jura Mountains. It turns toward the south, past Lac de Bourget, which the Rhône drains via the Canal de Savières. Continuing generally westward, the Rhône then receives the waters of the Valserine, enters the reservoir created by the Génissiat Dam, and is then joined by the Ain.Mouth of the RhoneReaching Lyon, the most populous city on its course, the Rhône receives its biggest tributary, the Saône, with an average flow of 473 m3/s (16,700 cu ft/s), compared to the Rhône's 600 m3/s (21,000 cu ft/s) at this point.[8] From this confluence, the Rhône follows a southward course. Along the Rhône Valley, it is joined on the right (western) bank by the rivers Eyrieux, Ardèche, Cèze, and Gardon coming from the Cévennes mountains; and on the left bank by the rivers Isère, (with an average discharge of 333 m3/s (11,800 cu ft/s)),[8] Drôme, Ouvèze, and Durance (188 m3/s (6,600 cu ft/s)) from the Alps.From Lyon, the Rhône flows south, in its large valley between the Alps and the Massif Central. At Arles, the Rhône divides into two major arms forming the Camargue delta, both branches flowing into the Mediterranean Sea, the delta being termed the Rhône Fan. The larger arm is called the \"Grand Rhône\", the smaller the \"Petit Rhône\". The average annual discharge at Beaucaire is 1,700 m3/s (60,000 cu ft/s).[8]","title":"Course"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sandre-9"},{"link_name":"Massa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massa_(river)"},{"link_name":"Vispa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vispa"},{"link_name":"Navizence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navizence"},{"link_name":"Sionne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sionne_(river)"},{"link_name":"Drance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drance"},{"link_name":"Trient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trient_(river)"},{"link_name":"Venoge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venoge_(river)"},{"link_name":"Dranse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dranse_(Haute-Savoie)"},{"link_name":"Aubonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aubonne_(river)"},{"link_name":"Hermance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermance_(river)"},{"link_name":"Versoix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Versoix_(river)"},{"link_name":"Arve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arve"},{"link_name":"Allondon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allondon"},{"link_name":"Valserine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valserine"},{"link_name":"Fier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fier_(river)"},{"link_name":"Guiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guiers"},{"link_name":"Bourbre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourbre"},{"link_name":"Ain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain_(river)"},{"link_name":"Saône","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%C3%B4ne"},{"link_name":"Gier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gier_(river)"},{"link_name":"Gère","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Galaure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaure"},{"link_name":"Doux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doux_(river)"},{"link_name":"Isère","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Is%C3%A8re_(river)"},{"link_name":"Eyrieux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyrieux"},{"link_name":"Drôme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr%C3%B4me_(river)"},{"link_name":"Ardèche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ard%C3%A8che_(river)"},{"link_name":"Cèze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A8ze"},{"link_name":"Aigues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aigues"},{"link_name":"Ouvèze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouv%C3%A8ze"},{"link_name":"Durance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durance"},{"link_name":"Gardon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardon"}],"sub_title":"Tributaries","text":"The main tributaries of the Rhône are, from source to mouth:[9]Massa (right)\nVispa (left)\nNavizence (left)\nSionne (left)\nDrance (left)\nTrient (left)\nVenoge (right, Lake Geneva)\nDranse (left, Lake Geneva)\nAubonne (right, Lake Geneva)\nHermance (left, Lake Geneva)\nVersoix (right, Lake Geneva)\nArve (left)\nAllondon (right)\nValserine (right)\nFier (left)\nGuiers (left)\nBourbre (left)\nAin (right)\nSaône (right)\nGier (right)\nGère (left)\nGalaure (left)\nDoux (right)\nIsère (left)\nEyrieux (right)\nDrôme (left)\nArdèche (right)\nCèze (right)\nAigues (left)\nOuvèze (left)\nDurance (left)\nGardon (right)","title":"Course"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greeks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"Romans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome"},{"link_name":"Gaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Freeman-10"},{"link_name":"Hallstatt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallstatt_culture"},{"link_name":"La Tène","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Freeman-10"},{"link_name":"Celtic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celts"},{"link_name":"Seduni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seduni"},{"link_name":"Segobriges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segobriges"},{"link_name":"Allobroges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allobroges"},{"link_name":"Segusiavi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segusiavi"},{"link_name":"Helvetii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helvetii"},{"link_name":"Vocontii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocontii"},{"link_name":"Volcae Arecomici","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcae_Arecomici"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Freeman-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McKnight2005-11"},{"link_name":"steam boat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_boat"},{"link_name":"Jouffroy d'Abbans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jouffroy_d%27Abbans"},{"link_name":"Compagnie Nationale du Rhône","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compagnie_Nationale_du_Rh%C3%B4ne"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Vichy France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_France"}],"text":"The Rhône has been an important highway since the times of the Greeks and Romans. It was the main trade route from the Mediterranean to east-central Gaul.[10] As such, it helped convey Greek cultural influences to the western Hallstatt and the later La Tène cultures.[10] Celtic tribes living near the Rhône included the Seduni, Sequani, Segobriges, Allobroges, Segusiavi, Helvetii, Vocontii and Volcae Arecomici.[10]Navigation was difficult, as the river suffered from fierce currents, shallows, floods in spring and early summer when the ice was melting, and droughts in late summer. Until the 19th century, passengers travelled in coches d'eau (water coaches) drawn by men or horses, or under sail. Most travelled with a painted cross covered with religious symbols as protection against the hazards of the journey.[11]Trade on the upper river used barques du Rhône, sailing barges, 30 by 3.5 metres (98 by 11 ft), with a 75-tonne (165,000 lb) capacity. As many as 50 to 80 horses were employed to haul trains of five to seven craft upstream. Goods would be transshipped at Arles into 23-metre (75 ft) sailing barges called allèges d'Arles for the final run down to the Mediterranean.The first experimental steam boat was built at Lyon by Jouffroy d'Abbans in 1783. Regular services were not started until 1829 and they continued until 1952. Steam passenger vessels 80 to 100 metres (260–330 ft) long made up to 20 km/h (11 kn) and could do the downstream run from Lyon to Arles in a day. Cargo was hauled in bateau-anguilles, boats 157 by 6.35 metres (515.1 by 20.8 ft) with paddle wheels amidships, and bateaux crabes, a huge toothed \"claw\"wheel 6.5 metres (21 ft) across to grip the river bed in the shallows to supplement the paddle wheels. In the 20th century, powerful motor barges propelled by diesel engines were introduced, carrying 1,500 tonnes (3,300,000 lb).In 1933, the Compagnie Nationale du Rhône (CNR) was established to improve navigation and generate electricity, also to develop irrigated agriculture and to protect the riverside towns and land from flooding. Some progress was made in deepening the navigation channel and constructing scouring walls, but World War II brought such work to a halt. In 1942, following the collapse of Vichy France, Italian military forces occupied southeastern France up to the eastern banks of the Rhône, as part of the Italian Fascist regime's expansionist agenda.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Génissiat dam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9nissiat_dam"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Canal du Rhône au Rhin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhone%E2%80%93Rhine_Canal"},{"link_name":"Canal de Savières","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal_de_Savi%C3%A8res"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Postwar development","text":"In 1948, the French government started construction of a series of dams and diversion canals, with a navigation lock beside the hydroelectric power plant on each of these canals. The locks were up to 23 metres (75 ft) deep. After building the Génissiat dam on the Upper Rhône (with no lock) in 1948,[12][13] designed to meet the electricity needs of Paris, twelve hydroelectric plants and locks were built between 1964 and 1980. With a total head of 162 m (531 ft), they produce 13 GWh of electricity annually, or 16% of the country's total hydroelectric production (20% if the Upper Rhône schemes are added). There have been significant benefits for agriculture throughout the Rhône valley.With the Lower Rhône project completed, CNR turned its attention to the Haut-Rhône (Upper Rhône), and built four hydropower dams in the 1980s: Sault-Brénaz, Brégnier-Cordon, Belley-Brens and Chautagne. It also drew up plans for the high-capacity Rhine-Rhône Waterway, along the route of the existing Canal du Rhône au Rhin, but this project was abandoned in 1997. In the period from 2005 to 2010, navigation locks of small barge dimensions (40 by 6 m) were built to bypass the last two, forming a navigable waterway network with Lake Bourget, through the Canal de Savières.[14]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Cities and towns along the Rhône include:","title":"Along the Rhône"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rh%C3%B4ne.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pont du Mont-Blanc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pont_du_Mont-Blanc"},{"link_name":"Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva"},{"link_name":"Lake Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Geneva"},{"link_name":"Oberwald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberwald"},{"link_name":"Valais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valais"},{"link_name":"Brig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brig,_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Visp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visp"},{"link_name":"Leuk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leuk"},{"link_name":"Sierre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierre"},{"link_name":"Sion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sion,_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"St. Maurice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Maurice,_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Lake Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Geneva"},{"link_name":"Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva"},{"link_name":"Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Geneva"}],"sub_title":"Switzerland","text":"Pont du Mont-Blanc in Geneva, marking the outflow from Lake Geneva (right)Oberwald (Valais)\nBrig (Valais)\nVisp (Valais)\nLeuk (Valais)\nSierre (Valais)\nSion (Valais)\nSt. Maurice (Valais)\nsee Lake Geneva for a list of Swiss and French towns around the lake\nGeneva (Geneva)","title":"Along the Rhône"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pont_boucle.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:France_Avignon_Total_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Avignon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon"},{"link_name":"Lyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyon"},{"link_name":"Rhône (département)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne_(d%C3%A9partement)"},{"link_name":"Vienne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienne,_Is%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Isère","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Is%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Tournon-sur-Rhône","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tournon-sur-Rh%C3%B4ne"},{"link_name":"Ardèche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ard%C3%A8che"},{"link_name":"Tain-l'Hermitage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tain-l%27Hermitage"},{"link_name":"Drôme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr%C3%B4me"},{"link_name":"Valence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence,_Dr%C3%B4me"},{"link_name":"Saint-Péray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-P%C3%A9ray"},{"link_name":"Guilherand-Granges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guilherand-Granges"},{"link_name":"Montélimar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mont%C3%A9limar"},{"link_name":"Le Teil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Teil"},{"link_name":"Rochemaure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochemaure"},{"link_name":"Viviers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viviers,_Ard%C3%A8che"},{"link_name":"Bourg-Saint-Andéol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourg-Saint-And%C3%A9ol"},{"link_name":"Pont-Saint-Esprit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pont-Saint-Esprit"},{"link_name":"Gard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gard"},{"link_name":"Roquemaure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roquemaure,_Gard"},{"link_name":"Châteauneuf-du-Pape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teauneuf-du-Pape"},{"link_name":"Vaucluse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaucluse"},{"link_name":"Avignon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon"},{"link_name":"Villeneuve-lès-Avignon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villeneuve-l%C3%A8s-Avignon"},{"link_name":"Beaucaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaucaire,_Gard"},{"link_name":"Tarascon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarascon"},{"link_name":"Bouches-du-Rhône","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouches-du-Rh%C3%B4ne"},{"link_name":"Vallabrègues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vallabr%C3%A8gues"},{"link_name":"Arles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arles"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rhone_bassin_topo.png"},{"link_name":"Walliser German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walser_German"}],"sub_title":"France","text":"The Rhône in Lyon under the old Boucle's BridgeThe Rhône at AvignonLyon, (Rhône (département))\nVienne (Isère)\nTournon-sur-Rhône (Ardèche) opposite Tain-l'Hermitage (Drôme)\nValence (Drôme) opposite Saint-Péray and Guilherand-Granges (Ardèche)\nMontélimar (Drôme) opposite Le Teil and Rochemaure (Ardèche)\nViviers (Ardèche)\nBourg-Saint-Andéol (Ardèche)\nPont-Saint-Esprit (Gard)\nRoquemaure (Gard) opposite Châteauneuf-du-Pape (Vaucluse)\nAvignon (Vaucluse) opposite Villeneuve-lès-Avignon (Gard)\nBeaucaire (Gard) opposite Tarascon (Bouches-du-Rhône)\nVallabrègues (Gard)\nArles (Bouches-du-Rhône)Almost all tributaries more than 36 km (22 mi) long. The portion of the Rhône above Brig-Glis is labelled by its native Walliser German name, Rotten","title":"Along the Rhône"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Volume 3 (1861)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/lesinondationse00chamgoog"},{"link_name":"Volume 4 (1862)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/lesinondationse05chamgoog"},{"link_name":"Coolidge, William Augustus Brevoort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._A._B._Coolidge"},{"link_name":"\"Rhone (river)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Rhone_(river)"},{"link_name":"Chisholm, Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"},{"link_name":"\"Le régime du Rhône\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/rga_0035-1121_1925_num_13_3_4941"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.3406/rga.1925.4941","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.3406%2Frga.1925.4941"},{"link_name":"Pritchard, Sara B.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara_B._Pritchard"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-674-04965-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04965-9"}],"text":"Champion, Maurice (1858–1864), Les inondations en France depuis le VIe siècle jusqu'a nos jours (6 Volumes) (in French), Paris: V. Dalmont Scans: Volume 3 (1861) (Bassin du Rhône starts at page 185), Volume 4 (1862).\nCoolidge, William Augustus Brevoort (1911). \"Rhone (river)\" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 271–272.\nPardé, Maurice (1925), \"Le régime du Rhône\", Revue de géographie alpine (in French), 13 (13–3): 459–547, doi:10.3406/rga.1925.4941.\nPritchard, Sara B. (2011), Confluence: The Nature of Technology and the Remaking of the Rhône, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-04965-9 A social, environmental, and technological history of the transformation of the river since 1945.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"The source of the Rhône, at the foot of the Rhône Glacier, above Oberwald.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Rhonegletscher_by_Jan_Schick_%28%40janschickvlogs%29.jpg/220px-Rhonegletscher_by_Jan_Schick_%28%40janschickvlogs%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Rhône flowing through the valleys of the Swiss Alps and arriving into Lake Geneva, in Switzerland.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Rh%C3%B4ne_sup%C3%A9rieur_bassin_1.svg/330px-Rh%C3%B4ne_sup%C3%A9rieur_bassin_1.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Mouth of the Rhone","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Rhone_River_SPOT_1296.jpg/220px-Rhone_River_SPOT_1296.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pont du Mont-Blanc in Geneva, marking the outflow from Lake Geneva (right)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Rh%C3%B4ne.jpg/220px-Rh%C3%B4ne.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Rhône in Lyon under the old Boucle's Bridge","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Pont_boucle.jpg/220px-Pont_boucle.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Rhône at Avignon","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/France_Avignon_Total_1.jpg/220px-France_Avignon_Total_1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Almost all tributaries more than 36 km (22 mi) long. The portion of the Rhône above Brig-Glis is labelled by its native Walliser German name, Rotten","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Rhone_bassin_topo.png/660px-Rhone_bassin_topo.png"}]
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[{"title":"List of rivers of Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Europe"},{"title":"List of rivers of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_France"},{"title":"List of rivers of Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Switzerland"},{"title":"Berges du Rhône","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berges_du_Rh%C3%B4ne"},{"title":"Rhône (département)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne_(d%C3%A9partement)"},{"title":"Rhône (wine region)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne_(wine_region)"},{"title":"Witenwasserenstock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witenwasserenstock"}]
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[{"reference":"Margat, Jean F. (2004). Mediterranean Basin Water Atlas. UNESCO. p. 4. ISBN 9782951718159. There are few rivers with an abundant flow. Only three rivers have a mean discharge of more than 1000 m3/s: the Nile (at Aswan), the Rhône and the Po.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=n5CGAAAAIAAJ","url_text":"Mediterranean Basin Water Atlas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO","url_text":"UNESCO"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782951718159","url_text":"9782951718159"}]},{"reference":"Edwards-May, David (2010). Inland Waterways of France. St Ives, Cambs., UK: Imray. pp. 210–220. ISBN 978-1-846230-14-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-846230-14-1","url_text":"978-1-846230-14-1"}]},{"reference":"\"255 Sustenpass\" (Map). Rhône source (online map) (2015 ed.). 1:50 000. National Map 1:50 000 – 78 sheets and 25 composites (in German). Cartography by Swiss Federal Office for Topography, swisstopo. Berne, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Office for Topography, swisstopo. 2013. ISBN 978-3-302-00255-2. Retrieved 2015-10-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.toposhop.admin.ch/en/shop/products/maps/national/n50","url_text":"\"255 Sustenpass\""},{"url":"https://s.geo.admin.ch/67a6ef8535","url_text":"Rhône source"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-302-00255-2","url_text":"978-3-302-00255-2"}]},{"reference":"\"Fiche rivière no 9 : Le Rhône\". État de Genève, Département du territoire. March 2001.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ge.ch/document/12756/annexe/7","url_text":"\"Fiche rivière no 9 : Le Rhône\""}]},{"reference":"Sandre. \"Fiche cours d'eau - Le Rhône (V---0000)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_d%27administration_nationale_des_donn%C3%A9es_et_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rentiels_sur_l%27eau","url_text":"Sandre"},{"url":"https://www.sandre.eaufrance.fr/geo/CoursEau_Carthage2017/V---0000","url_text":"\"Fiche cours d'eau - Le Rhône (V---0000)\""}]},{"reference":"Freeman, Philip. John T. Koch (ed.). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. Vol. I. ABC-CLIO. p. 901. ISBN 1-85109-440-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC-CLIO","url_text":"ABC-CLIO"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85109-440-7","url_text":"1-85109-440-7"}]},{"reference":"McKnight, Hugh (September 2005). Cruising French Waterways (4th ed.). Sheridan House. ISBN 978-1-57409-210-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57409-210-3","url_text":"978-1-57409-210-3"}]},{"reference":"Civil Engineering, Volume 43. Morgan-Grampian. 1948. p. 136. In 1933 a state-controlled company was formed in France with the object of undertaking the planning and execution of extensive development works on the Rhône. Of these Génissiat works, the Génissiat dam and Dam power station are the most important. Started in February 1937, the construction of the dam has now been completed and on January 15th, 1948, was commenced the operation of filling the dam with water, which extended over six days.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DWQnAQAAMAAJ&q=%22completed+and+on+january+15th%2C+1948%22","url_text":"Civil Engineering, Volume 43"}]},{"reference":"Far Eastern Economic Review Interactive Edition, Volume 25. Review Publishing Company Limited. 1958. p. 7. The Génissiat dam is a powerful structure, 360 feet high and 470 feet wide, which locks the Rhône near the town of Bellegarde and stores more than two billion cubic feet of water. With this water, 5 generators of 90,000 H.P. produce 1,700 million kWh. annually. The structure, which was started in 1937 and completed in 1948, was only the first phase of a gigantic project involving the ultimate","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=WvEnAAAAMAAJ&q=%22G%C3%A9nissiat+dam%22+%221948%22","url_text":"Far Eastern Economic Review Interactive Edition, Volume 25"}]},{"reference":"\"Information about the 310km long river Rhône from Lyon to the Mediterranean, Summary\". French Waterways. Retrieved June 10, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.french-waterways.com/waterways/south-east/river-rhone/","url_text":"\"Information about the 310km long river Rhône from Lyon to the Mediterranean, Summary\""}]},{"reference":"Champion, Maurice (1858–1864), Les inondations en France depuis le VIe siècle jusqu'a nos jours (6 Volumes) (in French), Paris: V. Dalmont","urls":[]},{"reference":"Coolidge, William Augustus Brevoort (1911). \"Rhone (river)\" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 271–272.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._A._B._Coolidge","url_text":"Coolidge, William Augustus Brevoort"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Rhone_(river)","url_text":"\"Rhone (river)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Pardé, Maurice (1925), \"Le régime du Rhône\", Revue de géographie alpine (in French), 13 (13–3): 459–547, doi:10.3406/rga.1925.4941","urls":[{"url":"http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/rga_0035-1121_1925_num_13_3_4941","url_text":"\"Le régime du Rhône\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3406%2Frga.1925.4941","url_text":"10.3406/rga.1925.4941"}]},{"reference":"Pritchard, Sara B. (2011), Confluence: The Nature of Technology and the Remaking of the Rhône, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-04965-9","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara_B._Pritchard","url_text":"Pritchard, Sara B."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04965-9","url_text":"978-0-674-04965-9"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Rh%C3%B4ne¶ms=43_19_51_N_4_50_44_E_type:river","external_links_name":"43°19′51″N 4°50′44″E / 43.33083°N 4.84556°E / 43.33083; 4.84556"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Rh%C3%B4ne¶ms=43_19_51_N_4_50_44_E_type:river","external_links_name":"43°19′51″N 4°50′44″E / 43.33083°N 4.84556°E / 43.33083; 4.84556"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rh%C3%B4ne&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=n5CGAAAAIAAJ","external_links_name":"Mediterranean Basin Water Atlas"},{"Link":"http://www.fluviacarte.com/fr/voies-navigables/region-bassin-sa%C3%B4ne-rh%C3%B4ne-8/voie-rh%C3%B4ne-121","external_links_name":"Fluviacarte"},{"Link":"http://www.fluviacarte.com/fr/voies-navigables/region-r-8/voie--120","external_links_name":"Fluviacarte"},{"Link":"http://www.toposhop.admin.ch/en/shop/products/maps/national/n50","external_links_name":"\"255 Sustenpass\""},{"Link":"https://s.geo.admin.ch/67a6ef8535","external_links_name":"Rhône source"},{"Link":"https://swisswine.ch/en/news/amazing-swiss-wine-regions-discover","external_links_name":"Amazing Swiss wine regions to discover"},{"Link":"https://www.ge.ch/document/12756/annexe/7","external_links_name":"\"Fiche rivière no 9 : Le Rhône\""},{"Link":"https://www.sandre.eaufrance.fr/geo/CoursEau_Carthage2017/V---0000","external_links_name":"\"Fiche cours d'eau - Le Rhône (V---0000)\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DWQnAQAAMAAJ&q=%22completed+and+on+january+15th%2C+1948%22","external_links_name":"Civil Engineering, Volume 43"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=WvEnAAAAMAAJ&q=%22G%C3%A9nissiat+dam%22+%221948%22","external_links_name":"Far Eastern Economic Review Interactive Edition, Volume 25"},{"Link":"https://www.french-waterways.com/waterways/south-east/river-rhone/","external_links_name":"\"Information about the 310km long river Rhône from Lyon to the Mediterranean, Summary\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/lesinondationse00chamgoog","external_links_name":"Volume 3 (1861)"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/lesinondationse05chamgoog","external_links_name":"Volume 4 (1862)"},{"Link":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Rhone_(river)","external_links_name":"\"Rhone (river)\""},{"Link":"http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/rga_0035-1121_1925_num_13_3_4941","external_links_name":"\"Le régime du Rhône\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.3406%2Frga.1925.4941","external_links_name":"10.3406/rga.1925.4941"},{"Link":"http://www.inforhone.fr/inforhone/en/commun/index.aspx","external_links_name":"InfoRhône"},{"Link":"https://www.cnr.tm.fr/en/Default.aspx","external_links_name":"CNR"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131019125427/http://www.cnr.tm.fr/en/Default.aspx","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.french-waterways.com/waterways/south-east/river-rhone/","external_links_name":"Rhône"},{"Link":"https://www.french-waterways.com/waterways/south-east/petit-rhone/","external_links_name":"Petit-Rhône"},{"Link":"http://www.french-waterways.com/waterways/south-east/haut-rhone/","external_links_name":"Haut-Rhône"},{"Link":"http://www.french-waterways.com/waterways/canals-rivers-france/","external_links_name":"Navigation details for 80 French rivers and canals"},{"Link":"http://www.rhone-mediterranee.eaufrance.fr/","external_links_name":"The Rhône-Mediterranean page of EauFrance"},{"Link":"http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/DF_waterways.shtml","external_links_name":"Waterways in France"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/156727178","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4103774-1","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007536332005171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85113790","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00629450","external_links_name":"Japan"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge130641&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/148168","external_links_name":"Pleiades"},{"Link":"https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/008769","external_links_name":"Historical Dictionary of Switzerland"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/027242692","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Robinson_Pierce
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John R. Pierce
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["1 At Bell Labs","2 Life after Bell Labs","3 Personal life","4 See also","5 References","6 Sources","7 External links"]
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American novelist
John Robinson PierceJohn Robinson PierceBornMarch 27, 1910 (1910-03-27)Des Moines, Iowa, USDiedApril 2, 2002(2002-04-02) (aged 92)Sunnyvale, California, USAwardsStuart Ballantine Medal (1960)IEEE Edison Medal (1963)IEEE Medal of Honor (1975)Marconi Prize (1979)Japan Prize (1985)
John Robinson Pierce (March 27, 1910 – April 2, 2002), was an American engineer and author. He did extensive work concerning radio communication, microwave technology, computer music, psychoacoustics, and science fiction. Additionally to his professional career he wrote science fiction for many years using the names John Pierce, John R. Pierce, and J. J. Coupling. Born in Des Moines, Iowa, he earned his PhD from Caltech, and died in Sunnyvale, California, from complications of Parkinson's Disease.
At Bell Labs
Pierce wrote about electronics and information theory, and developed jointly the concept of pulse-code modulation (PCM) with his Bell Laboratories colleagues Bernard M. Oliver and Claude Shannon. He supervised the Bell Labs team which built the first transistor, and at the request of one of them, Walter Brattain, invented the term transistor; he recalled:
The way I provided the name, was to think of what the device did. And at that time, it was supposed to be the dual of the vacuum tube. The vacuum tube had transconductance, so the transistor would have 'transresistance.' And the name should fit in with the names of other devices, such as varistor and thermistor. And ... I suggested the name 'transistor.'— John R. Pierce, interviewed for PBS show "Transistorized!"
Pierce's early work at Bell Labs concerned vacuum tubes of all sorts. During World War II he discovered the work of Rudolf Kompfner in a British radar laboratory, where Kompfner had invented the traveling-wave tube; Pierce worked out the mathematics for this broadband amplifier device, and wrote a book about it, after hiring Kompfner for Bell Labs. He later recounted that "Rudy Kompfner invented the traveling-wave tube, but I discovered it." According to Kompfner's book, the statement "Rudi invented the traveling-wave tube, and John discovered it" was due to Dr. Eugene G. Fubini, quoted in The New Yorker "Profile" on Pierce, September 21, 1963.
Pierce is widely credited for saying "Nature abhors a vacuum tube", but Pierce attributed that quip to Myron Glass. Others say that quip was "commonly heard at the Bell Laboratories prior to the invention of the transistor".
Other famous Pierce quips are "Funding artificial intelligence is real stupidity", "I thought of it the first time I saw it", and "After growing wildly for years, the field of computing appears to be reaching its infancy."
The National Inventors Hall of Fame has honored Bernard M. Oliver
and Claude Shannon
as the inventors of PCM,
as described in 'Communication System Employing Pulse Code Modulation,' U.S. patent 2,801,281 filed in 1946 and 1952, granted in 1956. Another patent by the same title was filed by John Pierce in 1945, and issued in 1948: U.S. patent 2,437,707. The three of them published "The Philosophy of PCM" in 1948.
Pierce did significant research involving satellites, including an important role as executive director of Bell's Research-Communications Principles Division)
for the development of the first commercial communications satellite, Telstar 1.
In fact, although Arthur C. Clarke was the first to propose geostationary communications satellites, Pierce seems to have thought of the idea independently and may have been the first to discuss unmanned communications satellites. Clarke himself characterized Pierce as "one of the two fathers of the communications satellite" (along with Harold Rosen). See ECHO – America's First Communications Satellite (reprinted from SMEC Vintage Electrics Volume 2 #1) for some details on his original contributions.
Pierce directed the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee that produced the ALPAC report, which had the effect of curtailing most funding for work on machine translation during the late 1960s and early 1970s.
Life after Bell Labs
After quitting Bell Laboratories, he joined California Institute of Technology as a professor of electrical engineering in 1971. Soon thereafter, he also accepted the position of Chief Engineer at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
In 1980 he retired from Caltech and accepted his final job at Stanford's CCRMA. There he was prominent in the research of computer music, as a Visiting Professor of Music, Emeritus (along with John Chowning and Max Mathews). It was at Stanford that he became an independent co-discoverer of the non-octave musical scale that he later named the Bohlen–Pierce scale.
Many of Pierce's technical books were intended to introduce a semi-technical audience to modern technical topics. Among them are Electrons, Waves, and Messages; An Introduction to Information Theory: Symbols, Signals, and Noise; Waves and Ear; Man's World of Sound; Quantum Electronics; and Signals: The Science of Telecommunication.
Pierce was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1955. In 1960, Pierce was awarded the Stuart Ballantine Medal. In 1962, Pierce received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. That same year, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1963, Pierce received the IEEE Edison Medal for "his pioneer work and leadership in satellite communications and for his stimulus and contributions to electron optics, travelling wave tube theory, and the control of noise in electron streams". He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1973. In 1975, he received the IEEE Medal of Honor for "his pioneering concrete proposals and the realization of satellite communication experiments, and for contributions in theory and design of traveling wave tubes and in electron beam optics essential to this success." In 1985, he was one of the first two recipients of the Japan Prize "for outstanding achievement in the field of electronics and communications technologies".
Personal life
Besides his technical books, Pierce wrote science fiction using the pseudonym J.J. Coupling, which refers to the total angular momenta of individual particles. John Pierce also had an early interest in gliding and assisted the development of the Long Beach Glider Club in Los Angeles, one of the earliest glider societies in the United States. According to Richard Hamming "you couldn't talk to John Pierce without being stimulated very quickly".
Pierce had been a resident of Berkeley Heights, New Jersey, Pasadena, California, and later of Palo Alto, California.
During his later years, as a visiting professor at Stanford University's Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics, he and his wife Brenda were known for having dinner parties in their Palo Alto home, in which they would invite an eclectic variety of guests and have lively discussions concerning topics ranging from space exploration to politics, health care, and 20th-century music. One such dinner party was reported in This Is Your Brain On Music, written by Pierce's former student Daniel Levitin.
The papers of John R. Pierce are at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California.
At his death Pierce was survived by his wife Brenda; a son—science fiction editor John Jeremy Pierce—and a daughter, Elizabeth Anne Pierce.
See also
ALPAC report
References
^ Mathews, Max (December 2003). "Obituary: John Robinson Pierce". Physics Today. 56 (12): 88. doi:10.1063/1.1650249.
^ Saxon, Wolfgang (April 5, 2002). "John Robinson Pierce, 92, A Father of the Transistor". The New York Times. Retrieved January 8, 2020.
^ Kompfner, Rudolf, The Invention of the Traveling-Wave Tube, San Francisco Press, 1964.
^ J. R. Pierce, Traveling-Wave Tubes, New York: van Nostrand Co., 1950
^ John R. Pierce (1991). "My Work With Vacuum Tubes At Bell Laboratories". Vintage Electrics. 3 (1). Southwest Museum of Engineering, Communications and Computation.
^ Frederick Seitz; Norman G. Einspruch (1998). Electronic Genie: The Tangled History of Silicon. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-02383-8.
^
"Bernard Oliver". National Inventor's Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on December 5, 2010. Retrieved February 6, 2011.
^
"Claude Shannon". National Inventor's Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on December 6, 2010. Retrieved February 6, 2011.
^
"National Inventors Hall of Fame announces 2004 class of inventors". Science Blog. February 11, 2004. Retrieved February 6, 2011.
^
B. M. Oliver; J. R. Pierce; C. E. Shannon (November 1948). "The Philosophy of PCM". Proceedings of the IRE. 36 (11): 1324–1331. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1948.231941. ISSN 0096-8390. S2CID 51663786.
^
"JOHN R. PIERCE (1910–2002) INTERVIEWED BY HARRIETT LYLE 1979" (PDF).
^
John R. Pierce (1990). "Telstar, A History". SMEC Vintage Electrics.
^ "John Robinson Pierce," Arthur C. Clarke, Locus, May 2002, p.69
^ John R. Pierce and A. Michael Noll, SIGNALS: The Science of Telecommunication, Scientific American Books (New York, NY), 1990.
^ "John R. Pierce". www.nasonline.org. Retrieved August 15, 2022.
^ "Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement". www.achievement.org. American Academy of Achievement.
^ "John Robinson Pierce". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. Retrieved August 15, 2022.
^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved August 15, 2022.
^ LAUREATES; 1985 (1st) Japan Prize Laureates; Prize Category: Information and Communications; Dr. John R. Pierce (United States)
^ Love, Allan W. (June 1985). "In Memory of Carl A. Wiley". Antennas and Propagation Society Newsletter. 27 (3). IEEE: 17–18. doi:10.1109/MAP.1985.27810.
^ "You and Your Research". www.cs.virginia.edu. Retrieved February 24, 2020.
^ Kamin, Arthur Z. "State Becomes a Part of Celebrating Marconi's Achievements", The New York Times, October 23, 1994. Accessed July 6, 2008. "The recipient in 1979 was Dr. John R. Pierce, then of the California Institute of Technology who had been with AT&T Bell Laboratories at Murray Hill and at Holmdel. Dr. Pierce had lived in Berkeley Heights and now lives in Palo Alto, Calif."
^
Edward E. David, Jr.; Max V. Mathews; A. Michael Noll. "John Robinson Pierce". Biographical Memoirs. National Academies Press. Retrieved December 8, 2009.
^ Memorial Resolution: John Robinson Pierce (1910–2002) Archived July 2, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
Sources
The National Academies Press
External links
IEEE Global History Network biography
Creative Thinking by J. R. Pierce, December 1951
"Machine Hearing and the Legacy of John R. Pierce" – video of a talk at Caltech's EE Centennial celebration
John R. Pierce at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
vteIEEE Edison Medal1951–1975
Charles F. Wagner (1951)
Vladimir K. Zworykin (1952)
John F. Peters (1953)
Oliver E. Buckley (1954)
Leonid A. Umansky (1955)
Comfort A. Adams (1956)
John K. Hodnette (1957)
Charles F. Kettering (1958)
James F. Fairman (1959)
Harold S. Osborne (1960)
William B. Kouwenhoven (1961)
Alexander C. Monteith (1962)
John R. Pierce (1963)
Walker Lee Cisler (1965)
Wilmer L. Barrow (1966)
George Harold Brown (1967)
Charles F. Avila (1968)
Hendrik Wade Bode (1969)
Howard H. Aiken (1970)
John Wistar Simpson (1971)
William Hayward Pickering (1972)
Bernard D. H. Tellegen (1973)
Jan A. Rajchman (1974)
Sidney Darlington (1975)
vteIEEE Medal of Honor1951–1975
Vladimir K. Zworykin (1951)
Walter R. G. Baker (1952)
John M. Miller (1953)
William L. Everitt (1954)
Harald T. Friis (1955)
John V. L. Hogan (1956)
Julius Adams Stratton (1957)
Albert W. Hull (1958)
Emory Leon Chaffee (1959)
Harry Nyquist (1960)
Ernst Guillemin (1961)
Edward Victor Appleton (1962)
George C. Southworth (1963)
John Hays Hammond Jr. (1963)
Harold Alden Wheeler (1964)
Claude Shannon (1966)
Charles H. Townes (1967)
Gordon Kidd Teal (1968)
Edward Ginzton (1969)
Dennis Gabor (1970)
John Bardeen (1971)
Jay Wright Forrester (1972)
Rudolf Kompfner (1973)
Rudolf E. Kálmán (1974)
John R. Pierce (1975)
vteCharles Stark Draper Prize recipients1980s
Jack Kilby / Robert Noyce (1989)
1990s
Frank Whittle / Hans von Ohain (1991)
John Backus (1993)
John R. Pierce / Harold A. Rosen (1995)
Vladimir Haensel (1997)
Charles K. Kao / Robert D. Maurer / John B. MacChesney (1999)
2000s
Vinton Cerf / Bob Kahn / Leonard Kleinrock / Lawrence G. Roberts (2001)
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2010s
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Isamu Akasaki / George Craford / Russell Dupuis / Nick Holonyak / Shuji Nakamura (2015)
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2020s
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vteUnited States National Medal of Science laureatesBehavioral and social science1960s
1964
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1980s
1986
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1987
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1988
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1990s
1990
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1991
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1992
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1994
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1995
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1996
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1997
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1998
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1999
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2000s
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2003
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2004
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2005
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2008
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2009
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2010s
2011
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2014
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2015
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Biological sciences1960s
1963
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1964
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1965
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1966
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1967
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1968
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1969
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1970s
1970
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1973
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1974
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1975
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1976
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1979
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1980s
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1982
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1983
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1986
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1987
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1988
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1989
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1990s
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1991
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1992
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1994
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1995
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1996
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1997
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1998
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1999
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2000s
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2001
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2002
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2003
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2004
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2005
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2006
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2007
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2008
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2009
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2010s
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2011
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2012
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2013
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2014
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1983
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1987
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1988
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1989
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1991
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1992
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1993
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1994
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1995
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1997
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1998
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1999
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2000s
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2001
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2007
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2008
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2009
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2011
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2012
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Jerrold Meinwald
2013
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2014
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Engineering sciences1960s
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1963
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1964
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1965
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1966
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1967
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1968
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1969
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1970s
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1973
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1974
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1975
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1976
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1979
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1980s
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1983
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1986
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1987
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1988
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1989
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1990s
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1991
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1992
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1993
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1994
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1995
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1996
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C. Kumar N. Patel
1998
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1999
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2000s
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2001
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2002
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2003
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2004
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2005
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2006
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2007
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2008
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2009
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2010s
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2011
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2012
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Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences1960s
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1964
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1965
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1966
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1967
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1968
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1969
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1970s
1970
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1973
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1974
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1975
John W. Backus
Shiing-Shen Chern
George Dantzig
1976
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Hassler Whitney
1979
Joseph L. Doob
Donald E. Knuth
1980s
1982
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1983
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Isadore Singer
1986
Peter Lax
Antoni Zygmund
1987
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Michael Freedman
1988
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Joseph B. Keller
1989
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Donald C. Spencer
1990s
1990
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John McCarthy
1991
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1992
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1993
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1994
John Cocke
1995
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1996
Richard Karp
Stephen Smale
1997
Shing-Tung Yau
1998
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1999
Felix Browder
Ronald R. Coifman
2000s
2000
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Karen Uhlenbeck
2001
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Elias M. Stein
2002
James G. Glimm
2003
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2004
Dennis P. Sullivan
2005
Bradley Efron
2006
Hyman Bass
2007
Leonard Kleinrock
Andrew J. Viterbi
2009
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2010s
2010
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2011
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Barry Mazur
2012
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David Blackwell
2013
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Physical sciences1960s
1963
Luis W. Alvarez
1964
Julian Schwinger
Harold Urey
Robert Burns Woodward
1965
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Leon M. Lederman
William Rubey
1966
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Henry Eyring
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1967
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Francis Birch
Gregory Breit
Louis Hammett
George Kistiakowsky
1968
Paul Bartlett
Herbert Friedman
Lars Onsager
Eugene Wigner
1969
Herbert C. Brown
Wolfgang Panofsky
1970s
1970
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Allan R. Sandage
John C. Slater
John A. Wheeler
Saul Winstein
1973
Carl Djerassi
Maurice Ewing
Arie Jan Haagen-Smit
Vladimir Haensel
Frederick Seitz
Robert Rathbun Wilson
1974
Nicolaas Bloembergen
Paul Flory
William Alfred Fowler
Linus Carl Pauling
Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer
1975
Hans A. Bethe
Joseph O. Hirschfelder
Lewis Sarett
Edgar Bright Wilson
Chien-Shiung Wu
1976
Samuel Goudsmit
Herbert S. Gutowsky
Frederick Rossini
Verner Suomi
Henry Taube
George Uhlenbeck
1979
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Herman Mark
Edward M. Purcell
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Lyman Spitzer
Victor F. Weisskopf
1980s
1982
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Edward Teller
Charles H. Townes
1983
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Frederick Reines
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1986
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1987
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James A. Van Allen
1988
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1989
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1990s
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1991
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1992
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1993
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1994
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1995
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1996
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1997
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1998
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1999
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2000s
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2001
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"radio communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_communication"},{"link_name":"microwave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave"},{"link_name":"computer music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_music"},{"link_name":"psychoacoustics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoacoustics"},{"link_name":"science fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Des Moines, Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Des_Moines,_Iowa"},{"link_name":"Caltech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caltech"},{"link_name":"Sunnyvale, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunnyvale,_California"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"John Robinson Pierce (March 27, 1910 – April 2, 2002), was an American engineer and author. He did extensive work concerning radio communication, microwave technology, computer music, psychoacoustics, and science fiction.[1] Additionally to his professional career he wrote science fiction for many years using the names John Pierce, John R. Pierce, and J. J. Coupling. Born in Des Moines, Iowa, he earned his PhD from Caltech, and died in Sunnyvale, California,[2] from complications of Parkinson's Disease.","title":"John R. Pierce"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics"},{"link_name":"information theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory"},{"link_name":"pulse-code modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-code_modulation"},{"link_name":"Bell Laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs"},{"link_name":"Bernard M. Oliver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_M._Oliver"},{"link_name":"Claude Shannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Shannon"},{"link_name":"Walter Brattain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Brattain"},{"link_name":"transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"PBS show \"Transistorized!\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.pbs.org/transistor/album1/pierce/index.html"},{"link_name":"Bell Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Rudolf Kompfner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Kompfner"},{"link_name":"traveling-wave tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traveling_wave_tube"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"National Inventors Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"Bernard M. Oliver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_M._Oliver"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Claude Shannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Shannon"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"U.S. patent 2,801,281","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//patents.google.com/patent/US2801281"},{"link_name":"U.S. patent 2,437,707","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//patents.google.com/patent/US2437707"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"satellites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellites"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"communications satellite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite"},{"link_name":"Telstar 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telstar_1"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Arthur C. Clarke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke"},{"link_name":"geostationary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary_orbit"},{"link_name":"Harold Rosen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Rosen_(electrical_engineer)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"ECHO – America's First Communications Satellite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.smecc.org/john_pierce___echoredo.htm"},{"link_name":"ALPAC report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALPAC_report"},{"link_name":"machine translation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_translation"}],"text":"Pierce wrote about electronics and information theory, and developed jointly the concept of pulse-code modulation (PCM) with his Bell Laboratories colleagues Bernard M. Oliver and Claude Shannon. He supervised the Bell Labs team which built the first transistor, and at the request of one of them, Walter Brattain, invented the term transistor; he recalled:The way I provided the name, was to think of what the device did. And at that time, it was supposed to be the dual of the vacuum tube. The vacuum tube had transconductance, so the transistor would have 'transresistance.' And the name should fit in with the names of other devices, such as varistor and thermistor. And ... I suggested the name 'transistor.'— John R. Pierce, interviewed for PBS show \"Transistorized!\"Pierce's early work at Bell Labs concerned vacuum tubes of all sorts. During World War II he discovered the work of Rudolf Kompfner in a British radar laboratory, where Kompfner had invented the traveling-wave tube;[3] Pierce worked out the mathematics for this broadband amplifier device, and wrote a book about it, after hiring Kompfner for Bell Labs.[4] He later recounted that \"Rudy Kompfner invented the traveling-wave tube, but I discovered it.\" According to Kompfner's book, the statement \"Rudi invented the traveling-wave tube, and John discovered it\" was due to Dr. Eugene G. Fubini, quoted in The New Yorker \"Profile\" on Pierce, September 21, 1963.Pierce is widely credited for saying \"Nature abhors a vacuum tube\", but Pierce attributed that quip to Myron Glass.[5] Others[6] say that quip was \"commonly heard at the Bell Laboratories prior to the invention of the transistor\".Other famous Pierce quips are \"Funding artificial intelligence is real stupidity\", \"I thought of it the first time I saw it\", and \"After growing wildly for years, the field of computing appears to be reaching its infancy.\"The National Inventors Hall of Fame has honored Bernard M. Oliver[7] \nand Claude Shannon[8] \nas the inventors of PCM,[9]\nas described in 'Communication System Employing Pulse Code Modulation,' U.S. patent 2,801,281 filed in 1946 and 1952, granted in 1956. Another patent by the same title was filed by John Pierce in 1945, and issued in 1948: U.S. patent 2,437,707. The three of them published \"The Philosophy of PCM\" in 1948.[10]Pierce did significant research involving satellites, including an important role as executive director of Bell's Research-Communications Principles Division[11])\nfor the development of the first commercial communications satellite, Telstar 1.[12]\nIn fact, although Arthur C. Clarke was the first to propose geostationary communications satellites, Pierce seems to have thought of the idea independently and may have been the first to discuss unmanned communications satellites. Clarke himself characterized Pierce as \"one of the two fathers of the communications satellite\" (along with Harold Rosen).[13] See ECHO – America's First Communications Satellite (reprinted from SMEC Vintage Electrics Volume 2 #1) for some details on his original contributions.Pierce directed the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee that produced the ALPAC report, which had the effect of curtailing most funding for work on machine translation during the late 1960s and early 1970s.","title":"At Bell Labs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"California Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caltech"},{"link_name":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Stanford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford"},{"link_name":"CCRMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCRMA"},{"link_name":"computer music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_music"},{"link_name":"John Chowning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Chowning"},{"link_name":"Max Mathews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Mathews"},{"link_name":"Bohlen–Pierce scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohlen%E2%80%93Pierce_scale"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"National Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Stuart Ballantine Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Ballantine_Medal"},{"link_name":"American Academy of Achievement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Achievement"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"American Academy of Arts and Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"IEEE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE"},{"link_name":"Edison Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edison_Medal"},{"link_name":"American Philosophical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"IEEE Medal of Honor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Medal_of_Honor"},{"link_name":"Japan Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Prize"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"After quitting Bell Laboratories, he joined California Institute of Technology as a professor of electrical engineering in 1971. Soon thereafter, he also accepted the position of Chief Engineer at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.In 1980 he retired from Caltech and accepted his final job at Stanford's CCRMA. There he was prominent in the research of computer music, as a Visiting Professor of Music, Emeritus (along with John Chowning and Max Mathews). It was at Stanford that he became an independent co-discoverer of the non-octave musical scale that he later named the Bohlen–Pierce scale.Many of Pierce's technical books were intended to introduce a semi-technical audience to modern technical topics. Among them are Electrons, Waves, and Messages; An Introduction to Information Theory: Symbols, Signals, and Noise; Waves and Ear; Man's World of Sound; Quantum Electronics; and Signals: The Science of Telecommunication.[14]Pierce was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1955.[15] In 1960, Pierce was awarded the Stuart Ballantine Medal. In 1962, Pierce received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.[16] That same year, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[17] In 1963, Pierce received the IEEE Edison Medal for \"his pioneer work and leadership in satellite communications and for his stimulus and contributions to electron optics, travelling wave tube theory, and the control of noise in electron streams\". He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1973.[18] In 1975, he received the IEEE Medal of Honor for \"his pioneering concrete proposals and the realization of satellite communication experiments, and for contributions in theory and design of traveling wave tubes and in electron beam optics essential to this success.\" In 1985, he was one of the first two recipients of the Japan Prize \"for outstanding achievement in the field of electronics and communications technologies\".[19]","title":"Life after Bell Labs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"angular momenta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"gliding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliding"},{"link_name":"Richard Hamming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Hamming"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Berkeley Heights, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Heights,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Pasadena, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasadena,_California"},{"link_name":"Palo Alto, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palo_Alto,_California"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"20th-century music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th-century_music"},{"link_name":"This Is Your Brain On Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Your_Brain_On_Music"},{"link_name":"Daniel Levitin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Levitin"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"John Jeremy Pierce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_J._Pierce"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"Besides his technical books, Pierce wrote science fiction using the pseudonym J.J. Coupling, which refers to the total angular momenta of individual particles.[20] John Pierce also had an early interest in gliding and assisted the development of the Long Beach Glider Club in Los Angeles, one of the earliest glider societies in the United States. According to Richard Hamming \"you couldn't talk to John Pierce without being stimulated very quickly\".[21]Pierce had been a resident of Berkeley Heights, New Jersey, Pasadena, California, and later of Palo Alto, California.[22]During his later years, as a visiting professor at Stanford University's Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics, he and his wife Brenda were known for having dinner parties in their Palo Alto home, in which they would invite an eclectic variety of guests and have lively discussions concerning topics ranging from space exploration to politics, health care, and 20th-century music. One such dinner party was reported in This Is Your Brain On Music, written by Pierce's former student Daniel Levitin.The papers of John R. Pierce are at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California.[23]At his death Pierce was survived by his wife Brenda; a son—science fiction editor John Jeremy Pierce—and a daughter, Elizabeth Anne Pierce.[24]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The National Academies Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=biomems&page=jpierce.html"}],"text":"The National Academies Press","title":"Sources"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"ALPAC report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALPAC_report"}]
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[{"reference":"Mathews, Max (December 2003). \"Obituary: John Robinson Pierce\". Physics Today. 56 (12): 88. doi:10.1063/1.1650249.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Mathews","url_text":"Mathews, Max"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1650249","url_text":"\"Obituary: John Robinson Pierce\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1650249","url_text":"10.1063/1.1650249"}]},{"reference":"Saxon, Wolfgang (April 5, 2002). \"John Robinson Pierce, 92, A Father of the Transistor\". The New York Times. Retrieved January 8, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/05/nyregion/john-robinson-pierce-92-a-father-of-the-transistor.html","url_text":"\"John Robinson Pierce, 92, A Father of the Transistor\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"John R. Pierce (1991). \"My Work With Vacuum Tubes At Bell Laboratories\". Vintage Electrics. 3 (1). Southwest Museum of Engineering, Communications and Computation.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.smecc.org/john_r__pierce____electron_tubes.htm","url_text":"\"My Work With Vacuum Tubes At Bell Laboratories\""}]},{"reference":"Frederick Seitz; Norman G. Einspruch (1998). Electronic Genie: The Tangled History of Silicon. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-02383-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Seitz","url_text":"Frederick Seitz"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Einspruch","url_text":"Norman G. Einspruch"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press","url_text":"University of Illinois Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-02383-8","url_text":"0-252-02383-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Bernard Oliver\". National Inventor's Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on December 5, 2010. Retrieved February 6, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101205235415/http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/211.html","url_text":"\"Bernard Oliver\""},{"url":"http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/211.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Claude Shannon\". National Inventor's Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on December 6, 2010. Retrieved February 6, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101206045917/http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/212.html","url_text":"\"Claude Shannon\""},{"url":"http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/212.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"National Inventors Hall of Fame announces 2004 class of inventors\". Science Blog. February 11, 2004. Retrieved February 6, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.scienceblog.com/community/older/2004/6/20045378.shtml","url_text":"\"National Inventors Hall of Fame announces 2004 class of inventors\""}]},{"reference":"B. M. Oliver; J. R. Pierce; C. E. Shannon (November 1948). \"The Philosophy of PCM\". Proceedings of the IRE. 36 (11): 1324–1331. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1948.231941. ISSN 0096-8390. S2CID 51663786.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJRPROC.1948.231941","url_text":"10.1109/JRPROC.1948.231941"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0096-8390","url_text":"0096-8390"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51663786","url_text":"51663786"}]},{"reference":"\"JOHN R. PIERCE (1910–2002) INTERVIEWED BY HARRIETT LYLE 1979\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"http://oralhistories.library.caltech.edu/98/01/OH_Pierce_J.pdf","url_text":"\"JOHN R. PIERCE (1910–2002) INTERVIEWED BY HARRIETT LYLE 1979\""}]},{"reference":"John R. Pierce (1990). \"Telstar, A History\". SMEC Vintage Electrics.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.smecc.org/john_pierce1.htm","url_text":"\"Telstar, A History\""}]},{"reference":"\"John R. Pierce\". www.nasonline.org. Retrieved August 15, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/51643.html","url_text":"\"John R. Pierce\""}]},{"reference":"\"Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement\". www.achievement.org. American Academy of Achievement.","urls":[{"url":"https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#science-exploration","url_text":"\"Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Achievement","url_text":"American Academy of Achievement"}]},{"reference":"\"John Robinson Pierce\". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. Retrieved August 15, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amacad.org/person/john-robinson-pierce","url_text":"\"John Robinson Pierce\""}]},{"reference":"\"APS Member History\". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved August 15, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=John+R.+Pierce&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced","url_text":"\"APS Member History\""}]},{"reference":"Love, Allan W. (June 1985). \"In Memory of Carl A. Wiley\". Antennas and Propagation Society Newsletter. 27 (3). IEEE: 17–18. doi:10.1109/MAP.1985.27810.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE","url_text":"IEEE"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMAP.1985.27810","url_text":"10.1109/MAP.1985.27810"}]},{"reference":"\"You and Your Research\". www.cs.virginia.edu. Retrieved February 24, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cs.virginia.edu/~robins/YouAndYourResearch.html","url_text":"\"You and Your Research\""}]},{"reference":"Edward E. David, Jr.; Max V. Mathews; A. Michael Noll. \"John Robinson Pierce\". Biographical Memoirs. National Academies Press. Retrieved December 8, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=biomems&page=jpierce.html","url_text":"\"John Robinson Pierce\""}]}]
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R. Pierce, December 1951"},{"Link":"http://ee.caltech.edu/centennial/video/22_lyon/22_lyon.html","external_links_name":"\"Machine Hearing and the Legacy of John R. Pierce\""},{"Link":"https://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/ea.cgi?John_R._Pierce","external_links_name":"John R. 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZOG_(hypertext)
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ZOG (hypertext)
|
["1 Composition","1.1 Syntax","2 References"]
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Hypertext system
For other uses, see ZOG.
Data input form, showing the general structure of ZOG syntax
ZOG was an early hypertext system developed at Carnegie Mellon University during the 1970s by Donald McCracken and Robert Akscyn. ZOG was first developed by Allen Newell and George G. Robertson to serve as the front end for AI and Cognitive Science programs brought together at CMU for a summer workshop. The ZOG project was as an outgrowth of long-term artificial intelligence research led by Allen Newell and funded by the Office of Naval Research. A second version of ZOG was installed as the key interface between users and logistics on the Nimitz class carrier USS Carl Vinson in 1983.
Composition
ZOG consisted of "frames" that contained a title, a description, a line containing ZOG system commands, and selections (menu items) that led to other frames. ZOG pioneered the "frame" or "card" model of hypertext later popularized by HyperCard. In such systems, the frames or cards cannot scroll to show content that is part of the same document but held offscreen. Instead, text that exceeds the capacity of one screen must be placed in another (which then constitutes a separate frame or card)
The ZOG database became fully functional around 1977. Beginning in 1980, ZOG was ported from DEC VAX version (written in an experimental language called "L*") to the Pascal-based Three Rivers PERQ workstation and was used for a shipwide local area network on the American aircraft carrier USS Carl Vinson. In 1981, Rob Akscyn and Donald McCracken, two principals from the ZOG project, founded Knowledge Systems to develop and market a commercial follow-on to ZOG called KMS ("Knowledge Management System").
Syntax
An example of syntax from one dialect of ZOG:
This TITLE line summarizes the frame's contents
This TEXT expands the frame's main point of information, but is sometimes omitted.
The OPTIONS below are used to point to subordinate sections or to provide an
enumerated expansion of the main topic. LOCAL PADS do not have the connotation of
leading to deeper detail, but rather to tangential points such as related material
in another document or database. Invoking programs is another function typically
reserved for LOCAL PADS. At the bottom of the frame is a set of general functions
called GLOBAL PADS, which are available in every frame.
1. This OPTION leads to another frame
2. Options are often used like subpoints in an outline
3. -This option leads nowhere (indicated by the minus sign at the front)
References
^ a b McCracken, DL; Akscyn, RM, Experience with the ZOG human-computer interface system, CMU
^ Van Matre, N. H.; Moy, M. C.; McCann, P. H. (Dec 1984). "1.3 Objective". The ZOG Technology Demonstration Project: A System Evaluation of USS CARL VINSON (CVN 70). p. 2. Archived from the original on January 1, 2020.
^ "Zog form entry", The ZOG Technology Demonstration Project: A System Evaluation of the USS Carl Vinson (CVN 70) (PNG).
^ Robertson, CK; McCracken, DL; Newell, A (1979), The ZOG approach to man-machine communication (technical report), Pittsburgh, PA, US: Carnegie-Mellon University, Department of Computer Science, CMU-CS-79-148.
|
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|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testability
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Testability
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["1 See also","2 Further reading","3 References"]
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Extent to which truthness or falseness of a hypothesis/declaration can be tested
This article is about hypothesis testing. For the ability of equipment to be tested, see Non-functional requirement and Software testability.
This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Testability is a primary aspect of science and the scientific method. There are two components to testability:
Falsifiability or defeasibility, which means that counterexamples to the hypothesis are logically possible.
The practical feasibility of observing a reproducible series of such counterexamples if they do exist.
In short, a hypothesis is testable if there is a possibility of deciding whether it is true or false based on experimentation by anyone. This allows anyone to decide whether a theory can be supported or refuted by data. However, the interpretation of experimental data may be also inconclusive or uncertain. Karl Popper introduced the concept that scientific knowledge had the property of falsifiability as published in The Logic of Scientific Discovery.
See also
Philosophy portalScience portal
Confirmability
Controllability
Observability
Scientific method
Test method
Further reading
Johansson, Lars-Goran (2015). "Hypotheses and hypothesis testing". Philosophy of science for scientists. Cham: Springer-Verlag. pp. 41–61 (59). doi:10.1007/978-3-319-26551-3. ISBN 9783319265490. OCLC 923649072. ... the question of whether the auxiliary assumption is testable or not is not so easy to determine as it might first appear. Criteria regarding independent testability do not seem to be absolute. ... The least common denominator for all sciences is that hypotheses are formulated and tested. This is meaningful only if one is prepared to change one's mind after testing, to admit that even one's favourite hypothesis was wrong. ... The result of the test is either that the predictions and observation reports are compatible, or that they conflict. In the former case one may be justified to say that one's hypothesis is supported. In the latter case one must reconsider something; one must reject either the hypothesis, some auxiliary assumption, or the observation report.
Kegan, Robert; Lahey, Lisa Laskow (2009). "Designing tests of your big assumption". Immunity to change: how to overcome it and unlock potential in yourself and your organization. Leadership for the common good. Boston: Harvard Business Press. pp. 256–264. ISBN 9781422117361. OCLC 231580325. The purpose of each test you run is to see what happens when you intentionally alter your usual conduct and then reflect upon the meaning of the results for your big assumption. ... To make testable, you may have to back up and unearth a prior assumption in the sequence ... Once you've chosen a big assumption to test, the next step is to design your first experiment to challenge it. Robert Kegan and Lisa Lahey suggest how to turn personal tacit assumptions into explicit testable hypotheses in everyday life.
Keuth, Herbert (2004) . "From falsifiability to testability". The philosophy of Karl Popper (1st English ed.). Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 48–49. ISBN 9780521548304. OCLC 54503549. Consequently, the universal statements, which are contradicted by the basic statements, are not strictly refutable. Like singular statements and probability statements, they are empirically testable, but their tests do not have certain, definite results, do not result in strict verification or falsification but only in temporary acceptance or rejection.
Popper, Karl (2002) . The logic of scientific discovery (Reprint ed.). London; New York: Routledge. pp. 95–120 (95). doi:10.4324/9780203994627. ISBN 9780415278447. OCLC 48533950. Theories may be more, or less, severely testable; that is to say, more, or less, easily falsifiable. The degree of their testability is of significance for the selection of theories. In this chapter, I shall compare the various degrees of testability or falsifiability of theories through comparing the classes of their potential falsifiers. This investigation is quite independent of the question whether or not it is possible to distinguish in an absolute sense between falsifiable and non-falsifiable theories. Indeed one might say of the present chapter that it 'relativizes' the requirement of falsifiability by showing falsifiability to be a matter of degree.
Sober, Elliott (November 1999). "Testability". Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association. 73 (2): 47–76 (47–48). doi:10.2307/3131087. JSTOR 3131087. The idea that some experiments really do test a proposition, while others do not, is not controversial, nor does it deserve to be. ... Testing is to testability as dissolving is to solubility. If we can understand what testing is, we also should be able to understand what testability is.
vtePhilosophy of scienceConcepts
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Inquiry
Nature
Objectivity
Observation
Paradigm
Problem of induction
Scientific evidence
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Scientific law
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Evolutionism
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Philosophers of sciencePrecursors
Roger Bacon
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References
^ Science works with testable ideas
^ Karl Popper "The Logic of Scientific Discovery", 1934 (as Logik der Forschung, English translation 1959), ISBN 0415278449 and 2002 ISBN 9780415278447, 0415278449
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Quine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine"},{"link_name":"Thomas Kuhn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn"},{"link_name":"Imre Lakatos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos"},{"link_name":"Paul Feyerabend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend"},{"link_name":"Ian Hacking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Hacking"},{"link_name":"Bas van Fraassen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen"},{"link_name":"Larry Laudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Laudan"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science"},{"link_name":"Philosophy portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg"},{"link_name":"Science portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Science"}],"text":"Johansson, Lars-Goran (2015). \"Hypotheses and hypothesis testing\". Philosophy of science for scientists. Cham: Springer-Verlag. pp. 41–61 (59). doi:10.1007/978-3-319-26551-3. ISBN 9783319265490. OCLC 923649072. ... the question of whether the auxiliary assumption is testable or not is not so easy to determine as it might first appear. Criteria regarding independent testability do not seem to be absolute. ... The least common denominator for all sciences is that hypotheses are formulated and tested. This is meaningful only if one is prepared to change one's mind after testing, to admit that even one's favourite hypothesis was wrong. ... The result of the test is either that the predictions and observation reports are compatible, or that they conflict. In the former case one may be justified to say that one's hypothesis is supported. In the latter case one must reconsider something; one must reject either the hypothesis, some auxiliary assumption, or the observation report.\nKegan, Robert; Lahey, Lisa Laskow (2009). \"Designing tests of your big assumption\". Immunity to change: how to overcome it and unlock potential in yourself and your organization. Leadership for the common good. Boston: Harvard Business Press. pp. 256–264. ISBN 9781422117361. OCLC 231580325. The purpose of each test you run is to see what happens when you intentionally alter your usual conduct and then reflect upon the meaning of the results for your big assumption. ... To make [the assumption] testable, you may have to back up and unearth a prior assumption in the sequence ... Once you've chosen a big assumption to test, the next step is to design your first experiment to challenge it. Robert Kegan and Lisa Lahey suggest how to turn personal tacit assumptions into explicit testable hypotheses in everyday life.\nKeuth, Herbert [in German] (2004) [Published in German 2000]. \"From falsifiability to testability\". The philosophy of Karl Popper (1st English ed.). Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 48–49. ISBN 9780521548304. OCLC 54503549. Consequently, the universal statements, which are contradicted by the basic statements, are not strictly refutable. Like singular statements and probability statements, they are empirically testable, but their tests do not have certain, definite results, do not result in strict verification or falsification but only in temporary acceptance or rejection.\nPopper, Karl (2002) [Published in German 1935; English translation 1959]. The logic of scientific discovery (Reprint ed.). London; New York: Routledge. pp. 95–120 (95). doi:10.4324/9780203994627. ISBN 9780415278447. OCLC 48533950. Theories may be more, or less, severely testable; that is to say, more, or less, easily falsifiable. The degree of their testability is of significance for the selection of theories. In this chapter, I shall compare the various degrees of testability or falsifiability of theories through comparing the classes of their potential falsifiers. This investigation is quite independent of the question whether or not it is possible to distinguish in an absolute sense between falsifiable and non-falsifiable theories. Indeed one might say of the present chapter that it 'relativizes' the requirement of falsifiability by showing falsifiability to be a matter of degree.\nSober, Elliott (November 1999). \"Testability\". Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association. 73 (2): 47–76 (47–48). doi:10.2307/3131087. JSTOR 3131087. The idea that some experiments really do test a proposition, while others do not, is not controversial, nor does it deserve to be. ... Testing is to testability as dissolving is to solubility. If we can understand what testing is, we also should be able to understand what testability is.vtePhilosophy of scienceConcepts\nAnalysis\nAnalytic–synthetic distinction\nA priori and a posteriori\nCausality\nCommensurability\nConsilience\nConstruct\nCreative synthesis\nDemarcation problem\nEmpirical evidence\nExplanatory power\nFact\nFalsifiability\nFeminist method\nFunctional contextualism\nIgnoramus et ignorabimus\nInductive reasoning\nIntertheoretic reduction\nInquiry\nNature\nObjectivity\nObservation\nParadigm\nProblem of induction\nScientific evidence\nEvidence-based practice\nScientific law\nScientific method\nScientific pluralism\nScientific Revolution\nScientific theory\nTestability\nTheory choice\nTheory-ladenness\nUnderdetermination\nUnity of science\nmore...\nTheories\nCoherentism\nConfirmation holism\nConstructive empiricism\nConstructive realism\nConstructivist epistemology\nContextualism\nConventionalism\nDeductive-nomological model\nEpistemological anarchism\nEvolutionism\nFallibilism\nFoundationalism\nHypothetico-deductive model\nInductionism\nInstrumentalism\nModel-dependent realism\nNaturalism\nPhysicalism\nPositivism / Reductionism / Determinism\nPragmatism\nRationalism / Empiricism\nReceived view / Semantic view of theories\nScientific essentialism\nScientific formalism\nScientific realism / Anti-realism\nScientific skepticism\nScientism\nStructuralism\nUniformitarianism\nVitalism\nPhilosophy of...\nBiology\nChemistry\nPhysics\nSpace and time\nSocial science\nArchaeology\nEconomics\nGeography\nHistory\nLinguistics\nPsychology\nRelated topics\nCriticism of science\nDescriptive science\nEpistemology\nFaith and rationality\nHard and soft science\nHistory and philosophy of science\nNormative science\nProtoscience\nPseudoscience\nRelationship between religion and science\nRhetoric of science\nScience studies\nSociology of scientific ignorance\nSociology of scientific knowledge\nPhilosophers of sciencePrecursors\nRoger Bacon\nFrancis Bacon\nGalileo Galilei\nIsaac Newton\nDavid Hume\n\nAuguste Comte\nHenri Poincaré\nPierre Duhem\nRudolf Steiner\nKarl Pearson\nCharles Sanders Peirce\nWilhelm Windelband\nAlfred North Whitehead\nBertrand Russell\nOtto Neurath\nC. D. Broad\nMichael Polanyi\nHans Reichenbach\nRudolf Carnap\nKarl Popper\nCarl Gustav Hempel\nW. V. O. Quine\nThomas Kuhn\nImre Lakatos\nPaul Feyerabend\nIan Hacking\nBas van Fraassen\nLarry Laudan\nCategory\n Philosophy portal\n Science portal","title":"Further reading"}]
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[]
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Boston: Harvard Business Press. pp. 256–264. ISBN 9781422117361. OCLC 231580325. The purpose of each test you run is to see what happens when you intentionally alter your usual conduct and then reflect upon the meaning of the results for your big assumption. ... To make [the assumption] testable, you may have to back up and unearth a prior assumption in the sequence ... 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curta_calculator
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Curta
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["1 History","2 Cost","3 Design","4 Models","5 Uses","6 Collections","7 Popular culture","8 Further reading","9 References","10 External links"]
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Mechanical pocket calculator
For other uses, see Curta (disambiguation).
CurtaCurta Type II mechanical calculatorTypeMechanical calculatorManufacturerContina AG MaurenIntroduced1948 (Type I)1954 (Type II)Discontinued1972Date invented1930sInvented byCurt HerzstarkCost$125 (Type I)$165 (Type II)CalculatorPrecision11 digits (Type I)15 digits (Type II)Display typeMechanical counterDisplay size6-digit revolution counter, 11-digit result counter (Type I)8-digit revolution counter, 15-digit result counter (Type II)OtherWeight230g (Type I)360g (Type II)
Curta Type I, on display at the Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris.
A partially disassembled Curta calculator, showing the digit slides and the stepped drum behind them
Curta Type I calculator, top view
Curta Type I calculator, bottom view
The Curta is a hand-held mechanical calculator designed by Curt Herzstark. It is known for its extremely compact design: a small cylinder that fits in the palm of the hand. It was affectionately known as the "pepper grinder" or "peppermill" due to its shape and means of operation; its superficial resemblance to a certain type of hand grenade also earned it the nickname "math grenade".
Curtas were considered the best portable calculators available until they were displaced by electronic calculators in the 1970s.
History
The Curta was conceived by Curt Herzstark in the 1930s in Vienna, Austria. By 1938, he had filed a key patent, covering his complemented stepped drum. This single drum replaced the multiple drums, typically around 10 or so, of contemporary calculators, and it enabled not only addition, but subtraction through nines complement math, essentially subtracting by adding. The nines' complement math breakthrough eliminated the significant mechanical complexity created when "borrowing" during subtraction. This drum was the key to miniaturizing the Curta.
His work on the pocket calculator stopped in 1938 when the Nazis forced him and his company to concentrate on manufacturing precision instruments for the German army.
Herzstark, the son of a Catholic mother and Jewish father, was taken into custody in 1943 and eventually sent to Buchenwald concentration camp, where he was encouraged to continue his earlier research:
While I was imprisoned inside Buchenwald I had, after a few days, told the in the work production scheduling department of my ideas. The head of the department, Mr. Munich said, 'See, Herzstark, I understand you've been working on a new thing, a small calculating machine. Do you know, I can give you a tip. We will allow you to make and draw everything. If it is really worth something, then we will give it to the Führer as a present after we win the war. Then, surely, you will be made an Aryan.' For me, that was the first time I thought to myself, my God, if you do this, you can extend your life. And then and there I started to draw the CURTA, the way I had imagined it.— Curt Herzstark, Oral history interview with Curt Herzstark (1987), pp. 36-37
In the camp, Herzstark was able to develop working drawings for a manufacturable device. Buchenwald was liberated by U.S. troops on 11 April 1945, and by November Herzstark had located a factory in Sommertal, near Weimar, whose machinists were skilled enough to produce three working prototypes.
Soviet forces had arrived in July, and Herzstark feared being sent to Russia, so, later that same month, he fled to Austria. He began to look for financial backers, at the same time filing continuing patents as well as several additional patents to protect his work. Franz Joseph II, Prince of Liechtenstein eventually showed interest in the manufacture of the device, and soon a newly formed company, Contina AG Mauren, began production in Liechtenstein.
It was not long before Herzstark's financial backers, thinking they had got from him all they needed, conspired to force him out by reducing the value of all of the company's existing stock to zero, including his one-third interest. These were the same people who had earlier elected not to have Herzstark transfer ownership of his patents to the company, so that, should anyone sue, they would be suing Herzstark, not the company, thereby protecting themselves at Herzstark's expense. This ploy now backfired: without the patent rights, they could manufacture nothing. Herzstark was able to negotiate a new agreement, and money continued to flow to him.
Curtas were considered the best portable calculators available until they were displaced by electronic calculators in the 1970s. The Curta, however, lives on, being a highly popular collectible, with thousands of machines working just as smoothly as they did at the time of their manufacture.
An estimated 140,000 Curta calculators were made (80,000 Type I and 60,000 Type II). According to Curt Herzstark, the last Curta was produced in 1972.
Cost
The Curta Type I was sold for $125 in the later years of production, and the Type II was sold for $175. While only 3% of Curtas were returned to the factory for warranty repair, a small, but significant number of buyers returned their Curtas in pieces, having attempted to disassemble them. Reassembling the machine was more difficult, requiring intimate knowledge of the orientation of, and installation order for, each part and sub-assembly, plus special guides designed to hold the pieces in place during assembly. Many identical-looking parts, each with slightly different dimensions, required test fitting and selection as well as special tools to adjust to design tolerances.
The machines have a high curiosity value; in 2016 they sold for around US$1,000, but buyers paid as much as US$1,900 for models in pristine condition with notable serial numbers.
Design
The Curta's design is a descendant of Gottfried Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner and Charles Thomas's Arithmometer, accumulating values on cogs, which are added or complemented by a stepped drum mechanism.
Numbers are entered using slides (one slide per digit) on the side of the device. The revolution counter and result counter reside around the shiftable carriage, at the top of the machine. A single turn of the crank adds the input number to the result counter, at any carriage position, and increments the corresponding digit of the revolution counter. Pulling the crank upwards slightly before turning performs a subtraction instead of an addition. Multiplication, division, and other functions require a series of crank and carriage-shifting operations.
Models
The Type I Curta has eight digits for data entry (known as "setting sliders"), a six-digit revolution counter, and an eleven-digit result counter. According to the advertising literature, it weighs only 8 ounces (230 g). Serial number 70154, produced in 1969, weighs 245 grams (8.6 oz).
The larger Type II Curta, introduced in 1954, has eleven digits for data entry, an eight-digit revolution counter, and a fifteen-digit result counter.
Uses
The Curta was popular among contestants in sports car rallies during the 1960s, 1970s and into the 1980s. Even after the introduction of the electronic calculator for other purposes, they were used in time-speed-distance (TSD) rallies to aid in computation of times to checkpoints, distances off-course and so on, since the early electronic calculators did not fare well with the bounces and jolts of rallying.
The Curta was also favored by commercial and general-aviation pilots before the advent of electronic calculators because of its precision and the user's ability to confirm the accuracy of their manipulations via the revolution counter. Because calculations such as weight and balance are critical for safe flight, precise results free of pilot error are essential.
Collections
The Curta calculator is very popular among collectors and can be purchased on many platforms. The Swiss entrepreneur and collector Peter Regenass holds a large collection of mechanical calculators, among them over 100 Curta calculators. A part of his collections is on display at the Enter Museum in Solothurn, Switzerland. In 2016 he donated a Curta calculator to the Yad Vashem Museum in Jerusalem.
Popular culture
The Curta collection of the Swiss entrepreneur Peter Regenass on display at the Enter Museum Solothurn
The Curta plays a role in William Gibson's Pattern Recognition (2003) as a piece of historic computing machinery as well as a crucial "trade" item.
In 2016 a Curta was designed by Marcus Wu that could be produced on a 3D printer. The Curta's fine tolerances were beyond the ability of printer technology of 2017 to produce to scale, so the printed Curta was about the size of a coffee can and weighed about three pounds.
Further reading
Herzstark, Curt, 1902-1988. (2005). Kein Geschenk für den Führer : Schicksal eines begnadeten Erfinders. Noderstedt: Books on Demand. ISBN 3833411368. OCLC 85361449.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
The Inventor of the CURTA Calculator. Curt Herzstark. An Autobiography. Roseville, Calif.: Oughtred Society. 2012. ISBN 9780979147760. OCLC 778199457.
References
^ a b c d e f Stoll, Cliff (January 2004). "The Curious History of the First Pocket Calculator". Scientific American. 290 (1): 92–99. Bibcode:2004SciAm.290a..92S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0104-92. PMID 14682043.
^ "ICES Insight" (PDF). ICES Insight. Vol. 48. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. September 2011. p. 13. ISBN 978-87-7482-097-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2015.
^ DE 747073 Rechenmaschine mit einer einzigen von Einstellrädchen umgebenen Staffelwalze , filing date: 19 August 1938 (in German)
^ Google patent DE747073C Calculating machine with a single staggered roller surrounded by setting wheels. Filing date: 19 August 1938 (in English)
^ a b "Curta calculator: The mechanical marvel born in a Nazi death camp". newatlas.com. 12 October 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
^ a b c d e Herzstark, Curt (10 September 1987). "Oral history interview with Curt Herzstark" (Manuscript of Oral History Interview) (in English and German). Interviewed by Erwin Tomash. Minneapolis: Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. pp. 36–37.
^ Kradolfer, Peter; de Man, Andries. "Curt Herzstark and his Pocket Calculator Curta". Archived from the original on 5 April 2022.
^ Several specialized Curta tools pictured at curta.li
^ Toth, Viktor. "Programmable Calculators - Curta Type II". www.rskey.org. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
^ Regenass, Peter. "Hand-held calculator designed by Curt Herzstark from Vienna and completed while imprisoned in the Buchenwald camp". Yad Vashem Museum Jerusalem. Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2021.
^ The 3D-Printed Curta Calculator on Thingiverse (Archived 12 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine)
^ "Building a Gorgeous Mechanical Calculator With 3D-Printed Parts". Popular Mechanics. 15 July 2017. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Curta calculator.
Curta I Vintage Calculators Web Museum: Mechanical Calculators
Curta.org
The CURTA Calculator Page
Video on internal workings of the Curta by MechanicalComputing
Home of www.curtamania.com Many resources
http://www.curta.ch Information about Curta / Video about the assembly of a Curta / Book about Curt Herzstark (Kein Geschenk für den Führer - Schicksal eines begnadeten Erfinders)
curta.li: model history, user and service manuals, parts photos, blueprints, etc.
YACS-Yet Another Curta Simulator. A 3D Simulator in VRML
Type and Age of your Curta
Files to 3D print a 3:1 scale model of a Curta
Curta.fr Mainly focused on maintenance, repair and support. In french.
Bruderer, Herbert (Autumn 2016). "Multiple Curtas". Resurrection: The Bulletin of the Computer Conservation Society (75). ISSN 0958-7403.
Bruderer, Herbert (Autumn 2017). "A Multiple Curta". Resurrection: The Bulletin of the Computer Conservation Society (79). ISSN 0958-7403.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Curta (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curta_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Curta_type_I-CnAM_40092-IMG_6721-white.jpg"},{"link_name":"Musée des Arts et Métiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_des_Arts_et_M%C3%A9tiers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Curtadsasm.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Curta_calculator.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Curta03.JPG"},{"link_name":"mechanical calculator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_calculator"},{"link_name":"Curt Herzstark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curt_Herzstark"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stoll-1"},{"link_name":"hand grenade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand_grenade"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stoll-1"}],"text":"For other uses, see Curta (disambiguation).Curta Type I, on display at the Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris.A partially disassembled Curta calculator, showing the digit slides and the stepped drum behind themCurta Type I calculator, top viewCurta Type I calculator, bottom viewThe Curta is a hand-held mechanical calculator designed by Curt Herzstark.[1] It is known for its extremely compact design: a small cylinder that fits in the palm of the hand. It was affectionately known as the \"pepper grinder\" or \"peppermill\" due to its shape and means of operation; its superficial resemblance to a certain type of hand grenade also earned it the nickname \"math grenade\".[2]Curtas were considered the best portable calculators available until they were displaced by electronic calculators in the 1970s.[1]","title":"Curta"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Curt Herzstark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curt_Herzstark"},{"link_name":"Vienna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"nines complement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nines_complement"},{"link_name":"Nazis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"Buchenwald concentration camp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buchenwald_concentration_camp"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quote-6"},{"link_name":"liberated by U.S. troops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buchenwald_concentration_camp#Liberation_from_Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"Weimar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quote-6"},{"link_name":"Soviet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USSR"},{"link_name":"Franz Joseph II, Prince of Liechtenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Joseph_II,_Prince_of_Liechtenstein"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stoll-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stoll-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stoll-1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quote-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kradolfer-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quote-6"}],"text":"The Curta was conceived by Curt Herzstark in the 1930s in Vienna, Austria. By 1938, he had filed a key patent, covering his complemented stepped drum.[3][4] This single drum replaced the multiple drums, typically around 10 or so, of contemporary calculators, and it enabled not only addition, but subtraction through nines complement math, essentially subtracting by adding. The nines' complement math breakthrough eliminated the significant mechanical complexity created when \"borrowing\" during subtraction. This drum was the key to miniaturizing the Curta.His work on the pocket calculator stopped in 1938 when the Nazis forced him and his company to concentrate on manufacturing precision instruments for the German army.[5]Herzstark, the son of a Catholic mother and Jewish father, was taken into custody in 1943 and eventually sent to Buchenwald concentration camp, where he was encouraged to continue his earlier research:While I was imprisoned inside Buchenwald I had, after a few days, told the [people] in the work production scheduling department of my ideas. The head of the department, Mr. Munich said, 'See, Herzstark, I understand you've been working on a new thing, a small calculating machine. Do you know, I can give you a tip. We will allow you to make and draw everything. If it is really worth something, then we will give it to the Führer as a present after we win the war. Then, surely, you will be made an Aryan.' For me, that was the first time I thought to myself, my God, if you do this, you can extend your life. And then and there I started to draw the CURTA, the way I had imagined it.— Curt Herzstark, Oral history interview with Curt Herzstark (1987), pp. 36-37[6]In the camp, Herzstark was able to develop working drawings for a manufacturable device. Buchenwald was liberated by U.S. troops on 11 April 1945, and by November Herzstark had located a factory in Sommertal, near Weimar, whose machinists were skilled enough to produce three working prototypes.[6]Soviet forces had arrived in July, and Herzstark feared being sent to Russia, so, later that same month, he fled to Austria. He began to look for financial backers, at the same time filing continuing patents as well as several additional patents to protect his work. Franz Joseph II, Prince of Liechtenstein eventually showed interest in the manufacture of the device, and soon a newly formed company, Contina AG Mauren, began production in Liechtenstein.It was not long before Herzstark's financial backers, thinking they had got from him all they needed, conspired to force him out by reducing the value of all of the company's existing stock to zero, including his one-third interest.[1] These were the same people who had earlier elected not to have Herzstark transfer ownership of his patents to the company, so that, should anyone sue, they would be suing Herzstark, not the company, thereby protecting themselves at Herzstark's expense. This ploy now backfired: without the patent rights, they could manufacture nothing. Herzstark was able to negotiate a new agreement, and money continued to flow to him.Curtas were considered the best portable calculators available until they were displaced by electronic calculators in the 1970s.[1] The Curta, however, lives on, being a highly popular collectible, with thousands of machines working just as smoothly as they did at the time of their manufacture.[1][6][7]An estimated 140,000 Curta calculators were made (80,000 Type I and 60,000 Type II). According to Curt Herzstark, the last Curta was produced in 1972.[6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quote-6"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tools-8"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"}],"text":"The Curta Type I was sold for $125 in the later years of production, and the Type II was sold for $175. While only 3% of Curtas were returned to the factory for warranty repair,[6] a small, but significant number of buyers returned their Curtas in pieces, having attempted to disassemble them. Reassembling the machine was more difficult, requiring intimate knowledge of the orientation of, and installation order for, each part and sub-assembly, plus special guides designed to hold the pieces in place during assembly. Many identical-looking parts, each with slightly different dimensions, required test fitting and selection as well as special tools to adjust to design tolerances.[8]The machines have a high curiosity value; in 2016 they sold for around US$1,000, but buyers paid as much as US$1,900 for models in pristine condition with notable serial numbers.[5]","title":"Cost"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gottfried Leibniz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz"},{"link_name":"Stepped Reckoner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepped_Reckoner"},{"link_name":"Charles Thomas's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Xavier_Thomas"},{"link_name":"Arithmometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmometer"},{"link_name":"stepped drum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepped_Reckoner"}],"text":"The Curta's design is a descendant of Gottfried Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner and Charles Thomas's Arithmometer, accumulating values on cogs, which are added or complemented by a stepped drum mechanism.Numbers are entered using slides (one slide per digit) on the side of the device. The revolution counter and result counter reside around the shiftable carriage, at the top of the machine. A single turn of the crank adds the input number to the result counter, at any carriage position, and increments the corresponding digit of the revolution counter. Pulling the crank upwards slightly before turning performs a subtraction instead of an addition. Multiplication, division, and other functions require a series of crank and carriage-shifting operations.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"The Type I Curta has eight digits for data entry (known as \"setting sliders\"), a six-digit revolution counter, and an eleven-digit result counter. According to the advertising literature, it weighs only 8 ounces (230 g). Serial number 70154, produced in 1969, weighs 245 grams (8.6 oz).The larger Type II Curta, introduced in 1954, has eleven digits for data entry, an eight-digit revolution counter, and a fifteen-digit result counter.[9]","title":"Models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sports car rallies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rallying"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stoll-1"}],"text":"The Curta was popular among contestants in sports car rallies during the 1960s, 1970s and into the 1980s. Even after the introduction of the electronic calculator for other purposes, they were used in time-speed-distance (TSD) rallies to aid in computation of times to checkpoints, distances off-course and so on, since the early electronic calculators did not fare well with the bounces and jolts of rallying.[1]The Curta was also favored by commercial and general-aviation pilots before the advent of electronic calculators because of its precision and the user's ability to confirm the accuracy of their manipulations via the revolution counter. Because calculations such as weight and balance are critical for safe flight, precise results free of pilot error are essential.","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Enter Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enter_Museum"},{"link_name":"Solothurn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solothurn"},{"link_name":"Yad Vashem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yad_Vashem"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"The Curta calculator is very popular among collectors and can be purchased on many platforms. The Swiss entrepreneur and collector Peter Regenass holds a large collection of mechanical calculators, among them over 100 Curta calculators. A part of his collections is on display at the Enter Museum in Solothurn, Switzerland. In 2016 he donated a Curta calculator to the Yad Vashem Museum in Jerusalem. [10]","title":"Collections"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Curta_Rechenmaschinen_im_Museum_Enter_Solothurn.jpg"},{"link_name":"William Gibson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gibson"},{"link_name":"Pattern Recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_Recognition_(novel)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thingiverse-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popular_Mechanics-12"}],"text":"The Curta collection of the Swiss entrepreneur Peter Regenass on display at the Enter Museum SolothurnThe Curta plays a role in William Gibson's Pattern Recognition (2003) as a piece of historic computing machinery as well as a crucial \"trade\" item.In 2016 a Curta was designed by Marcus Wu that could be produced on a 3D printer.[11] The Curta's fine tolerances were beyond the ability of printer technology of 2017 to produce to scale, so the printed Curta was about the size of a coffee can and weighed about three pounds.[12]","title":"Popular culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3833411368","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3833411368"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"85361449","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/85361449"},{"link_name":"cite book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list"},{"link_name":"The Inventor of the CURTA Calculator. Curt Herzstark. An Autobiography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.oughtred.org/curta-book.shtml"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780979147760","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780979147760"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"778199457","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/778199457"}],"text":"Herzstark, Curt, 1902-1988. (2005). Kein Geschenk für den Führer : Schicksal eines begnadeten Erfinders. Noderstedt: Books on Demand. ISBN 3833411368. OCLC 85361449.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)\nThe Inventor of the CURTA Calculator. Curt Herzstark. An Autobiography. Roseville, Calif.: Oughtred Society. 2012. ISBN 9780979147760. OCLC 778199457.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Curta Type I, on display at the Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Curta_type_I-CnAM_40092-IMG_6721-white.jpg/220px-Curta_type_I-CnAM_40092-IMG_6721-white.jpg"},{"image_text":"A partially disassembled Curta calculator, showing the digit slides and the stepped drum behind them","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Curtadsasm.JPG/400px-Curtadsasm.JPG"},{"image_text":"Curta Type I calculator, top view","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Curta_calculator.jpg/220px-Curta_calculator.jpg"},{"image_text":"Curta Type I calculator, bottom view","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Curta03.JPG/220px-Curta03.JPG"},{"image_text":"The Curta collection of the Swiss entrepreneur Peter Regenass on display at the Enter Museum Solothurn","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Curta_Rechenmaschinen_im_Museum_Enter_Solothurn.jpg/220px-Curta_Rechenmaschinen_im_Museum_Enter_Solothurn.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Herzstark, Curt, 1902-1988. (2005). Kein Geschenk für den Führer : Schicksal eines begnadeten Erfinders. Noderstedt: Books on Demand. ISBN 3833411368. OCLC 85361449.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3833411368","url_text":"3833411368"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/85361449","url_text":"85361449"}]},{"reference":"The Inventor of the CURTA Calculator. Curt Herzstark. An Autobiography. Roseville, Calif.: Oughtred Society. 2012. ISBN 9780979147760. OCLC 778199457.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.oughtred.org/curta-book.shtml","url_text":"The Inventor of the CURTA Calculator. Curt Herzstark. An Autobiography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780979147760","url_text":"9780979147760"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/778199457","url_text":"778199457"}]},{"reference":"Stoll, Cliff (January 2004). \"The Curious History of the First Pocket Calculator\". Scientific American. 290 (1): 92–99. Bibcode:2004SciAm.290a..92S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0104-92. PMID 14682043.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cliff_Stoll","url_text":"Stoll, Cliff"},{"url":"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-curious-history-of-th","url_text":"\"The Curious History of the First Pocket Calculator\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004SciAm.290a..92S","url_text":"2004SciAm.290a..92S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0104-92","url_text":"10.1038/scientificamerican0104-92"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14682043","url_text":"14682043"}]},{"reference":"\"ICES Insight\" (PDF). ICES Insight. Vol. 48. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. September 2011. p. 13. ISBN 978-87-7482-097-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160303163943/http://www.ices.dk/sites/pub/Publication%20Reports/ICES%20Insight/INSIGHTWEB2011.pdf#page=13","url_text":"\"ICES Insight\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-7482-097-0","url_text":"978-87-7482-097-0"},{"url":"http://www.ices.dk/sites/pub/Publication%20Reports/ICES%20Insight/INSIGHTWEB2011.pdf#page=13","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Curta calculator: The mechanical marvel born in a Nazi death camp\". newatlas.com. 12 October 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://newatlas.com/curta-death-camp-calculator/45506/?li_source=LI&li_medium=default-widget","url_text":"\"Curta calculator: The mechanical marvel born in a Nazi death camp\""}]},{"reference":"Herzstark, Curt (10 September 1987). \"Oral history interview with Curt Herzstark\" (Manuscript of Oral History Interview) (in English and German). Interviewed by Erwin Tomash. Minneapolis: Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. pp. 36–37.","urls":[{"url":"https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/107358","url_text":"\"Oral history interview with Curt Herzstark\""}]},{"reference":"Kradolfer, Peter; de Man, Andries. \"Curt Herzstark and his Pocket Calculator Curta\". Archived from the original on 5 April 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220405095714/https://www.vcalc.net/cu-bckup.htm","url_text":"\"Curt Herzstark and his Pocket Calculator Curta\""},{"url":"http://www.vcalc.net/cu-bckup.htm#11","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Toth, Viktor. \"Programmable Calculators - Curta Type II\". www.rskey.org. Retrieved 7 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rskey.org/CMS/exhibit-hall/?view=article&id=120","url_text":"\"Programmable Calculators - Curta Type II\""}]},{"reference":"Regenass, Peter. \"Hand-held calculator designed by Curt Herzstark from Vienna and completed while imprisoned in the Buchenwald camp\". Yad Vashem Museum Jerusalem. Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/bearing-witness/curta-calculator.asp","url_text":"\"Hand-held calculator designed by Curt Herzstark from Vienna and completed while imprisoned in the Buchenwald camp\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210205151847/https://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/bearing-witness/curta-calculator.asp","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Building a Gorgeous Mechanical Calculator With 3D-Printed Parts\". Popular Mechanics. 15 July 2017. Retrieved 25 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/gadgets/a27318/3d-printed-curta-calculator/","url_text":"\"Building a Gorgeous Mechanical Calculator With 3D-Printed Parts\""}]},{"reference":"Bruderer, Herbert (Autumn 2016). \"Multiple Curtas\". Resurrection: The Bulletin of the Computer Conservation Society (75). ISSN 0958-7403.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerconservationsociety.org/resurrection/res75.htm#g","url_text":"\"Multiple Curtas\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0958-7403","url_text":"0958-7403"}]},{"reference":"Bruderer, Herbert (Autumn 2017). \"A Multiple Curta\". Resurrection: The Bulletin of the Computer Conservation Society (79). ISSN 0958-7403.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerconservationsociety.org/resurrection/res79.htm#e","url_text":"\"A Multiple Curta\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0958-7403","url_text":"0958-7403"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolic_dish
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Parabolic reflector
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["1 Theory","2 Variations","2.1 Focus-balanced reflector","2.2 Scheffler reflector","2.3 Off-axis reflectors","3 History","4 Applications","5 See also","6 Footnotes","7 References","8 External links"]
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Reflector that has the shape of a paraboloid
One of the world's largest solar parabolic dishes at the Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center in Israel
Circular paraboloid
A parabolic (or paraboloid or paraboloidal) reflector (or dish or mirror) is a reflective surface used to collect or project energy such as light, sound, or radio waves. Its shape is part of a circular paraboloid, that is, the surface generated by a parabola revolving around its axis. The parabolic reflector transforms an incoming plane wave travelling along the axis into a spherical wave converging toward the focus. Conversely, a spherical wave generated by a point source placed in the focus is reflected into a plane wave propagating as a collimated beam along the axis.
Parabolic reflectors are used to collect energy from a distant source (for example sound waves or incoming star light). Since the principles of reflection are reversible, parabolic reflectors can also be used to collimate radiation from an isotropic source into a parallel beam. In optics, parabolic mirrors are used to gather light in reflecting telescopes and solar furnaces, and project a beam of light in flashlights, searchlights, stage spotlights, and car headlights. In radio, parabolic antennas are used to radiate a narrow beam of radio waves for point-to-point communications in satellite dishes and microwave relay stations, and to locate aircraft, ships, and vehicles in radar sets. In acoustics, parabolic microphones are used to record faraway sounds such as bird calls, in sports reporting, and to eavesdrop on private conversations in espionage and law enforcement.
Theory
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Strictly, the three-dimensional shape of the reflector is called a paraboloid. A parabola is the two-dimensional figure. (The distinction is like that between a sphere and a circle.) However, in informal language, the word parabola and its associated adjective parabolic are often used in place of paraboloid and paraboloidal.
If a parabola is positioned in Cartesian coordinates with its vertex at the origin and its axis of symmetry along the y-axis, so the parabola opens upward, its equation is
4
f
y
=
x
2
{\textstyle 4fy=x^{2}}
, where
f
{\textstyle f}
is its focal length. (See "Parabola#In a cartesian coordinate system".) Correspondingly, the dimensions of a symmetrical paraboloidal dish are related by the equation:
4
F
D
=
R
2
{\textstyle 4FD=R^{2}}
, where
F
{\textstyle F}
is the focal length,
D
{\textstyle D}
is the depth of the dish (measured along the axis of symmetry from the vertex to the plane of the rim), and
R
{\textstyle R}
is the radius of the dish from the center. All units used for the radius, focal point and depth must be the same. If two of these three quantities are known, this equation can be used to calculate the third.
A more complex calculation is needed to find the diameter of the dish measured along its surface. This is sometimes called the "linear diameter", and equals the diameter of a flat, circular sheet of material, usually metal, which is the right size to be cut and bent to make the dish. Two intermediate results are useful in the calculation:
P
=
2
F
{\textstyle P=2F}
(or the equivalent:
P
=
R
2
2
D
{\textstyle P={\frac {R^{2}}{2D}}}
) and
Q
=
P
2
+
R
2
{\textstyle Q={\sqrt {P^{2}+R^{2}}}}
, where F, D, and R are defined as above. The diameter of the dish, measured along the surface, is then given by:
R
Q
P
+
P
ln
(
R
+
Q
P
)
{\textstyle {\frac {RQ}{P}}+P\ln \left({\frac {R+Q}{P}}\right)}
, where
ln
(
x
)
{\textstyle \ln(x)}
means the natural logarithm of x, i.e. its logarithm to base "e".
The volume of the dish is given by
1
2
π
R
2
D
,
{\textstyle {\frac {1}{2}}\pi R^{2}D,}
where the symbols are defined as above. This can be compared with the formulae for the volumes of a cylinder
(
π
R
2
D
)
,
{\textstyle (\pi R^{2}D),}
a hemisphere
(
2
3
π
R
2
D
,
{\textstyle ({\frac {2}{3}}\pi R^{2}D,}
where
D
=
R
)
,
{\textstyle D=R),}
and a cone
(
1
3
π
R
2
D
)
.
{\textstyle ({\frac {1}{3}}\pi R^{2}D).}
π
R
2
{\textstyle \pi R^{2}}
is the aperture area of the dish, the area enclosed by the rim, which is proportional to the amount of sunlight the reflector dish can intercept. The area of the concave surface of the dish can be found using the area formula for a surface of revolution which gives
A
=
π
R
6
D
2
(
(
R
2
+
4
D
2
)
3
/
2
−
R
3
)
{\textstyle A={\frac {\pi R}{6D^{2}}}\left((R^{2}+4D^{2})^{3/2}-R^{3}\right)}
. providing
D
≠
0
{\textstyle D\neq 0}
. The fraction of light reflected by the dish, from a light source in the focus, is given by
1
−
arctan
R
D
−
F
π
{\textstyle 1-{\frac {\arctan {\frac {R}{D-F}}}{\pi }}}
, where
F
,
{\displaystyle F,}
D
,
{\displaystyle D,}
and
R
{\displaystyle R}
are defined as above.
Parallel rays coming into a parabolic mirror are focused at a point F. The vertex is V, and the axis of symmetry passes through V and F. For off-axis reflectors (with just the part of the paraboloid between the points P1 and P3), the receiver is still placed at the focus of the paraboloid, but it does not cast a shadow onto the reflector.
The parabolic reflector functions due to the geometric properties of the paraboloidal shape: any incoming ray that is parallel to the axis of the dish will be reflected to a central point, or "focus". (For a geometrical proof, click here.) Because many types of energy can be reflected in this way, parabolic reflectors can be used to collect and concentrate energy entering the reflector at a particular angle. Similarly, energy radiating from the focus to the dish can be transmitted outward in a beam that is parallel to the axis of the dish.
In contrast with spherical reflectors, which suffer from a spherical aberration that becomes stronger as the ratio of the beam diameter to the focal distance becomes larger, parabolic reflectors can be made to accommodate beams of any width. However, if the incoming beam makes a non-zero angle with the axis (or if the emitting point source is not placed in the focus), parabolic reflectors suffer from an aberration called coma. This is primarily of interest in telescopes because most other applications do not require sharp resolution off the axis of the parabola.
The precision to which a parabolic dish must be made in order to focus energy well depends on the wavelength of the energy. If the dish is wrong by a quarter of a wavelength, then the reflected energy will be wrong by a half wavelength, which means that it will interfere destructively with energy that has been reflected properly from another part of the dish. To prevent this, the dish must be made correctly to within about 1/20 of a wavelength. The wavelength range of visible light is between about 400 and 700 nanometres (nm), so in order to focus all visible light well, a reflector must be correct to within about 20 nm. For comparison, the diameter of a human hair is usually about 50,000 nm, so the required accuracy for a reflector to focus visible light is about 2500 times less than the diameter of a hair. For example, the flaw in the Hubble Space Telescope mirror (too flat by about 2,200 nm at its perimeter) caused severe spherical aberration until corrected with COSTAR.
Microwaves, such as are used for satellite-TV signals, have wavelengths of the order of ten millimetres, so dishes to focus these waves can be wrong by half a millimetre or so and still perform well.
Variations
Focus-balanced reflector
An oblique projection of a focus-balanced parabolic reflector
It is sometimes useful if the centre of mass of a reflector dish coincides with its focus. This allows it to be easily turned so it can be aimed at a moving source of light, such as the Sun in the sky, while its focus, where the target is located, is stationary. The dish is rotated around axes that pass through the focus and around which it is balanced. If the dish is symmetrical and made of uniform material of constant thickness, and if F represents the focal length of the paraboloid, this "focus-balanced" condition occurs if the depth of the dish, measured along the axis of the paraboloid from the vertex to the plane of the rim of the dish, is 1.8478 times F. The radius of the rim is 2.7187 F. The angular radius of the rim as seen from the focal point is 72.68 degrees.
Scheffler reflector
The focus-balanced configuration (see above) requires the depth of the reflector dish to be greater than its focal length, so the focus is within the dish. This can lead to the focus being difficult to access. An alternative approach is exemplified by the Scheffler reflector, named after its inventor, Wolfgang Scheffler. This is a paraboloidal mirror which is rotated about axes that pass through its centre of mass, but this does not coincide with the focus, which is outside the dish. If the reflector were a rigid paraboloid, the focus would move as the dish turns. To avoid this, the reflector is flexible, and is bent as it rotates so as to keep the focus stationary. Ideally, the reflector would be exactly paraboloidal at all times. In practice, this cannot be achieved exactly, so the Scheffler reflector is not suitable for purposes that require high accuracy. It is used in applications such as solar cooking, where sunlight has to be focused well enough to strike a cooking pot, but not to an exact point.
Off-axis reflectors
The vertex of the paraboloid is below the bottom edge of the dish. The curvature of the dish is greatest near the vertex. The axis, which is aimed at the satellite, passes through the vertex and the receiver module, which is at the focus.
A circular paraboloid is theoretically unlimited in size. Any practical reflector uses just a segment of it. Often, the segment includes the vertex of the paraboloid, where its curvature is greatest, and where the axis of symmetry intersects the paraboloid. However, if the reflector is used to focus incoming energy onto a receiver, the shadow of the receiver falls onto the vertex of the paraboloid, which is part of the reflector, so part of the reflector is wasted. This can be avoided by making the reflector from a segment of the paraboloid which is offset from the vertex and the axis of symmetry. The whole reflector receives energy, which is then focused onto the receiver. This is frequently done, for example, in satellite-TV receiving dishes, and also in some types of astronomical telescope (e.g., the Green Bank Telescope, the James Webb Space Telescope).
Accurate off-axis reflectors, for use in solar furnaces and other non-critical applications, can be made quite simply by using a rotating furnace, in which the container of molten glass is offset from the axis of rotation. To make less accurate ones, suitable as satellite dishes, the shape is designed by a computer, then multiple dishes are stamped out of sheet metal.
Off-axis-reflectors heading from medium latitudes to a geostationary TV satellite somewhere above the equator stand steeper than a coaxial reflector. The effect is, that the arm to hold the dish can be shorter and snow tends less to accumulate in (the lower part of) the dish.
Off-axis satellite dish
History
The principle of parabolic reflectors has been known since classical antiquity, when the mathematician Diocles described them in his book On Burning Mirrors and proved that they focus a parallel beam to a point. Archimedes in the third century BCE studied paraboloids as part of his study of hydrostatic equilibrium, and it has been claimed that he used reflectors to set the Roman fleet alight during the Siege of Syracuse. This seems unlikely to be true, however, as the claim does not appear in sources before the 2nd century CE, and Diocles does not mention it in his book. Parabolic mirrors and reflectors were also studied extensively by the physicist Roger Bacon in the 13th century AD. James Gregory, in his 1663 book Optica Promota (1663), pointed out that a reflecting telescope with a mirror that was parabolic would correct spherical aberration as well as the chromatic aberration seen in refracting telescopes. The design he came up with bears his name: the "Gregorian telescope"; but according to his own confession, Gregory had no practical skill and he could find no optician capable of actually constructing one. Isaac Newton knew about the properties of parabolic mirrors but chose a spherical shape for his Newtonian telescope mirror to simplify construction. Lighthouses also commonly used parabolic mirrors to collimate a point of light from a lantern into a beam, before being replaced by more efficient Fresnel lenses in the 19th century. In 1888, Heinrich Hertz, a German physicist, constructed the world's first parabolic reflector antenna.
Applications
Antennas of the Atacama Large Millimeter Array on the Chajnantor Plateau
The most common modern applications of the parabolic reflector are in satellite dishes, reflecting telescopes, radio telescopes, parabolic microphones, solar cookers, and many lighting devices such as spotlights, car headlights, PAR lamps and LED housings.
Lighting the Olympic Flame with a parabolic reflector
The Olympic Flame is traditionally lit at Olympia, Greece, using a parabolic reflector concentrating sunlight, and is then transported to the venue of the Games. Parabolic mirrors are one of many shapes for a burning glass.
Parabolic reflectors are popular for use in creating optical illusions. These consist of two opposing parabolic mirrors, with an opening in the center of the top mirror. When an object is placed on the bottom mirror, the mirrors create a real image, which is a virtually identical copy of the original that appears in the opening. The quality of the image is dependent upon the precision of the optics. Some such illusions are manufactured to tolerances of millionths of an inch.
A parabolic reflector pointing upward can be formed by rotating a reflective liquid, like mercury, around a vertical axis. This makes the liquid-mirror telescope possible. The same technique is used in rotating furnaces to make solid reflectors.
Parabolic reflectors are also a popular alternative for increasing wireless signal strength. Even with simple ones, users have reported 3 dB or more gains.
See also
John D. Kraus
Liquid-mirror telescope, paraboloids produced by rotation
Parabolic antenna
Parabolic trough
Solar furnace
Toroidal reflector
Footnotes
^ The closeness of this number to the value of "e", the base of natural logarithms, is just an accidental coincidence, but it does make a useful mnemonic.
References
^ Fitzpatrick, Richard (2007-07-14). "Spherical Mirrors". Farside.ph.utexas.edu. Retrieved 2012-11-08.
^ "Servicing Mission 1". NASA. Archived from the original on April 20, 2008. Retrieved April 26, 2008.
^ Administrator. "The Scheffler-Reflector". www.solare-bruecke.org.
^ pp. 162–164, Apollonius of Perga's Conica: text, context, subtext, Michael N. Fried and Sabetai Unguru, Brill, 2001, ISBN 90-04-11977-9.
^ pp. 73–74, The forgotten revolution: how science was born in 300 BC and why it had to be reborn, Lucio Russo, Birkhäuser, 2004, ISBN 3-540-20068-1.
^ "Archimedes' Weapon". Time Magazine. November 26, 1973. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-12.
^ p. 72, The Geometry of Burning-Mirrors in Antiquity, Wilbur Knorr, Isis 74 #1 (March 1983), pp. 53–73, doi:10.1086/353176.
^ pp. 465, 468, 469, A Pioneer in Anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on Burning Mirrors and Lenses, Roshdi Rashed, Isis, 81, #3 (September 1990), pp. 464–491, doi:10.1086/355456.
^ Chambers, Robert (1875). A biographical dictionary of eminent Scotsmen. Oxford University. p. 175.
^ McLean, Ian S (2008-07-29). Electronic Imaging in Astronomy: Detectors and Instrumentation. ISBN 9783540765820. Retrieved 2012-11-08.
^ "Prehistory of Radio Astronomy". www.nrao.edu.
^ "ALMA Doubles its Power in New Phase of More Advanced Observations". ESO Announcement. Retrieved 11 January 2013.
^ Fitzpatrick, Richard (2007-07-14). "Spherical Mirrors". Farside.ph.utexas.edu. Retrieved 2012-11-08.
^ "Parabolic Reflector Free WiFi Booster". Do-It-Yourself Wireless Antennas Update and Wi-Fi Resource Center | WiFi Wireless Q & A. Binarywolf.com. 2009-08-26. Archived from the original on 2019-06-09. Retrieved 2012-11-08.
^ "Slideshow: Wi-Fi Shootout in the Desert". Wired. 2004-08-03. Retrieved 2012-11-08.
External links
Java demonstration of a parabolic reflector
Parabolic Reflector Antennas www.antenna-theory.com
Animations demonstrating parabola mirror by QED
Make Big Paraboloid Reflectors Using Plane Segments
Authority control databases: National
Germany
|
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Its shape is part of a circular paraboloid, that is, the surface generated by a parabola revolving around its axis. The parabolic reflector transforms an incoming plane wave travelling along the axis into a spherical wave converging toward the focus. Conversely, a spherical wave generated by a point source placed in the focus is reflected into a plane wave propagating as a collimated beam along the axis.Parabolic reflectors are used to collect energy from a distant source (for example sound waves or incoming star light). Since the principles of reflection are reversible, parabolic reflectors can also be used to collimate radiation from an isotropic source into a parallel beam.[1] In optics, parabolic mirrors are used to gather light in reflecting telescopes and solar furnaces, and project a beam of light in flashlights, searchlights, stage spotlights, and car headlights. In radio, parabolic antennas are used to radiate a narrow beam of radio waves for point-to-point communications in satellite dishes and microwave relay stations, and to locate aircraft, ships, and vehicles in radar sets. In acoustics, parabolic microphones are used to record faraway sounds such as bird calls, in sports reporting, and to eavesdrop on private conversations in espionage and law enforcement.","title":"Parabolic reflector"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"paraboloid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraboloid"},{"link_name":"Parabola#In a cartesian coordinate system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabola#In_a_cartesian_coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"natural logarithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_logarithm"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_(mathematical_constant)"},{"link_name":"cylinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"hemisphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere"},{"link_name":"cone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"surface of revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_of_revolution#Area_formula"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Parabola_with_focus_and_arbitrary_line.svg"},{"link_name":"ray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_(optics)"},{"link_name":"focus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_(optics)"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabola#Proof_of_the_reflective_property"},{"link_name":"spherical reflectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_reflector"},{"link_name":"spherical aberration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_aberration"},{"link_name":"aberration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberration_in_optical_systems"},{"link_name":"coma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coma_(optics)"},{"link_name":"Hubble Space Telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope"},{"link_name":"spherical aberration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_aberration"},{"link_name":"COSTAR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrective_Optics_Space_Telescope_Axial_Replacement"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Servicing_Mission_1-2"}],"text":"Strictly, the three-dimensional shape of the reflector is called a paraboloid. A parabola is the two-dimensional figure. (The distinction is like that between a sphere and a circle.) However, in informal language, the word parabola and its associated adjective parabolic are often used in place of paraboloid and paraboloidal.If a parabola is positioned in Cartesian coordinates with its vertex at the origin and its axis of symmetry along the y-axis, so the parabola opens upward, its equation is \n \n \n \n 4\n f\n y\n =\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle 4fy=x^{2}}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\textstyle f}\n \n is its focal length. (See \"Parabola#In a cartesian coordinate system\".) Correspondingly, the dimensions of a symmetrical paraboloidal dish are related by the equation: \n \n \n \n 4\n F\n D\n =\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle 4FD=R^{2}}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\textstyle F}\n \n is the focal length, \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n {\\textstyle D}\n \n is the depth of the dish (measured along the axis of symmetry from the vertex to the plane of the rim), and \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n {\\textstyle R}\n \n is the radius of the dish from the center. All units used for the radius, focal point and depth must be the same. If two of these three quantities are known, this equation can be used to calculate the third.A more complex calculation is needed to find the diameter of the dish measured along its surface. This is sometimes called the \"linear diameter\", and equals the diameter of a flat, circular sheet of material, usually metal, which is the right size to be cut and bent to make the dish. Two intermediate results are useful in the calculation: \n \n \n \n P\n =\n 2\n F\n \n \n {\\textstyle P=2F}\n \n (or the equivalent: \n \n \n \n P\n =\n \n \n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n \n 2\n D\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle P={\\frac {R^{2}}{2D}}}\n \n) and \n \n \n \n Q\n =\n \n \n \n P\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle Q={\\sqrt {P^{2}+R^{2}}}}\n \n, where F, D, and R are defined as above. The diameter of the dish, measured along the surface, is then given by: \n \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n Q\n \n P\n \n \n +\n P\n ln\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n R\n +\n Q\n \n P\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\textstyle {\\frac {RQ}{P}}+P\\ln \\left({\\frac {R+Q}{P}}\\right)}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n ln\n \n (\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\textstyle \\ln(x)}\n \n means the natural logarithm of x, i.e. its logarithm to base \"e\".The volume of the dish is given by \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n π\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n D\n ,\n \n \n {\\textstyle {\\frac {1}{2}}\\pi R^{2}D,}\n \n where the symbols are defined as above. This can be compared with the formulae for the volumes of a cylinder \n \n \n \n (\n π\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n D\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\textstyle (\\pi R^{2}D),}\n \n a hemisphere \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n 2\n 3\n \n \n π\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n D\n ,\n \n \n {\\textstyle ({\\frac {2}{3}}\\pi R^{2}D,}\n \n where \n \n \n \n D\n =\n R\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\textstyle D=R),}\n \n and a cone \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n 1\n 3\n \n \n π\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n D\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\textstyle ({\\frac {1}{3}}\\pi R^{2}D).}\n \n \n \n \n \n π\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle \\pi R^{2}}\n \n is the aperture area of the dish, the area enclosed by the rim, which is proportional to the amount of sunlight the reflector dish can intercept. The area of the concave surface of the dish can be found using the area formula for a surface of revolution which gives \n \n \n \n A\n =\n \n \n \n π\n R\n \n \n 6\n \n D\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n (\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 4\n \n D\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n 3\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n R\n \n 3\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\textstyle A={\\frac {\\pi R}{6D^{2}}}\\left((R^{2}+4D^{2})^{3/2}-R^{3}\\right)}\n \n. providing \n \n \n \n D\n ≠\n 0\n \n \n {\\textstyle D\\neq 0}\n \n. The fraction of light reflected by the dish, from a light source in the focus, is given by \n \n \n \n 1\n −\n \n \n \n arctan\n \n \n \n R\n \n D\n −\n F\n \n \n \n \n π\n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle 1-{\\frac {\\arctan {\\frac {R}{D-F}}}{\\pi }}}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n F\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F,}\n \n \n \n \n \n D\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle D,}\n \n and \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R}\n \n are defined as above.Parallel rays coming into a parabolic mirror are focused at a point F. The vertex is V, and the axis of symmetry passes through V and F. For off-axis reflectors (with just the part of the paraboloid between the points P1 and P3), the receiver is still placed at the focus of the paraboloid, but it does not cast a shadow onto the reflector.The parabolic reflector functions due to the geometric properties of the paraboloidal shape: any incoming ray that is parallel to the axis of the dish will be reflected to a central point, or \"focus\". (For a geometrical proof, click here.) Because many types of energy can be reflected in this way, parabolic reflectors can be used to collect and concentrate energy entering the reflector at a particular angle. Similarly, energy radiating from the focus to the dish can be transmitted outward in a beam that is parallel to the axis of the dish.In contrast with spherical reflectors, which suffer from a spherical aberration that becomes stronger as the ratio of the beam diameter to the focal distance becomes larger, parabolic reflectors can be made to accommodate beams of any width. However, if the incoming beam makes a non-zero angle with the axis (or if the emitting point source is not placed in the focus), parabolic reflectors suffer from an aberration called coma. This is primarily of interest in telescopes because most other applications do not require sharp resolution off the axis of the parabola.The precision to which a parabolic dish must be made in order to focus energy well depends on the wavelength of the energy. If the dish is wrong by a quarter of a wavelength, then the reflected energy will be wrong by a half wavelength, which means that it will interfere destructively with energy that has been reflected properly from another part of the dish. To prevent this, the dish must be made correctly to within about 1/20 of a wavelength. The wavelength range of visible light is between about 400 and 700 nanometres (nm), so in order to focus all visible light well, a reflector must be correct to within about 20 nm. For comparison, the diameter of a human hair is usually about 50,000 nm, so the required accuracy for a reflector to focus visible light is about 2500 times less than the diameter of a hair. For example, the flaw in the Hubble Space Telescope mirror (too flat by about 2,200 nm at its perimeter) caused severe spherical aberration until corrected with COSTAR.[2]Microwaves, such as are used for satellite-TV signals, have wavelengths of the order of ten millimetres, so dishes to focus these waves can be wrong by half a millimetre or so and still perform well.","title":"Theory"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Variations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Focus-balanced_parabolic_reflector.svg"},{"link_name":"oblique projection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblique_projection"},{"link_name":"centre of mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_of_mass"},{"link_name":"focus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"axes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/axis"},{"link_name":"symmetrical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetrical"},{"link_name":"rim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rim"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Focus-balanced reflector","text":"An oblique projection of a focus-balanced parabolic reflectorIt is sometimes useful if the centre of mass of a reflector dish coincides with its focus. This allows it to be easily turned so it can be aimed at a moving source of light, such as the Sun in the sky, while its focus, where the target is located, is stationary. The dish is rotated around axes that pass through the focus and around which it is balanced. If the dish is symmetrical and made of uniform material of constant thickness, and if F represents the focal length of the paraboloid, this \"focus-balanced\" condition occurs if the depth of the dish, measured along the axis of the paraboloid from the vertex to the plane of the rim of the dish, is 1.8478 times F. The radius of the rim is 2.7187 F.[a] The angular radius of the rim as seen from the focal point is 72.68 degrees.","title":"Variations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wolfgang Scheffler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Scheffler_(inventor)"},{"link_name":"solar cooking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cooker#Paraboloidal_reflectors"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Scheffler reflector","text":"The focus-balanced configuration (see above) requires the depth of the reflector dish to be greater than its focal length, so the focus is within the dish. This can lead to the focus being difficult to access. An alternative approach is exemplified by the Scheffler reflector, named after its inventor, Wolfgang Scheffler. This is a paraboloidal mirror which is rotated about axes that pass through its centre of mass, but this does not coincide with the focus, which is outside the dish. If the reflector were a rigid paraboloid, the focus would move as the dish turns. To avoid this, the reflector is flexible, and is bent as it rotates so as to keep the focus stationary. Ideally, the reflector would be exactly paraboloidal at all times. In practice, this cannot be achieved exactly, so the Scheffler reflector is not suitable for purposes that require high accuracy. It is used in applications such as solar cooking, where sunlight has to be focused well enough to strike a cooking pot, but not to an exact point.[3]","title":"Variations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Off-axis_parabolic_reflector.svg"},{"link_name":"vertex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(curve)"},{"link_name":"curvature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvature"},{"link_name":"axis of symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_of_symmetry"},{"link_name":"Green Bank Telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Bank_Telescope"},{"link_name":"James Webb Space Telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope"},{"link_name":"solar furnaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_furnace"},{"link_name":"rotating furnace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotating_furnace"},{"link_name":"latitudes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitude"},{"link_name":"geostationary TV satellite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary_satellite"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ASTRA2Connect_Dish.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Off-axis reflectors","text":"The vertex of the paraboloid is below the bottom edge of the dish. The curvature of the dish is greatest near the vertex. The axis, which is aimed at the satellite, passes through the vertex and the receiver module, which is at the focus.A circular paraboloid is theoretically unlimited in size. Any practical reflector uses just a segment of it. Often, the segment includes the vertex of the paraboloid, where its curvature is greatest, and where the axis of symmetry intersects the paraboloid. However, if the reflector is used to focus incoming energy onto a receiver, the shadow of the receiver falls onto the vertex of the paraboloid, which is part of the reflector, so part of the reflector is wasted. This can be avoided by making the reflector from a segment of the paraboloid which is offset from the vertex and the axis of symmetry. The whole reflector receives energy, which is then focused onto the receiver. This is frequently done, for example, in satellite-TV receiving dishes, and also in some types of astronomical telescope (e.g., the Green Bank Telescope, the James Webb Space Telescope).Accurate off-axis reflectors, for use in solar furnaces and other non-critical applications, can be made quite simply by using a rotating furnace, in which the container of molten glass is offset from the axis of rotation. To make less accurate ones, suitable as satellite dishes, the shape is designed by a computer, then multiple dishes are stamped out of sheet metal.Off-axis-reflectors heading from medium latitudes to a geostationary TV satellite somewhere above the equator stand steeper than a coaxial reflector. The effect is, that the arm to hold the dish can be shorter and snow tends less to accumulate in (the lower part of) the dish.Off-axis satellite dish","title":"Variations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"classical antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity"},{"link_name":"Diocles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocles_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AutoVC-3-5"},{"link_name":"Archimedes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes"},{"link_name":"hydrostatic equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrostatic_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AutoVC-4-6"},{"link_name":"claimed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes#Discoveries_and_inventions"},{"link_name":"Siege of Syracuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Syracuse_(212_BCE)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AutoVC-5-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AutoVC-6-8"},{"link_name":"physicist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicist"},{"link_name":"Roger Bacon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AutoVC-7-9"},{"link_name":"James Gregory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Gregory_(astronomer_and_mathematician)"},{"link_name":"reflecting telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflecting_telescope"},{"link_name":"spherical aberration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_aberration"},{"link_name":"chromatic aberration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_aberration"},{"link_name":"refracting telescopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refracting_telescope"},{"link_name":"Gregorian telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_telescope"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AutoVC-8-10"},{"link_name":"Isaac Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"Newtonian telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtonian_telescope"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AutoVC-9-11"},{"link_name":"Lighthouses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthouse"},{"link_name":"Fresnel lenses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresnel_lens"},{"link_name":"Heinrich Hertz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"The principle of parabolic reflectors has been known since classical antiquity, when the mathematician Diocles described them in his book On Burning Mirrors and proved that they focus a parallel beam to a point.[4] Archimedes in the third century BCE studied paraboloids as part of his study of hydrostatic equilibrium,[5] and it has been claimed that he used reflectors to set the Roman fleet alight during the Siege of Syracuse.[6] This seems unlikely to be true, however, as the claim does not appear in sources before the 2nd century CE, and Diocles does not mention it in his book.[7] Parabolic mirrors and reflectors were also studied extensively by the physicist Roger Bacon in the 13th century AD.[8] James Gregory, in his 1663 book Optica Promota (1663), pointed out that a reflecting telescope with a mirror that was parabolic would correct spherical aberration as well as the chromatic aberration seen in refracting telescopes. The design he came up with bears his name: the \"Gregorian telescope\"; but according to his own confession, Gregory had no practical skill and he could find no optician capable of actually constructing one.[9] Isaac Newton knew about the properties of parabolic mirrors but chose a spherical shape for his Newtonian telescope mirror to simplify construction.[10] Lighthouses also commonly used parabolic mirrors to collimate a point of light from a lantern into a beam, before being replaced by more efficient Fresnel lenses in the 19th century. In 1888, Heinrich Hertz, a German physicist, constructed the world's first parabolic reflector antenna.[11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ALMA_antennas_on_Chajnantor.jpg"},{"link_name":"Atacama Large Millimeter Array","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atacama_Large_Millimeter_Array"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"satellite dishes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_dish"},{"link_name":"reflecting telescopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflecting_telescope"},{"link_name":"radio telescopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_telescope"},{"link_name":"parabolic microphones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolic_microphone"},{"link_name":"solar cookers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cooker"},{"link_name":"lighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_light"},{"link_name":"spotlights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_lighting_instrument#Spotlights"},{"link_name":"car headlights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headlight"},{"link_name":"PAR lamps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolic_aluminized_reflector_light"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AutoVC-10-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Olympic_Torch_2010.jpg"},{"link_name":"Olympic Flame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_Flame"},{"link_name":"Olympia, Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympia,_Greece"},{"link_name":"sunlight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlight"},{"link_name":"burning glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burning_glass"},{"link_name":"optical illusions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_illusion"},{"link_name":"real image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_image"},{"link_name":"liquid-mirror telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid-mirror_telescope"},{"link_name":"rotating furnaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotating_furnace"},{"link_name":"dB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decibel"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AutoVC-11-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AutoVC-12-16"}],"text":"Antennas of the Atacama Large Millimeter Array on the Chajnantor Plateau[12]The most common modern applications of the parabolic reflector are in satellite dishes, reflecting telescopes, radio telescopes, parabolic microphones, solar cookers, and many lighting devices such as spotlights, car headlights, PAR lamps and LED housings.[13]Lighting the Olympic Flame with a parabolic reflectorThe Olympic Flame is traditionally lit at Olympia, Greece, using a parabolic reflector concentrating sunlight, and is then transported to the venue of the Games. Parabolic mirrors are one of many shapes for a burning glass.Parabolic reflectors are popular for use in creating optical illusions. These consist of two opposing parabolic mirrors, with an opening in the center of the top mirror. When an object is placed on the bottom mirror, the mirrors create a real image, which is a virtually identical copy of the original that appears in the opening. The quality of the image is dependent upon the precision of the optics. Some such illusions are manufactured to tolerances of millionths of an inch.A parabolic reflector pointing upward can be formed by rotating a reflective liquid, like mercury, around a vertical axis. This makes the liquid-mirror telescope possible. The same technique is used in rotating furnaces to make solid reflectors.Parabolic reflectors are also a popular alternative for increasing wireless signal strength. Even with simple ones, users have reported 3 dB or more gains.[14][15]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"}],"text":"^ The closeness of this number to the value of \"e\", the base of natural logarithms, is just an accidental coincidence, but it does make a useful mnemonic.","title":"Footnotes"}]
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[{"image_text":"One of the world's largest solar parabolic dishes at the Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center in Israel","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Solar_dish_at_Ben-Gurion_National_Solar_Energy_Center_in_Israel.jpg/220px-Solar_dish_at_Ben-Gurion_National_Solar_Energy_Center_in_Israel.jpg"},{"image_text":"Circular paraboloid","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Paraboloid_of_Revolution.svg/220px-Paraboloid_of_Revolution.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Parallel rays coming into a parabolic mirror are focused at a point F. The vertex is V, and the axis of symmetry passes through V and F. For off-axis reflectors (with just the part of the paraboloid between the points P1 and P3), the receiver is still placed at the focus of the paraboloid, but it does not cast a shadow onto the reflector.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Parabola_with_focus_and_arbitrary_line.svg/300px-Parabola_with_focus_and_arbitrary_line.svg.png"},{"image_text":"An oblique projection of a focus-balanced parabolic reflector","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Focus-balanced_parabolic_reflector.svg/300px-Focus-balanced_parabolic_reflector.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The vertex of the paraboloid is below the bottom edge of the dish. The curvature of the dish is greatest near the vertex. The axis, which is aimed at the satellite, passes through the vertex and the receiver module, which is at the focus.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Off-axis_parabolic_reflector.svg/220px-Off-axis_parabolic_reflector.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Off-axis satellite dish","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/ASTRA2Connect_Dish.jpg/220px-ASTRA2Connect_Dish.jpg"},{"image_text":"Antennas of the Atacama Large Millimeter Array on the Chajnantor Plateau[12]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ALMA_antennas_on_Chajnantor.jpg/220px-ALMA_antennas_on_Chajnantor.jpg"},{"image_text":"Lighting the Olympic Flame with a parabolic reflector","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Olympic_Torch_2010.jpg/220px-Olympic_Torch_2010.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"John D. Kraus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_D._Kraus"},{"title":"Liquid-mirror telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid-mirror_telescope"},{"title":"Parabolic antenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolic_antenna"},{"title":"Parabolic trough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolic_trough"},{"title":"Solar furnace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_furnace"},{"title":"Toroidal reflector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toroidal_reflector"}]
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[{"reference":"Fitzpatrick, Richard (2007-07-14). \"Spherical Mirrors\". Farside.ph.utexas.edu. Retrieved 2012-11-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/316/lectures/node136.html","url_text":"\"Spherical Mirrors\""}]},{"reference":"\"Servicing Mission 1\". NASA. Archived from the original on April 20, 2008. Retrieved April 26, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080420202154/http://hubble.nasa.gov/missions/sm1.php","url_text":"\"Servicing Mission 1\""},{"url":"http://hubble.nasa.gov/missions/sm1.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Administrator. \"The Scheffler-Reflector\". www.solare-bruecke.org.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.solare-bruecke.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=2&lang=en","url_text":"\"The Scheffler-Reflector\""}]},{"reference":"\"Archimedes' Weapon\". Time Magazine. November 26, 1973. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071012161037/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,908175,00.html?promoid=googlep","url_text":"\"Archimedes' Weapon\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)","url_text":"Time Magazine"},{"url":"http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,908175,00.html?promoid=googlep","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chambers, Robert (1875). A biographical dictionary of eminent Scotsmen. Oxford University. p. 175.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_9EYBAAAAQAAJ","url_text":"A biographical dictionary of eminent Scotsmen"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_9EYBAAAAQAAJ/page/n187","url_text":"175"}]},{"reference":"McLean, Ian S (2008-07-29). Electronic Imaging in Astronomy: Detectors and Instrumentation. ISBN 9783540765820. Retrieved 2012-11-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=FGHhZf-k8SkC&pg=PA77","url_text":"Electronic Imaging in Astronomy: Detectors and Instrumentation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783540765820","url_text":"9783540765820"}]},{"reference":"\"Prehistory of Radio Astronomy\". www.nrao.edu.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/hist_prehist.shtml","url_text":"\"Prehistory of Radio Astronomy\""}]},{"reference":"\"ALMA Doubles its Power in New Phase of More Advanced Observations\". ESO Announcement. Retrieved 11 January 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.eso.org/public/announcements/ann13002/","url_text":"\"ALMA Doubles its Power in New Phase of More Advanced Observations\""}]},{"reference":"Fitzpatrick, Richard (2007-07-14). \"Spherical Mirrors\". Farside.ph.utexas.edu. Retrieved 2012-11-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/316/lectures/node136.html","url_text":"\"Spherical Mirrors\""}]},{"reference":"\"Parabolic Reflector Free WiFi Booster\". Do-It-Yourself Wireless Antennas Update and Wi-Fi Resource Center | WiFi Wireless Q & A. Binarywolf.com. 2009-08-26. Archived from the original on 2019-06-09. Retrieved 2012-11-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190609105741/http://www.binarywolf.com/249/diy-parabolic-reflector.htm","url_text":"\"Parabolic Reflector Free WiFi Booster\""},{"url":"http://www.binarywolf.com/249/diy-parabolic-reflector.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Slideshow: Wi-Fi Shootout in the Desert\". Wired. 2004-08-03. Retrieved 2012-11-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/multimedia/2004/08/64440?slide=2&slideView=2","url_text":"\"Slideshow: Wi-Fi Shootout in the Desert\""}]}]
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